Cowboy del Amor
File:Cowboy del Amor.jpg DVD cover
Directed by	Michèle Ohayon
Produced by	Michèle Ohayon
Starring	Ivan Thompson
Music by	Joseph Julián González
Cinematography	Theo van de Sande
Editing by	Kate Amend
Studio	Emerging Pictures
Running time	86 minutes
Country	United States
Language	English Spanish
Box office	$4,438

Cowboy del Amor is a 2005 documentary film directed by Michèle Ohayon.

Synopsis[link]

Ivan Thompson is a 60 year old former horse breeder who opened up a matchmaking service called The Cowboy Cupid, which is designed to set up American men with Mexican women for $3,000. The American bachelors consider the women in their own country too demanding and not suitably subservient. Thompson looks for prospective wives through personal ads in newspapers and visiting small Mexican towns, where he discovers that plenty of women are willing to take a shot at marriage with his "gringos" (as he calls himself and his men) whom they barely know if it means a green card and a roof over their head.

The film chronicles his attempts to set up three men. The first is a 48 year old truck driver who lives on a mobile home next to his parent's house, whom he successfully introduces to a 20 year old seamstress from Torreón. They marry and have a child. Another client is an American used car dealer who does not hit it off with a Mexican doctor. The last is a toothless veteran who marries a Mexican laundress. Finally Ivan quits the business and decides to go town to town in Mexico to pursue his own quest to find love. He was previously married to a Mexican woman but divorced her when she wanted to learn English.

Critical reception[link]

The film won 5 awards at various film festivals including the South by Southwest Film Festival.^[1] Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the film a 57 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews".^[2]

From Marrit Ingman of The Austin Chronicle:

From Elizabeth Weitzman of The New York Daily News:

References[link]

External links[link]

• Cowboy del Amor at the Internet Movie Database
• Cowboy del Amor at AllRovi

A classic image of the American cowboy, as portrayed by C.M. Russell

A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the vaquero traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance and legend.^[1] A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle. In addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. Cowgirls, first defined as such in the late 19th century, had a less-well documented historical role, but in the modern world have established the ability to work at virtually identical tasks and obtained considerable respect for their achievements.^[2] There are also cattle handlers in many other parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia, who perform work similar to the cowboy in their respective nations.

The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas. Over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle-handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever-practical cowboy adapted to the modern world, the cowboy's equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree, though many classic traditions are still preserved today.

Etymology and mainstream usage[link]

American cowboy, circa 1888

King of the Plains (Cowboys) (postcard, 1898-1924)

The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle-tending work.

The word "cowboy" appeared in the English language by 1725.^[3] It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback. It was derived from vaca, meaning "cow,"^[4] which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an Anglicization of vaquero.^[5] At least one linguist has speculated that the word "buckaroo" derives from the Arabic word bakara or bakhara, also meaning "heifer" or "young cow", and may have entered Spanish during the centuries of Islamic rule.^[6]

Originally, the term may have been intended literally—"a boy who tends cows." By 1849 it had developed its modern sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word "cowboy" appeared later. "Cowhand" appeared in 1852, and "cowpoke" in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping.^[7] Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, and cowpuncher.^[8] "Cowboy" is a term common throughout the west and particularly in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains, "Buckaroo" is used primarily in the Great Basin and California, and "cowpuncher" mostly in Texas and surrounding states.^[9]

The word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word "cowherd" was used to describe a cattle herder, (similar to "shepherd," a sheep herder) and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy, who usually worked on foot. (Equestrianism required skills and an investment in horses and equipment rarely available to or entrusted to a child, though in some cultures boys rode a donkey while going to and from pasture) This word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000.^[10] In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, and still is a task for young people in various third world cultures.

Because of the time and physical ability needed to develop necessary skills, the cowboy often did began his career as an adolescent, earning wages as soon as he had enough skill to be hired, (often as young as 12 or 13) and who, if not crippled by injury, might handle cattle or horses for the rest of his working life. In the United States, a few women also took on the tasks of ranching and learned the necessary skills, though the "cowgirl" (discussed below) did not become widely recognized or acknowledged until the close of the 19th century. On western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, usually under adult supervision. Such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for "cowboy" work on the ranch, and ably perform work that requires a level of maturity and levelheadedness that is not generally expected of their urban peers.

Other historic word uses[link]

The term "cowboy" was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence. Claudius Smith, an outlaw identified with the Loyalist cause, was referred to as the "Cow-boy of the Ramapos" due to his penchant for stealing oxen, cattle and horses from colonists and giving them to the British.^[11] In the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys and carry out raids on both sides. There were two separate groups: the "skinners" fought for the pro-independence side; the "cowboys" supported the British.^[12][13]

In the Tombstone area in the 1880s, the term "Cowboy" or "cow-boy" was used pejoratively to describe men who had been implicated in various crimes.^[14] One loosely organized band was dubbed "The Cowboys," and profited from smuggling cattle, alcohol, and tobacco across the U.S./Mexico border.^[15][16] The San Francisco Examiner wrote in an editorial, "Cowboys [are] the most reckless class of outlaws in that wild country...infinitely worse than the ordinary robber."^[14] It became an insult in the area to call someone a "cowboy," as it suggested he was a horse thief, robber, or outlaw. Cattlemen were generally called herders or ranchers.^[15] The Cowboys' activities ultimately ended with the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and the resulting Earp Vendetta Ride.^[14]

History[link]

The origins of the cowboy tradition come from Spain, beginning with the hacienda system of medieval Spain. This style of cattle ranching spread throughout much of the Iberian peninsula and later, was imported to the Americas. Both regions possessed a dry climate with sparse grass, and thus large herds of cattle required vast amounts of land in order to obtain sufficient forage. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could manage gave rise to the development of the horseback-mounted vaquero.

Spanish roots[link]

18th Century soldier in colonial Mexico

Various aspects of the Spanish equestrian tradition can be traced back to Arabic rule in Spain, including Moorish elements such as the use of Oriental-type horses, the la jineta riding style characterized by a shorter stirrup, solid-treed saddle and use of spurs,^[17] the heavy noseband or hackamore,^[18] (Arabic šakīma, Spanish jaquima)^[19] and other horse-related equipment and techniques.^[17][18] Certain aspects of the Arabic tradition, such as the hackamore, can in turn be traced to roots in ancient Persia.^[18]

During the 16th century, the Conquistadors and other Spanish settlers brought their cattle-raising traditions as well as both horses and domesticated cattle to the Americas, starting with their arrival in what today is Mexico and Florida.^[20] The traditions of Spain were transformed by the geographic, environmental and cultural circumstances of New Spain, which later became Mexico and the Southwestern United States. In turn, the land and people of the Americas also saw dramatic changes due to Spanish influence.

The arrival of horses was particularly significant, as equines had been extinct in the Americas since the end of the prehistoric ice age. However, horses quickly multiplied in America and became crucial to the success of the Spanish and later settlers from other nations. The earliest horses were originally of Andalusian, Barb and Arabian ancestry,^[21] but a number of uniquely American horse breeds developed in North and South America through selective breeding and by natural selection of animals that escaped to the wild. The Mustang and other colonial horse breeds are now called "wild," but in reality are feral horses—descendants of domesticated animals.

Vaqueros[link]

Vaqueros in California, circa 1830s

Though popularly considered American, the traditional cowboy began with the Spanish tradition, which evolved further in what today is Mexico and the Southwestern United States into the vaquero of northern Mexico and the charro of the Jalisco and Michoacán regions. While most hacendados (ranch owners) were ethnically Spanish criollos,^[22] many early vaqueros were Native Americans trained to work for the Spanish missions in caring for the mission herds.^[23] Vaqueros went north with livestock. In 1598, Don Juan de Oñate sent an expedition across the Rio Grande River into New Mexico, bringing along 7000 head of cattle. From this beginning, vaqueros of mestizo heritage drove cattle from New Mexico and later Texas to Mexico City.^[24] Mexican traditions spread both South and North, influencing equestrian traditions from Argentina to Canada.

Rise of the cowboy[link]

As English-speaking traders and settlers expanded westward, English and Spanish traditions, language and culture merged to some degree. Before the Mexican-American War in 1848, New England merchants who traveled by ship to California encountered both hacendados and vaqueros, trading manufactured goods for the hides and tallow produced from vast cattle ranches. American traders along what later became known as the Santa Fe Trail had similar contacts with vaquero life. Starting with these early encounters, the lifestyle and language of the vaquero began a transformation which merged with English cultural traditions and produced what became known in American culture as the "cowboy".^[25]

The arrival of English-speaking settlers in Texas began in 1821,^[24] while California did not see a large influx of settlers from the United States until after the Mexican-American War. However, in slightly different ways, both areas contributed to the evolution of the iconic American cowboy. Particularly with the arrival of railroads, and an increased demand for beef in the wake of the American Civil War, older traditions combined with the need to drive cattle from the ranches where they were raised to the nearest railheads, often hundreds of miles away.^[1]

By the 1880s, the expansion of the cattle industry resulted in a need for additional open range. Thus many ranchers expanded into the northwest, where there were still large tracts of unsettled grassland. Texas cattle were herded north, into the Rocky Mountain west and the Dakotas.^[26] The cowboy adapted much of his gear to the colder conditions, and westward movement of the industry also led to intermingling of regional traditions from California to Texas, often with the cowboy taking the most useful elements of each.

