Gao Shun (died 198) was a military general serving the warlord Lü Bu during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Although he only had 700 men under his command, his unit was nicknamed as the "camp crusher (or formation breaker)" for its destructive charges, and Gao came to be known as Lü's most able commander. His noted accomplishments included conquest of Xiaopei and the subsequent victory over a relief force led by Xiahou Dun, a prominent general under the "imperial warlord" Cao Cao. In the same year, however, Cao personally laid a siege on Lü Bu's base in Xiapi, and defeated and captured Lü. Gao Shun was then executed along with his lord.

Biography[link]

According to Pei Songzhi's annotation in Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms, Gao Shun, from Shang Dang, was a stern and incorrupt man, with an air of authority and few words. As an unblemished and pure person, Gao Shun refused alcohol and undue gifts. It is also stated in Records of Heroes (英雄記) by Wang Can that Gao only commanded 700 men, but his men were considered equivalent to a thousand, and they were a well-equipped, well-trained, and disciplined elite force. Whenever his battalion fought, they were always successful of breaking into enemy formation, and could perform well, even if surrounded by enemies, so they were collectively called the "camp crusher".

Zang Ba, the head of the bandit leaders around Mount Tai, attacked and defeated the Chancellor of Langye, Xiao Jian, at Ju. He then seized Xiao's treasure and provisions, and promised to present them to Lü Bu. When he reneged on his words, however, Lü Bu went to ask for the goods himself. Gao Shun objected: "Your authority and reputation are known and respected everywhere. How can you ask for something and fail to obtain it? Yet you are going in person to beg for a present. If for some reason you are not successful, you will surely lose face." The rapacious Lü Bu could not follow Gao's words. Indeed, Zang turned Lü down, and the Bandits of Mount Tai no longer listened to Lü's orders.

One night in 196, a subject of Lü Bu named Hao Meng rebelled. Hao ordered his troops to surround the government house of Xiapi, where Lü Bu resided. The startled Lü Bu had to climb over the wall of the toilet and escape to the camp of Gao Shun. Lü Bu told Gao Shun that the leader of the rebels has a Henei accent, and Gao Shun says that it must be Hao Meng. Gao Shun then led a force to quell the rebellion. By the next morning Hao and his troops had all been forced to retreat back to their own camp. Cao Xing, a subordinate of Hao, turned on Hao Meng and the two dueled. Cao was injured in the fight but cleaved an arm off of Hao Meng. Gao had also identified the rebels, and arrived at the scene to finish off Hao Meng (who was a man from Henei or captain of the Henei soldiers).

Although Lü Bu knew Gao Shun was very loyal, his advice was not always welcome. Furthermore, Lü trusted Gao even less after the incident of Hao Meng, and stripped Gao of his commission and reassigned his troops to Wei Xu, who was Lü's relative. Whenever there was a battle, however, Gao Shun would be reinstated. Despite this treatment, he remained eternally loyal and never bore a grudge against his lord.

Lü Bu, whose actions were seldom consistent, made decisions hastily. For that, Gao often remonstrated him by saying, "When you start something, you never think of the details. Whenever there is a choice between the way to success or the possibility of failure, you always make the wrong decisions!" Gao Shun went on and said, "Those who lost their homes and states did not do so because they lacked loyal ministers and wise advisers. They did so because they wouldn't listen to those men. General, you are reluctant to think things through carefully before you act, and thus you commit mistakes, which are too many to count." Lü appreciated his loyalty, yet could not follow his advice.

In the same year, Lü Bu was threatened by his vassal Liu Bei, who was forced to surrender earlier and was now constantly builting up forces, so he sent Gao to attack Xiaopei, fortress city of Liu and Gao Shun succeeded his mission. Liu's new ally, Cao Cao, then sent his trusted general Xiahou Dun to rescue Xiaopei, but the allied forces were again defeated by Gao. In the end, Liu had to desert the city to take shelter under Cao Cao. In the winter of 198, Cao and Liu came back with a sizable army and attacked Lü's homebase, when the city finally fell, Gao Shun was captured along with Lü Bu. Showing no fear nor resistance, Gao then saw Cao shifting his attention to him, and guards surrounding Gao hustled him in front of Cao. "Anything to say?" Cao Cao asked him. Not wishing to join Cao, Gao remained silent and accepted his fate. Cao then had him executed along with Chen Gong.

The heads of Lü Bu, Chen Gong, Gao Shun, and some of the other generals were sent to Xuchang where they were buried.

In fiction[link]

In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Gao Shun was said to have dueled Xiahou Dun during an encounter outside Xiaopei.

