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Abū Jaʿfar Abdullāh al-Māʾmūn ibn Harūn (also spelled Almamon, Al-Maymun and el-Mâmoûn, Arabic ابوجعفر عبدالله المأمون) (September 13, 786 – August 9, 833) (المأمون) was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. He succeeded his brother al-Amin.

Birth[link]

Al-Ma'mun was born on September 13, 786 CE to the Abbasid emperor Harun and a Persian woman called Marajil.

Abbasid Civil War[link]

In 802 Harun al-Rashid, father of al-Ma'mun and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. In the last days of Harun's life his health was declining and saw in a dream Musa ibn Jafar sitting in a chamber praying and crying, which made Harun remember how hard he had struggled to establish his own caliphate. He knew the personalities of both his sons and decided that for the good of the Abbasid dynasty, Al-Ma'mun should be caliph after his death, which he confided to a group of his courtiers. One of the courtiers, Fazl ibn Rabi' did not abide by Harun's last wishes and convinced many in the lands of Islam that Harun's wishes had not changed. Later the other three courtiers of Harun who had sworn loyalty to Harun by supporting Al-Ma'mun, namely Eesa Jarudi, Abu Yunus, and Ibn Abi Omran found loopholes in Fazl's arguments, and Fazl admitted Harun had appointed Al-Ma'mun after him, but, he argued, since Harun was not in his right mind, his decision should not be acted upon. Al-Ma'mun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a succession struggle. al-Amin assembled a massive army at Baghdad with Eesa ibn Mahan at its head in 811 and invaded Khorasan, but al-Ma'mun's general Tahir bin Husain (d. 822) destroyed the army and invaded Iraq, laying siege to Baghdad in 812. In 813 Baghdad fell, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Ma'mun became the undisputed Caliph.^[1]

Internal Strife[link]

There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of al-Ma'mun's reign, while the caliph was in Merv. On November 13, 815, Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibaj) claimed the Caliphate for himself in Mecca. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that he had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had died. Lawlessness in Baghdad led to the formation of neighborhood watches.

In A.H. 201 (817 AD) al-Ma'mun forced Imam Reza to move from Madina to Maru. Imam Reza, the Eighth descendant of Muhammad, was named his heir. This was not easily accepted by the Abbasid leaders but was widely seen as a political move by al-Ma'mun since he was fearful of the widespread sympathy towards the Ahl al-Bayt. Al-Ma'mun's plan was to keep watch over Imam Reza. However, his plans did not succeed due to the growing popularity of Ali Al-Rida in Maru. People from all over the Muslim world traveled to meet the prophet's grandson and listen to his teachings and guidance.

After a debate Al-Ma'mun had set up with the greatest scholars of the world's religions to humiliate the Imam, the victorious Imam informed Al-Ma'mun that his grand vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, had not been informing him of everything. In Baghdad, the people believed that Al-Ma'mun was unseated, because of rumors spread by Fazl ibn Sahl. Because of this the people of Baghdad were giving their allegiance to al-Mamun's uncle Ibrahim ibn Mehdi. Al-Ma'mun set out for Baghdad in April 12, 818. At Tus, he stopped to visit his father's grave. Al-Ma'mun was troubled by the widespread support for the prophet Muhammad's descendant Imam Reza, and the betrayal of his grand vizier. With the aim of gaining Abbasid support and the establish of a new base for his rule in Baghdad, Al-Ma'mun went on to depose of Ali Ar-Rida by administering poison, and arranging the murder of Fazl ibn Sahl. On the last day of Safar in 203 AH, Imam Reza died. Imam Reza was buried beside Al-Ma'mun's father Hārūn al-Rashid. Following the death of Imam Reza a great revolt took place in Khurasan, Persia. Al-Ma’mun tried to show himself innocent of the crime but for all he did, he could not get himself acquitted and prove his innocence.

After Arrival in Baghdad[link]

Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari states that al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on August 11, 819 (v. 32, p. 95). He wore green and had others do so. Informed that compliance with this command was despite popular opposition to the colour, on August 18 he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While Baghdad became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In A.H. 210 (825-826) Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani secured Egypt for al-Ma'mun freeing Alexandria from Andalusians and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to Crete where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his day (see Abo Hafs Omer Al-Baloty). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in 211 Hijri or (826-827 C.E.) bringing defeated rebels with him.

Also, in 210 Hijri or the year 825-826 C.E. there was an uprising in Qum sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the tax assessment was set significantly higher. In 212 Hijri or 827-828 C.E., there was an uprising in Yemen. In 214 (829-830) Abu al-Razi who had captured one Yemeni rebel was killed by another. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious. In 216 (831-832) Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.

