Amitābha Buddha and his attendant bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara (right) and Mahāsthāmaprāpta (left)

Pure Land Buddhism (simplified Chinese: 净土宗; traditional Chinese: 淨土宗; pinyin: Jìngtǔzōng; Japanese: 浄土仏教^[1], Jōdo bukkyō; Korean: 정토종, jeongtojong; Vietnamese: Tịnh Độ Tông), also referred to as Amidism^[2][3] in English, is a broad branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism and currently one of the most popular traditions of Buddhism in East Asia. Pure Land is a branch of Buddhism focused on Amitābha Buddha. The term is used to describe both the Pure Land soteriology of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which may be better understood as Pure Land traditions, and the separate Pure Land sects that developed in Japan; in other countries and times, it formed part of the basis of Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions.

Pure Land oriented practices and concepts are found within basic Mahāyāna Buddhist cosmology, and form an important component of the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Tibet. Chinese Chán and Tiantai schools, as well as the Japanese Shingon and Tendai sects, have strong Pure Land components to their practice and belief.^{[citation needed]} However, Pure Land Buddhism eventually became an independent school in its own right as can be seen in the Japanese Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū^[4] schools.

Early history[link]

Statue of Amitābha Buddha seated in meditation. Borobodur, Java, Indonesia.

Book open to the traditional Chinese version (with Japanese annotations) of Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra.

Mount Lu, where the Chinese Pure Land tradition was founded.

The Pure Land teachings were first developed in India, and were very popular in Kashmir and Central Asia, where they may have originated.^[5] Pure Land sutras were brought from the Gandhāra region to China as early as 147 CE, when the Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating the first Buddhist sūtras into Chinese.^[6] The earliest of these translations show evidence of having been translated from the Gāndhārī language, a prakrit descended from Vedic Sanskrit, which was used in Northwest India.^[7]

The Pure Land sūtras are principally the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. The shorter sūtra is also known as the Amitābha Sūtra, and the longer sūtra is also known as the Infinite Life Sūtra. These sutras describe Amitābha and his Pure Land of Bliss, called Sukhāvatī. Also related to the Pure Land tradition is the Pratyutpannabuddha Saṃmukhāvasthita Samādhi Sūtra, which describes the practice of reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha as a meditation method. In addition to these, many other Mahāyāna texts also feature Amitābha Buddha, and a total of 290 such works have been identified in the Taishō Tripiṭaka.^[8]

In the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, the Buddha begins by describing to his attendant Ānanda a past life of the buddha Amitābha. He states that in a past life, Amitābha was once king who renounced his kingdom, and became a bodhisattva monk named Dharmākara ("Dharma Storehouse").^[9] Under the guidance of the buddha Lokeśvararāja ("World Sovereign King"), innumerable buddha-lands throughout the ten directions were revealed to him.^[9] After meditating for five eons as a bodhisattva, he then made a great series of vows to save all sentient beings, and through his great merit, created the realm of Sukhāvatī ("Ultimate Bliss").^[9][10] This land of Sukhāvatī would later come to be known as the Pure Land (Ch. 淨土) in Chinese translation.

In the Buddhist traditions of India, Pure Land doctrines and practices were disseminated by well-known exponents of the Mahāyāna teachings, including Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu.^[11] Although Amitābha is honored and venerated in Pure Land traditions, this was clearly distinguished from worship of the Hindu gods, as Pure Land practice has its roots in the Buddhist ideal of the bodhisattva.^[12]

The Pure Land teachings first became prominent in China with the founding of Donglin Temple at Mount Lu (Ch. 廬山) by Huiyuan (Ch. 慧遠) in 402 CE. As a young man, Huiyuan practiced Daoism, but felt the theories of immortality to be vague and unreliable, and unrepresentative of the ultimate truth.^[13] Instead, he turned to Buddhism and became a monk learning under Daoan (Ch. 道安). Later he founded a monastery at the top of Mount Lu, and invited well-known literati to study and practice Buddhism there, where they formed the White Lotus Society (Ch. 白蓮社).^[14] They accepted the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra and the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as their standards among the Buddhist sūtras, and they advocated the practice of reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha in order to attain rebirth in the western pure land of Sukhāvatī.^[15] The Mount Lu is regarded as the among the most sacred religious sites of the Pure Land Buddhist tradition,^[16] and the site of the first Pure Land gathering.^[17]

The Pure Land teachings and meditation methods quickly spread throughout China and were systematized by a series of elite monastic thinkers, namely Tanluan, Daochuo, Shandao, and others. The main teaching of the Chinese Pure Land tradition is based on focusing the mind with Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti) through recitation of the name of Amitābha Buddha, so as to attain rebirth in his pure land of Sukhāvatī.^[18]

At a later date, the Pure Land teachings spread to Japan and slowly grew in prominence. Genshin (942-1017) caused Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1028) to accept the Pure Land teachings. Hōnen (1133–1212) established Pure Land Buddhism as an independent sect in Japan, known as Jōdo Shu. Today Pure Land is an important form of Buddhism in Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam.

