Ma Chao (176 – 222)[1] was the oldest son of Ma Teng and a military general during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he received the nickname "Ma Chao the Splendid" due to his elaborate armour and grand skill as a warrior. Ma is remembered as one of the Five Tiger Generals of Shu Han, popularized by the novel.
Ma Chao was born in Maoling, Fufeng (northeast of present-day Xingping, Shaanxi) to the warlord Ma Teng and a Qiang woman. His father was one of the many warlords who emerged at the end of the Han Dynasty, and was appointed "General Who Conquers the West" (征西将军) by the imperial court.
Ma Chao was ordered by his father to follow Zhong Yao, Director of Retainers, to attack Guo Yuan and Gao Gan in Pingyang.[2] In the ensuing battle, Ma Chao was hit by an arrow in the foot, but he wrapped his foot in a pouch and continued fighting. He managed to defeat the enemy, while his subordinate Pang De slew Guo Yuan.[2] When Cao Cao became chancellor later, he wanted Ma Chao to serve in the capital city but Ma declined.
At that time, Ma Teng had disagreements with Han Sui, "General Who Controls the West", and he left Liang Province to work in the capital. Ma Teng was appointed "Minister of the Guards" by Cao Cao, and the rest of his family moved to Ye.[2] Ma Chao remained in Liang Province, and was appointed "Lieutenant General" (偏将军) and ordered to take over command of his father's forces. He also received the title of "Marquis of Duting" (都亭侯).
In 211, Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. They were due to pass through Liang Province along the way, and Ma Chao suspected that Cao Cao was planning to attack him. He reconciled with Han Sui and contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi, and others. They formed an army of about 100,000 strong to attack Cao Cao at Tong Pass.
Before the battle, Cao Cao went forth to negotiate with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao thought highly about himself and secretly planned to capture Cao Cao. However, he was afraid to move when Cao Cao's bodyguard, Xu Chu, glared at him. Cao Cao later put Ma Chao's family to death for the rebellion. Cao Cao then used Jia Xu's ploy to make Ma Chao and Han Sui become suspicious of each other and turn hostile. Ma Chao and Han Sui's army was annihilated by Cao Cao's forces at the Battle of Tong Pass. Ma Chao escaped west after his defeat and was pursued by Cao Cao to Anding. There, Cao Cao heard about unrest in the north and ordered his troops to retreat east.
Ma Chao led the forces of the western tribes to attack the prefectures in Longxi and all the prefectures submitted to him, except for Jicheng.[3] Ma Chao scored a victory at the Battle of Jicheng and killed Wei Kang, the Inspector of Liang Province, and occupied the city. He declared himself "General Who Conquers the West" (征西將軍) and took over governance of Bing Province and control of military affairs in Liang Province. Wei Kang's deputies, Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan, Zhao Qu and others, were unhappy with Ma Chao and plotted against him. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu rebelled in Licheng and Ma Chao left Jicheng to suppress the revolt but failed. In the meantime, Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu closed the gates of Jicheng and denied Ma Chao entry. Ma Chao had no choice but to seek shelter under Zhang Lu in Hanzhong.
Ma Chao was unhappy with Zhang Lu as he felt that Zhang was not capable nor ambitious enough to make great achievements.[2] He asked Zhang Lu for troops to attack Liang Province from time to time, but never succeeded.
Zhang Lu once thought of marrying his daughter to Ma Chao, but Wang Shang, one of Zhang's followers, opposed the idea, saying that Ma Chao was courageous but inhumane and untrustworthy.[4] Another follower of Zhang Lu suggested that Ma Chao will not love those around him.[5] Zhang Lu then decided to abort his plan. Ma Chao regretted causing the deaths of his family members, as on one New Year's Day, he lamented to a relative, "A big family with hundred members, all sharing the same fate in one day. Now are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"[6]
Due to Ma Chao's disgraceful past, Zhang Lu became suspicious of Ma's loyalty to him, and he sent Yang Bai to watch over Ma. After sensing that Liang Province was not easy to conquer and that Zhang Lu distrusted him, Ma Chao led his men out of Hanzhong to live with the Di people around Wudu.