Wars with Byzantine Greeks[link]

By the time Al-Ma'mun became Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantines had settled down into border skirmishing, with Arab raids deep into Anatolia to capture booty and Christians to be slaves in the Abbasid Caliphate. The situation changed however with the rise to power of Michael II in 820 AD. Forced to deal with the rebel Thomas the Slav, Michael had few troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10,000 men against Crete, which fell in 824 AD. A Byzantine counter offensive in 826 AD failed miserably. Worse still was the invasion of Sicily in 827 by Berbers of Tunis. Even so, Byzantine resistance in Sicily was fierce and not without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by internal squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from Sicily but they were to return.

The Byzantine embassy of John the Grammarian in 829 to Ma'mun (depicted left) from Theophilos (depicted right)

In 829, Michael II died and was succeeded by his son Theophilos. Theophilos experienced mixed success against his Arab opponents. In 830 AD the Arabs returned to Sicily and after a year-long siege took Palermo from their Christian opponents and for the next 200 years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters. The Caliph Al-Ma'mun meanwhile launched an invasion of Anatolia in 830 AD. Al-Ma'mun triumphed and a number of Byzantine forts were taken; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. Theophilos did not relent and in 831 captured Tarsus from the Muslims.The next year, learning Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, Al-Ma'mun returned. This time some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate forces, with two Byzantine defeats in Cappadocia.

Theophilos wrote to Al-Ma'mun. The Caliph replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, noticed it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats of war and offered Theophilos the options of acknowledging divine unity, paying tax or fighting. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign and died on the way while leading an expedition in Sardis.

Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantine Greeks is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.^[2] It is said that, had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".

Al-Ma'mun's Reign[link]

Al-Ma'mun conducted, in the plains of Mesopotamia, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree. The crater Almanon on the Moon is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy.

Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. The Bayt al-Hikma, or House of Wisdom, was established during his reign.^[3] The ulama emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the mihna, which was initiated in 833, only four months before he died.

The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The casualties of 'Abbasid inquisition would not approach a fraction of those executed in Europe under similar circumstances. This is because the people who were subject to the mihna were traditionalist scholars whose social influence and intellectual quality was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced the mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and in consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the createdness of the Qur'an, if the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.

The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's sympathy for Mu'tazili theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an and the Hadith. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal with God, a belief that was shared by the Jahmites and parts of Shi'a, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-Sunni opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal. The fact that the Mu'tazili school had its foundations in the paganism of Greece further disenchanted a majority of Islamic clerics.

During his reign, alchemy greatly developed and the pioneers of the science were Jabir Ibn Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lukwa was patronized by Al-Ma'mun, although he was unsuccessful in his attempts regarding the transmutation gold, his methods greatly led to the patronization of Pharmaceuticals compounds.^[4]

Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulema became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in 848. The failure of the mihna seriously damaged Caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulema as a result of the mihna.

The ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali legal school, became famous for his opposition to the mihna. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance.

Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.

The shakiriya, which were to trigger the movement of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra during al-Mu'tasim's reign, were raised in al-Ma'mun's time. The shakiriya were military units from Central Asia and North Africa, hired, complete with their commanders, to serve under the Caliph.

Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.

Al-Ma'mun, in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, Al-Ma'mun poisoned Ali ar-Rida who then died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.

The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun. Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan.

Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza looking for knowledge and treasure. He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance.

Personal Characteristics[link]

Al-Tabari (v. 32, p. 231) describes al-Ma'mun as of average height, light complexion, handsome and having a long beard losing its dark colour as he aged. He relates anecdotes concerning the caliph's ability to speak concisely and eloquently without preparation, his generosity, his respect for Muhammad and religion, his sense of moderation, justice and his love of poetry.

Death[link]

Al-Tabari (v.32, pp. 224–231) recounts how Al-Ma'mun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him how splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh dates. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone to check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered. But Al-Ma'mun died. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear. This was on August 9, 833.

Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus. The city's major mosque (Tarsus Grand Mosque), contains a tomb reported to be his. He was succeeded not by his son, Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun, but by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim.

