Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1875 |
| Born |
(1844-10-15)15 October 1844
Röcken bei Lützen, Prussia |
| Died |
25 August 1900(1900-08-25) (aged 55)
Weimar, Saxony, German Empire |
| Era |
19th century philosophy |
| Region |
Western philosophy |
| School |
Weimar classicism; precursor to continental philosophy, existentialism, postmodernism, post-structuralism |
| Notable ideas |
Apollonian and Dionysian, God is dead, eternal recurrence, Übermensch, master-slave morality, herd instinct, will to power, ressentiment, world riddle, transvaluation of values, perspectivism, Last Man, amor fati, Nietzschean affirmation, tschandala |
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| Signature |
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Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (
/ˈniːtʃə/;[34]German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtsʃə]; October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a German philosopher, poet, cultural critic and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and beyond philosophy, notably in existentialism, nihilism and postmodernism. His style and radical questioning of the value and objectivity of truth have resulted in much commentary and interpretation, mostly in the continental tradition. His key ideas include the death of God, the Übermensch, the eternal recurrence, the Apollonian and Dionysian dichotomy, perspectivism and the will to power. Central to his philosophy is the idea of "life-affirmation", which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life's expansive energies, however socially prevalent and radical those views might be.[35]
Nietzsche began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. In 1869, at the age of 24 he was appointed to the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel (the youngest individual to have held this position), but resigned in the summer of 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life.[36] In 1889 he suffered a collapse and a complete loss of his mental faculties, the breakdown has been ascribed to atypical general paralysis attributed to tertiary syphilis, but this diagnosis has since come into question.[37] He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897, then under the care of his sister until his death in 1900.
His sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, acted as curator and editor of Nietzsche's manuscripts during his illness. She was married to a prominent German nationalist and antisemite, Bernhard Förster and she reworked many of Nietzsche's works to fit her husband's ideology, often in ways completely contrary to Nietzsche's actual opinions which were opposed to antisemitism and nationalism (see Nietzsche's criticism of anti-Semitism and nationalism). Through Förster-Nietzsche's editions, Nietzsche's name became associated with German militarism and with the ideology of Adolf Hitler, but twentieth century scholars have worked hard to counteract the abuse of Nietzsche's philosophy by this ideology and rediscover the actual writings of Nietzsche unedited by his sister.
Born on October 15, 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth. (Nietzsche later dropped his given middle name, "Wilhelm".) Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–49), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler (1826–97), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth, and had two other children: a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848. Nietzsche's father died from a brain ailment in 1849; Ludwig Joseph died the next year, at age 2. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsche's paternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house.
Nietzsche attended a boys' school and then later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner and Wilhelm Pinder, all of whom came from very respected families.
In 1854, he began to attend Pforta in Naumburg, but after he showed particular talents in music and language, the internationally recognised Schulpforta admitted him as a pupil, and there he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff. He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and for the first time experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town Christian environment. His end of semester exams in March 1864 showed a "straight I" in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, 2b in French, History and Physics, and a "lackluster" 3 in Hebrew and Mathematics.[clarification needed]
After graduation in 1864 Nietzsche commenced studies in theology and classical philology at the University of Bonn. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester (and to the anger of his mother) he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith.[40] This may have happened in part because of his reading around this time of David Strauss's Life of Jesus, which had a profound effect on the young Nietzsche,[40] though in an essay entitled Fate and History written in 1862, Nietzsche had already argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity.[41] Nietzsche then concentrated on studying philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to the University of Leipzig the next year. There he became close friends with fellow-student Erwin Rohde. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.
In 1865 Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of Arthur Schopenhauer. He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and Representation) and later admitted that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay Schopenhauer als Erzieher (Schopenhauer as Educator), one of his Untimely Meditations.
In 1866 he read Friedrich Albert Lange's History of Materialism. Lange's descriptions of Kant's anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European Materialism, Europe's increased concern with science, Darwin's theory, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority greatly intrigued Nietzsche. The cultural environment encouraged him to expand his horizons beyond philology and to continue his study of philosophy.
In 1867 Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg. However, a riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service.[42] Consequently Nietzsche turned his attention to his studies again, completing them and first meeting with Richard Wagner later that year.[43]
In part because of Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received a remarkable offer to become professor of classical philology at the University of Basel. He was only 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor received his teaching certificate. Despite the fact that the offer came at a time when he was considering giving up philology for science, he accepted. To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics professors on record.[45] Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless.[46][47]
Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871 as a medical orderly. In his short time in the military he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery. Walter Kaufmann speculates that he might also have contracted syphilis along with his other infections at this time, and some biographers speculate that syphilis caused his eventual dementia, though there is some disagreement on this matter.[48][49] On returning to Basel in 1870 Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and the following era of Otto von Bismarck as an outsider and with a degree of skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered his inaugural lecture, "Homer and Classical Philology". Nietzsche also met Franz Overbeck, a professor of theology, who remained his friend throughout his life. Afrikan Spir, a little-known Russian philosopher and author of Denken und Wirklichkeit (1873), and Nietzsche's colleague the historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to exercise significant influence on him during this time.
Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868, and (some time later) Wagner's wife Cosima. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner's house in Tribschen in the Canton of Lucerne. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Bayreuth Festival Theatre. In 1870 he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of 'The Genesis of the Tragic Idea' as a birthday gift. In 1872 Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy. However, his colleagues in the field of classical philology, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work, in which Nietzsche eschewed the classical philologic method in favor of a more speculative approach. In a polemic, Philology of the Future, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff dampened the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde (by now a professor in Kiel) and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted to attain a position in philosophy at Basel, though unsuccessfully.
Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer, On the Use and Abuse of History for Life, Schopenhauer as Educator, and Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. These four later appeared in a collected edition under the title Untimely Meditations. The four essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. In 1873, Nietzsche also began to accumulate notes that would be posthumously published as Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Bülow, and also began a friendship with Paul Rée, who in 1876 influenced him in dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, he was deeply disappointed by the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public repelled him. He was also alienated by Wagner's championing of 'German culture', which Nietzsche thought a contradiction in terms, as well as by Wagner's celebration of his fame among the German public. All this contributed to Nietzsche's subsequent decision to distance himself from Wagner.
With the publication in 1878 of Human, All Too Human (a book of aphorisms on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes) Nietzsche's reaction against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident, as well as the influence of Afrikan Spir's Denken und Wirklichkeit.[50] Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel. (Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, including moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical.)
Because his illness drove him to find climates more conducive to his health, Nietzsche traveled frequently, and lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities. He spent many summers in Sils Maria, near St. Moritz in Switzerland, and many winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo and Turin and in the French city of Nice. In 1881, when France occupied Tunisia, he planned to travel to Tunis to view Europe from the outside, but later abandoned that idea (probably for health reasons).[51] While in Genoa, Nietzsche's failing eyesight prompted him to explore the use of typewriters as a means of continuing to write. He is known to have tried using the Hansen Writing Ball, a contemporary typewriter device.
Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends.
A past student of his, Peter Gast (born Heinrich Köselitz), became a sort of private secretary to Nietzsche. In 1876, Koselitz transcribed the crabbed, nearly illegible handwriting of Nietzsche for the first time with Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. He would go on to both transcribe and proofread the galleys for almost all of Nietzsche's work from there on. On at least one occasion, February 23, 1880, the usually broke Koselitz received 200 marks from their mutual friend, Paul Ree. Koselitz was one of the very few friends Nietzsche allowed to criticize him. In responding most enthusiastically to "Zarathustra," Koselitz did feel it necessary to point out that what were described as "superfluous" people were in fact quite necessary. He went on to list the number of people Epicurus, for example, had to rely on—even with his simple diet of goat cheese.
To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic Carl Fuchs. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with Human, All Too Human in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five.
In 1882 Nietzsche published the first part of The Gay Science. That year he also met Lou Andreas Salomé,[55] through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in Tautenburg in Thuringia, often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as a chaperone. Nietzsche, however, regarded Salomé less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. Salomé reports that he asked her to marry him and that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of events has come into question. Nietzsche's relationship with Rée and Salomé broke up in the winter of 1882/1883, partially because of intrigues conducted by Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth. Amidst renewed bouts of illness, living in near isolation after a falling-out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo. Here he wrote the first part of Thus Spoke Zarathustra in only ten days.
By 1882, Nietzsche was taking huge doses of opium, but was still having trouble sleeping. In 1883, while staying in Nice, he was writing out his own prescriptions for the sedative chloral hydrate, signing them 'Dr Nietzsche'.
After severing his philosophical ties with Schopenhauer and his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with the new style of Zarathustra, his work became even more alienating and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained about it. His books remained largely unsold. In 1885 he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra, and distributed only a fraction of these among close friends, including Helene von Druskowitz.