After forty to fifty bouts, Gao Shun was outmatched and had to retreat. Xiahou Dun urged his mount forward and chased Gao Shun deep into the enemy ranks. Then Cao Xing, a subject of Gao Shun, secretly took aim and fired an arrow at Xiahou Dun. The arrow hit the target right in the left eye. With a cry, Xiahou Dun pulled out the arrow along with his eyeball, which he swallowed.

His spear firmly held up, Xiahou Dun then came straight for Cao Xing. With no time to react, Cao Xing was impaled through the face and died beneath his nemesis' horse. Gao Shun then turned and rallied his troops forward to defeat Xiahou Dun.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

References[link]

• Wang Can (?). Records of Heroes. ?. ISBN ?. 
• Chen Shou (2002). San Guo Zhi. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80665-198-5. 
• Luo Guanzhong (1986). San Guo Yan Yi. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80520-013-0. 
• Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3467-9. 

Gao
—  Urban commune and town  —
La Dune Rose and Gao city as seen from the top of the Tomb of Askia.
Gao Location within Mali
Coordinates: 16°16′N 0°03′W / 16.267°N 0.05°W / 16.267; -0.05
Country	Mali (de jure)  Azawad (de facto)
Region	Gao
Cercle	Gao Cercle
Elevation	226 m (744 ft)
Population (2009)[1]
• Total	86,633
Time zone	GMT (UTC+0)

Gao (pronounced /goʊ/) is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, lying 320 km (200 mi) east-southeast of Timbuktu. Situated on the left bank of the river at the junction with the Tilemsi valley, it had a population of 86,633 in 2009.

For much of its history Gao was an important commercial centre involved in the trans-Saharan trade. External Arabic sources state that by the 9th century Gao was already an important regional power, and by the end of the 10th century, the local ruler was a Muslim. Towards the end of the 13th century, Gao lost its independence and became part of the Mali Empire, but in first half of the 15th century, the town regained its independence and with the conquests of Sonni Ali (ruled 1464–1492) Gao became the capital of the Songhai Empire. The Empire collapsed after the Moroccan invasion in 1591 and the invaders chose to make Timbuktu their stronghold. By the time of Heinrich Barth's visit in 1854, Gao had declined to become a impoverished village with 300 huts constructed from matting. By 2009, it had a population of 86633.

On 31 March 2012, Gao was captured from Malian government forces by National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and Ancar Dine rebels. After the additional captures of Kidal and Timbuktu, on 6 April, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad^[2] and named Gao its capital.^[3]

Geography[link]

Location[link]

Gao is located on the eastern bank of the Niger River at the junction with the Tilemsi Valley. The sprawling town is the largest in eastern Mali. It is connected to the capital, Bamako at the western end of Mali, by 1200 km of good paved road. In 2006 the Wabaria bridge was inaugurated to replace the ferry service across the Niger.^[4] The bridge was constructed by the China State Construction Engineering Corporation and financed by the Islamic Development Bank and the Malian government.

The town is strategically placed with road links (unpaved) to the desert Kidal Region to the north and to Niamey, the capital of Niger, to the south. The road to the south runs along the left bank of the river. The town of Ansongo is 103 km from Gao. The border with Niger is just south of the village of Labbezanga, a distance of 204 km.

There are also seasonal ferry services on the Niger River. A service between Gao and Koulikoro, a distance of 1380 km, is managed by the Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV). It usually operates from the end of July, after the annual rains when there is sufficient water in the river, until mid November.^[5] Smaller boats are able to operate for a longer season between Bourem and Ansongo.

The town is expanding rapidly. In the 1998 census the population of the urban commune was 52,201. By the census in 2009 this had increased to 86,633, a 4.7% annual growth rate.^[1] For administrative purposes, the commune is divided into nine quartiers: Gadeye, Farandjiré, Aljanabanbia, Djoulabougou, Saneye, Sosso Koïra, Boulgoundjé, Château and Djidara.^[6] The urban commune is bounded to the north by the commune of Soni Ali Ber, to the east by the commune of Anchawadi and to the south and west by the commune of Gounzoureye.

Climate[link]

The climate is hot and dry with the only rainfall occurring between June and September. August is normally the wettest month. The average annual rainfall is only 220 mm but there are large year to year variations. May is the hottest month with an average maximum temperature of 43 °C. December and January are the coolest months with minimum temperatures of 15 °C. From October to March during the dry period the north-easterly Harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. When it blows strongly the dust-laden wind reduces visibility and creates a persistent haze.

