Taekwondo
 |
200px
A World Taekwondo Federation taekwondo sparring match |
| Also known as |
Taekwon-Do, Tae Kwon-Do, Tae Kwon Do |
| Focus |
Striking |
| Country of origin |
 Korea |
| Famous practitioners |
Criss Angel, Chris Barnett, Stephan Bonnar, Hee Il Cho, Chang Keun Choi, Choi Hong Hi, Kwang Jo Choi, Raymond Daniels, Kessarin Ektawatkul, Young Il Kong, Han Cha Kyo, Benson Henderson, Darrell Henegan, Tony Jaa, Cung Le, David Loiseau, Nam Tae Hi, Chuck Norris, Jong Soo Park, Jung Tae Park, Anthony Pettis, Chong Chul Rhee, Jhoon Rhee, Ki Ha Rhee, Anderson Silva, Dennis Siver, Yanin Vismitananda |
| Olympic sport |
Since 2000 (WTF regulations) |
Taekwondo (태권도; 跆拳道; Korean pronunciation: [tʰɛkwʌndo]) is a Korean martial art and the national sport of South Korea. In Korean, tae (태, 跆) means "to strike or break with foot"; kwon (권, 拳) means "to strike or break with fist"; and do (도, 道) means "way", "method", or "path". Thus, taekwondo may be loosely translated as "the way of the hand and the foot." [1] The name taekwondo is also written as taekwon-do, tae kwon-do, or tae kwon do by various organizations, based on historical, philosophical, or political[citation needed] reasons.
It combines combat techniques, self-defense, sport, exercise, and in some cases meditation and philosophy. In 1989, Taekwondo was the world's most popular martial art in terms of number of practitioners.[2] Gyeorugi (pronounced [ɡjʌɾuɡi]), a type of sparring, has been an Olympic event since 2000.
There are two main branches of taekwondo development, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive:
- "Traditional taekwondo" typically refers to the martial art as it was established in the 1950s and 1960s in the South Korean military, and in various civilian organisations, including schools and universities. In particular, the names and symbolism of the traditional patterns often refer to elements of Korean history, culture and religious philosophy. Today, the Kukkiwon, or World Taekwondo Headquarters is the traditional center for Taekwondo in Korea.
- "Sport taekwondo" has developed in the decades since the 1950s and may have a somewhat different focus, especially in terms of its emphasis on speed and competition (as in Olympic sparring). Sport taekwondo is in turn subdivided into two main styles; one derives from Kukkiwon, the source of the sparring system sihap gyeorugi which is now an event at the summer Olympic Games and which is governed by the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF). The other comes from the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).[3]
Although there are doctrinal and technical differences between the two main styles and among the various organizations, the art in general emphasizes kicks thrown from a mobile stance, employing the leg's greater reach and power (compared to the arm). Taekwondo training generally includes a system of blocks, kicks, punches, and open-handed strikes and may also include various take-downs or sweeps, throws, and joint locks. Some taekwondo instructors also incorporate the use of pressure points, known as jiapsul, as well as grabbing self-defense techniques borrowed from other martial arts, such as hapkido and judo.
The oldest Korean martial art was an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje,[4] where young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of these techniques was subak, with taekkyeon being the most popular of the segments of subak. Those who demonstrated strong natural aptitude were selected as trainees in the new special warrior corps, called the Hwarang. It was believed that young men with a talent for the liberal arts may have the grace to become competent warriors. These warriors were instructed in academics as well as martial arts, learning philosophy, history, a code of ethics, and equestrian sports. Their military training included an extensive weapons program involving swordsmanship and archery, both on horseback and on foot, as well as lessons in military tactics and unarmed combat using subak. Although subak was a leg-oriented art in Goguryeo, Silla's influence added hand techniques to the practice of subak.
During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Koguryo. These warriors then became known as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do, which means "the way of flowering manhood." The Hwarang studied taekkyeon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor and justice. Taekkyeon was spread throughout Korea because the Hwarang traveled all around the peninsula to learn about the other regions and people.