In 1883 he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the University of Leipzig. It was made clear to him that, in view of the attitude towards Christianity and the concept of God expressed in Zarathustra, he had become in effect unemployable at any German University. The subsequent "feelings of revenge and resentment" embittered him. "And hence my rage since I have grasped in the broadest possible sense what wretched means (the depreciation of my good name, my character and my aims) suffice to take from me the trust of, and therewith the possibility of obtaining, pupils."[59]
In 1886 Nietzsche broke with his editor, Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his anti-Semitic opinions. Nietzsche saw his own writings as "completely buried and unexhumeable in this anti-Semitic dump" of Schmeitzner—associating the editor with a movement that should be "utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind".[60] He then printed Beyond Good and Evil at his own expense, and issued in 1886–1887 second editions of his earlier works (The Birth of Tragedy, Human, All Too Human, Dawn, and The Gay Science), accompanied by new prefaces in which he reconsidered his earlier works. Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, if rather slowly and in a way hardly perceived by him. During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and also Gottfried Keller. Nietzsche had acquired the publication-rights for his earlier works in 1886 and began a process of editing and re-formulation that placed the body of his work in a more coherent perspective. Same year, his sister Elisabeth married the anti-Semite Bernhard Förster and traveled to Paraguay to found Nueva Germania, a "Germanic" colony—a plan to which Nietzsche responded with mocking laughter.[61] Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but they would meet again only after his collapse. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887 Nietzsche wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morals.
During the same year Nietzsche encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky, with whom he felt an immediate kinship.[62] He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine, and then also with Georg Brandes. Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to read Kierkegaard, to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copenhagen and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this undertaking, he slipped too far into sickness. In the beginning of 1888, in Copenhagen, Brandes delivered one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy.
Although Nietzsche had in 1886 announced (at the end of On The Genealogy of Morality) a new work with the title The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values, he eventually seems to have abandoned this particular approach and instead used some of the draft passages to compose Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist (both written in 1888).[63]
His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the fall of 1888 his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and "fate." He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, especially to the recent polemic, The Case of Wagner. On his 44th birthday, after completing Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, he decided to write the autobiography Ecce Homo. In the preface to this work—which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, "Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else." In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with August Strindberg, and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation Nietzsche Contra Wagner and of the poems that composed his collection Dionysian-Dithyrambs.
Photo by Hans Olde from the photographic series,
The Ill Nietzsche, mid-1899
The house Nietzsche stayed in while in
Turin (background, right), as seen from across Piazza Carlo Alberto, where he is said to have had his breakdown. To the left is the rear façade of the
Palazzo Carignano
On January 3, 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental collapse. Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin. What happened remains unknown, but an often-repeated tale states that Nietzsche witnessed the flogging of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around its neck to protect it, and then collapsed to the ground.
In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings—known as the Wahnbriefe ("Madness Letters")—to a number of friends (including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt). To his former colleague Burckhardt, Nietzsche wrote: "I have had Caiaphas put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished."[page needed] Additionally, he commanded the German emperor to go to Rome to be shot, and summoned the European powers to take military action against Germany.[67]
On January 6, 1889, Burckhardt showed the letter he had received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided that Nietzsche's friends had to bring him back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of a serious mental illness, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in Jena under the direction of Otto Binswanger. From November 1889 to February 1890 the art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness discredited him. In March 1890 Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 brought him to her home in Naumburg. During this process Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of Twilight of the Idols, by that time already printed and bound. In February they ordered a fifty copy private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner, but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing The Antichrist and Ecce Homo because of their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge.
In 1893 Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Nueva Germania (in Paraguay) following the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche's works, and piece by piece took control of them and of their publication. Overbeck eventually suffered dismissal, and Gast finally co-operated. After the death of Franziska in 1897, Nietzsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed people, including Rudolf Steiner (who in 1895 had written one of the first books praising Nietzsche)[68][page needed] to visit her uncommunicative brother. Elisabeth at one point went so far as to employ Steiner – at a time when he was still an ardent fighter against any mysticism – as a tutor to help her to understand her brother's philosophy. Steiner abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declaring that it was impossible to teach her anything about philosophy.[69]
Peter Gast would "correct" Nietzsche's writings even after the philosopher's breakdown and did so without his approval—an action severely criticized by contemporary
[update] Nietzsche scholars.
Nietzsche's mental illness was originally diagnosed as tertiary syphilis, in accordance with a prevailing medical paradigm of the time. Although most commentators regard his breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, Georges Bataille drops dark hints ("'man incarnate' must also go mad")[70] and René Girard's postmortem psychoanalysis posits a worshipful rivalry with Richard Wagner.[71] The diagnosis of syphilis was challenged, and manic-depressive illness with periodic psychosis, followed by vascular dementia was put forward by Cybulska[72] prior Schain's;[73] and Sax's studies;[74] Orth and Trimble postulate frontotemporal dementia,[75] while other researchers[76] propose a syndrome called CADASIL.
In 1898 and 1899 Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes, which partially paralysed him and left him unable to speak or walk. After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900 he had another stroke during the night of August 24–25, and died about noon on August 25.[77] Elisabeth had him buried beside his father at the church in Röcken bei Lützen. His friend, Gast, gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: "Holy be your name to all future generations!"[78] Nietzsche had written in Ecce Homo (at the time of the funeral still unpublished) of his fear that one day his name would be regarded as "holy".
Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled The Will to Power from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks, and published it posthumously. Because his sister arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines, and took great liberties with the material, the consensus holds that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent. Indeed, Mazzino Montinari, the editor of Nietzsche's Nachlass, called it a forgery in The 'Will to Power' Does Not Exist. For example, Elisabeth removed aphorism 35 of The Antichrist, where Nietzsche rewrote a passage of the Bible.
General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether emphasizing his cultural background or his language, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a "German philosopher".[79][80][81][82] Others do not assign him a national category.[83][84][85] Germany had not yet been unified into a nation-state but Nietzsche was born a citizen of Prussia, which was then part of the German Confederation.[86] His birthplace, Röcken, is in the modern German state of Saxony-Anhalt. When he accepted his post at Basel, Nietzsche applied for the annulment of his Prussian citizenship.[87] The official response confirming the revocation of his citizenship came in a document dated April 17, 1869,[88] and for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless.
A common myth is that Nietzsche's ancestors were Polish.[89] Nietzsche himself subscribed to this story toward the end of his life. He wrote in 1888, "My ancestors were Polish noblemen (Nietzky); the type seems to have been well preserved despite three generations of German mothers."[90] At one point Nietzsche becomes even more adamant about his Polish identity. "I am a pure-blooded Polish nobleman, without a single drop of bad blood, certainly not German blood." On yet another occasion Nietzsche stated "Germany is a great nation only because its people have so much Polish blood in their veins [...] I am proud of my Polish descent."[92] Nietzsche believed his name might have been Germanized, in one letter claiming, "I was taught to ascribe the origin of my blood and name to Polish noblemen who were called Niëtzky and left their home and nobleness about a hundred years ago, finally yielding to unbearable suppression: they were Protestants."[93]
Most scholars dispute Nietzsche's account of his family's origins. Hans von Müller debunked the genealogy put forward by Nietzsche's sister in favor of a Polish noble heritage.[94] Max Oehler, the curator of Nietzsche Archive at Weimar, argued that all of Nietzsche's ancestors bore German names, even the wives' families.[90] Oehler claims that Nietzsche came from a long line of German Lutheran clergymen on both sides of his family, and modern scholars regard the claim of Nietzsche's Polish ancestry as a "pure invention".[95] Colli and Montinari, the editors of Nietzsche's assembled letters, gloss Nietzsche's claims as a "mistaken belief" and "without foundation."[96][97] The name Nietzsche itself is not a Polish name, but an exceptionally common one throughout central Germany, in this and cognate forms (such as Nitsche and Nitzke). The name derives from the forename Nikolaus, abbreviated to Nick; assimilated with the Slavic Nitz, it first became Nitsche and then Nietzsche.[90]
It is not known why Nietzsche wanted to be thought of as Polish nobility. According to biographer R. J. Hollingdale, Nietzsche's propagation of the Polish ancestry myth may have been part of the latter's "campaign against Germany".[90]
Friedrich Nietzsche, 1869
Nietzsche is known for his use of poetry and prose (sometimes together in poetic prose style) in his writings.[98] This, combined with the fact that he disdained any kind of system, has made several aspects of his philosophy seemingly lacking coherent meaning or being paradoxical. Because of Nietzsche's evocative style and his often outrageous claims, his philosophy generates passionate reactions running from love to disgust, and it has drawn amateurs of all kinds to be heavily involved in the project of interpretation as well. A few of the themes in his works that have received most attention include his view of morality, his statement "God is dead", his idea of the will to power, the Übermensch, perspectivism, Apollonian and Dionysian and his interpretation of eternal return. He is also known for being very critical of the Western belief in egalitarianism and rationality. Traces of Nietzsche's attack on the fundamental belief that "man is rational being" is seen throughout his works.[99]
His works remain controversial, due to interpretations and misinterpretations of his work. Common misinterpretations of Nietzsche include the notion that he rejected religious spirituality in its entirety, that he was anti-Semitic, that he preferred master over slave morality[100] or that he was entirely opposed to Christian beliefs. In The Dawn Nietzsche begins his "Campaign against Morality". He calls himself an "immoralist" and harshly criticizes the prominent moral schemes of his day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism. Nietzsche's concept that "God is dead" applies to the doctrines of Christendom, though not to all other faiths: he claimed that Buddhism is a successful religion that he compliments for fostering critical thought. While Nietzsche attacked the principles of Judaism, Nietzsche was not anti-Semitic: in his work On the Genealogy of Morality, he explicitly condemns anti-Semitism, and pointed out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack on Jews as a people but specifically an attack upon the ancient Jewish priesthood whom he claims anti-Semitic Christians paradoxically based their views upon.