Another portrait of Ma Chao
When Ma Chao heard that Liu Bei had besieged Liu Zhang in Chengdu, he killed Yang Bai to prove his loyalty and sent a secret letter to Liu Bei, requesting to join him. Liu Bei was pleased and he sent Li Hui to bring Ma Chao to Chengdu.[7] Liu Zhang surrendered and Liu Bei occupied Yi Province. Liu Bei appointed Ma Chao as "General Who Pacifies the West" (平西將軍) and put him in charge of Linju, which befitted Ma Chao's previous title of "Marquis of Duting". Ma Chao was subsequently promoted to "General of the Left" (左將軍) when Liu Bei declared himself "King of Hanzhong".
In 221, Ma Chao was appointed "General of Agile Cavalry" (驃騎將軍) and governor of Liang Province, and received the title of "Marquis of Lixiang" (斄鄉侯).[2] Liu Bei's edict read: "I'm not capable but I need to preserve the Han Dynasty. Cao Cao and Cao Pi will be remembered for their sins. I'm disconsolate by their wrongdoings. Our people loathed them and hoped that the Han Dynasty will be restored, such that the Di, Qiang, Xunyu and other ethnic groups will be willing to join us. The northerners look up to you and your valour is well known there. I've an important task for you: I hope that you will use your influence to govern them well and show concern for them. You must show the benefits of the Han government and be impartial in rewarding the good and punishing the evil. You must not let our people down."[8]
During the Hanzhong Campaign, Ma Chao followed Zhang Fei to attack Cao Hong in Wudu. Ma Chao and Zhang Fei attempted to trick Cao Hong into believing that they were planning to attack his rear route, but Cao Xiu saw through their ruse and advised Cao Hong to launch a counterattack. Ma Chao and Zhang Fei were defeated and forced to retreat. As a consequence of Ma Chao's defeat, the Di people turned their allegiance to Cao Hong and killed Wu Lan, one of Ma Chao and Zhang Fei's subordinates.
When Peng Yang was appointed governor of Jiangyang and was about to leave Chengdu to assume office, he visited Ma Chao and said, "If you're in charge of external affairs and I'm in charge of internal affairs, the country will not be hard to pacify."[9] Ma Chao interpreted Peng Yang's statement as: "If you rebel outside Chengdu and I assist you inside, the country is not hard to conquer." Hence, Ma Chao secretly reported Peng Yang's "treacherous speech" to the chancellor Zhuge Liang and Peng was executed for plotting a rebellion.
In brief, Ma Chao's main concern after joining Shu was to solidify his position in the state by getting rid of Peng Yang, whom Zhuge Liang disliked.[10]
Ma Chao died at the age of 47 in 222. Before his death, he wrote to Liu Bei, "Most of my extended family of 200 people were killed by Cao Cao. Only my younger cousin Ma Dai is left. Let him continue our family line. I entrust him to you, Your Majesty. That's all I have to say."[11]
Ma Chao was granted the posthumous nobility title of "Marquis Wei" (威侯) and the title was inherited by his son, Ma Cheng. Ma Chao's daughter later married Liu Bei's son Liu Li, the Prince of Anping. When Ma Chao defected to Liu Bei, he left his concubine (surnamed Dong) and his son (named Ma Qiu) in Zhang Lu's domain. After Zhang Lu surrendered to Cao Cao, Cao Cao presented Lady Dong to Yan Pu, and Ma Qiu to Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu killed Ma Qiu personally.[2]
- Ancestor: Ma Yuan
- Grandfather: Ma Ping (馬平)
- Father: Ma Teng, a prominent warlord who served as Minister of the Guards in Luoyang. He was executed on Cao Cao's orders after Ma Chao started a rebellion.