In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean martial arts faded into obscurity during the Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings.[5] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeon were reserved for sanctioned military uses. Civilian folk practice of taekkyeon persisted into the 19th century.[4]
During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), all facets of ethnic Korean identity were banned or suppressed.[6] Traditional Korean martial arts such as taekkyeon or subak were banned during this time.[7] During the occupation, Koreans who were able to study and receive rankings in Japan were exposed to Japanese martial arts.[8] Others were exposed to martial arts in China and Manchuria.[9][10][11]
When the occupation ended in 1945, Korean martial arts schools (kwans) began to open in Korea under various influences.[9][12] There are differing views on the origins of the arts taught in these schools. Some believe that they taught martial arts that were based primarily upon the traditional Korean martial arts taekkyon and subak,[13][14][15][16][17] or that taekwondo was derived from native Korean martial arts with influences from neighboring countries.[9][18][19][20][21][22] Still others believe that these schools taught arts that were almost entirely based upon karate.[23][24][25]
In 1952, at the height of the Korean War, there was a martial arts exhibition in which the kwans displayed their skills. In one demonstration, Nam Tae Hi smashed 13 roof tiles with a punch. Following this demonstration, South Korean President Syngman Rhee instructed Choi Hong Hi to introduce the martial arts to the Korean army. By the mid-1950s, nine kwans had emerged. Syngman Rhee ordered that the various schools unify under a single system. The name "taekwondo" was submitted by either Choi Hong Hi (of the Oh Do Kwan) or Song Duk Son (of the Chung Do Kwan), and was accepted on April 11, 1955. As it stands today, the nine kwans are the founders of taekwondo,[26] though not all the kwans used the name. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed in 1959/1961 to facilitate the unification.[8][14][27]
In the early 1960s, Taekwondo made its début worldwide with assignment of the original masters of taekwondo to various countries. Standardization efforts in South Korea stalled, as the kwans continued to teach differing styles. Another request from the Korean government for unification resulted in the formation of the Korea Tae Soo Do Association, which changed its name back to the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965 following a change of leadership. The International Taekwon-Do Federation was founded in 1966, followed by World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.
Since 2000, Taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games; it became a demonstration event starting with the 1988 games in Seoul, and became an official medal event starting with the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, Taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport.[28]
One source has estimated that as of 2009, Taekwondo was practiced in 123 countries, with over 30 million practitioners and 3 million individuals with black belts throughout the world.[citation needed] The South Korean government in the same year published an estimate of 70 million practitioners in 190 countries.[29]
Taekwondo is known for its emphasis on kicking techniques, which distinguishes it from martial arts such as karate or southern styles of kung fu. The rationale is that the leg is the longest and strongest weapon a martial artist has, and kicks thus have the greatest potential to execute powerful strikes without successful retaliation.
Taekwondo as a martial art is popular with people of both genders and of many ages. Physically, taekwondo develops strength, speed, balance, flexibility, and stamina. An example of the union of mental and physical discipline is the breaking of wooden boards, bricks or tiles, which requires both physical mastery of the technique and the concentration to focus one's power.
A taekwondo student typically wears a uniform (dobok 도복/道服), often white but sometimes black (or other colors), with a belt (dti 띠) tied around the waist. There are at least three major styles of do-bok, with the most obvious differences being in the style of jacket: (1) the cross-over front jacket that resembles traditional Asian clothing, (2) the V-neck jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by WTF practitioners, and (3) the vertical-closing front jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by ITF practitioners. The belt colour and any insignia thereon indicate the student's rank. In general, the darker the colour, the higher the rank. The school or place where instruction is given is called the do-jang (도장). The grandmaster of the do-jang is called a gwan-jang-nim (관장님); Master (senior instructor or head of do-jang) is called sa-beom-nim (사범님); Instructor is called gyo-san-nim (교사님); Assistant Instructor is called jo-gyo-nim (조교님)
Taekwondo, along with many other martial arts, is traditionally performed in bare feet, though there are specialist training shoes that can sometimes be worn.