In The Antichrist Nietzsche writes that Saint Paul may have deliberately distorted the teachings of Jesus so that he could use them (within the Roman Empire) as a revenge for the destruction of Jerusalem.[105] Nietzsche claimed that the Christian faith as practiced was not a proper representation of Jesus' teachings, as it forced people merely to believe in the way of Jesus but not to act as Jesus did, in particular his example of refusing to judge people, something that Christians had constantly done the opposite of. He condemned institutionalized Christianity for emphasizing a morality of pity, which assumes an inherent illness in society:
Christianity is called the religion of pity. Pity stands opposed to the tonic emotions which heighten our vitality: it has a depressing effect. We are deprived of strength when we feel pity. That loss of strength which suffering as such inflicts on life is still further increased and multiplied by pity. Pity makes suffering contagious.[107]
In Ecce Homo Nietzsche called the establishment of moral systems based on a dichotomy of good and evil a "calamitous error", and wished to initiate a re-evaluation of the values of the Judeo-Christian world. He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself.
In Beyond Good And Evil and On the Genealogy of Morality, Nietzsche's genealogical account of the development of master-slave morality occupies a central place.[110] He begins by examining dualistic morality and belief that there are good and evil forces in constant conflict with each other. For Nietzsche, aristocrats and other ruling castes of ancient civilizations held a form of dual preference for what they considered to be "good" and "evil." These were not moral laws per se, but values that coincided with their relationship to lower castes such as slaves.[111] Nietzsche therefore presents master-morality as the original system of morality—perhaps best associated with Homeric Greece. Here, value arises as a contrast between good and bad, or between 'life-affirming' and 'life-denying': wealth, strength, health, and power while bad is associated with the poor, weak, sick, and pathetic, the sort of traits conventionally associated with slaves in ancient times.
Slave-morality, in contrast, comes about as a reaction to master-morality. Here, value emerges from the contrast between good and evil: good being associated with other-worldliness, charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and submission; evil seen as worldly, cruel, selfish, wealthy, and aggressive. Slave morality is pessimistic and fearful, values for them serve only to ease the existence for those who suffer from the very same thing. Nietzsche associates slave-morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions. Nietzsche sees slave-morality born out of the ressentiment of slaves. It works to overcome the slave's own sense of inferiority before the (better-off) masters. It does so by making out slave weakness to be a matter of choice, by, e.g., relabeling it as "meekness."
Nietzsche sees the slave-morality as a source of the nihilism that has overtaken Europe. In his eyes, modern Europe and Christianity, exists in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both values contradictorily determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans (who are motley). At the core of this problem, Nietzsche attacks egalitarianism for equaling these two values and thus endangering the best specimens of humanity.[112] Nietzsche calls for exceptional people to no longer be ashamed of their uniqueness in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which he deems to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people. However, Nietzsche cautions that morality, per se, is not bad; it is good for the masses, and should be left to them. Exceptional people, on the other hand, should follow their own "inner law." A favorite motto of Nietzsche, taken from Pindar, reads: "Become what you are."
Main articles:
God is dead and
NihilismThe statement "God is dead", occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in The Gay Science), has become one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, most commentators[113] regard Nietzsche as an atheist; others (such as Kaufmann) suggest that this statement reflects a more subtle understanding of divinity. In Nietzsche's view, recent developments in modern science and the increasing secularization of European society had effectively 'killed' the Abrahamic God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years. The death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright nihilism, the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life lacks purpose. Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge. In this sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote against a primal form of nihilism, against the despair of meaninglessness. As Heidegger put the problem, "If God as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself."
One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche calls 'passive nihilism', which he recognises in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Buddhism, advocates a separating oneself of will and desires in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterises this ascetic attitude as a "will to nothingness," whereby life turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be found in the world. This moving away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the nihilist appears to be inconsistent[115]:
A nihilist is a man who judges of the world as it is that it ought
not to be, and of the world as it ought to be that it does not exist. According to this view, our existence (action,
suffering, willing, feeling) has no meaning: the
pathos of 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos — at the same time, as pathos, an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists.
—Friedrich Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [60],
taken from The Will to Power, section 585, translated by Walter Kaufmann
Nietzsche approaches the problem of nihilism as a deeply personal one, stating that this problem of the modern world is a problem that has "become conscious" in him.[116] Furthermore, he emphasises both the danger of nihilism and the possibilities it offers, as seen in his statement that "I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism's] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength!"[117] According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is overcome that a culture can have a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure. Heidegger interprets death of God with what he explains as the death of metaphysics. He concludes that metaphysics has reached its potential and that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was proclaimed with the statement God is dead.[118]
The Apollonian and Dionysian is a philosophical concept, or dichotomy, based on certain features of ancient Greek mythology, in this case Apollo and Dionysus. Apollo represents clarity and logic whereas Dionysus represents intoxication and ecstasy. Nietzsche used these two forces because, for him, the world of mind and order on one side, and intoxication and chaos on other formed principles that were fundamental to the Greek culture.[119][120] While the concept is famously related to The Birth of Tragedy, poet Hölderlin spoke of them before, and Winckelmann talked of Bacchus. One year before the publication of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wrote a fragment titled On Music and Words.[121] In it he asserted the Schopenhauerian judgment that music is a primary expression of the essence of everything. Secondarily derivative are lyrical poetry and drama, which represent mere phenomenal appearances of objects. In this way, tragedy is born from music.
Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism and nihilism of a fundamentally meaningless world. The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering and affirming it, passionately and joyously affirmed the meaning of their own existence. His major premise in The Birth of Tragedy was that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian "Kunsttrieben" ("artistic impulses") forms dramatic arts, or tragedies. He goes on to argue that this fusion has not been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians. Nietzsche associates Apollonian as being the dreaming state, full of illusions; and Dionysian as the state of intoxication, which represents the liberations of instict. Dionysus represents the dissolution of boundaries and, in this mold, man appears as the satyr. He is the horror of the annihilation of the individuationis principium and at the same time someone who delights in its destruction.[122] The relationship between the Apollonian and Dionysian juxtapositions is apparent, in the interplay of Greek Tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make order (in the Apollonian sense) of his unjust and chaotic (Dionysian) Fate, though he dies unfulfilled in the end. For the audience of such a drama, this tragedy allows them to sense an underlying essence, what Nietzsche called the "Primordial Unity", which revives Dionysian nature. He notes that whenever Apollonian culture dominates, the Dionysian lacks the structure to make a coherent art, and when Dionysian dominates, the Apollonian lacks the necessary passion. Only the beautiful middle; the interplay of these two forces brought together as an art represented real Greek tragedy.[123]
Nietzsche is adamant that the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles represent the apex of artistic creation, the true realization of tragedy; it is with Euripides, he states, that tragedy begins its "Untergang" (literally "going under", meaning decline, deterioration, downfall, death, etc.). Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of Socratic rationalism and morality in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian. Socrates emphasized reason to such a degree that he diffused the value of myth and suffering to human knowledge. Plato continued with this path in his dialogues and modern world eventually inherited reason at the expense of artistic impulses that could be found only in the Apollonian and Dionysus dichotomy. This leads to Nietzsche's conclusion that European culture from the time of Socrates had always been only Apollonian and thus decadent and unhealty.[124]
An example of the impact of this idea can be seen in the book Patterns of Culture, where anthropologist Ruth Benedict uses Nietzschean opposites of "Apollonian" and "Dionysian" as the stimulus for her thoughts about Native American cultures.[125] Herman Hesse, in his Narcissus and Goldmund presents two main characters that can be seen in the sense of Apollonian and Dionysian as the two opposite yet intertwined spirits and Carl Jung who has written extensively on the Apollonian and the Dionysian in his Psychological Types.[126] Painter Mark Rothko was influenced by Nietzsche's view of tragedy, which were presented in the book The Birth of Tragedy.
Main article:
PerspectivismNietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things, and along with it any coherent sense of objective truth.[page needed] Nietzsche himself rejected the idea of objective reality arguing that knowledge is contingent and conditional, relative to various fluid perspectives or interests.[129] This leads to constant reassessment of rules (i.e., those of philosophy, the scientific method, etc.) according to the circumstances of individual perspectives.[130] This view has acquired the name perspectivism.
In Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche proclaims that a table of values hangs above every great people. He points out that what is common among different peoples is the act of esteeming, of creating values, even if the values are different from one people to the next. Nietzsche asserts that what made people great was not the content of their beliefs, but the act of valuing. Thus the values a community strives to articulate are not as important as the collective will to see those values come to pass. The willing is more essential than the intrinsic worth of the goal itself, according to Nietzsche. "A thousand goals have there been so far," says Zarathustra, "for there are a thousand peoples. Only the yoke for the thousand necks is still lacking: the one goal is lacking. Humanity still has no goal." Hence, the title of the aphorism, "On The Thousand And One Goals". The idea that one value-system is no more worthy than the next, although it may not be directly ascribed to Nietzsche, has become a common premise in modern social science. Max Weber and Martin Heidegger absorbed it and made it their own. It shaped their philosophical and cultural endeavor, as well as their political understanding. Weber for example, relies on Nietzsche's perspectivism by maintaining that objectivity is still possible -- but only after a particular perspective, value, or end has been established.[131][132]
Among his critique of traditional philosophy of Kant, Descartes and Plato in Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche attacked thing in itself and cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) as unfalsifiable beliefs based on naive acceptance of previous notions and fallacies.[133][134]
Main article:
Will to powerA basic element in Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the will to power (der Wille zur Macht), which provides a basis for understanding human behavior — more so than competing explanations, such as the ones based on pressure for adaptation or survival. As such, according to Nietzsche, the drive for conservation appears as the major motivator of human or animal behavior only in exceptions, as the general condition of life is not one of emergency, of 'struggle for existence'. More often than not, self-conservation is but a consequence of a creature's will to exert its strength on the outside world.