Mustang running[link]

Mustang-runners or Mesteñeros were cowboys and vaqueros who caught, broke and drove Mustangs to market in Mexico, and later American territories of what is now Northern Mexico, Texas, New Mexico and California. They caught the Mustangs that roamed the Great Plains and the San Joaquin Valley of California, and later in the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the early 20th century.^[27][28]

Roundups[link]

An 1898 photochrom of a round-up in Colorado

Large numbers of cattle lived in a semi-feral, or semi-wild state on the open range and were left to graze, mostly untended, for much of the year. In many cases, different ranchers formed "associations" and grazed their cattle together on the same range. In order to determine the ownership of individual animals, they were marked with a distinctive brand, applied with a hot iron, usually while the cattle were still young calves.^[29] The primary cattle breed seen on the open range was the Longhorn, descended from the original Spanish Longhorns imported in the 16th century,^[30] though by the late 19th century, other breeds of cattle were also brought west, including the meatier Hereford, and often were crossbred with Longhorns.^[31]

In order to find young calves for branding, and to sort out mature animals intended for sale, ranchers would hold a roundup, usually in the spring.^[32] A roundup required a number of specialized skills on the part of both cowboys and horses. Individuals who separated cattle from the herd required the highest level of skill and rode specially trained "cutting" horses, trained to follow the movements of cattle, capable of stopping and turning faster than other horses.^[33] Once cattle were sorted, most cowboys were required to rope young calves and restrain them to be branded and (in the case of most bull calves) castrated. Occasionally it was also necessary to restrain older cattle for branding or other treatment.

A large number of horses were needed for a roundup. Each cowboy would require three to four fresh horses in the course of a day's work.^[34] Horses themselves were also rounded up. It was common practice in the west for young foals to be born of tame mares, but allowed to grow up "wild" in a semi-feral state on the open range.^[35] There were also "wild" herds, often known as Mustangs. Both types were rounded up, and the mature animals tamed, a process called horse breaking, or "bronco-busting," (var. "bronc busting") usually performed by cowboys who specialized in training horses.^[36] In some cases, extremely brutal methods were used to tame horses, and such animals tended to never be completely reliable. However, other cowboys became aware of the need to treat animals in a more humane fashion and modified their horse training methods,^[37] often re-learning techniques used by the vaqueros, particularly those of the Californio tradition.^[38] Horses trained in a gentler fashion were more reliable and useful for a wider variety of tasks.

Informal competition arose between cowboys seeking to test their cattle and horse-handling skills against one another, and thus, from the necessary tasks of the working cowboy, the sport of rodeo developed.^[39]

Cattle drives[link]

Cattle roundup near Great Falls, Montana, circa 1890

Prior to the mid-19th century, most ranchers primarily raised cattle for their own needs and to sell surplus meat and hides locally. There was also a limited market for hides, horns, hooves, and tallow in assorted manufacturing processes.^[40] While Texas contained vast herds of stray, free-ranging cattle available for free to anyone who could round them up,^[24] prior to 1865, there was little demand for beef.^[40] However, at the end of the American Civil War, Philip Danforth Armour opened a meat packing plant in Chicago, which became known as Armour and Company. With the expansion of the meat packing industry, the demand for beef increased significantly. By 1866, cattle could be sold to northern markets for as much as $40 per head, making it potentially profitable for cattle, particularly from Texas, to be herded long distances to market.^[41]

The first large-scale effort to drive cattle from Texas to the nearest railhead for shipment to Chicago occurred in 1866, when many Texas ranchers banded together to drive their cattle to the closest point that railroad tracks reached, which at that time was in Sedalia, Missouri. However, farmers in eastern Kansas, afraid that Longhorns would transmit cattle fever to local animals as well as trample crops, formed groups that threatened to beat or shoot cattlemen found on their lands. Therefore, the 1866 drive failed to reach the railroad, and the cattle herds were sold for low prices.^[42] However, in 1867, a cattle shipping facility was built west of farm country around the railhead at Abilene, Kansas, and became a center of cattle shipping, loading over 36,000 head of cattle that year.^[43] The route from Texas to Abilene became known as the Chisholm Trail, after Jesse Chisholm, who marked out the route. It ran through present-day Oklahoma, which then was Indian Territory. However, in spite of Hollywood portrayals of the west, there were relatively few conflicts with Native Americans, who usually allowed cattle herds to pass through for a toll of ten cents a head. Later, other trails forked off to different railheads, including those at Dodge City and Wichita, Kansas.^[44] By 1877, the largest of the cattle-shipping boom towns, Dodge City, Kansas, shipped out 500,000 head of cattle.^[45]

Cattle drives had to strike a balance between speed and the weight of the cattle. While cattle could be driven as far as 25 miles in a single day, they would lose so much weight that they would be hard to sell when they reached the end of the trail. Usually they were taken shorter distances each day, allowed periods to rest and graze both at midday and at night.^[46] On average, a herd could maintain a healthy weight moving about 15 miles per day. Such a pace meant that it would take as long as two months to travel from a home ranch to a railhead. The Chisholm trail, for example, was 1,000 miles long.^[47]

On average, a single herd of cattle on a drive numbered about 3,000 head. To herd the cattle, a crew of at least 10 cowboys was needed, with three horses per cowboy. Cowboys worked in shifts to watch the cattle 24 hours a day, herding them in the proper direction in the daytime and watching them at night to prevent stampedes and deter theft. The crew also included a cook, who drove a chuck wagon, usually pulled by oxen, and a horse wrangler to take charge of the remuda, or herd of spare horses. The wrangler on a cattle drive was often a very young cowboy or one of lower social status, but the cook was a particularly well-respected member of the crew, as not only was he in charge of the food, he also was in charge of medical supplies and had a working knowledge of practical medicine.^[48]

End of the open range[link]

Waiting for a Chinook, by C.M. Russell. Overgrazing and harsh winters were factors that brought an end to the age of the Open Range

Barbed wire, an innovation of the 1880s, allowed cattle to be confined to designated areas to prevent overgrazing of the range. In Texas and surrounding areas, increased population required ranchers to fence off their individual lands.^[26] In the north, overgrazing stressed the open range, leading to insufficient winter forage for the cattle and starvation, particularly during the harsh winter of 1886–1887, when hundreds of thousands of cattle died across the Northwest, leading to collapse of the cattle industry.^[49] By the 1890s, barbed wire fencing was also standard in the northern plains, railroads had expanded to cover most of the nation, and meat packing plants were built closer to major ranching areas, making long cattle drives from Texas to the railheads in Kansas unnecessary. Hence, the age of the open range was gone and large cattle drives were over.^[49] Smaller cattle drives continued at least into the 1940s, as ranchers, prior to the development of the modern cattle truck, still needed to herd cattle to local railheads for transport to stockyards and packing plants. Meanwhile, ranches multiplied all over the developing West, keeping cowboy employment high, if still low-paid, but also somewhat more settled.^[50]

Culture[link]

Ethnicity[link]

American cowboys were drawn from multiple sources. By the late 1860s, following the American Civil War and the expansion of the cattle industry, former soldiers from both the Union and Confederacy came west, seeking work, as did large numbers of restless white men in general.^[51] A significant number of African-American freedmen also were drawn to cowboy life, in part because there was not quite as much discrimination in the west as in other areas of American society at the time.^[52] A significant number of Mexicans and American Indians already living in the region also worked as cowboys.^[53] Later, particularly after 1890, when American policy promoted "assimilation" of Indian people, some Indian boarding schools also taught ranching skills. Today, some Native Americans in the western United States own cattle and small ranches, and many are still employed as cowboys, especially on ranches located near Indian Reservations. The "Indian Cowboy" also became a commonplace sight on the rodeo circuit.