Although each taekwondo club or school will be different, a student typically takes part in most or all of the following:[30]
- Learning the techniques and curriculum of taekwondo
- Both anaerobic and aerobic workout, including stretching
- Self-defense techniques (hosinsool 호신술)
- Patterns (also called forms, poomsae 품새/品勢, teul 틀, hyeong 형/型)
- Sparring (called gyeorugi 겨루기, or matseogi 맞서기 in the ITF), which may include 7-, 3-, 2- and 1-step sparring, free-style sparring, arranged sparring, point sparring, and other types
- Relaxation and meditation exercises; breathing control
- Throwing and/or falling techniques (deonjigi 던지기 and ddeoreojigi 떨어지기)
- A focus on mental and ethical discipline, etiquette, justice, respect, and self-confidence
- Breaking (gyeokpa 격파 or weerok), using techniques to break boards for testing, training and martial arts demonstrations. Demonstrations often also incorporate bricks, tiles, and blocks of ice or other materials. Can be separated into three types:
- Power breaking – using straightforward techniques to break as many boards as possible
- Speed breaking – boards are held loosely by one edge, putting special focus on the speed required to perform the break
- Special techniques – breaking fewer boards but using jumping or flying techniques to attain greater heights, distances, or to clear obstacles
- Exams to progress to the next rank
Some schools teach the "sine wave" technique when performing patterns. This involves raising one's center of gravity between techniques, then lowering it as the technique is performed, producing the up-and-down movement from which the term "sine wave" is derived. Other schools teach that one's center of gravity should remain generally constant throughout the performance of a pattern except where the pattern's description states otherwise.
Two of the most popular systems of taekwondo are named solely after their respective organizations: the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) and the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).
The WTF was founded in 1973, with roots in the KTA. The KTA Central Dojang had been opened in South Korea in 1972, and a few months later, the name was changed to the Kukkiwon. The following year, the WTF was formed. The International Olympic Committee recognized the WTF and taekwondo sparring in 1980.
Although the terms "WTF" and "Kukkiwon" are often mistakenly used interchangeably, the Kukkiwon is a completely different organization which trains and certifies instructors and issues official dan and poom certificates worldwide. The Kukkiwon has its own unique physical building that contains the administrative offices of Kukkiwon (World Taekwondo Headquarters) in Seoul, South Korea and is the system of taekwondo. The WTF is a tournament committee and is not technically a style or a system.
The ITF was founded in 1966 by Choi Hong Hi as a splinter group from the KTA. After Choi's death in 2002, a number of succession disputes splintered the ITF into three different groups, all claiming to be the original. These three bodies are all private organizations. Two are located in Austria and one in Canada. The unofficial training headquarters of the ITF is located at the Taekwondo Palace in Pyongyang, North Korea, and was founded in the mid-1990s. There are many other private organizations, such as the World Traditional Taekwondo Union and American Taekwondo Association promoting the Songahm style of taekwondo and Rhee Taekwon-Do teaching the military style of taekwondo. Events and competitions held by private organizations are mostly closed to other taekwondo students. However, the WTF-sanctioned events allow any person, regardless of school affiliation or martial arts style, to compete in WTF events as long as he or she is a member of the WTF Member National Association in his or her nation, which is open to anyone to join. The major technical differences among these many organizations revolve around the patterns, called hyeong 형, poomsae 품새, or teul 틀, sets of prescribed formal sequences of movements that demonstrate mastery of posture, positioning, and technique, sparring rules for competition, and philosophy.
In addition to these private organizations, the original schools (kwans) that formed the organization that would eventually become the Kukkiwon continue to exist as independent fraternal membership organizations that support the WTF and the Kukkiwon. The official curriculum of the kwans is that of the Kukkiwon. The kwans also function as a channel for the issuing of Kukkiwon dan and poom certification (black belt ranks) for their members.