In presenting his theory of human behavior, Nietzsche also addressed, and attacked, concepts from philosophies popularly embraced in his days, such as Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will or that of utilitarianism. Utilitarianists claim that what moves people is mainly the desire to be happy, to accumulate pleasure in their lives. But such a conception of happiness Nietzsche rejected as something limited to, and characteristic of, the bourgeois lifestyle of the English society,[139] and instead put forth the idea that happiness is not an aim per se — it is instead a consequence of a successful pursuit of one's aims, of the overcoming of hurdles to one's actions — in other words, of the fulfillment of the will.
Related to his theory of the will to power, is his speculation, which he did not deem final, regarding the reality of the physical world, including inorganic matter — that what holds true for man's affections and impulses, may also apply to the external world. At the core of his theory is a rejection of atomism — the idea that matter is composed of stable, indivisible units (atoms). Instead, he seems to have accepted the conclusions of Ruđer Bošković, who explained the qualities of matter as a result of an interplay of forces.[142] One study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of the will to power as "the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation" revealing the will to power as "the principle of the synthesis of forces." Of such forces Nietzsche said they could perhaps be viewed as a primitive form of the will. Likewise he rejected as a mere interpretation the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces.
Main article:
Eternal returnEternal return (also known as "eternal recurrence") is a concept which posits that the universe has been recurring, and will continue to recur, in a self-similar form an infinite number of times across infinite time or space. It is a purely physical concept, involving no supernatural reincarnation, but the return of beings in the same bodies. The idea of eternal return occurs in a parable in Section 341 of The Gay Science, and also in the chapter "Of the Vision and the Riddle" in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, among other places. Nietzsche contemplates the idea as potentially "horrifying and paralyzing", and says that its burden is the "heaviest weight" imaginable ("das schwerste Gewicht").[147] The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life, a reaction to Schopenhauer's praise of denying the will‐to‐live. To comprehend eternal recurrence in his thought, and to not merely come to peace with it but to embrace it, requires amor fati, "love of fate".[148]
Alexander Nehamas wrote in Nietzsche: Life as Literature of three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence: "(A) My life will recur in exactly identical fashion." This expresses a totally fatalistic approach to the idea. "(B) My life may recur in exactly identical fashion." This second view conditionally asserts cosmology, but fails to capture what Nietzsche refers to in The Gay Science, 341. Finally, "(C) If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion." Nehamas shows that this interpretation exists totally independently of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology. Nehamas draws the conclusion that if individuals constitute themselves through their actions, then they can only maintain themselves in their current state by living in a recurrence of past actions (Nehamas 153).
Another concept important to an understanding of Nietzsche's thought is the Übermensch or the Overman (probably the most accurate translation). Developing the idea of nihilism, Nietzsche wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra, therein introducing the concept of a value-creating Übermensch. According to Lampert, "the death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety and nihilism (II. 19; III. 8). [...] Zarathustra's gift of the overman is given to a mankind not aware of the problem to which the overman is the solution." Zarathustra presents the Overman as the creator of new values, in this way, it appears as a solution to the problem of the death of God and nihilism. Overman does not follow morality of common people since it favors mediocrity but instead rises above above the notion of good and evil and above the herd.[150]
While interpretations of Nietzsche's overman vary wildly, here is one of his quotations from Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Prologue, §§3–4):
I teach you the overman. Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done to overcome him?... All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood, and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is ape to man? A laughing stock or painful embarrassment. And man shall be that to overman: a laughingstock or painful embarrassment. You have made your way from worm to man, and much in you is still worm. Once you were apes, and even now, too, man is more ape than any ape... The overman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth... Man is a rope, tied between beast and overman—a rope over an abyss ... what is great in man is that he is a bridge and not an end.
Zarathustra contrasts the Overman with the last man of egalitarian modernity (most obvious example being democracy), an alternative goal which humanity might set for itself. The last man appears only in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and is presented as a condition that would render the creation of the Overman impossible.
Some have suggested that the notion of eternal return is related to Overman since willing the eternal return of the same is a necessary step if the Overman is to create new values, untainted by the spirit of gravity or asceticism. Values involve a rank-ordering of things, and so are inseparable from approval and disapproval; yet it was dissatisfaction that prompted men to seek refuge in other-worldliness and embrace other-worldly values. It could seem that the Overman, in being devoted to any values at all, would necessarily fail to create values that did not share some bit of asceticism. Willing the eternal recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the low while still recognizing it as the low, and thus as overcoming the spirit of gravity or asceticism.
Others suggest that one must have the strength of the Overman in order to will the eternal recurrence of the same; that is, only the Overman will have the strength to fully accept all of his past life, including his failures and misdeeds, and to truly will their eternal return. This action nearly kills Zarathustra, for example, and most human beings cannot avoid other-worldliness because they really are sick, not because of any choice they made.
The residence of Nietzsche's last three years, along with archive in
Weimar, Germany, which holds many of Nietzsche's papers
As a philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of Greek philosophy. He read Immanuel Kant, Plato, John Stuart Mill, Arthur Schopenhauer and African Spir,[151] who became his main opponents in his philosophy, and later Spinoza, whom he saw as his "precursor" in some respects[152] but as a personification of the "ascetic ideal" in others. However, Nietzsche referred to Kant as a "moral fanatic", Plato as "boring", Mill as a "blockhead", and of Spinoza he said: "How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray?"
Nietzsche's philosophy, while highly innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to many predecessors. While at Basel, Nietzsche offered lecture courses on the "Pre-Platonic Philosophers" for several years, and the text of this lecture series has been characterized as a "lost link" in the development of his thought. "In it concepts such as the will to power, the eternal return of the same, the overman, gay science, self-overcoming and so on receive rough, unnamed formulations and are linked to specific pre-Platonics, especially Heraclitus, who emerges as a pre-Platonic Nietzsche." The pre-Socratic Greek thinker Heraclitus was known for the rejection of the concept of being as a constant and eternal principle of universe, and his embrace of "flux" and incessant change. His symbolism of the world as "child play" marked by amoral spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated by Nietzsche. From his Heraclitean sympathy Nietzsche was also a vociferous detractor of Parmenides, who opposed Heraclitus and believed all world is a single Being with no change at all.
In his Egotism in German Philosophy, Santayana claimed that Nietzsche's whole philosophy was a reaction to Schopenhauer. Santayana wrote that Nietzsche's work was "an emendation of that of Schopenhauer. The will to live would become the will to dominate; pessimism founded on reflection would become optimism founded on courage; the suspense of the will in contemplation would yield to a more biological account of intelligence and taste; finally in the place of pity and asceticism (Schopenhauer's two principles of morals) Nietzsche would set up the duty of asserting the will at all costs and being cruelly but beautifully strong. These points of difference from Schopenhauer cover the whole philosophy of Nietzsche."
Nietzsche expressed admiration for 17th century French moralists such as La Rochefoucauld, Jean de La Bruyère and Vauvenargues,[158] as well as for Stendhal. The organicism of Paul Bourget influenced Nietzsche,[160] as did that of Rudolf Virchow and Alfred Espinas.[161] Nietzsche wrote in a letter in 1867 that he was trying to improve his German style of writing with the help of Lessing, Lichtenberg and Schopenhauer. It was probably Lichtenberg (along with Paul Rée) whose aphoristic style of writing contributed to Nietzsche's own use of aphorism instead of an essay.[162]. Nietzsche early learned of Darwinism through Friedrich Albert Lange.[163] Hippolyte Taine influenced Nietzsche's view on Rousseau and Napoleon.[164] Notably, he also read some of the posthumous works of Charles Baudelaire,[165] Tolstoy's My Religion, Ernest Renan's Life of Jesus and Fyodor Dostoyevsky's The Possessed.[165] Nietzsche called Dostoevsky "the only psychologist from whom I have anything to learn." Harold Bloom has often claimed, particularly in Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?, that the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson had a profound and favourable influence on Nietzsche. While Nietzsche never mentions Max Stirner, the similarities in their ideas have prompted a minority of interpreters to suggest a relationship between the two.[168][169][170][171][172][173][174] In 1861 Nietzsche wrote an enthusiastic essay on his "favorite poet", Friedrich Hölderlin, mostly forgotten at that time.[175] He also expressed deep appreciation for Adalbert Stifter's Indian Summer,[176] Lord Byron's Manfred and Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.[177]
Nietzsche's works did not reach a wide readership during his active writing career. However, in 1888 Georg Brandes (an influential Danish critic) aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the University of Copenhagen. In the years after his death in 1900, Nietzsche's works became better known, and readers have responded to them in complex and sometimes controversial ways.[178] Many Germans eventually discovered his appeals for greater individualism and personality development in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but responded to those appeals divergently. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 1894–1895 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States.[179][180][181] The poet W. B. Yeats helped to raise awareness of Nietzsche in Ireland.[182] H. L. Mencken produced translations of Nietzsche's works that helped to increase knowledge of his philosophy in the United States.[183] Other famous writers and poets influenced by Nietzsche include Jack London, André Gide, August Strindberg, Rainer Maria Rilke[184][185], Robinson Jeffers, Knut Hamsun, D. H. Lawrence,[186][187] Robert Musil, Muhammad Iqbal and Yukio Mishima. American poet Wallace Stevens[188] was another reader of Nietzsche and elements of Nietzsche's philosophy was found throughout Harmonium[189][190] particularly in The Snow Man. Painter Giovanni Segantini was fascinated by Thus Spake Zarathustra, and he drew an illustration for the first Italian translation of the book. Eugene O'Neill wrote that Zarathustra has influenced him more that any other book he ever read.[191] Olaf Stapledon was influenced by the idea of Übermensch and it is central theme in his books such as Odd John and Sirius.[192] Nietzschean interpretation of eternal return was used to a great effect in a Milan Kundera book The Unbearable Lightness of Being.[193] George Bernard Shaw famously translated the word Übermensch as the Superman in his drama series Man and Superman, a work used as an example of Netzsche's influence over Shaw.