With the low rainfall the vegetation away from the river is sparse and consists mainly of various species of Acacia (Acacia raddiana, Acacia nilotica, Acacia ehrenbergiana) and Balanites aegyptiaca. The herbaceous plants are dominated by Cenchrus biflorus and Panicum laetum.^[8]

Annual flood of the Niger River[link]

Almost all the local agriculture depends on river water for irrigation. The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and the northern Ivory Coast. The rainfall in the headwater areas peaks in August but the flood water takes time to pass down the river system, through the Inner Niger Delta region and arrive at Gao. At Koulikoro the flood peaks in September,^[9] while in Gao the flood lasts longer and reaches a maximum in December.^[10] There is a large year to year variation in the extent of the flooding. The existing and proposed dams upstream of Gao reduce the overall flow of the river and could potentially have a large effect on the local agriculture.^[11] When in flood the river is 4 km wide at Gao but during the dry season a number of islands appear in the river. There is very little flow, only 5% of the maximum, in June and July.

History[link]

The history of the Gao Empire precedes that of the Songhay Empire in the region of the Middle Niger. Both empires had the town of Gao as their capital. Apart from some Arabic epitaphs on tombstones discovered in 1939 at the cemetery of Gao-Saney (6 km to the east of the city)^[12] there are no surviving indigenous written records that date from before the middle of the 17th century.^[13] Our knowledge of the early history of the town relies on the writings of external Arabic geographers living in Morocco, Egypt and Andalusia, most of whom never visited the region. These authors referred to the town as Kawkaw or Kuku. The two key 17th century chronicles, the Tarikh al-Sudan and the Tarikh al-fattash, provide information on the town at the time of the Songhay Empire but they contain relatively little on the social and economic history.^[14] The chronicles do not, in general, acknowledge their sources.^[15] Their accounts for the earlier periods are almost certainly based on oral tradition and for events before the second half of the 15th century they are likely to be less reliable. For these earlier periods the two chronicles sometimes provide conflicting information.

The earliest mention of Gao is by al-Khwārizmī who wrote in the first half of the 9th century.^[16] In the 9th century Gao was already an important regional power. Al-Yaqubi wrote in his Tarikh in around 872:

There is the kingdom of the Kawkaw, which is the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and most powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town. Besides this there are a number of kingdoms of which the rulers pay allegiance to him and acknowledge his sovereignty, although they are kings in their own lands.^[17]

Ibn al-Faqih (writing c. 903) mentions a caravan route from Egypt to ancient Ghana via Kawkaw,^[18] but Ibn Hawqal (writing c. 988) states that the old route from Egypt to the Sudan was abandoned in the reign of the Egyptian ruler Ibn Tulun (ruled 868–884) as some of the caravans were attacked by bandits while others were overwhelmed by the wind-blown sand.^[19] The more direct route was replaced by one that went to Sijilmasa before heading south across the Sahara.

In the 10th century Gao is already Muslim and is described as consisting of two separate towns. Al-Muhallabi, who died in 990, wrote in a lost work quoted in the biographical dictionary compiled by Yaqut:

Their king pretends before his subject to be a Muslim and most of them pretend to be Muslims too. He has a town on the Nile [Niger], on the eastern bank, which is called Sarnāh, where there are markets and trading houses and to which there is continuous traffic from all parts. He has another town to the west of the Nile [Niger] where he and his men and those who have his confidence live. There is a mosque there where he prays but the communal prayer ground is between the two towns.^[20]

Tomb of Askia *
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Country	Mali
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii, iv
Reference	1139
Region **	Africa
Inscription history
Inscription	2004 (28th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO

The archaeological evidence suggests that there were two settlements on the eastern bank of the Niger:^[21] Gao Ancien situated within the modern town, to the east of the Tomb of Askia, and the archaeological site of Gao-Saney (Sané in French) situated around 4 km to the east. The bed of the Wadi Gangaber passes to the south of the Gao-Saney occupation mound (tell) but to the north of Gao Ancien. The imported pottery and glass recovered from Gao-Saney suggest that the site was occupied between the 10th and 13th centuries. It is possible that Gao-Saney corresponds to Sarnāh of al-Muhallabi.^[22] Al-Bakri writing in 1068 also records the existence of two towns,^[23] but al-Idrisi writing in around 1154 does not.^[24] Both al-Muhallabi (see quote above) and al-Bakri^[25] situate Gao on the west (or right bank) of the Niger. The 17th century Tarikh al-fattash also states that in the 10th century Gao was situated on the Gourma side (i.e. the west bank) of the river.^[26] A large sand dune, La Dune Rose, lies on the west bank opposite Gao, but at Koima, on the edge of the dune at a site 4 km north of Gao, surface deposits indicate a pre 9th century settlement. This could be the west bank Gao mentioned by 10th and 11th century authors. The site has not been excavated.^[27]