Taekwondo ranks are typically separated into "junior" and "senior," or "student" and "instructor," sections. The junior section typically consists of ten ranks indicated by the Korean word geup 급 (also Romanized as gup or kup). The junior ranks are usually identified by belts of various colors, depending on the school, so these ranks are sometimes called "color belts". Geup rank may be indicated by stripes on belts rather than by colored belts. Students begin at tenth geup (often indicated by a white belt) and advance toward first geup (often indicated by a red belt with a black stripe).
The senior section is typically made up of nine ranks. These ranks are called dan 단, also referred to as "black belts" or "degrees" (as in "third dan" or "third-degree black belt"). Black belts begin at first degree and advance to second, third, and so on. The degree is often indicated on the belt itself with stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods; but sometimes black belts are plain and unadorned regardless of rank.
To advance from one rank to the next, students typically complete promotion tests in which they demonstrate their proficiency in the various aspects of the art before a panel of judges or their teacher. Promotion tests vary from school to school, but may include such elements as the execution of patterns, which combine various techniques in specific sequences; the breaking of boards to demonstrate the ability to use techniques with both power and control; sparring and self-defense to demonstrate the practical application and control of techniques; and answering questions on terminology, concepts and history to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the art. For higher dan tests, students are sometimes required to take a written test or submit a research paper in addition to taking the practical test.
Promotion from one geup to the next can proceed rapidly in some schools, since schools often allow geup promotions every two, three, or four months. Students of geup rank learn the most basic techniques first, and then move on to more advanced techniques as they approach first dan. Many of the older and more traditional schools often take longer to allow students to test for higher ranks than newer, more contemporary schools, as they may not have the required testing intervals.
In contrast, promotion from one dan to the next can take years. The general rule is that a black belt may advance from one rank to the next only after the number of years equivalent to the current rank. For example, a newly-promoted third-degree black belt may not be allowed to advance to fourth-degree until four years have passed. Some organizations also have age requirements related to dan promotions, and may grant younger students poom 품 (junior black belt) ranks rather than dan ranks until they reach a certain age.
Black belt ranks may have titles associated with them, such as "master" and "instructor" but taekwondo organizations vary widely in rules and standards when it comes to ranks and titles. What holds true in one organization may not hold true in another, as is the case in many martial art systems. For example, achieving first dan ranking with three years' training might be typical in one organization, but fast in another organization, and likewise for other ranks. Similarly, the title for a given dan rank in one organization might not be the same as the title for that dan rank in another organization.
In the International Taekwon-Do Federation, instructors holding 1st to 3rd dan are called Boosabum (assistant instructor), those holding 4th to 6th dan are called Sabum (Instructor), those holding 7th to 8th dan are called Sahyun (master), and those holding 9th dan are called Saseong (grand master).[31] This system does not, however, necessarily apply to other taekwondo organizations.
Since taekwondo is developed in several different kwans, there are several different expressions of taekwondo philosophy. For example, the tenets of the ITF are said to be summed up by the last two phrases in the ITF Student Oath: "I shall be a champion of justice and freedom" and "I shall build a better and peaceful world."[citation needed]
Taekwondo competition typically involves sparring, breaking, patterns, and self-defense (hosinsul). In Olympic taekwondo competition, however, only sparring (using WTF competition rules) is contested.[32]
There may be two kinds of competition sparring: point, which all strikes are light contact, and the clock is stopped when a point is scored; and Olympic, where all strikes are full contact and the clock continues when points are scored. (citing found at aau website)[citation needed]
Official WTF trunk protector (
hogu), forearm guards and shin guards
Under World Taekwondo Federation and Olympic rules, sparring is a full-contact event and takes place between two competitors in an area measuring 8 meters square.[33] A win can occur by points, or if one competitor is unable to continue (knockout) the other competitor wins.[34] Each match consists of three semi-continuous rounds of contact, with one minute's rest between rounds. There are two age categories: 14–17 years and 18 years and older.