By World War I, Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for both right-wing German militarism and leftist politics. German soldiers received copies of Thus Spoke Zarathustra as gifts during World War I.[194] The Dreyfus Affair provides a contrasting example of his reception: the French anti-semitic Right labelled the Jewish and Leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus as "Nietzscheans".[196] Nietzsche had a distinct appeal for many Zionist thinkers at the turn of the century most notable being Ahad Ha'am,[197] Hillel Zeitlin,[198] Micha Josef Berdyczewski, Yosef Haim Brenner and Martin Buber who went so far as to extoll Nietzsche as a "creator" and "emissary of life". Chaim Weizmann was a great admirer of Nietzsche; the first president of Israel sent Nietzsche's books to his wife, adding a comment in a letter that "This was the best and finest thing I can send to you".[200] Israel Eldad, the ideological chief of the Stern Group that fought the British in Palestine in the 1940s, wrote about Nietzsche in his underground newspaper and later translated most of Nietzsche's books into Hebrew.[201] Nietzsche's influence on the works of Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno[202] can be seen in the popular Dialectic of Enlightenment and Thomas Mann acknowledges his debt to Nietzsche in The Magic Mountain. In Russia, Nietzsche has influenced Russian symbolism[203] and figures such as Dmitry Merezhkovsky,[204] Andrei Bely,[205] Vyacheslav Ivanovich Ivanov and Alexander Scriabin have all incorporated or discussed parts of Nietzsche philosophy in their works. Nietzsche is known today as a precursor to expressionism[206] and existentialism.
Nietzsche's growing prominence suffered a severe setback when his works became closely associated with Adolf Hitler and the German Reich. Many political leaders of the twentieth century were at least superficially familiar with Nietzsche's ideas, although it is not always possible to determine whether they actually read his work. Hitler, for example, probably never read Nietzsche and, if he did, his reading was not extensive,[207][208][209][210] although he was a frequent visitor to the Nietzsche museum in Weimar and did use expressions of Nietzsche's, such as "lords of the earth" in Mein Kampf.[211] The Nazis made selective use of Nietzsche's philosophy. Mussolini,[212][213] Charles de Gaulle[214] and Huey P. Newton[215] read Nietzsche. Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with "curious interest," and his book Beyond Peace might have taken its title from Nietzsche's book Beyond Good and Evil which Nixon read beforehand.[216] Bertrand Russell, in his History of Western Philosophy was scathing about Nietzsche, calling his work the "mere power-phantasies of an invalid," referring to him as a "megalomaniac," and writing that he was a philosophical progenitor of the Nazis and fascists.[page needed]
A decade after World War II, there was a revival of Nietzsche's philosophical writings thanks to exhaustive translations and analyses by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale. Others, well known philosophers in their own right, wrote commentaries on Nietzsche's philosophy, including Martin Heidegger, who produced a four-volume study and Lev Shestov who wrote a book called The Good in the Teaching of Tolstoy and Nietzsche where he portrays Nietzsche and Dostoyevski as the ″thinkers of tragedy″.[218] Georg Simmel compares Nietzsche's importance to ethics to that of Copernicus for cosmology.[219] Another sociologist influenced by Nietzsche was Ferdinand Tönnies who, from his early life, read Nietzsche avidly and later discussed many of his concepts in his own works. Nietzsche's influence on philosophers is seen in the works of Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre[220], Oswald Spengler[221], George Grant[222], Emil Cioran[223], Albert Camus, Ayn Rand[224], Jacques Derrida, Leo Strauss[225], Max Scheler and Michel Foucault. Foucault's later writings, for example, adopt Nietzsche's genealogical method to develop anti-foundationalist theories of power that divide and fragment rather than unite polities (as evinced in the liberal tradition of political theory).[citation needed] Paul Ricœur called Nietzsche one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud.[226] In the Anglo-American tradition he has had a profound influence on Bernard Williams and Allan Bloom, and American philosophers such as Alexander Nehamas, Judith Butler, William E. Connolly, Stanley Rosen, Ruth Abbey and Michael Allen Gillespie continue to study him today.[citation needed]
- The Greek State (1871)
- The Birth of Tragedy (1872)
- On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense (1873)
- Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1873), Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks .
(1876), Untimely Meditations .- Human, All Too Human (1878; additions in 1879, 1880)
(1881), The Dawn . (1882), The Gay Science . (1961) [1883–85], Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and For None, trans. RJ Hollingdale, New York: Penguin Classics . (1886), Beyond Good and Evil (1887), On the Genealogy of Morality .- The Case of Wagner (1888)
(1888b), Twilight of the Idols . (2004) [1888c], The Antichrist, Kessinger . (2000) [1888d], Ecce Homo, Basic Writings of Nietzsche, trans. Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, ISBN 0-679-78339-3 .- Nietzsche contra Wagner (1888)
- The Will to Power (unpublished manuscripts edited by Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche)
(1977), The Portable Nietzsche, trans. Walter Kaufmann, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-015062-5 . (2001), The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, trans. Greg Whitlock, University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-02559-8 . (2005), The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols, and Other Writings, transl. Judith Norman, Aaron Ridley, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-01688-6 .
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- ^ Troubling legacies: migration, modernism and fascism in the case of Knut Hamsun. http://books.google.ba/books?id=h_SsvAZ5LQsC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=Knut+Hamsun+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=Teo-t-HtNV&sig=Diw9dG90bk8-nNDms6SmbzTX_6s&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cm9AT4j9HIPGtAbC5v3rBA&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Knut%20Hamsun%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Jünger, Ernst (2011), "Part 2 Alain de Benoist", Counter Currents (4), archived from the original on 2012-03-23, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:WFWPbffb8BEJ:www.counter-currents.com/2011/04/ernst-junger-figure-of-the-worker-part-2/+Ernst+J%C3%BCnger+Nietzsche&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ba
- ^ The Columbia encyclopedia of modern drama. 1. http://books.google.ba/books?id=qYfH1tOwsHcC&pg=PA304&lpg=PA304&dq=Krleza+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=j2VZ2f1mm6&sig=RILoQVWCI7sAOk1LdaLktTuF8Bg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=E5ZAT6GMLIrXsgaDttHmBA&ved=0CFUQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=Krleza%20Nietzsche&f=false. One of Krleza first work was also called Zarathustra and young man
- ^ Morality and the literary imagination. http://books.google.ba/books?id=COWpq79R5bsC&pg=PA109&dq=Wyndham+Lewis+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=81NBT46XKsnQsgbj8JHTBA&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Wyndham%20Lewis%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ The Philosophy of Jack London, Sonoma, http://london.sonoma.edu/Essays/philosophy.html .
- ^ Witt, Mary Ann Frese (2001). The search for modern tragedy: aesthetic fascism in Italy and France. Cornell University Press. pp. 139–41.
- ^ Understanding Robert Musil. http://books.google.ba/books?id=e7QdTuwWlVgC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=Robert+Musil+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=ktsDaFRvAx&sig=l2-FCcvxGVKLgRO39cLRiZ-JZbs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nnFAT8voMcfCswbit9zNBA&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Robert%20Musil%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Starrs, Roy. Deadly dialectics: sex, violence, and nihilism in the world of Yukio Mishima. http://books.google.ba/books?id=szFvvhpAVtQC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=Yukio+Mishima+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=Q7t-2YSfnb&sig=FxtfRG9EBNrjalkrOmERBystMXQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GitBT-LBIsfXtAb3mbzDBA&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Yukio%20Mishima%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Nietzsche and Soviet Culture: Ally and Adversary. http://books.google.ba/books?id=f5cUEHHchNAC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=Vladimir+Mayakovsky+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=klT-LE9iru&sig=u1w5ZueWsprf9X152iDzwHRWbmM&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=QoNUT4GjM4f1sgb0kdjVCw&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Vladimir%20Mayakovsky%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Törnqvist, Egil. Eugene O'Neill: a playwright's theatre. http://books.google.ba/books?id=g1whggReJx4C&pg=PA39&dq=Eugene+O%27Neill+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kVJBT6CqGtCVswak7ejzBA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Eugene%20O%27Neill%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Golomb, Jacob; Santaniello, Weaver; Lehrer, Ronald. Nietzsche and depth psychology. http://books.google.ba/books?id=DpA5mAjkSScC&pg=PA247&dq=Otto+Rank+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GGlBT7a5M4ratAad54DVAw&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Otto%20Rank%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Schneck, Stephen Frederick. Person and polis: Max Scheler's personalism as political theory. http://books.google.ba/books?id=5SjNht3Jh_4C&pg=PA16&dq=Max+Scheler+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WUNBT7-xFtHmtQbCh9jxBA&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Max%20Scheler%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Solms-Laubach, Franz; Solms-Laubach, Franz. Nietzsche and early German and Austrian sociology. http://books.google.ba/books?id=TxTITNduFc4C&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=Ferdinand+T%C3%B6nnies+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=o7GW_sG-Gu&sig=U3QDSypJL0Q5VZ2_WahTYeJGHw0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CipBT-_qLofAtAaxusHrBA&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Ferdinand%20T%C3%B6nnies%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Douglas, Allen (1992). From fascism to libertarian communism: Georges Valois against the Third Republic. University of California Press. pp. 14–15.
