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Complete set of scrolls, constituting the entire Tanakh

The Tanakh (Hebrew: תַּנַ"ךְ‎, pronounced [taˈnaχ] or [təˈnax]; also Tenakh, Tenak, Tanach) is a name used in Judaism for the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Tanakh is also known as the Masoretic Text or the Miqra. The name is an acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Masoretic Text's three traditional subdivisions: The Torah ("Teaching", also known as the Five Books of Moses), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings")—hence TaNaKh. The name "Miqra" (מקרא), meaning "that which is read", is an alternative Hebrew term for the Tanakh. The books of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) were relayed with an accompanying oral tradition passed on by each generation, called the Oral Torah.

History[link]

According to the Talmud,^[1] much of the contents of the Tanakh were compiled by the "Men of the Great Assembly" by 450 BCE, and have since remained unchanged. Modern scholars believe that the process of canonization of the Tanakh became finalized between 200 BCE and 200 CE.

The Hebrew text was originally an abjad: consonants written with some applied vowel letters ("matres lectionis"). During the early Middle Ages scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization. It also included some of Ben Naftali and Babylonian innovations.^[2] Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews believe the pronunciation and cantillation derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses.^{[citation needed]} The combination of a text (מקרא miqra), pronunciation (ניקוד niqqud) and cantillation (טעמים te`amim) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning, as well as the nuances in sentence flow of the text.

Terminology[link]

The three-part division reflected in the acronym "Tanakh" is well attested to in documents from the Second Temple period^{[citation needed]} and in Rabbinic literature.^[3] During that period, however, "Tanakh" was not used. Instead, the proper title was Mikra (מקרא, meaning "reading" or "that which is read") because the biblical texts were read publicly. Mikra continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew both are used interchangeably.^[4]

Codification of the books of Tanakh[link]

According to the Talmud (Bava Basra 14b-15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a), much of the contents of the Tanakh was compiled by the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah), a task completed in 450 BCE, and have remained unchanged since that date.^{[citation needed]} Evidence suggests that the process of canonization occurred between 200 BCE and 200 CE. A popular position is that the Torah was canonized circa 400 BCE, the Prophets circa 200 BCE, and the Writings circa 100 CE,^[5] perhaps at a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. This position, however, is increasingly criticised by modern scholars. Some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty (140-37 BCE).^[6] Today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set.

Formal closure of the canon has often been ascribed to Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Heinrich Graetz proposed in 1871 that it was concluded at a Council of Jamnia (or Yavne in Hebrew), some time in the period 70–90 CE. However, Rabbinical writings seem to indicate that certain books were disputed as accepted canon (such as Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs and Esther, see also Antilegomena), but it may not necessarily be the case. The implication of the Talmud indicates that the books themselves were already accepted canon, but may have been misunderstood on philosophical or ecclesiastical grounds. The Talmud eliminates this misunderstanding.^{[clarification needed]}

The twenty-four books are also mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12.^[7] A slightly different accounting can be found in the book Against Apion, by the 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus, who describes 22 sacred books: the five books of Moses, thirteen histories, and four books of hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of human life.^[8] Some scholars have suggested that he considered Ruth part of Judges, and Lamentations part of Jeremiah; as the Christian translator Jerome recorded in the 4th century CE.^[9] Other scholars suggest that at the time Josephus wrote, such books as Esther and Ecclesiastes were not yet considered canonical.^{[citation needed]}

Books of the Tanakh[link]

The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books: it counts as one book each Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah and counts Trei Asar (תרי עשר, the Twelve Prophets; literally "twelve") as a single book.

Most versions of the Christian Old Testament count Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah as two books each, and the "Twelve Prophets" (or the minor prophets) as 12 books, giving rise to a count of 39 books for the Old Testament.

Torah[link]

The Torah (תּוֹרָה, literally "teaching") consists of five books, commonly referred to as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions of the Torah are often called Chamisha Chumshei Torah (חמישה חומשי תורה, literally the "five five-sections of the Torah"), and informally a Chumash.

In Hebrew, the five books of the Torah are identified by the first prominent word in each book. The English names are derived from the Greek names given to the books in the Septuagint, which are based on the thematic content of each of the books, as follows:

1. (בראשית / Bereshit) - Genesis

2. (שמות / Shemot) - Exodus

3. (ויקרא / Vayikra) - Leviticus

4. (במדבר / Bəmidbar) - Numbers

5. (דברים / Devarim) - Deuteronomy

Nevi'im[link]

Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים, "Prophets") consists of eight books. This division includes the books which, as a whole, cover the chronological era from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the "period of prophecy"). However, they exclude Chronicles, which covers the same period, as well as Ruth. The Nevi'im are often divided into the Earlier Prophets (נביאים ראשונים), which are generally historical in nature, and the Later Prophets (נביאים אחרונים), which contain more exhortational prophecies.