Points are awarded for permitted, accurate, and powerful techniques to the legal scoring areas; light contact does not score any points. The only techniques allowed are kicks (delivering a strike using an area of the foot below the ankle) and punches (delivering a strike using the closed fist).[35] In most competitions, points are awarded by three corner judges using electronic scoring tallies. Several A-Class tournaments, however, are now trialing electronic scoring equipment contained within competitors' body protectors. This limits corner judges to scoring only attacks to the head. Some believe that the new electronic scoring system will help to reduce controversy concerning judging decisions,[36] but this technology is still not universally accepted.[37] Beginning in 2009, a kick or punch that makes contact with the opponent's hogu (the body guard that functions as a scoring target) scores one point; if a kick to the hogu involved a technique that includes fully turning the attacking competitor's body, so that the back is fully exposed to the targeted competitor during execution of the technique (spinning kick), an additional point is awarded; a kick to the head scores three points; as of October 2010 an additional point is awarded if a turning kick was used to execute this attack.[38] Punches to the head are not allowed. As of March 2010, no additional points are awarded for knocking down an opponent (beyond the normal points awarded for legal strikes).
The referee can give penalties at any time for rule-breaking, such as hitting an area not recognized as a target, usually the legs or neck. Penalties mean that either half a point or a whole point is dropped. If the number of points at the end of the match isn't a whole number the score is rounded up to the nearest whole.
At the end of three rounds, the competitor with more points wins the match. In the event of a tie at the end of three rounds, a fourth "sudden death" overtime round, sometimes called "Golden Point", will be held to determine the winner after a one minute rest period. In this round the first competitor to score a point wins the match. If there is no score in the additional round the winner shall be decided by superiority as determined by the refereeing officials.[38]
Until 2008, if one competitor gained a 7-point lead over the other, or if one competitor reached a total of 12 points, then that competitor was immediately declared the winner and the match ended. These rules were abolished by the WTF at the start of 2009. In October 2010 the WTF reintroduced a point gap rule. Under the new rule if a competitor has a 12 point lead at the end of the second round or achieves a 12 point lead at any point in the 3rd round then the match is over and the athlete in the lead is declared the winner.[38]
Depending on the type of tournament and club, competitors may also use fist protectors, foot protectors, instep guards, helmets and mouth guards.
The International Taekwon-Do Federation's sparring rules are similar to the WTF's rules, but differ in several aspects.
- Hand and foot attacks to the head are allowed.[39]
- The scoring system is:
- 1 Point for: Punches to the head or body.[39]
- 2 Points for: Kicks to the body.
- 3 Points for: kicks to the head.
- The competition area may vary between 9x9 meters or 8x8 meters in international championships.
Competitors do not wear the hogu (although they are required to wear approved foot and hand protection equipment, as well as optional head guards). This scoring system varies between individual organisations within the ITF- for example, in the TAGB, punches to the head or body score 1, kicks to the body score 2 and kicks to the head score 3
A continuous point system is utilized in ITF competition, where the fighters are allowed to continue after scoring a technique. Full-force blows are allowed, and knockouts result in a victory; although these rules vary between ITF organizations. At the end of two minutes (or some other specified time) the competitor with more scoring techniques wins.
ITF competitions also feature performances of patterns, breaking, and 'special techniques' (where competitors perform prescribed board breaks at great heights).
American Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) competitions are very similar, except that different styles of pads and gear are allowed.[citation needed]
Apart from WTF and ITF tournaments, major taekwondo competitions (all featuring WTF taekwondo only) include:
WTF taekwondo features in every multi-sport games except the Small Island Games. It was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport in June 2010.
Although taekwondo competitors have an apparently substantial risk of injury, most injuries are minor. A 2009 meta-analysis reported that an average of about 8% of competitors are injured, per exposure to competition; age, gender, and level of play did not significantly affect the injury rate.[40] The legs are the most common location for injuries, and bruising is the most common injury type.
Injuries may occur if students are taught to block punches in a formal manner (chamber position, perfect angles, etc.) even when sparring. When comparing the speed of a punch and the reaction time and time taken to block effectively, it is difficult to block a punch. Many taekwondo schools teach students blocking for grading and classwork and dodging or parrying for sparring.