- Siblings:
- Ma Xiu, younger brother, executed on Cao Cao's orders after Ma Chao started a rebellion
- Ma Tie, younger brother, executed on Cao Cao's orders after Ma Chao started a rebellion
- Spouses:
- Lady Dong (董氏), Ma Chao's concubine. She remained in Zhang Lu's domain when Ma defected to Liu Bei. Cao Cao presented her to Yan Pu after Zhang Lu surrendered.
- Children:
- Ma Qiu (馬秋), born to Lady Dong. He remained in Zhang Lu's domain when his father defected to Liu Bei. Cao Cao presented him to Zhang Lu after Zhang surrendered. Zhang Lu killed him personally.
- Ma Cheng (馬承)
- Lady Ma (馬氏), married Liu Bei's son Liu Li, the Prince of Anping
- Lieutenant General (偏將軍)
- Marquis of Du (都亭侯)
- General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) - granted to Ma Chao by himself
- Governor of Bing Province (并州牧) - granted to Ma Chao by himself
- General Who Pacifies the West (平西將軍)
- General on the Left (左將軍)
- General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍)
- Governor of Liang Province (涼州牧)
- Marquis of Li (斄鄉侯)
- Marquis Wei (威侯) - granted to Ma Chao posthumously
The order of events and description of Ma Chao's character were largely altered in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The three main differences between Ma in the novel and in actual history are:
- In the novel, Cao Cao discovered that Ma Teng was plotting with a few others, including Liu Bei and Dong Cheng, to assassinate him, so he decided to get rid of Ma Teng. He lured Ma Teng and his sons to Luoyang and had them murdered. Ma Chao was enraged and vowed to avenge his father and brothers, so he led an uprising against Cao Cao. In actual history, Ma Chao's family was put to death by Cao Cao after Ma started the rebellion.
- In the novel, Ma Chao was described to be "brave but incapable". However, in actual history, Ma Chao was said to be comparable to Ying Bu, Peng Yue and Han Xin of the early Han Dynasty.
- In the novel, Ma Chao lived until 225, three years after his death in actual history.
In 211, Ma Chao mobilized his forces to wage war against Cao Cao to avenge his father and brothers, who were killed on Cao's orders. With support from Han Sui, his father's sworn brother, Ma Chao attacked Chang'an and conquered the city easily, after which he advanced towards Tong Pass. Cao Cao was alarmed and he sent Xu Huang and Cao Hong to lead 10,000 troops to the pass, issuing orders for them to refrain from engaging the enemy and defend the pass for 10 days. However, by the ninth day, Cao Hong was unable to bear the insults and taunts from Ma Chao and his men, and led a contingent out of the pass to attack Ma Chao without seeking permission first. Xu Huang came to Cao Hong's aid but both of them were no match for Ma Chao, and lost Tong Pass.
Cao Cao personally led an army to retake Tong Pass. In the ensuing battle, many of his best generals, such as Zhang He and Yu Jin, were defeated by Ma Chao single handedly. Ma Chao charged towards Cao Cao after spotting him. Cao Cao fled and he cut his beard and discarded his red robe during the escape to avoid being identified by Ma Chao's troops before being rescued by Cao Hong and Xiahou Yuan. Cao Cao then led his army across the river to cut off Ma Chao's supply lines, but Ma anticipated the assault and was lying in ambush. Cao Cao narrowly escaped again under the cover of his bodyguard Xu Chu, a man of herculean strength. Ma Chao and Xu Chu engaged in a long duel and neither of them managed to defeat his opponent. The fight was stopped when Cao Cao ordered a retreat. Back in camp, Cao Cao praised Xu Chu as a true mighty warrior, whose fighting ability befitted his nickname of "Tiger Craze".
In the following days, Ma Chao led his men to harass Cao Cao's troops and gave them no chance to set up camps. Cao Cao knew it was difficult to defeat a valiant general like Ma Chao, so he accepted his advisor Jia Xu's strategy to sow discord between Ma and Han Sui, and turn them against each other. Ma Chao fell for the ruse and he became suspicious of Han Sui. Eventually, as tension mounted, Ma Chao confronted Han Sui and attempted to kill him but Han managed to escape under the protection of his subordinates. Han defected to Cao Cao and Cao's forces seized the opportunity to launch an attack. Ma Chao lost the battle and fled with his surviving men to join Zhang Lu.