Because cowboys ranked low in the social structure of the period, there are no firm figures on the actual proportion of various races. One writer states that cowboys were "… of two classes—those recruited from Texas and other States on the eastern slope; and Mexicans, from the south-western region…"^[54] Census records suggest that about 15% of all cowboys were of African-American ancestry—ranging from about 25% on the trail drives out of Texas, to very few in the northwest. Similarly, cowboys of Mexican descent also averaged about 15% of the total, but were more common in Texas and the southwest. Other estimates suggest that in the late 19th century, one out of every three cowboys was a Mexican vaquero, and 20% may have been African-American.^[24]

Regardless of ethnicity, most cowboys came from lower social classes and the pay was poor. The average cowboy earned approximately a dollar a day, plus food, and, when near the home ranch, a bed in the bunkhouse, usually a barracks-like building with a single open room.^[55]

Social world[link]

Over time, the cowboys of the American West developed a personal culture of their own, a blend of frontier and Victorian values that even retained vestiges of chivalry. Such hazardous work in isolated conditions also bred a tradition of self-dependence and individualism, with great value put on personal honesty, exemplified in songs and poetry.^[56] The cowboy often worked in an all-male environment, particularly on cattle drives, and in the frontier west, men often significantly outnumbered women.^[57]

However, some men were also drawn to the frontier because they were attracted to men.^[58] Other times, in a region where men outnumbered women, even social events normally attended by both sexes were at times all male, and men could be found partnering up with one another for dances.^[57] Homosexual acts between young, unmarried men occurred, but cowboys culture itself was and remains deeply homophobic.^{[dubious – discuss]} Though anti-sodomy laws were common in the Old West, they often were only selectively enforced.^[59]

Development of the modern cowboy image[link]

Roy Rogers and Dale Evans at the 61st Academy Awards

The traditions of the working cowboy were further etched into the minds of the general public with the development of Wild West Shows in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which showcased and romanticized the life of both cowboys and Native Americans.^[60] Beginning in the 1920s and continuing to the present day, Western movies popularized the cowboy lifestyle but also formed persistent stereotypes, both positive and negative. In some cases, the cowboy and the violent gunslinger are often associated with one another. On the other hand, some actors who portrayed cowboys promoted positive values, such as the "cowboy code" of Gene Autry, that encouraged honorable behavior, respect and patriotism.^[61]

Likewise, cowboys in movies were often shown fighting with American Indians. However, the reality was that, while cowboys were armed against both predators and human thieves, and often used their guns to run off people of any race who attempted to steal, or rustle cattle, nearly all actual armed conflicts occurred between Indian people and cavalry units of the U.S. Army.^{[citation needed]}

In reality, working ranch hands past and present had very little time for anything other than the constant, hard work involved in maintaining a ranch.

Cowgirls[link]

"Rodeo Cowgirl" by C.M. Russell.

Fannie Sperry Steele, Champion Lady Bucking Horse Rider, Winnipeg Stampede, 1913

CheyenneSheetMusicCover

The history of women in the west, and women who worked on cattle ranches in particular, is not as well documented as that of men. However, institutions such as the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame have made significant efforts in recent years to gather and document the contributions of women.^[2]

There are few records mentioning girls or women working to drive cattle up the cattle trails of the Old West. However women did considerable ranch work, and in some cases (especially when the men went to war or on long cattle drives) ran them. There is little doubt that women, particularly the wives and daughters of men who owned small ranches and could not afford to hire large numbers of outside laborers, worked side by side with men and thus needed to ride horses and be able to perform related tasks. The largely undocumented contributions of women to the west were acknowledged in law; the western states led the United States in granting women the right to vote, beginning with Wyoming in 1869.^[62] Early photographers such as Evelyn Cameron documented the life of working ranch women and cowgirls during the late 19th and early 20th century.

While impractical for everyday work, the sidesaddle was a tool that gave women the ability to ride horses in "respectable" public settings instead of being left on foot or confined to horse-drawn vehicles. Following the Civil War, Charles Goodnight modified the traditional English sidesaddle, creating a western-styled design. The traditional charras of Mexico preserve a similar tradition and ride sidesaddles today in charreada exhibitions on both sides of the border.

It wasn't until the advent of Wild West Shows that "cowgirls" came into their own. These adult women were skilled performers, demonstrating riding, expert marksmanship, and trick roping that entertained audiences around the world. Women such as Annie Oakley became household names. By 1900, skirts split for riding astride became popular, and allowed women to compete with the men without scandalizing Victorian Era audiences by wearing men's clothing or, worse yet, bloomers. In the movies that followed from the early 20th century on, cowgirls expanded their roles in the popular culture and movie designers developed attractive clothing suitable for riding Western saddles.

Independently of the entertainment industry, the growth of rodeo brought about the rodeo cowgirl. In the early Wild West shows and rodeos, women competed in all events, sometimes against other women, sometimes with the men. Cowgirls such as Fannie Sperry Steele rode the same "rough stock" and took the same risks as the men (and all while wearing a heavy split skirt that was more encumbering than men's trousers) and competed at major rodeos such as the Calgary Stampede and Cheyenne Frontier Days.^[63]

Modern rodeo cowgirl

Rodeo competition for women changed in the 1920s due to several factors. After 1925, when Eastern promoters started staging indoor rodeos in places like Madison Square Garden. Women were generally excluded from the men's events and many of the women's events were dropped. Also, the public had difficulties with seeing women seriously injured or killed, and in particular, the death of Bonnie McCarroll at the 1929 Pendleton Round-Up led to the elimination of women's bronc riding from rodeo competition.^[64]

In today's rodeos, men and women compete equally together only in the event of team roping, though technically women now could enter other open events. There also are all-women rodeos where women compete in bronc riding, bull riding and all other traditional rodeo events. However, in open rodeos, cowgirls primarily compete in the timed riding events such as barrel racing, and most professional rodeos do not offer as many women's events as men's events.

Boys and girls are more apt to compete against one another in all events in high-school rodeos as well as O-Mok-See competition, where even boys can be seen in traditionally "women's" events such as barrel racing. Outside of the rodeo world, women compete equally with men in nearly all other equestrian events, including the Olympics, and western riding events such as cutting, reining, and endurance riding.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cowgirls

Today's working cowgirls generally use clothing, tools and equipment indistinguishable from that of men, other than in color and design, usually preferring a flashier look in competition. Sidesaddles are only seen in exhibitions and a limited number of specialty horse show classes. A modern working cowgirl wears jeans, close-fitting shirts, boots, hat, and when needed, chaps and gloves. If working on the ranch, they perform the same chores as cowboys and dress to suit the situation.

Regional traditions within the United States[link]

Geography, climate and cultural traditions caused differences to develop in cattle-handling methods and equipment from one part of the United States to another. In the modern world, remnants of two major and distinct cowboy traditions remain, known today as the "Texas" tradition and the "Spanish", "Vaquero", or "California" tradition. Less well-known but equally distinct traditions also developed in Hawaii and Florida. Today, the various regional cowboy traditions have merged to some extent, though a few regional differences in equipment and riding style still remain, and some individuals choose to deliberately preserve the more time-consuming but highly skilled techniques of the pure vaquero or "buckaroo" tradition. The popular "horse whisperer" style of natural horsemanship was originally developed by practitioners who were predominantly from California and the Northwestern states, clearly combining the attitudes and philosophy of the California vaquero with the equipment and outward look of the Texas cowboy.

California tradition[link]

The vaquero, the Spanish or Mexican cowboy who worked with young, untrained horses, arrived in the 18th century and flourished in California and bordering territories during the Spanish Colonial period.^[65] Settlers from the United States did not enter California until after the Mexican-American War, and most early settlers were miners rather than livestock ranchers, leaving livestock-raising largely to the Spanish and Mexican people who chose to remain in California. The California vaquero or buckaroo, unlike the Texas cowboy, was considered a highly-skilled worker, who usually stayed on the same ranch where he was born or had grown up and raised his own family there. In addition, the geography and climate of much of California was dramatically different from that of Texas, allowing more intensive grazing with less open range, plus cattle in California were marketed primarily at a regional level, without the need (nor, until much later, even the logistical possibility) to be driven hundreds of miles to railroad lines. Thus, a horse- and livestock-handling culture remained in California and the Pacific Northwest that retained a stronger direct Spanish influence than that of Texas. The modern distinction between vaquero and buckaroo within American English may also reflect the parallel differences between the California and Texas traditions of western horsemanship.^[66]

A "Wade" saddle, popular with working ranch Buckaroo tradition riders, derived from vaquero saddle designs

Buckaroos[link]

Some cowboys of the California tradition were dubbed buckaroos by English-speaking settlers. The words "buckaroo" and vaquero are still used on occasion in the Great Basin, parts of California and, less often, in the Pacific Northwest. Elsewhere, the term "cowboy" is more common.^[67] The word "buckaroo" is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, a corruption of vaquero,^[68] and shows phonological characteristics compatible with that origin.^[69] "Buckaroo" officially appeared in American English in 1889 and is believed to have originated as an anglicized version of vaquero, though there is a folk etymology that the term derived from "bucking", a behavior seen in some young or fresh horses. One author suggested that "buckaroo" comes not from vaquero but from an African word, Efik: bakara, meaning "white man, master, boss."^[68] However, given the strong Hispanic influence and dearth of African-American cowboys in the region, this hypothesis is highly unlikely.