- ^ Pusey, James Reeve. Lu Xun and evolution. http://books.google.ba/books?id=8m7ENeccqaQC&pg=PA197&dq=Lu+Xun+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=m41AT_euBNDGswb5zOHVBA&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Lu%20Xun%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Wells, John C (1990), "Nietzsche", Longman pronunciation dictionary, Harlow, ENG, UK: Longman, p. 478, ISBN 0-582-05383-8
- ^ Wicks, R. (Summer 2011) "Friedrich Nietzsche". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Retrieved on: 2011-10-06.
- ^ Brobjer, Thomas. "Nietzsche's philosophical context: an intellectual biography", p. 42 University of Illinois Press. 2008.
- ^ Bernd, Magnus. "Nietzsche, Friedrich". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414670/Friedrich-Nietzsche. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
- ^ a b Schaberg, William (1996), The Nietzsche Canon, University of Chicago Press, p. 32 .
- ^ Salaquarda, Jörg (1996), "Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian tradition", The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 99 .
- ^ Letter of Friedrich Nietzsche to Karl Von Gersdorff – June, 1868.
- ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (November 1868), [[s:Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche#To Rohde — November, 1868] Letter to Rohde], [s:Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche#To Rohde — November, 1868] .
- ^ Bishop, Paul (2004), Nietzsche and Antiquity, p. 117 .
- ^ Hecker, Hellmuth: "Nietzsches Staatsangehörigkeit als Rechtsfrage", Neue Juristische Wochenschrift, Jg. 40, 1987, nr. 23, pp. 1388–91.
- ^ His, Eduard: "Friedrich Nietzsches Heimatlosigkeit", Basler Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Altertumskunde, vol. 40, 1941, p. 159–86. Note that some authors (among them Deussen and Montinari) mistakenly claim that Nietzsche became a Swiss citizen.
- ^ "What was the cause of Nietzsche's dementia?". USA: NIH. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12522502.
- ^ Schain, Richard (2001), The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis, Westwood: Greenwood Press .
- ^ Rüdiger Safranski, Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (trans. Shelley Frisch), W. W. Norton & Company, 2003, p. 161: "This work [Denken und Wirklichkeit] had long been consigned to oblivion, but it had a lasting impact on Nietzsche. Section 18 of Human, All Too Human cited Spir, not by name, but by presenting a "proposition by an outstanding logician" (2,38; HH I §18)
- ^ Güntzel, Stephan (2003-10-15), "Nietzsche's Geophilosophy" (in English, German), Journal of Nietzsche Studies (University Park (Penn State): The Pennsylvania State University Press) 25: 85, http://www.hypernietzsche.org/navigate.php?sigle=sgunzel-4 ; republished on HyperNietzsche.
- ^ "Nietzsche and Lou Andreas-Salomé", F Nietzsche, DE, http://www.f-nietzsche.de/lou_e.htm .
- ^ Letter to Peter Gast – August 1883
- ^ The Nietzsche Channel, Correspondences
- ^ "Förster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth", Encyclopædia Britannica (online ed.), October 10, 2008, http://www.search.eb.com.librarypx.lclark.edu/eb/article-9034925 .
- ^ Letter to Peter Gast, March 1887.
- ^ Montinari, Mazzino (1974), Friedrich Nietzsche translated as (in German) Friedrich Nietzsche. Eine Einführung, Berlin-New York: De Gruyter, 1991 ; and (in French) Friedrich Nietzsche, PUF, 2001 .
- ^ Zweig, Stefan (1939) Master Builders [trilogy], The Struggle with the Daimon, Viking Press, p. 524.
- ^ Steiner, Rudolf (1895), Friedrich Nietzsche, ein Kämpfer gegen seine Zeit, Weimar
- ^ Bailey, Andrew (2002), First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy, Broadview Press, p. 704 .
- ^ Georges Bataille & Annette Michelson, Nietzsche's Madness, October, Vol. 36, Georges Bataille: Writings on Laughter, Sacrifice, Nietzsche, Un-Knowing. (Spring, 1986), pp. 42–45.
- ^ René Girard, Superman in the Underground: Strategies of Madness—Nietzsche, Wagner, and Dostoevsky, MLN, Vol. 91, No. 6, Comparative Literature. (December, 1976), pp. 1161–85.
- ^ Cybulska, EM (August 2000). "The madness of Nietzsche: a misdiagnosis of the millennium?". Hospital Medicine 61 (8): 571–75. PMID 11045229.
- ^ Schain, Richard (2001). The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31940-5. [page needed]
- ^ "Nietzsche 'died of brain cancer'". The Sydney Morning Herald. May 6, 2003. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/05/1051987657451.html.
- ^ Orth, M; Trimble, MR (December 2006). "Friedrich Nietzsche's mental illness—general paralysis of the insane vs. frontotemporal dementia". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 114 (6): 439–44; discussion 445. DOI:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00827.x. PMID 17087793.
- ^ Hemelsoet D, Hemelsoet K, Devreese D (March 2008). "The neurological illness of Friedrich Nietzsche". Acta Neurologica Belgica 108 (1): 9–16. PMID 18575181. http://www.actaneurologica.be/acta/article.asp?lang=en&navid=133&id=14389&mod=acta.
- ^ Concurring reports in Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche's biography (1904) and a letter by Mathilde Schenk-Nietzsche to Meta von Salis, August 30, 1900, quoted in Janz (1981) p. 221. Cf. Volz (1990), p. 251.
- ^ Schain, Richard, Nietzsche's Visionary Values — Genius or Dementia?, Philosophos, http://www.philosophos.com/philosophy_article_31.html .
- ^ "Nietzsche", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/ .
- ^ Nietzsche: A Very Short Introduction, preview, http://www.amazon.com/dp/0192854143 .
- ^ "Friedrich Nietzsche", Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108765/Friedrich-Nietzsche#387226.hook .
- ^ The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, p. 1, http://books.google.com/books?id=Xeb80itrlRIC&pg=PA1&dq=%22German+philosopher%22+Nietzsche&lr=&sig=TGo0nlA9H07fxr4GbfMlDcFRgrQ .
- ^ Craid, Edward, ed. (2005), The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of philosophy, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 726–41 .
- ^ Blackburn, Simon (2005), The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 252–53 .
- ^ Rée, Jonathan; Urmson, JO, eds. (2005) [1960]. The Concise encyclopedia of western philosophy (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 267–70. ISBN 0-415-32924-8.
- ^ Henry Louis Mencken (18 December 2008). The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. Wilder Publications. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-1-60459-331-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=dyOwIOqoopkC&pg=PA11.
- ^ Janz, Curt Paul (1978), Friedrich Nietzsche: Biographie, 1, Munich: Carl Hanser, p. 263, "Er beantragte also bei der preussischen Behörde seine Expatriierung (translation: he accordingly applied to the Prussian authorities for expatrification)" .
- ^ Colli, Giorgio; Montinari, Mazzino (1993), "Entlassungsurkunde für den Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche aus Naumburg" (in German), Nietzsche Briefwechsel: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, I.4, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, p. 566, ISBN 3‐11‐012277‐4 .
- ^ Mencken, Henry Louis (1913), Friedrich Nietzsche, Transaction Publishers, pp. 6–, ISBN 978-1-56000-649-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=_r71AzHvf64C&pg=PA6
- ^ a b c d Hollingdale, RJ (1999), Nietzsche: The Man and His Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, p. 6 .
- ^ Mencken, Henry Louis (2006) [1908], The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, University of Michigan, p. 6, http://books.google.com/books?id=nnEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Nietzsche+Polish&as_brr=3 .
- ^ Letter to Heinrich von Stein, December 1882, KGB III 1, Nr. 342, p. 287; KGW V 2, p. 579; KSA 9 p. 681
- ^ von Müller, "Nietzsches Vorfahren", reprinted Nietzsche-Studien 31 (2002): 253–75.
- ^ Mencken, Henry Louis (2003), The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzche, introd. & comm. Charles Q. Bufe, USA: See Sharp Press, p. 2 .
- ^ Letter to Heinrich von Stein, December 1882, KGB III 7.1 p. 313.
- ^ Letter to Georg Brandes, 10. 4. 1888, KGB III 7.3/1 p. 293.
- ^ Style and thought. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Friedrich_Nietzsche#Style_of_Thought.
- ^ Questioning rationality. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Friedrich_Nietzsche#Questioning_Rationality.
- ^ Walter Kaufmann disagrees that Nietzsche actually preferred master morality to slave morality. He certainly gives slave morality a much harder time, but this is partly because he believes that slave morality is modern society's more imminent danger.
- ^ Jesus and Christianity. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Friedrich_Nietzsche#Jesus_and_Christianity.
- ^ The Antichrist. http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/travis_denneson/antichrist.html.
- ^ newworldencyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Friedrich_Nietzsche#Ethics.
- ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche". http://www.anus.com/zine/db/friedrich_nietzsche/.