The Pure Land[link]

Two mural panels depicting The Pure Land of Amitabha held at the Birmingham Museum of Art

Contemporary Pure Land traditions see Amitābha expounding the Dharma in his buddha-field (Skt. buddhakṣetra), or "pure land" (Ch. 净土, jìngtǔ), a region offering respite from karmic transmigration. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is described in the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as a land of beauty that surpasses all other realms. It is said to be inhabited by many gods, men, flowers, fruits, and adorned with wish-granting trees where rare birds come to rest. ^[19] In Pure Land traditions, entering the Pure Land is popularly perceived as equivalent to the attainment of enlightenment. Upon entry into the Pure Land, the practitioner is then instructed by Amitābha Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas until full and complete enlightenment is reached. This person then has the choice of returning at any time as a bodhisattva to any of the six realms of existence in order to help all sentient beings in saṃsāra, or to stay the whole duration, reach Buddhahood, and subsequently deliver beings to the shore of liberation.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are many buddhas, and each buddha has a pure land. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is understood to be in the western direction, whereas Akṣobhya's pure land of Abhirati is to the east. While recognized by the Japanese Shingon sect, Eastern Pure Land Buddhism is less popular than Western Pure Land Buddhism. Though there are other traditions devoted to various Pure Lands, Amitabha's is by far the most popular.

Meditation[link]

Charles Luk identifies three meditation practices as being widely used in Pure Land Buddhism.^[20]

Mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha[link]

Repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha is traditionally a form of Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo, by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that buddha (See: samādhi).^[21] This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over 500,000.^[21] According to tradition, the second patriarch of the Pure Land school, Shandao, is said to have practiced this day and night without interruption, each time emitting light from his mouth. Therefore he was bestowed with the title "Great Master of Light" (大師光明) by the Tang Dynasty emperor Gao Zong (Ch. 高宗).^[22]

In Chinese Buddhism, there is a related practice called the "dual path of Chán and Pure Land cultivation", which is also called the "dual path of emptiness and existence."^[23] As taught by Nan Huaijin, the name of Amitābha Buddha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the phrase is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind is able to remain peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the attainment of samādhi.^[23]

Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī[link]

Repeating the Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.^[22] It is traditionally preserved in Sanskrit, and it is said that when a devotee succeeds in realizing singleness of mind by repeating a mantra, its true and profound meaning will be clearly revealed.^[22]

namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā

amṛtabhave amṛtasaṃbhave

amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrāntagāmini

gagana kīrtīchare svāhā

Visualization methods[link]

Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha Buddha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra"), in which the Buddha describes to Queen Vaidehi the practices of thirteen progressive visualization methods, corresponding to the attainment of various levels of rebirth in the Pure Land.^[24] The first of these steps is contemplation of a setting sun, until the visualization is clear whether the eyes are open or closed.^[25] Each progressive step adds complexity to the visualization of Sukhāvatī, with the final contemplation being an expansive visual which includes the Amitābha Buddha and his attendant bodhisattvas.^[25] According to Inagaki Hisao, this progressive visualization method was widely followed in the past for the purpose of developing samādhi.^[12] Visualization practises for Amitābha are also popular in Japanese Shingon Buddhism as well as other schools of Esoteric Buddhism.

Going to the Pure Land[link]

Practitioners claim there is evidence of dying people going to the pure land, such as:

• Knowing the time of death (預知時至): some prepare by bathing and reciting the name of the Buddha Amitabha.
• The "Three Saints of the West" (西方三聖): Amitābha Buddha and the two bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara on his right and Mahāsthāmaprāpta on his left, appear and welcome the dying person. Visions of other buddhas or bodhisattvas are disregarded as they may be bad spirits disguising themselves, attempting to stop the person from entering the Pure Land.^[26]
• Records of practicing Pure Land Buddhists who have died have been known to leave śarīrā, or relics, after cremation.

The last part of the body to become cold is the top of the head (posterior fontanelle). In Buddhist teaching, souls who enter the Pure Land leave the body through the fontanelle at the top of the skull. Hence, this part of the body stays warmer longer than the rest of the body. The Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses (八識規矩補註),^[27] reads: "to birth in saints the last body temperature in top of head, to deva in eyes, to human in heart, to hungry ghosts in belly, to animals in knee cap, to the hells-realm in sole of feet." See also: phowa.