Zhang Fei and Ma Chao duel at Jiameng Pass
The Battle of Jiameng Pass is a fictional battle in Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Ma Chao escaped after his defeat at the Battle of Tong Pass and joined the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. Zhang Lu later sent Ma Chao to lead an army to reinforce Liu Zhang in Yi Province, who was under attack by Liu Bei. Ma Chao's first encounter with Liu Bei's forces was at Jiameng Pass (葭萌關). He engaged Zhang Fei in two long duels, with neither of them emerging the victor. Fearing that they might get hurt, Liu Bei consulted Zhuge Liang and they agreed that Ma Chao would become a valuable ally, given his fighting capabilities, if he submitted to Liu Bei. Liu Bei then sent Li Hui to persuade Ma Chao to join his side, while employing tricks to make Zhang Lu distrust Ma. Ma Chao pondered over the situation and eventually decided to pledge allegiance to Liu Bei. He became one of the Five Tiger Generals of Shu later.
- "Ma Chao's arrogance and overestimation of his ability caused the extermination of his entire clan. What a great pity! If he could give up his pursuit for fame and glory and refrain from competing with others, wouldn't he have saved himself from disaster?" (馬超阻戎負勇，以覆其族，惜哉！能因窮致泰，不猶愈乎！) – Chen Shou[2]
- "If the young horse[12] doesn't die, I wouldn't be able to have a burial site!" (馬兒不死，吾無葬地也。) – Cao Cao[2]
- "Mengqi[13] is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing[14] and Peng.[15] He can compete with Yide,[16] but is not as good as the peerless beard.[17] " (孟起兼資文武，雄烈過人，一世之傑，黥、彭之徒，當與益德並驅爭先，猶未及髯之絕倫逸群也。) – Zhuge Liang[2]
- "The tens of generals in Guanzhong may not be united. Among them, only Han Sui and Ma Chao are the most powerful ones." (關中將帥以十數，莫能相一，唯韓遂、馬超最彊。) – Xun Yu[18]
- "(Ma) Chao possesses courage but not humanity; he knows no allegiance. He cannot be trusted in a relationship that calls for an interdependency." (超勇而不仁，見得不思義，不可以為脣齒。) – Wang Shang[19]
- "(Ma) Chao has the courage of Xin[20] and Bu,[14] and he has the support of the Qiang and Rong peoples. If we retreat now and don't station defenses here, we forfeit all the prefectures in Longxi." (超有信、布之勇，甚得羌、戎心。若大軍還，不嚴為其備，隴上諸郡非國家之有也。) – Yang Fu[2]
- "(Ma) Chao is strong but iniquitous; he is morally weak and susceptible to temptation and trickery." (超强而无义，多衅易图耳。) – Yang Fu[3]
- "An unfilial son who would betray his own father, and a cruel subordinate who tried to murder his lord." (背父之逆子，杀君之桀贼) – Jiang Xu's mother[3]
- "If somebody can't even love his own family,[21] how will he love others?" (有人若此不愛其親，焉能愛人？) – Zhang Lu's follower[2]
- "(Ma Chao) rose up, formed alliances, started an uprising in the Three Qins,[22] conquered the river and Tong Pass. (He) rebelled against the imperial court, regardless of whether his followers agreed or disagreed with him. (In doing so, he) provided an opportunity for the enemy to sow discord (between him and his men), resulting in the destruction of his family and forces. (He) defied morals and ethics, and ended up having to rely on Dragons and Phoenixes.[23] " (驃騎奮起，連橫合從，首事三秦，保據河、潼。宗計於朝，或異或同，敵以乘釁，家破軍亡。乖道反德，託鳳攀龍。) – Yang Xi[24]
- "Bad diplomatic relations between Zhou and Zheng;[25] Emperor Gaozu of Han requesting for a bowl of broth;[26] Kui Xiao giving away his son;[27] Ma Chao betraying his father; (these are) examples of extreme cruelty." (是以周、鄭交惡，漢高請羹，隗囂捐子，馬超背父，其為酷忍如此之極也。) – Sun Sheng[28]
Ma Chao appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.