In taekwondo, Korean language commands are often used. Korean numerals may be used as prompts or commands. Often, students count in Korean during their class, and during tests they are usually asked what certain Korean words (used in class) mean. These words are fairly common amongst taekwondo schools, but pronunciation can vary greatly.
| Romanization |
Hangeul |
Meaning |
| Charyeot |
차렷 |
Attention |
| Gyeongnye |
경례 |
Bow |
| Baro |
바로 |
Return |
| Shwieo |
쉬어 |
At ease (relax) |
| Hyushik |
휴식 |
Rest period (break) |
| Gihap |
기합 |
Yell (shout) |
| Junbi |
준비 |
Ready |
| Shijak |
시작 |
Begin (start) |
| Gallyeo |
갈려 |
Break (separate) |
| Gyesok |
계속 |
Continue |
| Geuman |
그만 |
Finish (stop) |
| Dwiro dora |
뒤로 돌아 |
Turn around (180 degrees) |
| Haego hada |
해고하다 |
Dismiss |
- ^ "World Taekwondo Federation". What Is Taekwondo. http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/about_taekwondo/taekwondo.html. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
- ^ Park Yeon Hee; Park Yeon Hwan; & Jon Gerrard (1989). Tae Kwon Do: The Ultimate Reference Guide to the World's Most Popular Martial Art. Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-8160-3839-8.
- ^ "General Choi Hong Hi". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). 2002-06-26. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1398386/General-Choi-Hong-Hi.html. Retrieved 2008-07-18.
- ^ a b Capener, Steven D.; H. Edward Kim (ed.) (2000). Taekwondo: The Spirit of Korea (portions of). Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Korea. http://www.martialartsresource.com/anonftp/pub/the_dojang/digests/spirit.html. ""Korea has a long history of martial arts stretching well back into ancient times. Written historical records from the early days of the Korean peninsula are sparse, however, there are a number of well-preserved archeological artifacts that tell stores of Korea’s early martial arts.", "taekwondo leaders started to experiment with a radical new system that would result in the development of a new martial sport different from anything ever seen before. This new martial sport would bear some important similarities to the traditional Korean game of taekkyon.""
- ^ Cummings, B. (2005). Korea's Place in the Sun. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
- ^ Han, Woo-Keun (1970). The History of Korea. Korea: The Eul-Yoo Publishing Company. ISBN 978-89-324-5082-7.
- ^ Kyungji Kim (1986). Taekwondo: a brief history. Korea Journal.
- ^ a b Park, S. W. (1993): About the author. In H. H. Choi: Taekwon-Do: The Korean art of self-defence, 3rd ed. (Vol. 1, pp. 241–274). Mississauga: International Taekwon-Do Federation.
- ^ a b c Glen R. Morris. "The History of Taekwondo". http://www.worldtaekwondo.com/history.htm.
- ^ Cook, Doug (2006). "Chapter 3: The Formative Years of Taekwondo". Traditional Taekwondo: Core Techniques, History and Philosophy. Boston: YMAA Publication Center. pp. 19. ISBN 978-1-59439-066-1.
- ^ Choi Hong Hi (1999). "interviews with General Choi.". The Condensed Encyclopedia Fifth Edition. http://www.itf-information.com/information02.htm. Young Choi's father sent him to study calligraphy under one of the most famous teachers in Korea, Mr. Han II Dong. Han, in addition to his skills as a calligrapher, was also a master of taekkyeon, the ancient Korean art of foot fighting. The teacher, concerned over the frail condition of his new student, began teaching him the rigorous exercises of taekkyeon to help build up his body.
- ^ Choi Young-ryul, Jeon Jeong-Woo (2006). "Comparative Study of the Techniques of Taekwondo and Taekkyon" (of publication = Academic Journal). Institution of physical exercise, Korea. pp. 197~206. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?arid=830797.