6. (יֱהוֹשַֻׁע / Yĕhôshúa‘) - Joshua

7. (שופטים / Shophtim) - Judges

8. (שְׁמוּאֵל / Shĕmû’ēl) - Samuel (I & II)

9. (מלכים / M'lakhim) - Kings (I & II)

10. (יְשַׁעְיָהוּ / Yĕsha‘ăyāhû) - Isaiah

11. (יִרְמְיָהוּ / Yirmĕyāhû) - Jeremiah

12. (יְחֶזְקֵאל / Yĕhezqēl) - Ezekiel

13. The Twelve Prophets (תרי עשר)

a. (הוֹשֵׁעַ / Hôshēa‘) - Hosea

b. (יוֹאֵל / Yô’ēl) - Joel

c. (עָמוֹס / ‘Āmôs) - Amos

d. (עֹבַדְיָה / ‘Ōbhadhyāh) - Obadiah

e. (יוֹנָה / Yônāh) - Jonah

f. (מִיכָה / Mîkhāh) - Micah

g. (נַחוּם / Naḥûm) - Nahum

h. (חֲבַקּוּק /Ḥăbhaqqûq) - Habakkuk

i. (צְפַנְיָה / Ṣĕphanyāh) - Zephaniah

j. (חַגַּי / Ḥaggai) - Haggai

k. (זְכַרְיָה / Zĕkharyāh) - Zechariah

l. (מַלְאָכִי / Mal’ākhî) - Malachi

Ketuvim[link]

Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים, "Writings") are sometimes also known by the Greek title "Hagiographa" and consists of eleven books. These encompass all the remaining books, and include the Five Megillot (Five Scrolls). They are sometimes also divided into such categories as Sifrei Emet (ספרי אמת, literally "Books of Truth") of Psalms, Proverbs and Job (the Hebrew names of these three books form the Hebrew word for "truth" as an acrostic, and all three books have unique cantillation marks), the "wisdom books" of Job, Ecclesiastes, and Proverbs, the "poetry books" of Psalms, Lamentations and Song of Songs, and the "historical books" of Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles.

Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions[link]

Page of 11th century Tanakh with Targum

The chapter divisions and verse numbers have no significance in the Jewish tradition. Nevertheless, they are noted in all modern editions of the Tanakh so that verses may be located and cited. The division of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into parts I and II is also indicated on each page of those books in order to prevent confusion about whether a chapter number is from part I or II, since the chapter numbering for these books follows their partition in the Christian textual tradition.

The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late Middle Ages in Spain, partially in the context of forced clerical debates which took place against a background of harsh persecution and of the Spanish Inquisition (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the mesorah, but are also open to severe criticism of three kinds:

• The chapter divisions often reflect Christian exegesis of the Bible.
• Even when they do not imply Christian exegesis, the chapters often divide the biblical text at numerous points that may be deemed inappropriate for literary or other reasons.
• They ignore the accepted closed and open space division which are based on the mesorah

Nevertheless, because they proved useful for citations, they are often included in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books. For more information on the origin of these divisions, see chapters and verses of the Bible. Jews don't necessarily reference the specific verse in a chapter (older editions of the Talmud cite only chapter numbers), and some works cite the sectional divisions in the Torah.

The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish masoretic divisions. However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past forty years, there has been a major trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page. Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page. The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin). The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish parashah divisions. Some versions have even introduced a new chapter system^{[citation needed]}.

These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins). In such editions, the second books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles follow the respective first books on the very same page, with no special break at all in the flow of the text. In the case of Kings, in which no parashah division appears at this point, the text of II Kings continues that of I Kings on the very same line of text.

Jewish (Hebrew) editions have a different pattern regarding Chronicles (I Chronicles) chapters 5 and 6. In I Chronicles (in Christian sources) chapter 5 ends at verse 41. Chronicles (Jewish editions of Chronicles) 5:27-41 is equivalent to First Chronicles 6: 1-15 in most English translations. In Jewish (Hebrew) editions 6:1 is equivalent to 6:16 and therefore the chapter ends at Chronicles 6:66 instead of the First Chronicles 6:81 (English translations) and at 7:1 both Hebrew and English versions set off from the same starting point once more. This difference offsets other more contextual differences. The Jewish Tanakh is the same as the Christian Hebrew Old Testament and is based on careful copying of Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts over centuries. Jewish and Christian translations often differ. For example, some Christians translate the word almah (עלמה) as "virgin," while Jews tend to the translation "young maiden".^[11] Christian views are based on exegesis of the Isaiah passage and Matthew's interpretation, which also agrees with the ancient Jewish Septuagint translation, παρθενος, which according to some New Testament Scholars,^[12] can mean "a marriageable maiden" or "virgin."