Al-Sadi in his Tarikh al-Sudan gives a slightly later date for the introduction of Islam. He lists 32 rulers of the Zuwa dynasty and states that in 1009–1010 A.D. the 15th ruler, Zuwa Kusoy, was the first to convert to Islam.^[28] He does not actually specify where they lived except for the legendary founder of the dynasty, Zuwa Alayman who he claims came from the Yemen to Kukiya.^[29][30]

Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of the expanding Mali Empire.^[31] What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded.^[32] Ibn Battuta visited Gao in 1353 when the town formed part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the Empire:

Then I travelled to the town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl [Niger], one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, and milk, and chickens, and fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like the people of Mālī.^[33]

After staying a month in the town, Ibn Battuta left with a caravan for Takedda and from there headed north back across the Sahara to an oasis in Tuat with a large caravan that included 600 slave girls.

Sometime in the 14th century, Ali Kulun, the first ruler of the Sunni dynasty, rebelled against the Malian hegemony but the Malians were able to regain control.^[34][35] It was not until the first half of the 15th century that Sunni Sulayman Dama was able to throw off the Malian yoke. His successor, Sunni Ali Ber (1464–1492), greatly expanded the territory under Songhay control and established the Songhay Empire. He made Gao his capital.

Leo Africanus visited Gao sometime between 1506 and 1510 when the town was ruled by Askiya Muhammad I, the first ruler of the Askiya dynasty. He observed that the large town lacked a surrounding wall and was full of rich merchants.

The town is very civilized compared to Timbuktu. Bread and meat are abundant, though you cannot find wine or fruits. Actually, melons, cucumbers, and excellent squash are plentiful, and there are enormous quantities of rice. There are many sweet water wells. There is a square where on market days huge numbers of slaves are sold, both male and female. A young girl of fifteen is worth about six ducats, and a young man almost as much; small children are worth about half as much as grown slaves.^[36]

Towards the end of the 16th century, Gao controlled an empire that extended for over 1,4000 km².^[37] The Tarikh al-fattash reports that a survey conducted during the reign of Askiya Al-Hajj (1582–1586) found that there were 7,626 houses without counting the huts made of straw.^[38] Assuming each house was occupied by an average of 6 people, this would imply a population of around 45,000.

The Moroccan invasion of 1591 led to the collapse of the Songhay Empire. The invaders chose to make Timbuktu their stronghold.

The German explorer Heinrich Barth visited Gao in 1854 on his return journey from Timbuktu. He found a village of about 300 huts constructed of matting and grouped in clusters.^[39] The inhabitants were very poor and had few boats as they lacked wood for their construction. The site of the ancient town was overgrown with Capparis decidua bushes.^[40]

The town remained small until French rule was imposed in the early twentieth century, expanding the port and establishing a colonial base.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 March 2012, one day after the capture of Kidal, Malian military forces retreated from Gao's military bases, allowing it to be occupied by Tuareg rebellion member groups MNLA and Ancar Dine.^[41] Timbuktu was captured the following day.^[42] On 6 April, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad.^[43]

Culture[link]

The population of Gao mostly speak Songhay but includes many ethnicities, including the Bozo (traditionally nomadic river dwellers), Fulfulde/Fulani cattle keepers, and Tuareg nomads, as well as Bambara peoples from western Mali.

The seventh Festival des arts et cultures songhay was celebrated in February 2007 at Gao, reflecting the city's importance as a Songhay cultural capital.^[44]

Sites[link]

Attractions in Gao include the original fourteenth century Gao Mosque, the Askia Tomb (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) built in 1495 and incorporating another mosque, a museum devoted to the Sahel, markets including a night market, and La Dune Rose, a sand dune named for its appearance at dawn and nightfall.