Texas tradition[link]

In the early 19th century, the Spanish Crown, and later, independent Mexico, offered empresario grants in what would later be Texas to non-citizens, such as settlers from the United States. In 1821, Stephen F. Austin and his East Coast comrades became the first Anglo-Saxon community speaking Spanish. Following Texas independence in 1836, even more Americans immigrated into the empresario ranching areas of Texas. Here the settlers were strongly influenced by the Mexican vaquero culture, borrowing vocabulary and attire from their counterparts, but also retaining some of the livestock-handling traditions and culture of the Eastern United States and Great Britain. The Texas cowboy was typically a bachelor who hired on with different outfits from season to season.^[70]

Following the American Civil War, vaquero culture diffused eastward and northward, combining with the cow herding traditions of the eastern United States that evolved as settlers moved west. Other influences developed out of Texas as cattle trails were created to meet up with the railroad lines of Kansas and Nebraska, in addition to expanding ranching opportunities in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Front, east of the Continental Divide.^[71]

Thus, the Texas cowboy tradition arose from a combination of cultural influences, in addition to the need for adaptation to the geography and climate of west Texas and the need to conduct long cattle drives to get animals to market.

Florida Cowhunter or "Cracker cowboy"[link]

A cracker cowboy
artist: Frederic Remington.

The Florida "cowhunter" or "cracker cowboy" of the 19th and early 20th centuries was distinct from the Texas and California traditions. Florida cowboys did not use lassos to herd or capture cattle. Their primary tools were bullwhips and dogs. Since the Florida cowhunter did not need a saddle horn for anchoring a lariat, many did not use Western saddles, instead using a McClellan saddle. While some individuals wore boots that reached above the knees for protection from snakes, others wore brogans. They usually wore inexpensive wool or straw hats, and used ponchos for protection from rain.^[72]

Cattle and horses were introduced into Florida late in the 16th century.^[73] Florida cattle and horses were small. The "cracker cow", also known as the "native cow", or "scrub cow" averaged about 600 pounds, had large horns and large feet.^[74] The cracker cow type persists today in two rare breeds: Florida Cracker cattle and Pineywoods cattle.^[75] The Florida Cracker Horse descended from smaller Spanish horses of Barb, Sorraia, and Spanish Jennet breeding, but adapted further through natural selection to the environment of the region.^[76]

Throughout the 17th century, cattle ranches owned by Spanish officials and missions operated in northern Florida to supply the Spanish garrison in St. Augustine and markets in Cuba.^[73] These ranches brought in some vaqueros from Spain, but many of the workers were Timucua Indians.^[77] Diseases and Spanish suppression of rebellions severely reduced the Timucua population. By the beginning of the 18th century, raids by soldiers from the Province of Carolina and their Indian allies reduced the Timucuas to a remnant and ended the Spanish ranching era.

In the 18th century, Creek, Seminole, and other Indian people moved into the former Timucua areas and started herding the cattle left from the Spanish ranches. In the 19th century, most tribes in the area were dispossessed of their land and cattle and pushed south or west by white settlers and the United States government. By the middle of the 19th century white ranchers were running large herds of cattle on the extensive open range of central and southern Florida. The hides and meat from Florida cattle became such a critical supply item for the Confederacy during the American Civil War that a "Cow Cavalry" was organized to round up and protect the herds from Union raiders.^[78] After the Civil War, Florida cattle were periodically driven to ports on the Gulf of Mexico, such as Punta Rassa near Fort Myers, Florida, and shipped to market in Cuba.^[79]

Hawaiian Paniolo[link]

Photograph of Hawaiian Paniolo

The Hawaiian cowboy, the paniolo, is also a direct descendant of the vaquero of California and Mexico. Experts in Hawaiian etymology believe "Paniolo" is a Hawaiianized pronunciation of español. (The Hawaiian language has no /s/ sound, and all syllables and words must end in a vowel.) Paniolo, like cowboys on the mainland of North America, learned their skills from Mexican vaqueros.^[80]

By the early 19th century, Capt. George Vancouver's gift of cattle to Pai`ea Kamehameha, monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, had multiplied astonishingly, and were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. About 1812, John Parker, a sailor who had jumped ship and settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha to capture the wild cattle and develop a beef industry.

The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by hunger and thirst, they were hauled out up a steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or ox) that knew where the paddock with food and water was located. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha's son Liholiho (Kamehameha II).

Later, Liholiho's brother, Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III), visited California, then still a part of Mexico. He was impressed with the skill of the Mexican vaqueros, and invited several to Hawai`i in 1832 to teach the Hawaiian people how to work cattle.

Even today, traditional paniolo dress, as well as certain styles of Hawaiian formal attire, reflect the Spanish heritage of the vaquero.^[81] The traditional Hawaiian saddle, the noho lio,^[82] and many other tools of the cowboy's trade have a distinctly Mexican/Spanish look and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the names of the vaqueros who married Hawaiian women and made Hawai`i their home.

Other[link]

Montauk, New York, on Long Island makes a somewhat debatable claim of having the oldest cattle operation in what today is the United States, having run cattle in the area since European settlers purchased land from the Indian people of the area in 1643.^[83] Although there were substantial numbers of cattle on Long Island, as well as the need to herd them to and from common grazing lands on a seasonal basis, no consistent "cowboy" tradition developed amongst the cattle handlers of Long Island, who actually lived with their families in houses built on the pasture grounds.^[83] The only actual "cattle drives" held on Long Island consisted of one drive in 1776, when the Island's cattle were moved in a failed attempt to prevent them from being captured by the British during the American Revolution, and three or four drives in the late 1930s, when area cattle were herded down Montauk Highway to pasture ground near Deep Hollow Ranch.^[83]

On the Eastern Shore of Virginia, the "Salt Water Cowboys" are known for rounding up the feral Chincoteague Ponies from Assateague Island and driving them across Assateague Channel into pens on Chincoteague Island during the annual Pony Penning.

Canada[link]

Rider at the Calgary Stampede rodeo, 2002.

Ranching in Canada has traditionally been dominated by one province, Alberta. The most successful early settlers of the province were the ranchers, who found Alberta's foothills to be ideal for raising cattle. Most of Alberta's ranchers were English settlers, but cowboys such as John Ware—who brought the first cattle into the province in 1876—were American.^[84] American style open range dryland ranching began to dominate southern Alberta (and, to a lesser extent, southwestern Saskatchewan) by the 1880s. The nearby city of Calgary became the centre of the Canadian cattle industry, earning it the nickname "Cowtown". The cattle industry is still extremely important to Alberta, and cattle outnumber people in the province. While cattle ranches defined by barbed wire fences replaced the open range just as they did in the US, the cowboy influence lives on. Canada's first rodeo, the Raymond Stampede, was established in 1902. In 1912, the Calgary Stampede began, and today it is the world’s richest cash rodeo. Each year, Calgary’s northern rival Edmonton, Alberta stages the Canadian Finals Rodeo, and dozens of regional rodeos are held through the province.

Outside North America[link]

A csikos in the puszta of Hungary, 1846

In addition to the original Mexican vaquero, the Mexican charro, the cowboy, and the Hawaiian paniolo, the Spanish also exported their horsemanship and knowledge of cattle ranching to the gaucho of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and (with the spelling gaúcho) southern Brazil,^[85] the chalan in Peru, the llanero of Venezuela, and the huaso of Chile.

In Australia, where ranches are known as stations, cowboys are known as stockmen and ringers, (jackaroos and jillaroos who also do stockwork are trainee overseers and property managers).^[86] The Australian droving tradition was influenced by Americans in the 19th century, and as well as practices imported directly from Spain. The adaptation of both of these traditions to local needs created a unique Australian tradition, which also was strongly influenced by Australian indigenous people, whose knowledge played a key role in the success of cattle ranching in Australia's climate.

The idea of horse riders who guard herds of cattle, sheep or horses is common wherever wide, open land for grazing exists. In the French Camargue, riders called "gardians" herd cattle and horses. In Hungary, csikós guard horses and gulyás tend to cattle. The herders in the region of Maremma, in Tuscany (Italy) are called butteros. The Asturian pastoral population is referred to as Vaqueiros de alzada.