The dying person may demonstrate some, but not necessarily all, of these evidences. For example, his facial expression may be happy, but he may not demonstrate other signs, such as sharira and dreams.

Few buddhist also have practiced the harder Pratyutpanna samadhi.

The practice Fudaraku Tokai (補陀落渡海) in ancient Japan is viewed as religious suicide and is not practiced today.^[28][29]

Variance between traditions[link]

Indian Buddhism[link]

Regarding Pure Land practice in Indian Buddhism, Hajime Nakamura writes that as described in the Pure Land sūtras from India, Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti) is the essential practice.^[30] These forms of mindfulness are essentially methods of meditating upon Amitābha Buddha.^[30]

Chinese Buddhism[link]

In Chinese Buddhism, Pure Land practice never became a sect of Buddhism separate from general Mahāyāna practice. In particular, Pure Land and Zen practice are often seen as being mutually compatible, and no strong distinctions are made.^[31] Chinese Buddhists have traditionally viewed the practice of meditation and the practice of reciting Amitābha Buddha's name, as complementary and even analogous methods for achieving enlightenment.^[31] This is because they view recitation as a meditation method used to concentrate the mind and purify thoughts.^[31] Chinese Buddhists widely consider this form of recitation as a very effective form of meditation practice.^[31]

Japanese Buddhism[link]

In Japanese Buddhism, Pure Land practice exists independently as four sects: Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū, Yūzū-nembutsu-shū and Ji-shū. Strong institutional boundaries exist between sects which serve to clearly separate these Pure Land schools from the Japanese Zen schools.^[31] One notable exception to this is found in the Ōbaku Zen school, which was founded in Japan during the 17th century by the Chinese Buddhist monk Yinyuan Longqi (J. Ingen Ryuki). The Ōbaku Zen school retains many Chinese features such as mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha through recitation, and recitation of the Pure Land sūtras.^[32]

Pure Land concepts in Tibet[link]

Tibetan Pure Land Buddhism has a long and innovative history dating from the 8th-9th centuries CE, the times of the Tibetan Empire, with the translation and canonization of the Sanskrit Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras in Tibetan. Tibetan compositions of pure-land prayers and artistic renditions of Sukhāvatī in Central Asia date to that time. Tibetan pure-land literature forms a distinct genre (Tib. bde-smon) and encompasses a wide range of scriptures, "aspiration prayers to be born in Sukhāvatī", commentaries on the prayers and the sūtras, and meditations and rituals belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition. The incorporation of phowa (mind transference techniques) in pure-land meditations is textually attested in the 14th century, in the The Standing Blade of Grass (Tib. 'Pho-ba 'Jag-tshug ma), a terma text allegedly dating to the time of the Tibetan Empire. A good number of Buddhist treasure texts are dedicated to Buddha Amitābha and to rituals associated with his pure-land, while the wide acceptance of phowa in Tibetan death rituals may owe its popularity to pure-land Buddhism promoted by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

The terton Rigdzin Longsal Nyingpo (1625–1682/92 or 1685–1752) of Katok Monastery revealed a terma on pureland.^[33] This terma entailed phowa during the bardo of dying, sending the mindstream to a pureland. This may evidence what some scholars have intimated as examples of successful, popular teachings disseminated from other localities such as China being codified within the Tibetan tradition; terma as cultural innovation.

Gyatrul (b.1924),^[34] in a purport to the work of Chagmé (Wylie: Karma-chags-med, fl. 17th century), rendered into English by Wallace (Chagmé et al., 1998: p. 35), states:

It is important to apply our knowledge internally. The Buddha attained enlightenment in this way. The pure lands are internal; the mental afflictions are internal. The crucial factor is to recognize the mental afflictions. Only by recognizing their nature can we attain Buddhahood.^[35]

See also[link]

• Faith in Buddhism
• Ippen
• Yuzu Nembutsu

Notes[link]

Further reading[link]

• Eitel, Ernst J. Hand-Book of Chinese Buddhism, being a Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary with Vocabularies of Buddhist Terms in Pali, Singhalese, Siamese, Burmese, Tibetan, Mongolian and Japanese (Second Edition). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. 1992.