- ^ Sandra, LaFave. Ethics and ideology. http://instruct.westvalley.edu/lafave/IDEOLOGY.html.
- ^ Morgan, George Allen (1941). What Nietzsche Means. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-8371-7404-X.
- ^ This "will to nothingness" is still a willing of some sort, because it is exactly as as pessimist that Schopenhauer clings to life. See F. Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, III:7
- ^ F. Nietzsche, KSA 12:7 [8]
- ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, Complete Works Vol. 13.
- ^ Nietzsche and Heidegger. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Death_of_God#Nietzsche_and_Heidegger.
- ^ Nietzsche, Dionysus and Apollo. http://www.historyguide.org/europe/dio_apollo.html.
- ^ Ideas About Art. http://books.google.ba/books?id=iP4sA3kwcFsC&pg=PA69&dq=Jim+Morrison+Apollonian+and+Dionysian&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=ISrBT7vsOsyE-waM7PyICg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Jim%20Morrison%20Apollonian%20and%20Dionysian&f=false.
- ^ On Music and words. http://nietzsche.holtof.com/Nietzsche_various/on_music_and_words_and_rhetoric.htm.
- ^ The Apollonianism and Dionysiansism by Friedrich Nietzsche. http://www.bachelorandmaster.com/creationofknowledge/apollonianism-dyonysianisism.html.
- ^ The Birth of Tragedy Summary. http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/nietzsche/section1.html.
- ^ Dionysus versus Apollo. http://www.carnaval.com/prophecy/.
- ^ Ruth Benedict Patterns of Culture. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:7DG3MW7c7_wJ:classes.yale.edu/03-04/anth500b/projects/project_sites/02_alexy/ruthpatterns.html+apollonian+and+dionysian&cd=13&hl=hr&ct=clnk&gl=ba.
- ^ Influence of C.G. Jung on PKD -- notes by Frank Bertrand, excerpt Umland. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:yLZCa4ntH6YJ:pkdreligion.blogspot.com/2011/11/influence-of-cg-jung-on-pkd-by-frank.html+C.G.+jUNG+APOLLONIAN+AND+DIONYSUS&cd=13&hl=hr&ct=clnk&gl=ba.
- ^ Cristoph, Cox. Nietzsche: Naturalism and Interpretation. http://books.google.ba/books?hl=hr&id=TxlMccAak4wC&q=Objective#v=snippet&q=Objective&f=false.
- ^ Schacht, Richard, Nietzsche, p 61.
- ^ Steve, Hoenisch. Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:xf6Ll0gS4vcJ:www.criticism.com/md/weber1.html+Nietzsche+perspectivism+Max+Webber&cd=1&hl=hr&ct=clnk&gl=ba.
- ^ Culture and perspectivism in Nietzsche's and Weber's view. http://socialsciences.scielo.org/scielo.php?pid=S1518-44712006000200006&script=sci_arttext.
- ^ Objective and subjective reality; perspectivism. http://www.monomorphic.org/wordpress/objective-and-subjective-reality-perspectivism/.
- ^ Perspectivism. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Perspectivism#Nietzsche.27s_perspectivism.
- ^ Brian Leiter, Routledge guide to Nietzsche on morality, p. 121
- ^ Nietzsche comments in many notes about matter being a hypothesis drawn from the metaphysics of substance: G. Whitlock, "Roger Boscovich, Benedict de Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche: The Untold Story", Nietzsche-Studien 25, 1996 p 207.
- ^ Kundera, Milan (1999), The Unbearable Lightness of Being, p. 5 .
- ^ Dudley, Will (2002), Hegel, Nietzsche, and Philosophy: Thinking Freedom, p. 201 .
- ^ Philosophy 302: Ethics Nietzsche, "Slave and Master Morality". http://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/notes-nietzsche.html.
- ^ Brobjer, Thomas. Nietzsche's Reading and Private Library, 1885–1889. Published in Journal of History of Ideas. Accessed via JSTOR on May 18, 2007.
- ^ Letter to Franz Overbeck, July 30, 1881
- ^ Brendan Donnellan, "Nietzsche and La Rochefoucauld" in The German Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp. 303–18 (English)
- ^ Johan Grzelczyk, "Féré et Nietzsche : au sujet de la décadence", HyperNietzsche, 2005-11-01 (French). Grzelczyk quotes Jacques Le Rider, Nietzsche en France. De la fin du XIXe siècle au temps présent, Paris, PUF, 1999, pp. 8–9
- ^ Johan Grzelczyk, "Féré et Nietzsche : au sujet de la décadence", HyperNietzsche, 2005-11-01 (French). Grzelczyk quotes B. Wahrig-Schmidt, "Irgendwie, jedenfalls physiologisch. Friedrich Nietzsche, Alexandre Herzen (fils) und Charles Féré 1888" in Nietzsche Studien, Band 17, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988, p. 439
- ^ Thomas, Brobjer. Nietzsche's Philosophical Context: An Intellectual Biography. http://books.google.ba/books?id=V4DDxmM0T9EC&pg=PA58&dq=Nietzsche+neo-Kantians&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=ECiUT-mFGZGa-wbDnpmGBA&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Nietzsche%20neo-Kantians&f=false.
- ^ Note sur Nietzsche et Lange : « le retour éternel », Albert Fouillée, Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger. An. 34. Paris 1909. T. 67, S. 519–25 (on French Wikisource)
- ^ Weaver, Santaniello. Nietzsche, God, and the Jews:His Critique of Judeo-Christianity in Relation to the Nazi Myth. http://books.google.ba/books?id=BSQJgIKTJ7QC&pg=PA194&dq=Nietzsche+Hippolyte+Taine&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eLFpT_7JGc7ZsgbVv_2wCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Nietzsche%20Hippolyte%20Taine&f=false.
- ^ a b Mazzino Montinari, "La Volonté de puissance" n'existe pas, Éditions de l'Éclat, 1996, §13
- ^ K Löwith, From Hegel To Nietzsche, New York, 1964, p 187.
- ^ S Taylor, Left Wing Nietzscheans, The Politics of German Expressionism 1910–1920, p 144, 1990, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York.
- ^ G Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy (transl. Hugh Tomlinson), 2006, pp 153–54.
- ^ RC Solomon & KM Higgins, The Age of German Idealism, p 300, Routledge, 1993.
- ^ RA Samek, The Meta Phenomenon, p 70, New York, 1981.
- ^ T Goyens, Beer and Revolution: The German Anarchist Movement In New York City, p 197, Illinois, 2007.
- ^ Laska, Bernd A, "Nietzsche's initial crisis", Germanic Notes and Reviews 33 (2): 109–33, http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html .
- ^ "Hölderlin", Kirjasto, Sci.fi, http://kirjasto.sci.fi/holderli.htm .
- ^ Meyer-Sickendiek, Burkhard, "Nietzsche's Aesthetic Solution to the Problem of Epigonism in the Nineteenth Century", ed. Paul Bishop, Nietzsche and Antiquity: His Reaction and Response to the Classical Tradition, Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer, 2004. p. 323
- ^ Rebekah, Peery. Nietzsche, Philosopher of the Perilous Perhaps. http://books.google.ba/books?id=Eh4YJfNeO7QC&pg=PA19&dq=Nietzsche+Adventures+of+Tom+Sawyer&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=7g6UT8zDO8jQ-gaz0MioBA&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Nietzsche%20Adventures%20of%20Tom%20Sawyer&f=false.
- ^ See 1910 article from the Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ^ O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907", in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, July, 1908, pp. 400–26.
- ^ T. A. Riley, "Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay", in PMLA, Vol. 62, No. 3, September, 1947, pp. 828–43.
- ^ C. E. Forth, "Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 1891–1895", in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1, January, 1993, pp. 97–117.
- ^ Everdell, William (1998). The First Moderns. Chicago: U Chicago Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-226-22481-3.
- ^ Mencken, HL (1910), The gist of Nietzsche, Archive, http://www.archive.org/details/gistnietzsche00mencgoog
- ^ The Poets' Jesus: Representations at the End of a Millennium. http://books.google.ba/books?id=pUVuBvraI-wC&pg=PA114&dq=Rilke+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bI-9T5HYO83ntQbotZixDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=Rilke%20Nietzsche&f=false. ,
- ^ The Importance of Nietzsche: Ten Essays. http://books.google.ba/books?id=Kip0w0i1ykUC&pg=PA87&dq=Rilke+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VY-9T7_WEMfLtAbnmYGCDg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Rilke%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ John, Worthen. D.H. Lawrence: The Early Years, 1885-1912. http://books.google.ba/books?id=l_tSP0DZzK0C&pg=PA210&dq=d.h.+lawrence+nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ss2iT_CjL8ftOeHixN8G&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=d.h.%20lawrence%20nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Robert, Montgomery. The Visionary D. H. Lawrence: Beyond Philosophy and Art. http://books.google.ba/books?id=64flYHlI9cQC&pg=PA73&dq=d.h.+lawrence+nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ss2iT_CjL8ftOeHixN8G&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=d.h.%20lawrence%20nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Poets of Cambridge. http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/poets/stevens.php.