Modern working cowboys[link]

Cattle drive in New Mexico, USA

On the ranch, the cowboy is responsible for feeding the livestock, branding and earmarking cattle (horses also are branded on many ranches), plus tending to animal injuries and other needs. The working cowboy usually is in charge of a small group or "string" of horses and is required to routinely patrol the rangeland in all weather conditions checking for damaged fences, evidence of predation, water problems, and any other issue of concern.

They also move the livestock to different pasture locations, or herd them into corrals and onto trucks for transport. In addition, cowboys may do many other jobs, depending on the size of the "outfit" or ranch, the terrain, and the number of livestock. On a smaller ranch with fewer cowboys—often just family members, cowboys are generalists who perform many all-around tasks; they repair fences, maintain ranch equipment, and perform other odd jobs. On a very large ranch (a "big outfit"), with many employees, cowboys are able to specialize on tasks solely related to cattle and horses. Cowboys who train horses often specialize in this task only, and some may "Break" or train young horses for more than one ranch.

The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics collects no figures for cowboys, so the exact number of working cowboys is unknown. Cowboys are included in the 2003 category, Support activities for animal production, which totals 9,730 workers averaging $19,340 per annum. In addition to cowboys working on ranches, in stockyards, and as staff or competitors at rodeos, the category includes farmhands working with other types of livestock (sheep, goats, hogs, chickens, etc.). Of those 9,730 workers, 3,290 are listed in the subcategory of Spectator sports which includes rodeos, circuses, and theaters needing livestock handlers.

Attire[link]

Most cowboy attire, sometimes termed Western wear, grew out of practical need and the environment in which the cowboy worked. Most items were adapted from the Mexican vaqueros, though sources from other cultures, including Native Americans and Mountain Men contributed.^[87]

• Bandanna; a large cotton neckerchief that had myriad uses: from mopping up sweat to masking the face from dust storms. In modern times, is now more likely to be a silk neckscarf for decoration and warmth.
• Chaps (usually pronounced "shaps"^[88]) or chinks protect the rider's legs while on horseback, especially riding through heavy brush or during rough work with livestock.
• Cowboy hat; High crowned hat with a wide brim to protect from sun, overhanging brush, and the elements. There are many styles, initially influenced by John B. Stetson's Boss of the plains, which was designed in response to the climatic conditions of the West.^[89]
• Cowboy boots; a boot with a high top to protect the lower legs, pointed toes to help guide the foot into the stirrup, and high heels to keep the foot from slipping through the stirrup while working in the saddle; with or without detachable spurs.
• Gloves, usually of deerskin or other leather that is soft and flexible for working purposes, yet provides protection when handling barbed wire, assorted tools or clearing native brush and vegetation.
• Jeans or other sturdy, close-fitting trousers made of canvas or denim, designed to protect the legs and prevent the trouser legs from snagging on brush, equipment or other hazards. Properly made cowboy jeans also have a smooth inside seam to prevent blistering the inner thigh and knee while on horseback.

Many of these items show marked regional variations. Parameters such as hat brim width, or chap length and material were adjusted to accommodate the various environmental conditions encountered by working cowboys.

Tools[link]

Modern Texas cowboys. Note that their clothes are similar to those of the 19th century cowboy above

• Firearms: Modern cowboys often have access to a rifle, used to protect the livestock from predation by wild animals, more often carried inside a pickup truck than on horseback, though rifle scabbards are manufactured, and allow a rifle to be carried on a saddle. A pistol is more often carried when on horseback. The modern ranch hand often uses a .22 caliber "varmit" rifle for modern ranch hazards, such as rattlesnakes, coyotes, and rabid skunks. In areas near wilderness, a ranch cowboy may carry a higher-caliber rifle to fend off larger predators such as mountain lions. In contrast, the cowboy of the 1880s usually carried a heavy caliber revolver such as the single action .44-40 or .45 Colt Peacemaker (the civilian version of the 1872 Single Action Army).^[90] The working cowboy of the 1880s rarely carried a long arm, as they could get in the way when working cattle, plus they added extra weight. However, many cowboys owned rifles, and often used them for market hunting in the off season.^[91] Though many models were used, Cowboys who were part-time market hunters preferred rifles that could take the widely available .45-70 "Government" ammunition, such as certain Sharps, Remington, Springfield models, as well as the Winchester 1876.^[92] However, by far the single most popular long arms were the lever-action repeating Winchesters, particularly lighter models such as the Model 1873 chambered for the same .44/40 ammunition as the Colt, allowing the cowboy to carry only one kind of ammunition.^[93]
• Knife; cowboys have traditionally favored some form of pocket knife, specifically the folding cattle knife or stock knife. The knife has multiple blades, usually including a leather punch and a "sheepsfoot" blade.
• Lariat; from the Spanish "la riata," meaning "the rope," sometimes called a lasso, especially in the East, or simply, a "rope". This is a tightly twisted stiff rope, originally of rawhide or leather, now often of nylon, made with a small loop at one end called a "hondo." When the rope is run through the hondo, it creates a loop that slides easily, tightens quickly and can be thrown to catch animals.^[94]
• Spurs; metal devices attached to the heel of the boot, featuring a small metal shank, usually with a small serrated wheel attached, used to allow the rider to provide a stronger (or sometimes, more precise) leg cue to the horse.
• Other weapons; while the modern American cowboy came to existence after the invention of gunpowder, cattle herders of earlier times were sometimes equipped with heavy polearms, bows or lances.

A stock type horse suitable for cattle work

Horses[link]

The traditional means of transport for the cowboy, even in the modern era, is by horseback. Horses can travel over terrain that vehicles cannot access. Horses, along with mules and burros, also serve as pack animals. The most important horse on the ranch is the everyday working ranch horse that can perform a wide variety of tasks; horses trained to specialize exclusively in one set of skills such as roping or cutting are very rarely used on ranches. Because the rider often needs to keep one hand free while working cattle, the horse must neck rein and have good cow sense—it must instinctively know how to anticipate and react to cattle.

A good stock horse is on the small side, generally under 15.2 hands (62 inches) tall at the withers and often under 1000 pounds, with a short back, sturdy legs and strong muscling, particularly in the hindquarters. While a steer roping horse may need to be larger and weigh more in order to hold a heavy adult cow, bull or steer on a rope, a smaller, quick horse is needed for herding activities such as cutting or calf roping. The horse has to be intelligent, calm under pressure and have a certain degree of 'cow sense" -- the ability to anticipate the movement and behavior of cattle.

Many breeds of horse make good stock horses, but the most common today in North America is the American Quarter Horse, which is a horse breed developed primarily in Texas from a combination of Thoroughbred bloodstock crossed on horses of Mustang and other Iberian horse ancestry, with influences from the Arabian horse and horses developed on the east coast, such as the Morgan horse and now-extinct breeds such as the Chickasaw and Virginia Quarter-Miler.

Horse equipment or tack[link]

A western saddle

Equipment used to ride a horse is referred to as tack and includes:

• Bridle; a Western bridle usually has a curb bit and long split reins to control the horse in many different situations. Generally the bridle is open-faced, without a noseband, unless the horse is ridden with a tiedown. Young ranch horses learning basic tasks usually are ridden in a jointed, loose-ring snaffle bit, often with a running martingale. In some areas, especially where the "California" style of the vaquero or buckaroo tradition is still strong, young horses are often seen in a bosal style hackamore.
• Martingales of various types are seen on horses that are in training or have behavior problems.
• Saddle bags (leather or nylon) can be mounted to the saddle, behind the cantle, to carry various sundry items and extra supplies. Additional bags may be attached to the front or the saddle.
• Saddle blanket; a blanket or pad is required under the Western saddle to provide comfort and protection for the horse.
• Western saddle; a saddle specially designed to allow horse and rider to work for many hours and to provide security to the rider in rough terrain or when moving quickly in response to the behavior of the livestock being herded. A western saddle has a deep seat with high pommel and cantle that provides a secure seat. Deep, wide stirrups provide comfort and security for the foot. A strong, wide saddle tree of wood, covered in rawhide (or made of a modern synthetic material) distributes the weight of the rider across a greater area of the horse's back, reducing the pounds carried per square inch and allowing the horse to be ridden longer without harm. A horn sits low in front of the rider, to which a lariat can be snubbed, and assorted dee rings and leather "saddle strings" allow additional equipment to be tied to the saddle.^[95]

Vehicles[link]

The most common motorized vehicle driven in modern ranch work is the pickup truck. Sturdy and roomy, with a high ground clearance, and often four-wheel drive capability, it has an open box, called a "bed," and can haul supplies from town or over rough trails on the ranch. It is used to pull stock trailers transporting cattle and livestock from one area to another and to market. With a horse trailer attached, it carries horses to distant areas where they may be needed. Motorcycles are sometimes used instead of horses for some tasks, but the most common smaller vehicle is the four-wheeler. It will carry a single cowboy quickly around the ranch for small chores. In areas with heavy snowfall, snowmobiles are also common. However, in spite of modern mechanization, there remain jobs, particularly those involving working cattle in rough terrain or in close quarters that are best performed by cowboys on horseback.