External links[link]

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra

Wikiversity has learning materials about Buddha oracle#56 The Clever Helper (Pure Land Buddhism)

• International Association of Shin Buddhist Studies website
• Jōdo Shū Buddhism official website
• Jōdo Shū North American Buddhist Missions
• Jōdo Shinshū Official Site
• Homepage for Jodo Shinshu Hongwanji-ha Hongwanji International Center—English
• Amitabha Buddhist Society of U.S.A.
• The Venerable Master Hsuan Hua
• Women in the Pure Land: Eshinni's View of Rebirth as Expressed in Her Letters
• Amitabha Pure Land Web (in English)
• Pure Land Buddhism: The Path of Serene Trust, a short overview of Pure Land Buddhism
• Amitabha Education Network
• Master Chin Kung, a promoter of Pure Land Buddhism
• Amida Trust, A UK Pure Land Charity
• In one Lifetime: Pure Land Buddhism
• Here are some links to other Amitabha websites around the world
• Notes on the Nembutsu
• Jodo Shinshu Shinrankai

Caroline Brazier is an Australian actress who is best known for the role of Chrissy Merchant in Packed to the Rafters and the starring roles of Veronica Johnson and her twin sister Betti in the children's television series Parallax. Brazier has also had a number of roles in the theatre, films and other television series.

Originally from Perth, Western Australia, Brazier graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA) in 1998. Her theatre roles include Merchant of Venice, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra for the Bell Shakespeare Company, and Whale Music at Darlinghurst Theatre and Speed-The-Plow for Perth Theatre Company.^[1]

Television Roles[link]

• 2012 - Dripping in Chocolate as Marion Verger (post production)
• 2011 – Terra Nova as Deborah Tate (Skye's Mother)
• 2010 – Rake as Wendy Greene
• 2008 – Packed to the Rafters as Chrissy Merchant
• 2007 – City Homicide as Frances Deerborne
• 2004 – Parallax as Veronica Johnson/Betti
• 2003 – White Collar Blue as Sonia Parry
• 2002 – Young Lions as Gabrielle Hall
• 2001 – TwentyfourSeven as Georgia Leighton-Smith
• 2001 – Water Rats as Heather Pinchon
• 2001 – South Pacific as Rose
• 2000 - Above the Law as Carla Benning

Movie Roles[link]

• Rogue

References[link]

External links[link]

• Caroline Brazier at the Internet Movie Database

Imee Ooi

Imee Ooi (pronounce as English "E-ME WOO --E"^{[needs Chinese IPA]} (connected) - Ch: 黃慧音, pinyin: Huáng Huìyīn, which means HUANG-Yellow - HUI-Wisdom - YIN-Sound/Music, being her original name by birth) is a Malaysian music producer, composer, arranger and vocalist who brings traditional Buddhist chants, mantras and dharanis (typically from the Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan or Mandarin languages) into sung versions with accompanying musical scores. She also is a classical pianist by training.

Ooi is the musical director and composer of two highly-acclaimed stage musicals; Siddhartha and Above Full Moon, and is currently working on a musical entitled Jewel of Tibet. The musical is set during the Tang Dynasty and is about a Tang princess who marries a Tibetan king and how she brings Buddhism to Tibet.

Imee Ooi established I.M.M Musicworks in 1997, and to date has released over 20 albums.

Discography[link]

• Jayamangalagatha Mantra
• The Chant of Metta
• Great Compassionate Mantra
• Mantra of Guanyin
• Mantras of the Sanskrit
• Namo Amitabha (Mandarin)
• Diamond Sutra (Mandarin)
• Arya Ekdasa-Mukha Dharani
• Medicine Buddha Dharani
• Amitabha (Mandarin)
• Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra
• Karaniya Metta Sutta
• Ratana Sutta, Discourse of the Jewels
• The Wisdom of Manjusri Bodhisattva
• Series of 10 Short Mantras, Volume 1
• Series of 10 Short Mantras, Volume 2
• Series of 10 Short Mantras, Volume 3
• Series of 10 Short Mantras, Volume 4
• Tisarana
• Heart Sutra
• Om Mani Padme Hum
• Green Tara Mantra
• The Mantra of Guru Rinpoche
• Chants from Heart to Heart
• Message in Music Vol.1
• Message in Music Vol.2
• Message in Music Vol.3
• Heart Of Repentance
• Hymns Of The Pureland
• The Shore Beyond Prajna Paramita Hrdaya Sutram (Sanskrit)
• Universal Door Chapter (The Lotus Sutra)
• The Mantra Of Vajrasattva ~ Om Benza Sato Hum
• World In One Heart : Voices Of The Heart Sutra
• Shurangama Mantra

References[link]

• Meet Imee the mantra musician
• I.M.M. Music Works
• An interview by 劉潔芬 in Chinese: 俗世慧音

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