Ma Chao is featured in the Taiwanese television drama K.O.3an Guo, a parody of Romance of the Three Kingdoms in a present day school setting.
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Ma Chao, Western Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.
- ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 638. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Biography of Ma Chao, Volume 36, Records of Three Kingdoms
- ^ a b c Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 25, Biography of Yang Fu.
- ^ (超勇而不仁，見得不思義，不可以為脣齒。) Chen Shou. Record of Three Kingdoms, Volume 38, Biography of Xu Jing.
- ^ (有人若此不愛其親，焉能愛人？) Chen Shou. Record of Three Kingdoms, Volume 36, Biography of Ma Chao.
- ^ (闔門百口，一旦同命，今二人相賀邪？) Chen Shou. Record of Three Kingdoms, Volume 36, Biography of Ma Chao.
- ^ Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 43, Biography of Li Hui.
- ^ (朕以不德，獲繼至尊，奉承宗廟。曹操父子，世載其罪，朕用慘怛，疢如疾首。海內怨憤，歸正反本，暨於氐、羌率服，獯鬻慕義。以君信著北土，威武並昭，是以委任授君，抗颺虓虎，兼董萬里，求民之瘼。其明宣朝化，懷保遠邇，肅慎賞罰，以篤漢祜，以對於天下。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 36, Biography of Ma Chao.
- ^ (卿為其外，我為其內，天下不足定也。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 40, Biography of Peng Yang.
- ^ Zhuge Liang had secretly warned Liu Bei on numerous occasions that Peng Yang was an ambitious individual and Shu would not remain peaceful with Peng around. (諸葛亮雖外接待羕，而內不能善。屢密言先主，羕心大誌廣，難可保安。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 40, Biography of Peng Yang.
- ^ (臣門宗二百餘口，為孟德所誅略盡，惟有從弟岱，當為微宗血食之繼，深讬陛下，餘無複言。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 36, Biography of Ma Chao.
- ^ The Chinese character for "Ma" means "horse"
- ^ Ma Chao's style name
- ^ a b Refers to Ying Bu
- ^ Refers to Peng Yue
- ^ Zhang Fei's style name
- ^ The "peerless beard" refers to Guan Yu, as Guan wears a long beard. Zhuge was aware that Guan viewed himself highly, so he wrote that Guan was better than Ma, as he did not want Guan to become jealous of Ma, which would lead to rivalry between them.
- ^ Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 10, Biography of Xun Yu.
- ^ Chen Shou. Record of Three Kingdoms, Volume 38, Biography of Xu Jing.
- ^ Refers to Han Xin
- ^ This was a reference to Ma Chao's rebellion against the Han imperial court, which caused his family to be implicated and executed.
- ^ The Three Qins refers to the Guanzhong region.
- ^ the "rely on Dragons and Phoenixes" (託鳳攀龍) means to rely on people of power and influence to achieve stability in life.
- ^ Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 45, Biography of Yang Xi.
- ^ The "Zhou" refers to the Zhou Dynasty royal family while the "Zheng" refers to the vassal Zheng state. Both sides initially exchanged family members as hostages to maintain peace, but they waged war on each other later.
- ^ Xiang Yu once captured Liu Bang (later Emperor Gaozu of Han)'s father and threatened to boil him alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu replied, "You're my sworn brother, so my father is also your father. If you want to cook him, please give me a bowl of broth as well."
- ^ Kui Xiao, a minor warlord in the early Eastern Han Dynasty, once gave his son to Emperor Guangwu of Han as a hostage in exchange for the emperor's trust.
- ^ Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 24, Biography of Gao Rou.
- ^ Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 65.
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Ma, Chao |
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Maoling, Fufeng |
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