A rodeo cowboy in saddle bronc competition

Rodeo cowboys[link]

The word rodeo is from the Spanish rodear (to turn), which means roundup. In the beginning there was no difference between the working cowboy and the rodeo cowboy, and in fact, the term working cowboy did not come into use until the 1950s. Prior to that it was assumed that all cowboys were working cowboys. Early cowboys both worked on ranches and displayed their skills at the roundups.^[96]

The advent of professional rodeos allowed cowboys, like many athletes, to earn a living by performing their skills before an audience. Rodeos also provided employment for many working cowboys who were needed to handle livestock. Many rodeo cowboys are also working cowboys and most have working cowboy experience.

The dress of the rodeo cowboy is not very different from that of the working cowboy on his way to town. Snaps, used in lieu of buttons on the cowboy's shirt, allowed the cowboy to escape from a shirt snagged by the horns of steer or bull. Styles were often adapted from the early movie industry for the rodeo. Some rodeo competitors, particularly women, add sequins, colors, silver and long fringes to their clothing in both a nod to tradition and showmanship. Modern riders in "rough stock" events such as saddle bronc or bull riding may add safety equipment such as kevlar vests or a neck brace, but use of safety helmets in lieu of the cowboy hat is yet to be accepted, in spite of constant risk of injury.

In popular culture[link]

Buffalo Bill's wild west and congress of rough riders of the world - Circus poster showing cowboys rounding up cattle, c. 1899

As the frontier ended, the cowboy life came to be highly romanticized. Exhibitions such as those of Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show helped to popularize the image of the cowboy as an idealized representative of the tradition of chivalry.

In today's society, there is little understanding of the daily realities of actual agricultural life. Cowboys are more often associated with (mostly fictitious) Indian-fighting than with their actual life of ranch work and cattle-tending. The cowboy is also portrayed as a masculine ideal via images ranging from the Marlboro Man to the Village People.

Actors such as John Wayne are thought of as exemplifying a cowboy ideal, even though western movies seldom bear much resemblance to real cowboy life. Arguably, the modern rodeo competitor is much closer to being an actual cowboy, as many were actually raised on ranches and around livestock, and the rest have needed to learn livestock-handling skills on the job.

However, in the United States and the Canadian West, as well as Australia, guest ranches offer people the opportunity to ride horses and get a taste of the western life—albeit in far greater comfort. Some ranches also offer vacationers the opportunity to actually perform cowboy tasks by participating in cattle drives or accompanying wagon trains. This type of vacation was popularized by the 1991 movie City Slickers, starring Billy Crystal.

Symbolism[link]

In 2005, the United States Senate declared the fourth Saturday of July as "National Day of the American Cowboy" via a Senate resolution and has subsequently renewed this resolution each year, with the United States House of Representatives periodically issuing statements of support.^[97] The long history of the West in popular culture tends to define those clothed in Western clothing as cowboys or cowgirls whether they have ever been on a horse or not. This is especially true when applied to entertainers and those in the public arena who wear western wear as part of their persona. However, the reality is that many people, particularly in the West, including lawyers, bankers, and other white collar professionals wear elements of Western clothing, particularly cowboy boots or hats, as a matter of form even though they have other jobs. Conversely, some people raised on ranches do not necessarily define themselves cowboys or cowgirls unless they feel their primary job is to work with livestock or if they compete in rodeos.

Actual cowboys have derisive expressions for individuals who adopt cowboy mannerisms as a fashion pose without any actual understanding of the culture. For example, a "drugstore cowboy" means someone who wears the clothing but does not actually sit upon anything but the stool of the drugstore soda fountain--or, in modern times, a bar stool. Similarly, the phrase "all hat and no cattle" is used to describe someone (usually male) who boasts about himself, far in excess of any actual accomplishments. The word "dude" (or the now-archaic term "greenhorn") indicates an individual unfamiliar with cowboy culture, especially one who is trying to pretend otherwise.

Outside of the United States, the cowboy has become an archetypal symbol of American individualism. In the late 1950s, a Congolese youth subculture calling themselves the Bills based their style and outlook on Hollywood's depiction of cowboys in movies. Something similar occurred with the term "Apache", which in early 20th century Parisian society was a slang term for an outlaw.

Negative associations[link]

The word "cowboy" is also used in a negative sense. Originally this derived from the behavior of some cowboys in the boomtowns of Kansas, at the end of the trail for long cattle drives, where cowboys developed a reputation for violence and wild behavior due to the inevitable impact of large numbers of cowboys, mostly young single men, receiving their pay in large lump sums upon arriving in communities with many drinking and gambling establishments.^[98]

"Cowboy" as an adjective for "reckless" developed in the 1920s.^[7] "Cowboy" is sometimes used today in a derogatory sense to describe someone who is reckless or ignores potential risks, irresponsible or who heedlessly handles a sensitive or dangerous task.^[99] TIME Magazine referred to President George W. Bush's foreign policy as "Cowboy diplomacy",^[100] and Bush has been described in the press, particularly in Europe, as a "cowboy".^[101]

In English-speaking regions outside North America, such as the British Isles and Australasia, "cowboy" can refer to a tradesmen whose work is of shoddy and questionable value, e.g., "a cowboy plumber".^[102] Similar usage is seen in the United States to describe someone in the skilled trades who operates without proper training or licenses. In the eastern United States, "cowboy" as a noun is sometimes used to describe a fast or careless driver on the highway.^[103]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: cowboys

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cattle round-ups and drives

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Bennett, Deb (1998) Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo Publications Inc.; 1st edition. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
• Denhardt, Robert M. The Horse of the Americas Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1947.
• Draper, Robert. "21st -Century Cowboys: Why the Spirit Endures." National Geographic, December 2007, pp. 114–135.
• Malone, John William. An Album of the American Cowboy. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1971. SBN: 531-01512-2.
• Malone, Michael P., and Richard B. Roeder. Montana: A History of Two Centuries. University of Washington Press; Revised edition, 1991. ISBN 0-295-97129-0, ISBN 978-0-295-97129-2.
• Rickey, Don, Jr. $10 Horse, $40 Saddle: Cowboy Clothing, Arms, Tools and Horse Gear of the 1880s The Old Army Press, First printing, 1976. LC no. 76-9411.
• Vernam, Glenn R. Man on Horseback New York: Harper & Row 1964.

Further reading[link]

• Beck, Warren A., Haase, Ynez D.; Historical Atlas of the American West. University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma, 1989. ISBN 0-8061-2193-9.
• Davis, David Brion. "Ten-Gallon Hero: The Myth of the Cowboy". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors) Brandywine Press, St. James, NY. ISBN 1-881089-97-5
• Jordan, Teresa; Cowgirls: Women of the American West. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8032-7575-7.
• Nicholson, Jon. Cowboys: A Vanishing World. Macmillan, 2001. ISBN 0-333-90208-4.
• Phillips, Charles; Axlerod, Alan; editor. The Encyclopedia of the American West. Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996. ISBN 0-02-897495-6.
• Roach, Joyce Gibson; The Cowgirls. University of North Texas Press, 1990. ISBN 0-929398-15-7.
• Slatta, Richard W. The Cowboy Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, California, 1994. ISBN 0-87436-738-7.
• Ward, Fay E.; The Cowboy at Work: All About His Job and How He Does It. University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma, 1987. ISBN 0-8061-2051-7.

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2010)

In vector calculus, del is a vector differential operator, usually represented by the nabla symbol ∇. When applied to a function defined on a one-dimensional domain, it denotes its standard derivative as defined in calculus. When applied to a field (a function defined on a multi-dimensional domain), del may denote the gradient (locally steepest slope) of a scalar field, the divergence of a vector field, or the curl (rotation) of a vector field, depending on the way it is applied.

Strictly speaking, del is not a specific operator, but rather a convenient mathematical notation for those three operators, that makes many equations easier to write and remember. The del symbol can be interpreted as a vector of partial derivative operators, and its three possible meanings—gradient, divergence, and curl—can be formally viewed as the product of scalars, dot product, and cross product, respectively, of the del "operator" with the field. These formal products do not necessarily commute with other operators or products.

Definition[link]

In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system R³ with coordinates (x, y, z), del is defined in terms of partial derivative operators as

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla = \mathbf{\hat{x}} {\partial \over \partial x} + \mathbf{\hat{y}} {\partial \over \partial y} + \mathbf{\hat{z}} {\partial \over \partial z}

where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \{\mathbf{\hat{x}}, \mathbf{\hat{y}},\mathbf{\hat{z}} \}

are the unit vectors in their respective directions.