Editions[link]

A modern, printed Tanakh.

• The first ever printed Hebrew Chumash simply had Biblical text with Rashi on the page, and since then many editions have appeared.
• The first Masoretic Mikraot Gedolot was printed in 1524-1525 in Venice, edited by Daniel Bomberg.
• The Soncino edition was printed in 1527 in Venice.
• Many editions of Mikraot Gedolot have been made since then.
• Rudolf Kittel's Biblia Hebraica appeared in 1906 and was reprinted in 1913.
• The Leningrad Codex was edited under Paul E. Kahle as the Biblia Hebraica (BHK), published in Stuttgart, in 1937. The codex was also used for Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS) in 1977, and will be used for Biblia Hebraica Quinta (BHQ).
  The Leningrad Codex lists a different order for the books of the Ketuvim.

The Leningrad Codex also served as the basis for two important Jewish editions of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh):

• Aharon Dotan's edition, which was reprinted with a concise commentary and distributed to soldiers in mass quantities as the official Tanakh of the Israel Defense Forces throughout the 1990s. This has recently been updated as the Codex Leningradensis.
• The Koren Tanakh (Bible) was the first edition in nearly 500 years to be designed, edited, printed, and bound by Jews. It was published by Koren Publishers Jerusalem, under the direction of renowned typographer Eliyahu Koren, using his specially designed Koren Bible Type, (Jerusalem, 1962).
• Mesorah Publications מקראות גדלות, (Jerusalem, 1996)
• The JPS Hebrew-English Tanakh (Philadelphia, 1999)
• The Aleppo Codex was edited by Mordechai Breuer in 1977-1982, the first edition to include a reconstruction of the letters, vowels, and cantillation marks in the missing parts of the Aleppo Codex, in 1996-8 re-edited with inclusion of new information on the parashah divisions.
• Jerusalem Crown: The Bible of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000. Edited according to the method of Mordechai Breuer under the supervision of Yosef Ofer, with additional proofreading and refinements since the Horev edition.
• Jerusalem Simanim Institute, Feldheim Publishers, 2004 (published in one-volume and three-volume editions).
• Hebrew University Bible Project (so far on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) includes four apparatuses, as well as the masoretic notes of the Aleppo Codex.
• Mikraot Gedolot Haketer, Bar-Ilan University (1992–present). A multi-volume critical edition of the Mikraot Gedolot, ten volumes published to date including Genesis (2 vols.), Exodus (one of a two vols so far), Joshua & Judges (1 vol.), Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Psalms (2 vols.). Includes the masoretic notes of the Aleppo Codex and a new commentary on them. Differs from the Breuer reconstruction and presentation for some masoretic details.

Translations[link]

• The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the aid of Previous Versions & with the Constant Consultation of Jewish Authorities was published in 1917 by the Jewish Publication Society. It was replaced by their Tanakh in 1985
• Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, 1985, ISBN 0-8276-0252-9
• Tanach: The Stone Edition, Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996, ISBN 0-89906-269-5, named after benefactor Irving I. Stone.

Jewish commentaries on the Bible[link]

There are two major approaches towards study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible has a divine origin. Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation; in this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies.

Secular practitioners of Biblical Studies do not have a faith commitment to the texts they study. In fact, Biblical criticism contradicts commitment to the idea that the Bible was written by prophets inspired by God. Indeed, this practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresy by the entire Orthodox Jewish community. As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas.

Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides, and Maimonides, used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their then-current knowledge of history, science, and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered kosher by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world, e.g. the Da'at Miqra series.

Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. See the article on Revelation for details of how members of these groups understand this concept.

The article on Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day commentaries.

See also[link]

Judaism portal

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tanakh

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Tanakh

Hebrew Wikisource has original text related to this article: Tanakh (Hebrew source)

• iTanakh.org An extensive list of links and resources pertaining to the study of the Tanakh

Online texts[link]

• Download the complete Tanakh in Hebrew with translation and transliteration Lev Software
• Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) at Wikisource in English (sample) and Hebrew (sample)
• TanakhML (Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and King James Version)
• Unicode/XML Westminster Leningrad Codex – A free transcription of the electronic source maintained by the Westminster Hebrew Institute. (Leningrad Codex)
• Mechon Mamre – The Hebrew text of the Tanakh based on the Aleppo codex and other Tiberian manuscripts close to it, edited according to the system of Rabbi Mordechai Breuer. Hebrew text comes in four convenient versions (including one with cantillation marks) and may be downloaded. The JPS 1917 English translation is included as well (including a parallel translation). The link to the parallel Hebrew and English version is http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm
• Tanach on Demand – Custom PDF versions of any section of the Bible in Hebrew.
• Evolutionary Tanakh – Parallel Leningrad text and English translation with an introduction which sets the books in their historical context. The edition comes in two versions: browsable html and downloadable eBook.
• Tanakh Hebrew Bible Project – An online project that aims to present critical text of the Hebrew Bible with important ancient versions (Samaritan Pentateuch, Masoretic Text, Targum Onkelos, Samaritan Targum, Septuagint, Peshitta, Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus, Theodotion, Vetus Latina, and Vulgate) in parallel with new English translation for each version, plus a comprehensive critical apparatus and a textual commentary for every verse.