After the 2012 rebellion forced the Malian Army out of Gao and the state of Azawad was proclaimed, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad took control of the governor's building, flying the flag of Azawad over it and rechristening it the Palace of Azawad.^[45]

Twin Cities[link]

Gao is twinned with Thionville, France and Berkeley, California, USA.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Barth, Heinrich (1859), Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa: Being a journal of an expedition undertaken under the auspices of H.B.M.'s government, in the years 1849–1855 (Volume 3), New York: Harper & Brothers, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l74ZAAAAYAAJ .
• Hunwick, John (1994), "Gao and the Almoravids revisited: ethnicity, political change and the limits of interpretation", Journal of African History 35: 251–273, JSTOR 183219 .
• Hunwick, John O. (2003), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 0585-6914 . First published in 1999 as ISBN 90-04-11207-3.
• Insoll, Timothy (1997), "Iron age Gao: an archaeological contribution", Journal of African History 38: 1–30, JSTOR 182944, http://www.insoll.org/Iron%20Age%20Gao.pdf .
• Kâti, Mahmoûd Kâti ben el-Hâdj el-Motaouakkel (1913) (in French), Tarikh el-fettach ou Chronique du chercheur, pour servir à l'histoire des villes, des armées et des principaux personnages du Tekrour, Houdas, O., Delafosse, M. ed. and trans., Paris: Ernest Leroux, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5439466q . Also available from Aluka but requires subscription.
• Lange, Dierk (1991), "Les rois de Gao-Sané et les Almoravides" (in French), Journal of African History 32: 251–275, JSTOR 182617 .
• Lange, Dierk (1994), "From Mande to Songhay: Towards a political and ethnic history of medieval Gao", Journal of African History 35: 275–301, JSTOR 183220 .
• Levtzion, Nehemia (1973), Ancient Ghana and Mali, London: Methuen, ISBN 0-8419-0431-6 .
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000), Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner Press, ISBN 1-55876-241-8 . First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22422-5.
• Moraes Farias, Paulo F. de (1990), "The oldest extant writing of West Africa: medieval epigraphs from Essuk, Saney, and Egef-n-Tawaqqast (Mali)", Journal des Africanistes 60: 65–113, http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jafr_0399-0346_1990_num_60_2_2452 . Link is to a scan on the Persée database that omits some photographs of the epigraphs.
• Sauvaget, J. (1950), "Les épitaphes royales de Gao", Bulletin de l'Ifan XII (2): 418–440 . A reprint of (1949), Al-Andalus XIV: I, 123–141.

See also[link]

• List of cities in Mali

Further reading[link]

• Cornevin, R. (1991), "Gao", Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2 (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 976–978, ISBN 90-04-07026-5, http://www.archive.org/stream/EncyclopediaofIslam2/Vol.2c-g#page/n1017/mode/1up . First published in 1965.
• Mauny, Raymond (1951), "Notes d'archéologie au sujet de Gao" (in French), Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (B) 13: 837–852 .
• Moraes Farias, P.F. de (2003), Arabic medieval inscriptions from the Republic of Mali : Epigraphy, chronicles and Songhay-Tuareg history, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-726222-8 .

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gao

• Tomb of Askia, UNESCO World Heritage, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1139 .

Coordinates: 16°16′N 0°03′W / 16.267°N 0.05°W / 16.267; -0.05

v t e Niger River Countries Guinea Mali Niger Benin Nigeria Sections Source of the Niger Middle Niger Inner Niger Delta Lower Niger Niger Delta Tributaries (list) and distributaries Tinkisso River Sankarani River Milo River Bani River Mekrou River Alibori River Sola River Sokoto River Sota River Kaduna River Benue River Anambra River Forcados River Nun River Cities Siguiri Bamako Segou Mopti Timbuktu Gao Niamey Lokoja Onitsha Lakes Kainji Lake Lac Debo Dams and bridges King Fahd Bridge Martyrs Bridge Markala Dam Gao Bridge Kennedy Bridge Kainji Dam River Niger Bridge (Onitsha) Protected Areas Niger Basin Authority National Park of Upper Niger W National Park Kainji National Park

v t e Communes and towns of the Gao Region Capital:Gao Ansongo Cercle Ansongo (Ansongo) Bara (Bara) Bourra (Tassiga) Ouattagouna (Ouattagouna) Talataye (Talataye) Tessit (Tessit) Tin-Hama (Tin-Hama) 180px Bourem Cercle Bourem (Bourem Foghas) Bamba (Bamba) Taboye (Taboye) Tarkint (Tarkint) Temera (Temera) Gao Cercle Gao (Gao) Anchawadi (Djebock) Gabero (Haoussa Foulane) Gounzoureye (Wabaria) N'Tillit (N'Tillit) Sony Aliber (Forgo Sourhai) Tilemsi (Tine Aouker) Ménaka Cercle Ménaka (Ménaka) Alata (Alata) Andéramboukane (Andéramboukane) Inekar (Inekar) Tidermene (Tidermene)