Though this page chiefly treats del in three dimensions, this definition can be generalized to the n-dimensional Euclidean space Rⁿ. In the Cartesian coordinate system with coordinates (x₁, x₂, ..., x_n), del is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla = \sum_{i=1}^n \hat e^i {\partial \over \partial x_i}

where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \{ \hat e^i: 1\leq i\leq n\}

is the standard basis in this space.

More compactly, using the Einstein summation notation, del is written as

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla = \hat e^i \,\partial_i

Del can also be expressed in other coordinate systems, see for example del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

Notational uses[link]

Del is used as a shorthand form to simplify many long mathematical expressions. It is most commonly used to simplify expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl, directional derivative, and Laplacian.

Gradient[link]

The vector derivative of a scalar field f is called the gradient, and it can be represented as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla f = {\partial f \over \partial x} \mathbf{\hat{x}} + {\partial f \over \partial y} \mathbf{\hat{y}} + {\partial f \over \partial z} \mathbf{\hat{z}}

It always points in the direction of greatest increase of f, and it has a magnitude equal to the maximum rate of increase at the point—just like a standard derivative. In particular, if a hill is defined as a height function over a plane h(x,y), the 2d projection of the gradient at a given location will be a vector in the xy-plane (sort of like an arrow on a map) pointing along the steepest direction. The magnitude of the gradient is the value of this steepest slope.

In particular, this notation is powerful because the gradient product rule looks very similar to the 1d-derivative case:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla(f g) = f \nabla g + g \nabla f

However, the rules for dot products do not turn out to be simple, as illustrated by:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla (\vec u \cdot \vec v) = (\vec u \cdot \nabla) \vec v + (\vec v \cdot \nabla) \vec u + \vec u \times (\nabla \times \vec v) + \vec v \times (\nabla \times \vec u)

Divergence[link]

The divergence of a vector field Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{v}(x, y, z) = v_x \mathbf{\hat{x}} + v_y \mathbf{\hat{y}} + v_z \mathbf{\hat{z}}

is a scalar function that can be represented as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{div}\,\vec v = {\partial v_x \over \partial x} + {\partial v_y \over \partial y} + {\partial v_z \over \partial z} = \nabla \cdot \vec v

The divergence is roughly a measure of a vector field's increase in the direction it points; but more accurately, it is a measure of that field's tendency to converge toward or repel from a point.

The power of the del notation is shown by the following product rule:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot (f \vec v) = f \nabla \cdot \vec v + \vec v \cdot \nabla f

The formula for the vector product is slightly less intuitive, because this product is not commutative:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot (\vec u \times \vec v) = \vec v \cdot \nabla \times \vec u - \vec u \cdot \nabla \times \vec v

Curl[link]

The curl of a vector field Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{v}(x, y, z) = v_x\mathbf{\hat{x}} + v_y\mathbf{\hat{y}} + v_z\mathbf{\hat{z}}

is a vector function that can be represented as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{curl}\;\vec v = \left( {\partial v_z \over \partial y} - {\partial v_y \over \partial z} \right) \mathbf{\hat{x}} + \left( {\partial v_x \over \partial z} - {\partial v_z \over \partial x} \right) \mathbf{\hat{y}} + \left( {\partial v_y \over \partial x} - {\partial v_x \over \partial y} \right) \mathbf{\hat{z}} = \nabla \times \vec v

The curl at a point is proportional to the on-axis torque to which a tiny pinwheel would be subjected if it were centered at that point.

The vector product operation can be visualized as a pseudo-determinant:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \vec v = \left|\begin{matrix} \mathbf{\hat{x}} & \mathbf{\hat{y}} & \mathbf{\hat{z}} \\[2pt] {\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial z}} \\[2pt] v_x & v_y & v_z \end{matrix}\right|

Again the power of the notation is shown by the product rule:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times (f \vec v) = (\nabla f) \times \vec v + f \nabla \times \vec v

Unfortunately the rule for the vector product does not turn out to be simple:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times (\vec u \times \vec v) = \vec u \, \nabla \cdot \vec v - \vec v \, \nabla \cdot \vec u + (\vec v \cdot \nabla) \vec u - (\vec u \cdot \nabla) \vec v

Directional derivative[link]

The directional derivative of a scalar field f(x,y,z) in the direction Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{a}(x,y,z) = a_x \mathbf{\hat{x}} + a_y \mathbf{\hat{y}} + a_z \mathbf{\hat{z}}

is defined as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{a}\cdot\mbox{grad}\,f = a_x {\partial f \over \partial x} + a_y {\partial f \over \partial y} + a_z {\partial f \over \partial z} = (\vec a \cdot \nabla) f

This gives the change of a field f in the direction of a. In operator notation, the element in parentheses can be considered a single coherent unit; fluid dynamics uses this convention extensively, terming it the convective derivative—the "moving" derivative of the fluid.

Laplacian[link]

The Laplace operator is a scalar operator that can be applied to either vector or scalar fields; it is defined as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Delta = {\partial^2 \over \partial x^2} + {\partial^2 \over \partial y^2} + {\partial^2 \over \partial z^2} = \nabla \cdot \nabla = \nabla^2

The Laplacian is ubiquitous throughout modern mathematical physics, appearing in Laplace's equation, Poisson's equation, the heat equation, the wave equation, and the Schrödinger equation—to name a few.

Tensor derivative[link]

Del can also be applied to a vector field with the result being a tensor. The tensor derivative of a vector field Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{v}

is a 9-term second-rank tensor, but can be denoted simply as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \otimes \vec{v}

, where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \otimes

represents the dyadic product. This quantity is equivalent to the transpose of the Jacobian matrix of the vector field with respect to space.

For a small displacement Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \delta \vec{r} , the change in the vector field is given by:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \delta \vec{v} = (\nabla \otimes \vec{v}) \sdot \delta \vec{r}

Second derivatives[link]

DCG chart: A simple chart depicting all rules pertaining to second derivatives. D, C, G, L and CC stand for divergence, curl, gradient, Laplacian and curl of curl, respectively. Arrows indicate existence of second derivatives. Blue circle in the middle represents curl of curl, whereas the other two red circles(dashed) mean that DD and GG do not exist.

When del operates on a scalar or vector, generally a scalar or vector is returned. Because of the diversity of vector products (scalar, dot, cross) one application of del already gives rise to three major derivatives: the gradient (scalar product), divergence (dot product), and curl (cross product). Applying these three sorts of derivatives again to each other gives five possible second derivatives, for a scalar field f or a vector field v; the use of the scalar Laplacian and vector Laplacian gives two more:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{div}\,(\mbox{grad}\,f ) = \nabla \cdot (\nabla f)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{curl}\,(\mbox{grad}\,f ) = \nabla \times (\nabla f)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Delta f = \nabla^2 f

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{grad}\,(\mbox{div}\, \vec v ) = \nabla (\nabla \cdot \vec v)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{div}\,(\mbox{curl}\,\vec v ) = \nabla \cdot (\nabla \times \vec v)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{curl}\,(\mbox{curl}\,\vec v ) = \nabla \times (\nabla \times \vec v)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Delta \vec v = \nabla^2 \vec v

These are of interest principally because they are not always unique or independent of each other. As long as the functions are well-behaved, two of them are always zero:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{curl}\,(\mbox{grad}\,f ) = \nabla \times (\nabla f) = 0

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{div}\,(\mbox{curl}\,\vec v ) = \nabla \cdot \nabla \times \vec{v} = 0

Two of them are always equal:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mbox{div}\,(\mbox{grad}\,f ) = \nabla \cdot (\nabla f) = \nabla^2 f = \Delta f

The 3 remaining vector derivatives are related by the equation:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \nabla \times \vec{v} = \nabla (\nabla \cdot \vec{v}) - \nabla^2 \vec{v}

And one of them can even be expressed with the tensor product, if the functions are well-behaved:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla ( \nabla \cdot \vec{v} ) = \nabla \cdot (\nabla \otimes \vec{v})

Precautions[link]

Most of the above vector properties (except for those that rely explicitly on del's differential properties—for example, the product rule) rely only on symbol rearrangement, and must necessarily hold if del is replaced by any other vector. This is part of the tremendous value gained in representing this operator as a vector in its own right.

Though you can often replace del with a vector and obtain a vector identity, making those identities intuitive, the reverse is not necessarily reliable, because del does not often commute.