- ^ "About Tae Kwon Do". The World Taekwondo Federation. http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/about_taekwondo/modern_times.html.
- ^ a b "Historical Background of Taekwondo". The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA). http://www.koreataekwondo.org/KTA_ENG/html/ency/intro01_4.asp.
- ^ "Tae Kwon Do". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580146/tae-kwon-do.
- ^ "Comparing Styles of Taekwondo, Taekkyon and Karate(Video)". TaekwondoBible.com. http://www.taekwondobible.com/discussion/compare/style-compae.html. ""we compare styles of Taekwondo, Taekkyon and Karate in their Kyorugi(sparring). In this comparison, we can see the clear and distinct similarity of Taekwondo and Taekkyon(the old style of Taekwondo). As far as the essence of martial arts is the technical system of attack and defense, sparring style of each martial art will show directly the similarities of martial arts.""
- ^ "Brief History of Taekwondo". Long Beach Press-Telegram. 2005. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=LB&p_theme=lb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10ADF88FD5D15A6B&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM.
- ^ Lawler, Jennifer (1999). "The History of Tae Kwon Do". The Secrets of Tae Kwon Do. Chicago: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 1-57028-202-1.
- ^ 허인욱 (In Uk Heo) (January 2004). "형성과정으로 본 태권도의 정체성에 관하여 (A Study on Shaping of the Taekwondo)" (in Korean with English abstract). 체육사학회지 (Korean Journal of History for Physical Education) 14 (1): 79–87. http://www.reportnet.co.kr/detail/997/996990.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27. ""Some of grand masters of 5 do-jang(道場, Taekwondo Gymnasium)s, which is unified as TKD afterwards, trained Karate during their stay in Japan as students. And the others trained martial arts in Manchuria Therefore it can`t be described as TKD is developed by influence of Karate only. And considering the fact that the main curriculum of those five do-jangs was centered on kicking technique originate from Korean folk, so we know that the current TKD seems to be affected by Korean traditional martial arts.""
- ^ Patrick Zukeran (2003). "The Origins and Popularity of the Martial Arts". Probe Ministries. http://www.probe.org/content/view/1121/65/.
- ^ Henning, Stanley E. (December 1981). "The Chinese Martial Arts in Historical Perspective". Military Affairs (Society for Military History) 45 (4): 173–179. ISSN 0899-3718. "The Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – 220 A.D.) was a period during which conscript armies, trained in the martial arts, expanded the Chinese empire to Turkestan in the west and Korea in the northeast, where commanderies were established. It is possible that Chinese shoubo was transmitted to Korea at this time, and that it was the antecedent to Korean Taekwondo. According to one recent Korean source, "Taekwondo is known to have had its beginning in the period 209–427 A.D. ...""
- ^ Jung Kun-Pyo, Lee Kang-Koo (2007). "An Analysis on the various views of Taekwondo History" (of publication = Academic Journal). Institution of Physical science, Korea. pp. 3~12(10 pages). http://dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?start_page=1&end_page=10&view_flag=1&code1=&code2=&code2name=&code3=&code3name=&code4=&code4name=&code5=&code5name=&code7=&code7name=&code8=&issn=&isbn=&date=&uciYN=&order_field=weight&order_flag=DESC&max_cnt=10&case_fld=1&field_r=&rquery=&field=v_F0&query=%ED%83%9C%EA%B6%8C%EB%8F%84+%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC&search_cnt=1&totalcnt=2&arid=975562.
- ^ Capener, Steven D. (Winter 1995). "Problems in the Identity and Philosophy of T'aegwondo and Their Historical Causes". Korea Journal (Korean National Commission for UNESCO). ISSN 0023-3900. "[dubious – discuss] "... t'aegwondo was first brought into Korea from Japan in the form of Japanese karate around the time of the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule ..."."
- ^ Madis, Eric (2003). "(The Evolution of Taekwondo from Japanese Karate)". In Green, Thomas A. and Joseph R. Svinth. Martial Arts in the Modern World. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-98153-3. "[dubious – discuss] "...the following essay links the origins of taekwondo to twentieth-century Shotokan, Shudokan, and Shitō-ryū karate and shows how the revised history was developed to support South Korean nationalism."