Reading guides[link]

• A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim – Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the chapter divisions). The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English.
• A detailed chart of the major figures and events in the Tanakh
• Judaica Press Translation (online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary)

Diarmaid MacCulloch in 2007

Diarmaid Ninian John MacCulloch,^[1] Knight,^[2] FBA, FSA, FRHistS (born 31 October 1951) is a professor of history of the church at the University of Oxford (since 1997) and Fellow (formerly Senior Tutor) of St Cross College, Oxford (since 1995). Though ordained as a deacon in the Church of England, he declined ordination to the priesthood because of the church's attitude to his homosexuality.^[3] In 2009 he encapsulated the evolution of his religious beliefs: "I was brought up in the presence of the Bible, and I remember with affection what it was like to hold a dogmatic position on the statements of Christian belief. I would now describe myself as a candid friend of Christianity."^[4]

Life[link]

Diarmaid MacCulloch was born in Kent, England. He attended Hillcroft Preparatory School and Stowmarket Grammar school in Suffolk. He subsequently studied history at Churchill College, Cambridge, where he subsequently obtained a BA degree in 1972 and an MA degree 1976. During that period, he was also organ scholar at the college. He then completed a Diploma in Archive Administration at Liverpool University in 1973 and then returned to Cambridge to complete in 1977 a PhD degree in Tudor history under the supervision of Sir Geoffrey Rudolph Elton, combining this with a position as Junior Research Fellow at Churchill College. MacCulloch was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (1978), a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society (1982) and a Fellow of the British Academy (2001). He furthermore received a DD degree of the University of Oxford (2001) and in 2003 was awarded an honorary DLitt degree by the University of East Anglia. He co-edits the Journal of Ecclesiastical History.

MacCulloch joined the Gay Christian Movement in 1976, serving twice on its committee and briefly as honorary secretary. From 1978 until 1990, he was a tutor at Wesley College, Bristol and taught church history in the department of theology at the University of Bristol. He interrupted his teaching to study for the Oxford Diploma in Theology (awarded 1987) at Ripon College Cuddesdon. In 1987 he was ordained a deacon in the Church of England and from 1987 to 1988 he served as a non-stipendiary minister at All Saints' Clifton with St John's in the Diocese of Bristol. However, in response to a motion put before the General Synod in 1987 by the Revd Tony Higton regarding the sexuality of clergy, he declined ordination to the priesthood and ceased to minister at Clifton.

Regarding the conflict between his homosexuality and the Church of England and his own retreat from orthodoxy he said:

I was ordained Deacon. But, being a gay man, it was just impossible to proceed further, within the conditions of the Anglican set-up, because I was determined that I would make no bones about who I was; I was brought up to be truthful, and truth has always mattered to me. The Church couldn't cope and so we parted company. It was a miserable experience.^[5]

His book Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700 (2003) won the 2004 National Book Critics Circle Award and 2004 British Academy Book Prize, adding to his earlier success in carrying off the 1996 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Thomas Cranmer: A Life. A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years, was published in September 2009 with a related 6-part television series called A History of Christianity which first aired on BBC 4 in 2009 and then on BBC 2 and BBC 4 in 2010. The book won McGill University's Cundill Prize, a $75,000 prize which is the largest history book prize in the world.^[6]

MacCulloch was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to scholarship.^[7] While Debretts gives his formal style as "Prof Sir",^[8] MacCulloch has expressed the preference that he not be addressed in that manner, and the view that as an ordained deacon, this would also be formally incorrect.^[9][10] He sits on the European Advisory Board of Princeton University Press.^[11]

Books[link]

• Suffolk and the Tudors (1986)
• The Later Reformation in England (1990)
• Henry VIII: Politics, Policy, and Piety (1995)
• Thomas Cranmer: A Life (1996)
• Tudor Church Militant: Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation (1999)
  • republished as: The Boy King: Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation (2001)
• Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490 - 1700 (2003)
• The Reformation: A History (2005)
• A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London, Allen Lane. 2009. ISBN 978-0-7139-9869-6

References[link]

• Crockford's Clerical Directory; 97th edition (London: Church House Publishing, 2001), p. 477.
• LGBT Religious Archives Network: profile: Diarmaid MacCulloch

External links[link]

• Website at St Cross College, Oxford
• Curriculum vitæ of Professor Diarmaid MacCulloch, provided by Saint Cross College, Oxford
• BBC Documentary A History Of Christianity