A counterexample that relies on del's failure to commute:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\mathbf u \cdot \mathbf v) f = (\mathbf v \cdot \mathbf u) f

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\nabla \cdot \mathbf v) f \ne (\mathbf v \cdot \nabla) f

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\nabla \cdot \mathbf v) f = (\frac{\part v_x}{\part x}+\frac{\part v_y}{\part y}+\frac{\part v_z}{\part z})f =

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): = \frac{\part v_x}{\part x}f+\frac{\part v_y}{\part y}f+\frac{\part v_z}{\part z}f

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\mathbf v \cdot \nabla) f = (v_x \frac{\part}{\part x}+v_y \frac{\part}{\part y}+v_z \frac{\part}{\part z})f =

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): = v_x \frac{\part f}{\part x}+v_y \frac{\part f}{\part y}+v_z \frac{\part f}{\part z}

A counterexample that relies on del's differential properties:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\nabla x) \times (\nabla y) = (\mathbf{\hat x} \frac{\part x}{\part x}+\mathbf{\hat y} \frac{\part x}{\part y}+\mathbf{\hat z} \frac{\part x}{\part z}) \times (\mathbf{\hat x} \frac{\part y}{\part x}+\mathbf{\hat y} \frac{\part y}{\part y}+\mathbf{\hat z} \frac{\part y}{\part z}) =

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): = (\mathbf{\hat x} \cdot 1 +\mathbf{\hat y} \cdot 0+\mathbf{\hat z} \cdot 0) \times (\mathbf{\hat x} \cdot 0+\mathbf{\hat y} \cdot 1+\mathbf{\hat z} \cdot 0) =

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): = \mathbf{\hat x} \times \mathbf{\hat y} = \mathbf{\hat z}

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (\mathbf u x )\times (\mathbf u y) = x y (\mathbf u \times \mathbf u) = x y \mathbf 0 = \mathbf 0

Central to these distinctions is the fact that del is not simply a vector; it is a vector operator. Whereas a vector is an object with both a precise numerical magnitude and direction, del does not have a precise value for either until it is allowed to operate on something.

For that reason, identities involving del must be derived with care, using both vector identities and differentiation identities such as the product rule.

See also[link]

• Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
• Maxwell's equations
• Navier–Stokes equations
• Table of mathematical symbols
• Vector calculus identities

References[link]

• Schey, H. M. (1997). Div, Grad, Curl, and All That: An Informal Text on Vector Calculus. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-96997-5. 
• Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus". http://jeff560.tripod.com/calculus.html. 
• "History of Nabla". netlib.org. January 26, 1998. http://www.netlib.org/na-digest-html/98/v98n03.html#2. 

External links[link]

• A survey of the improper use of ∇ in vector analysis (1994) Tai, Chen

Amor may refer to:

• Eros, the Greek god of love also known as Amor
• The land of the ancient Amorites, also known as Amurru
• Cupid, the Roman god of love also known by his Latin name Amor
• 1221 Amor, an asteroid
• Amor asteroid, a group of near-Earth asteroids named after 1221 Amor
• Amor (automobile), a German car
• "Amor" (1943 song)
• "Amor" (Ricky Martin song)
• Amor Vincit Omnia (Caravaggio), 17th century painting
• Amor Hamdi, Tunisian rugby union player
• Amor Kehiha (born 1977), French-Algerian footballer
• Amor Mašović (born 1955), Bosnian politician
• Amor (film), a 1940 Argentine comedy film

See also[link]

• Amore (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2010)

Ramón "Palito" Ortega
Argentine Senate
In office December 10, 1995 – December 10, 1999
Governor of Tucumán
In office October 28, 1991 – October 28, 1995
Lieutenant	Julio Díaz Lozano
Preceded by	Julio César Aráoz
Succeeded by	Antonio Domingo Bussi
Personal details
Born	(1942-03-08) March 8, 1942 (age 70) Lules, Tucumán
Political party	Justicialist Party
Spouse(s)	Evangelina Salazar
Profession	Musician

Ramón Bautista Ortega (born March 8, 1942) Argentine singer and actor, better known as Palito Ortega.^[1] Ortega reached international fame, particularly in Latin America and Spain, during the 1960s, when Rock and Roll music was popularized among teenagers in the region.

Life and times[link]

Youth[link]

Ortega was born to a very poor family in Lules, and had to work from a young age, selling newspapers in San Miguel de Tucumán, and finding a job at a store. His real passion, however, was music, as he had been dreaming of becoming a singer since early childhood; as a teenager, Ortega was an admirer of Elvis Presley.

In 1956, Ortega moved to Buenos Aires, where he wound up selling coffee on the city's parks, corners and streets. He used his work as a coffee seller to get into show business: eventually, he set up a coffee selling spot near Buenos Aires' television channel seven. This worked well for Ortega, as many entertainers would stop by to buy coffee from his stand, and he became acquainted with some of the best known Argentine rock musicians of the era. Ortega also worked near Radio Belgrano, where many of the singers he met while selling coffee near the television station would recognize him and form a bond with the young star in the making.

Ortega became friends with members of a famous group named "Carlinhos y su Banda". He learned to play drums during band practices, and, eventually, he joined the group. A period of wild success across South America followed for the band, with Ortega being one of their most popular members. Ortega left the group to follow a solo career, confident that the recognition the group had given him would guarantee him success as a solo artist.

Career in entertainment[link]

His first solo album, "La Edad del Amor" ("The Age of Love"), was recorded under the artistic name of Nery Nelson. This album, as well as the next one ("Yo no Quiero," translated to "I Don't Want To"), were not hits. Both albums were recorded in Mendoza with low budgets and no recording company to back them up. Ortega also used the artistic nickname of Tony Varano for some of his live shows at the time, and he became a member of "The Lyons" when the Argentine rock legend, lead singer Peter Rock, left the band. His interests, however, remained in being a successful solo singer, and he left The Lyons within months of joining that band.

Ortega met songwriter Dino Ramos in 1962; this would prove important in Ortega's career as Ramos would write a large number of Ortega's hits. By 1963, in the midst of Argentina's own "new wave" (La nueva ola) movement (such movements were taking place in many countries, such as England, Mexico, Puerto Rico and the United States, among other countries), Ortega began to become a television regular, as he was featured multiple times on a popular Canal 11 show of the time, "Club del Clan" ("The Clan Club"); it should be pointed out that the word clan in Spanish has nothing to do with racist groups; "clan" has the same meaning as "group" in Spanish.

In 1963, he signed with RCA Records, and began recording immediately. His television appearances led to a career in cinema. Ortega recorded 27 albums, and starred in 26 films at the time, becoming a teen idol as a consequence. He acted and sang in those films, and shared the big screen with many of Argentina's most important actors and actresses of the time. His fame acquainted him with Evangelina Salazar, a television actress known for her role as a country schoolteacher; the couple were married in 1967, and had six children.^[2]

Palito Ortega would travel extensively through the rest of the 1960s and the 1970s. He went on to record for RCA in Mexico, Italy, England, and Nashville, Tennessee. Ortega's status as a teen idol declined during that period, and he reduced his television and movie appearances, as well as his album recordings. He did, however, become a successful music promoter, and in August 1981, produced a show for Frank Sinatra in Argentina. The sharp devaluation of the peso following the collapse of Economy Minister José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz's exchange rate timetable made his US dollar-denominated contactual obligations unaffordable, however. Ortega reportedly lost one million dollars after paying the legendary crooner for his Luna Park Stadium show, and was forced to sell a significant portion of his estate.^[2]

Ortega relocated with his wife and six children to Miami in 1985, which by then was becoming a mecca for Latino entertainers. Ortega joined the likes of Iris Chacón, Charytín, Celia Cruz, Gloria Estefan, Julio Iglesias and others as a resident of the south Florida city. Ortega sang the United States national anthem before the 1986 world middleweight championship boxing fight between Marvin Hagler and John Mugabi.

Politics and retirement[link]

Ortega retired from show business for a while after that, focusing on his career as a businessman and eyeing a career as a politician instead. Two of his children (son Emanuel and daughter Julieta) followed in their father's footsteps as entertainers, and, with Emanuel moving to Mexico, Ortega decided to return to Argentina. He was elected Governor of Tucumán Province in 1991, narrowly defeating former military Governor Antonio Domingo Bussi. One of his brothers, Juan, supported Bussi, though another brother, Luis, was elected Mayor of General Sarmiento (a suburb of Buenos Aires).^[2]

Ortega governed as a close ally of President Carlos Menem. Aligned with Menem's free market policies, he privatized the Bank of Tucumán and the Provincial Water Authority, moves which cost him approval. The Vice-Governor, Julio Díaz, broke with Ortega, and in 1993 accused the governor of ordering politically motivated investigations of students and labor union officials;^[3] Ortega declined to run for re-election in 1995, and was instead elected to the Argentine Senate. The Justicialist Party nominated him for the Vice-Presidency in 1999, but his party lost the general elections that year.

Ortega left politics, and in 2002, began to tour as a singer again.

References[link]

External links[link]

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