- ^ Burdick, Dakin (1997). People and Events of Taekwondo's Formative Years. volume 6, issue 1. Journal of Asian Martial Arts. http://journalofasianmartialarts.com/.
- ^ Sik, Kang Won; Lee Kyong Myung (1999). A Modern History of Taekwondo. Seoul: Pogyŏng Munhwasa. ISBN 978-89-358-0124-4.
- ^ Jewell, D. (2005): Rhee Taekwon-Do: A history of taekwondo Retrieved on 23 July 2009.
- ^ Williams, Bob (23 June 2010). "Taekwondo set to join 2018 Commonwealth Games after 'category two' classification". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/taekwondo/7849693/Taekwondo-set-to-join-2018-Commonwealth-Games-after-category-two-classification.html. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- ^ Kim, H.-S. (2009): Taekwondo: A new strategy for Brand Korea (21 December 2009). Retrieved on 8 January 2010.
- ^ "Taekwondo". Taekwondo Training. http://www.taekwondo-training.com/. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
- ^ Choi, H. H. (1993): Taekwon-Do: The Korean art of self-defence, 3rd ed. (Vol. 1, p. 122). Mississauga: International Taekwon-Do Federation.
- ^ World Taekwondo Federation (2004). "Kyorugi rules". Rules. www.wtf.org. Archived from the original on 2007-07-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20070702031430/http://www.wtf.org/site/rules/competition.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
- ^ World Taekwondo Federation (2010): Competition rules & interpretation (2 March 2010, p. 5). Retrieved on 31 May 2010.
- ^ http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/rules/file/WTF_Competition_Rules_and_Interpretation_GA_Passed_on_Mar_2_2010_with_photo.pdf Article 18
- ^ http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/rules/file/WTF_Competition_Rules_and_Interpretation_GA_Passed_on_Mar_2_2010_with_photo.pdf p.26 Article 11
- ^ http://www.gazette.com/articles/olympic-60680-lopez-taekwondo.html
- ^ http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/0610695-british-taekwondo-chief-says-new-judging-system-far-flawless
- ^ a b c World Taekwondo Federation (Oct 7, 2010): Competition rules & interpretation (7 October 2010, pp. 31–32). Retrieved on 27 November 2010.
- ^ a b International Taekwon-Do Federation Articles 33 & 34
- ^ Lystad RP, Pollard H, Graham PL (2009). "Epidemiology of injuries in competition taekwondo: a meta-analysis of observational studies". J Sci Med Sport 12 (6): 614–21. DOI:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.09.013. PMID 19054714.
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Indian subcontinent
- North India: Gatka (Sikh) · Inbuan (Mizoram) · Lathi (stick fighting) · Malla-yuddha · Musti yuddha · Mukna (Manipur) · Pehlwani (Persian wrestling) · Thang-Ta (Manipur)
- South India: Kalarippayattu · Kuttu varisai · Marma Ati · Silambam
- Middle East and Central Asia
Greater Iran
- Varzesh-e Pahlavani, Pehlwani
folk wrestling: Armenian, Azeri, Mongolian, Turkish, Uzbek
- Western
- Historical fencing: German · French school of fencing · Italian · Spanish
- stick fighting: Bataireacht · Bâton français · Juego del Palo · Jogo do Pau · quarterstaff · singlestick
- striking: Pankration · Greek boxing, Russian fist fighting
- folk wrestling: Breton · English: Cumbrian, Devon, Lancashire · Greek · Icelandic · Scottish · Serbian · Swiss
- Other
- Americas: Okichitaw
- Africa: Dambe, Istunka, Canarian wrestling, Senegalese wrestling
- Oceania: Mau rākau
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| Summer sports |
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| Winter sports |
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| Former Olympic sports |
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| Part of the 2016 program |
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| Demonstration sports |
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