- ^ Wallace Stevens' Harmonium. https://wiki.geneseo.edu/display/essaysarticles/Wallace+Stevens%27+Harmonium#WallaceStevens%27Harmonium-TheInfluenceofNietzsche. ,
- ^ The Cambridge Companion to Wallace Stevens. http://books.google.ba/books?id=3m7_U1UdeRgC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=Wallace+Stevens+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=qm1HLxlbli&sig=yNgi8BlDE9JxzkAVqiVJZ5B69-4&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=fwK0T9jsE8_m-gbywJnxDQ&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=Wallace%20Stevens%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Egil, Törnqvist. Eugene O'Neill: A Playwright's Theatre. http://books.google.ba/books?id=g1whggReJx4C&pg=PA39&dq=Eugene+O%27Neill+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kVJBT6CqGtCVswak7ejzBA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Eugene%20O%27Neill%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Olaf Stapleton. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:PVHLrAdWD1kJ:olafstapledonarchive.webs.com/biography.html+Olaf+Stapledon+Nietzsche&cd=3&hl=hr&ct=clnk&gl=ba.
- ^ Milan, Kundera. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/personal/reading/kundera-unbearable.html.
- ^ Aschheim, Steven E (1992), The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890–1990, Berkeley and Los Angeles, p. 135, ""[a]bout 150,000 copies of a specially durable wartime Zarathustra were distributed to the troops"" .
- ^ Schrift, A.D. (1995). Nietzsche's French Legacy: A Genealogy of Poststructuralism. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91147-8.
- ^ Jacob, Golomb. Nietzsche and Zion. http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?GCOI=80140100486340.
- ^ Jacob, Golomb. Nietzsche and Zion. http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=188.
- ^ Walter, Kaufmann. Nietzsche, Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. http://books.google.ba/books?id=9RHqWPIC0QQC&pg=PA419&dq=Andre+Malraux+Nietzsche&hl=en&sa=X&ei=e4a9T9qxGpHEswbCsunADQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Andre%20Malraux%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Zev Golan, God, Man and Nietzsche, iUniverse, 2007, p 169: "It would be most useful if our youth climbed, even if only briefly, to Zarathustra's heights..."
- ^ Adorno, Theodor. http://www.iep.utm.edu/adorno/.
- ^ Brad, Damare. Music and Literature in Silver Age Russia: Mikhail Kuzmin and Alexander Scriabin. http://books.google.ba/books?id=Fo2QqyyFCR4C&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=Merezhovsky+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=zg79tnMASE&sig=RbW0tcc4IdkGD3B0oWR_61omhV4&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=LpKVT4CRHYiR-wamg_SJBA&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Merezhovsky%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Bernice, Rosenthal. New Myth, New World: From Nietzsche To Stalinism. http://books.google.ba/books?id=Ppvr3LZ8o2wC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Merezhkovsky+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=hQo0RKj1w1&sig=fyqQ6xRMjQheJcTv9f5Q4SkCaTA&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=QJKVT_aBLsup-gaPzISXBA&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Merezhkovsky%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Bernice, Rosenthal. Nietzsche and Soviet Culture: Ally and Adversary. http://books.google.ba/books?id=f5cUEHHchNAC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=Andrei+Bely+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=klT-LE9fnC&sig=2eb1XhSu_CLc34jZDzmTBPuMiQY&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=9oFUT-iML4PdsgbK7vzjCw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Andrei%20Bely%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Expressionism. http://www.theartstory.org/movement-expressionism.htm.
- ^ Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews, SUNY Press, 1994, p 41: "Hitler probably never read a word of Nietzsche".
- ^ Berel Lang, Post-Holocaust: Interpretation, Misinterpretation, and the Claims of History, Indiana University Press, 2005, p 162: "Arguably, Hitler himself never read a word of Nietzsche; certainly, if he did read him, it was not extensively".
- ^ Golomb 1997, p. 9: "To be sure, it is almost certain that Hitler either never read Nietzsche directly or read very little."
- ^ Andrew C. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World, Stanford University Press, 2002, p 184: "By all indications, Hitler never read Nietzsche. Neither Mein Kampf nor Hitler's Table Talk (Tischgesprache) mentions his name. Nietzschean ideas reached him through the filter of Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century, and, more simply, through what was coffeehouse Quatsch in Vienna and Munich. This at least is the impression he gives in his published conversations with Dietrich Eckart."
- ^ William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, a History of Nazi Germany, Touchstone, 1959, pp 100–01
- ^ Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy, University of California Press, 2000, p 44: "In 1908 he presented his conception of the superman's role in modern society in a writing on Nietzsche titled "The Philosophy of Force."
- ^ Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Routledge, 2003, p 21: "We know that Mussolini had read Nietzsche"
- ^ J. L. Gaddis, P. H. Gordon, E. R. May, J. Rosenberg, Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb, Oxford University Press, 1999, p 217: "The son of a history teacher, de Gaulle read voraciously as a boy and young man—Jacques Bainville, Henri Bergson, Friederich [sic] Nietzsche, Maurice Barres—and was steeped in conservative French historical and philosophical traditions."
- ^ Mumia, Abu - Jamal. We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party. http://books.google.ba/books?hl=hr&id=caWPDd6PuaMC&q=Nietzsche#v=snippet&q=Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ Crowley, Monica (1998), Nixon in Winter, IB Tauris, "He read with curious interest the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche [...] Nixon asked to borrow my copy of Beyond Good and Evil, a title that inspired the title of his final book, Beyond Peace."
- ^ Lev, Shestov. Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, and Nietzsche. http://www.amazon.com/Dostoevsky-Tolstoy-Nietzsche-Good-Teaching/dp/0821400533.
- ^ Stefan, Sorgner. Nietzsche & Germany. http://www.philosophynow.org/issues/29/Nietzsche_and_Germany.
- ^ Philosophy in Literature. http://books.google.ba/books?id=D6fM0jqDVFgC&pg=PA142&dq=Nietzsche+Sartre+influence&hl=en&sa=X&ei=u9W8T-ixOorm-gba2uBF&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Nietzsche%20Sartre%20influence&f=false.
- ^ Oswald Spengler. http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/Oswald_Spengler.
- ^ George Grant. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/george-grant.
- ^ Romanian Philosophical Culture, Globalization, and Education. http://books.google.ba/books?id=sJp6tGCgO-8C&pg=PA17&dq=Emil+Cioran+Nietzsche&hl=hr&sa=X&ei=P9G8T8O9MImr-Qac9sUq&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Emil%20Cioran%20Nietzsche&f=false.
- ^ The Transformation of Nietzschean Ideas in The Fountainhead. http://philosophy.wisc.edu/hunt/nietzsche&fountainhead.htm.
- ^ Lampert, Laurence (1996). Leo Strauss and Nietzsche. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32
- Baird, Forrest E; Walter Kaufmann (2008), From Plato to Derrida, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 1011–38, ISBN 0-13-158591-6
- Benson, Bruce Ellis (2007). Pious Nietzsche: Decadence and Dionysian Faith. Indiana University Press. p. 296.
- Cate, Curtis (2005), Friedrich Nietzsche, Woodstock, NY, USA: The Overlook Press
- Emilio Carlo Corriero, Nietzsche olter l'abisso. Declinazioni italiane della 'morte di Dio', Marco Valerio, Torino, 2007
- Deleuze, Gilles (2006) [1983], Nietzsche and Philosophy, trans. Hugh Tomlinson, Athlone Press, ISBN 0-485-11233-7
- Gemes, Ken; May, Simon, eds. (2002), Nietzsche on Freedom and Autonomy, Oxford University Press .
- Golomb, Jacob, ed. (1997), Nietzsche and Jewish culture, Routledge, http://books.google.ba/books?id=HBCsgS7k7lAC&pg=PA185&lpg=PA185&dq=Arnold+Zweig+Nietzsche&source=bl&ots=PTXKFXC_YD&sig=7glHFmjNCUMvZi4S2CxtG6oJ5d4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=G59AT-vMHMLLsgbwtN3oBA&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Arnold%20Zweig%20Nietzsche&f=false .
- Heidegger, Martin, The Word of Nietzsche .
- Kaufmann, Walter (1974), Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01983-5
- Lampert, Laurence (1986), Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-04430-5
- Magnus and Higgins, "Nietzsche's works and their themes", in The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, Magnus and Higgins (ed.), University of Cambridge Press, 1996, pp. 21–58. ISBN 0-521-36767-0
- O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., "Studies in Nietzsche and the Classical Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press) 1979 ISBN 0-8078-8085-X
- O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., "Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press) 1985 ISBN 0-8078-8104-X
- Porter, James I. "Nietzsche and the Philology of the Future" (Stanford University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-8047-3698-7
(2000), The Invention of Dionysus: An Essay on The Birth of Tragedy, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-3700-2 .- Roochnik, David (2004), Retrieving the Ancients .
- Russell, Bertrand (2004), History of Western Philosophy, Routledge .
- Santayana, George (1916), "XI", Egotism in German Philosophy, London & Toronto: JM Dent & Sons, http://www.archive.org/details/egotismingerman00santuoft .
- Sedgwick, Peter R (2009), Nietzsche: the key concepts, Routledge, Oxon, ENG, UK: Routledge .
- Seung, T.K. Nietzsche's Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2005. ISBN 0-7391-1130-2
- Tanner, Michael (1994). Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-287680-5.
- von Vacano, Diego (2007), The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory, Lanham, MD: Lexington .
- Wicks, Robert. "Friedrich Nietzsche". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2004 ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2004/entries/nietzsche/.
- Young, Julian. Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 649 pp.
| Persondata |
| Name |
Nietzsche, Friedrich |
| Alternative names |
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm |
| Short description |
19th century philosopher |
| Date of birth |
1844-10-15 |
| Place of birth |
Röcken, near Leipzig, Saxony |
| Date of death |
1900-8-25 |
| Place of death |
Weimar |
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