See also[link]

• Apology of al-Kindy
• House of Wisdom

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History vol. 31 "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992; vol. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987.
• John Bagot Glubb The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963.
• Peter Tompkins, "Secrets of the Great Pyramid", chapter 2, Harper and Row, 1971.
• E. de la Vaissière, Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside, Peeters, 2007 [1]
• Michael Cooperson, Al-Ma’mun, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 2005
• Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic culture: the Graeco-Arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early Abbasid society Routledge, London, 1998
• Hugh Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate, a political History, Croom Helm, London, 1981
• John Nawas, A Reexamination of three current explanations for Al-Ma’mun’s introduction of the Mihna, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 26, (1994) pp. 615–629
• John Nawas, John The Mihna of 218 A.H./833 A.D. Revisited: An Empirical Study, Journal of the American Oriental Society 116.4 (1996) pp. 698–708

External links[link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Al-Ma'mun

• (English) Al-Mamum: Building an Environment for Innovation
• Berggren, Len (2007). "Maʾmūn: Abū al‐ʿAbbās ʿAbdallāh ibn Hārūn al‐Rashīd". In Thomas Hockey et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. p. 733. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ma%27mun_BEA.htm.  (PDF version)

Mun may refer to:

Surname[link]

• Thomas Mun (1571 – 1641) an English writer on economics

Other[link]

• Mun, Hautes-Pyrénées, a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées département in southwestern France
• Korean mun, a historical currency of Joseon Korea
• Mun River, a river in Thailand
• River Mun, a river in Norfolk, England
• Mun (religion), a shamanistic religion of the Lepcha people
• Mun (role-play), a term denoting the "human behind the character" in a role playing game
• Mun (unit), an alternative spelling of maund (especially in historical contexts), a South Asian unit of mass

MUN can refer to:

• Memorial University of Newfoundland
• Model United Nations Conference
• Movimiento de Unidad Nacional, a political party in Nicaragua
• Milk Urea Nitrogen

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

'The Legend of Media'

Abdullah Al Mamun (Bengali: আবদুল্লাহ আল মামুন) was a renowned playwright, actor and filmmaker of Bangladesh. He was born on July 13, 1942, in Jamalpur District. He completed his honours and masters in history from Dhaka University. Mamun wrote his first stage play, Niotir Parihas, in 1950. Subsequently, under the guidance of Shaheed Muneir Chowdhury, he further developed his skills as a playwright, director and actor. He was associated with the then Pakistan Television (PTV), later renamed Bangladesh Television (BTV), from its very start in 1965. Mamun wrote 25 dramas and seven novels, an autobiography Amar Ami and a travelogue Manhattan. His literature mostly depicts the middle-class lifestyle of Bangladesh. Ekhono Kritadas, Tomari, Amader Sontanera, Kokilara, Bibisab, Meraj Fakirer Maa and Mayik Master are few of his popular plays. Mamun founded drama group Theatre (Bailey Road) and was an adviser to quarterly magazine Theatre. Plays produced by Mamun include Songsoptok, Pathar Somoy, Jibon Chhobi and Baba.

Abdullah Al Mamun was also an established filmmaker. He made his debut as a filmmaker with Angikar in 1972 and earned much critical acclaim for movies like Sareng Bou, released in 1978. His other acclaimed films include Ekhoni Somoy, Dui Jibon, Sokhi Tumi Kaar and Bihanga.

Mamun served many important positions in several civil admin roles including deputy director general of BTV, director general of the National Institute of Mass Communication (Nimco) and director general of Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy. He won many awards including the prestigious Ekushey Padak, National Film Award and Bangla Academy Award.

He began his acting career in an early age and rode high in all mediums—cinema, theatre, TV and radio.In observance of the 69th birth anniversary of late theatre icon Abdullah Al Mamun, a three-day Abdullah Al Mamun Janmoutsab, by Theatre, one of the leading theatre troupes of the country, concludes today at the National Theatre Hall of Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy (BSA).

We lost him few years ago.Mamun died on August 21, 2008 in Dhaka.Absence of him there is a gape in our important sectors.Now his coworkers are also feeling very bad without him to do their works.They always remember him.Many play directors follow his plays,movies etc.We are also inspired to see his famous plays,writing etc.He stills in our heart with his services,works which he served many important and many several sectors.His contributions to the cultural scene of Bangladesh are yet to be surpassed by any. He might not be here with us here physically, but he will always be here with us through his works and in our prayers.

References[link]

• "Abdullah Al Mamun passes away". The Daily Star. 2008-08-22. http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=51388. Retrieved 2008-08-28. 
• "Abdullah Al Mamun passes away". The New Nation. 2008-08-22. http://nation.ittefaq.com/issues/2008/08/22/news0378.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-28. 

External links[link]

• Abdullah Al Mamun at the Internet Movie Database

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Tagged since August 2011. It relies on references to primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject, rather than references from independent authors and third-party publications. Tagged since April 2012. Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since April 2011.

Snatam Kaur
September 10, 2007, Snatam Kaur in Hockley, Birmingham, England.
Background information
Born	1972 Trinidad, Colorado
Genres	Mantra, Meditation, New Age, Female Vocalists
Occupations	Musician
Years active	2000–present
Labels	Spirit Voyage Records
Website	http://www.snatamkaur.com

Snatam Kaur Khalsa (Punjabi: ਸਨਾਤਮ ਕੌਰ ਖਾਲਸਾ, born 1972 in Trinidad, Colorado), is an American singer and songwriter. She lives in Santa Cruz, California. Kaur performs Indian devotional music, kirtan, and tours the world as a peace activist. The name "Kaur", meaning "princess", is shared by all female Sikhs.

Early life and education[link]

Her family moved to California when Snatam was two, living in Long Beach and Sacramento. When Snatam was six, the family went to India where her mother studied kirtan. Snatam lived on a ranch near Bolinas, California until 8th grade and then moved to Mill Valley in 1986. During her childhood, she played kirtan with her mother in Sikh temples and at Sikh religious ceremonies. She attended Tamalpais High School in Mill Valley. While at Tam High, she played violin in the school orchestra and began songwriting. Bob Weir of the Grateful Dead coached Kaur and her classmates before they performed her song Saving the Earth at an Earth Day concert in San Francisco on April 22, 1990.^{[citation needed]}

Snatam was also active in social and environmental causes while in high school, serving as president of the social action club known as, "Students for Justice," in her senior year. The club started a campus recycling program and organized environmental awareness programs. The club also led the effort to change the school mascot and sports team names from the Indians to the Red Tailed Hawk in 1989 and 1990 due to a speech given at the school by Sacheen Littlefeather.^{[citation needed]}

After graduating from Tam, Snatam attended Mills College in Oakland, California, receiving a bachelors degree in biochemistry. She then returned to India to study Kirtan under her mother's teacher, Bhai Hari Singh. In 1997, Kaur began a career as a food technologist with Peace Cereals in Eugene, Oregon.^[1]

Snatam's music[link]

In 2000, Kaur signed with Spirit Voyage Records—the founder of which, Guru Ganesha Singh, became her manager and guitarist. Her professional collaboration also includes New Age music producer Thomas Barquee. Titles of Kaur's CD's include: Prem, Shanti, Grace, Anand, and Liberation's Door.^[1]

Discography[link]

The Celebrate Peace Tour[link]

Snatam spends much of the year on the road, singing and teaching yoga wherever she’s invited.

Her Celebrate Peace world tour includes stops at schools, hospices, juvenile detention centers, and other facilities where her music can help to heal and inspire. “We reach out to children through our free Children’s Peace Hour, which serves many children in underprivileged communities.” Snatam is a Peace Ambassador working through a United Nations NGO (non-governmental organization) called the 3HO Foundation (the three H’s stand for “happy, healthy, holy”). Snatam uses her public programs as an opportunity to educate audiences about the importance of mutual understanding and respect in these troubled times.

On tour, Snatam is joined by her longtime musical partner GuruGanesha Singh who exudes joy and warmth with his guitar and vocals. She also travels with her husband Sopurkh Singh who serves as her manager, and their new baby daughter Jap Preet Kaur.^[1]

Kundalini yoga[link]

Snatam offers Yoga training via her “Creating Inner Peace through Kundalini Yoga and Meditation” workshops. These classes provide instruction in the technology of Kundalini as taught by Yogi Bhajan. Chanting is an essential part of the Kundalini Yoga practice.^[1]

Sikh influence[link]

Sikhism is a world religion that began in India in the mid-fifteenth century with the master Guru Nanak (1469-1539 C.E.). The essence of being a Sikh is that one lives one’s life according to the teachings of the Sikh Gurus, devoting time to meditating on God and the scriptures, chanting, and living life in a way that benefits other people and the world.^{[citation needed]}

Snatam’s own teacher, Yogi Bhajan (1929-2004), was influential in helping promote the Sikh tradition in the West.^{[citation needed]}

Sikhism is based on the Shabad Guru. On Kaur's official website she explains, “Shabad is the sacred energy or recitation of sound, and Guru means the living teacher. For Sikhs, our living Guru exists within the sacred words of our tradition. As part of our daily practice we take a sacred divine reading from the Siri Guru Granth Sahib, which is a collection of writings from enlightened teachers and sages in India. It includes the Sikh Gurus, but also incorporates saints from other traditions.” ^[1]

Personal life[link]

Snatam lives in Santa Cruz, California with her husband Sopurkh Singh Khalsa, whom she married in January 2006, and their daughter Jap Preet Kaur.

Notes and references[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Snatam Kaur discography at Music City