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- Duration: 45:58
- Updated: 13 Mar 2012
- published: 13 Mar 2012
- views: 331569
Oh what a feeling baby, knowledge and brutality
Whose soul you stealing baby, lost your immortality
Another empty conquest, Venus set me free
Oh what a ritual father, father why you leaving me
They've found another martyr, rather it was him than me
They took away his language, then his memory
He said ";I'm never, never coming back again";
Oh what a battle master, what a noble enemy
We have to kill them bastards, then compose an elegy
I thought I saw their leader fallen on his knees
He said ";I'm never, never coming back again";
Oh what an ending baby, promise you'll remember me
I'm not pretending baby, your sweet and wicked treachery
Water all my orchids, save my dynasty
I said ";I'm never, never coming back again";
Oh what a feeling baby, knowledge and brutaltiy
Whose soul you stealing baby,lost your immortality
Another empty conquest, Venus set me free
Oh what a ritual father, father why you leaving me
They've found another martyr, rather it was him than me
They took away his language, then his memory
He said "I'm never, never coming back again
Oh what a battle master, what a noble enemy
We have to kill them bastards, then compose an elegy
I thought I saw their leader fallen on his knees
He said "I'm never, never coming back again
Oh what an ending baby, prominse you'll remember me
I'm not pretending baby, your sweet and wicked treachery
Water all my orchids, save my dynasty
Who knows what kind of reality the soul occupies,
and where it goes when the body ceases to function?
It has been my experience that all things follow patterns
miracles happen through the consistency of nature
I choose to believe that the same princi-
ple carries on beyond this reality that life
is unending, but ever changing…
I can feel you here, I can feel you here,
Who knows what kind of reality the soul occupies,
and where it goes when the body ceases to function?
It has been my experience that all things follow patterns
miracles happen through the consistency of nature
I choose to believe that the same princi-
ple carries on beyond this reality that life
is unending, but ever changing...
I can feel you here, I can feel you here,
I can feel you here inside
Questioned for the cause that lies unknown
Pressed firmly to the hot coals
Repent for the gift of the blissful blow
For no more pain
Joints torn apart in vengeful rage
Held within the iron cage
Another soul another pain
Septic lying in their own waste
Torn apart...
The helpless dead from the start
Lives to fuel the fire of the developing ways
The darkened days
Recreated they're now our spawn
Turn their face from the light
For they fear their turn
It is known where they hide
Satisfaction through split flesh is what we reap
Infatuation with the colour of life
Living real our fantasies
Taking pleasure from the bloodied frail
The application of pain our new religion
Pray...
Torn apart...
The helpless dead from the start
Lives to fuel the fire of the developing ways
The darkened days
Recreated they're now our spawn
Turn their face from the light
For they fear their turn
It is known where they hide
Satisfaction through split flesh is what we reap
Infatuation with the colour of life
Living real our fantasies
Taking pleasure from the bloodied frail
The application of pain our new religion
Pain finds every corner of the soul
Pain makes all our dreams possible
Without... suffering...
Rob de Nijs Roman
Liefde is niet voor mij
Als je weg wilt ga dan maar gauw
ik had gehoopt dat ik tot rust kwam bij jouw
maar misschien is het waar wat je zei
jij bent het niet voor mij
Jij had die warmte waar ik zo van hou
maar d'r is veel meer wat verloren ging met jou
'k wilde geloven en dat is voorbij
liefde is niet voor mij
liefde is niet voor mij
Ik ken mijzelf niet ik was altijd heel koel
nu zit ik zomaar met veel te veel gevoel
vergeet mijn zwakte en laat me weer vrij
jij was het niet voor mij
liefde was niet voor mij
niets gewonnen en niets kwijt
niets wat ik jouw verwijt
ik leef maar met de dag
ik heb jouw sporen uitgewist
je spullen in een kist
wie had dat ooit gedacht
ik hou mijn hart vast als ik jouw weer zie
ik hou mijn hart vast als ik jouw weer zie
s'avonds hoor ik nog jouw stem
geeft niet met wie ik ben
want ik ben nog steeds van jouw
maar jij die alles van me wist
weet niet hoe ik je mis
hoeveel 'k nog van je hou
ik hou mijn hart vast als ik jouw weer zie
ik hou mijn hart vast als ik jouw weer zie
ik hou mijn hart vast als ik jouw weer zie
Ik geloof in jou
't Spoor van de sleur is bekend
aan de eentonigheid raak je gewend
't is anders nu jij bij me bent oh ja
ik geloof in jou
ik reed het geluk steeds voorbij
maar jij trok aan de noodrem voor mij
ik sta daar met jou ik ben vrij oh ja
ik geloof in jou
ik dacht altijd dat het wel redelijk ging
maar werd ik wakker in het holst van de nacht
dan zag 'k mezelf in een lege coup
van een trein waarop geen sterveling wacht
ik reed het geluk steeds voorbij
maar jij trok aan de noodrem voor mij
ik sta daar met jou ik ben vrij oh ja
en ik geloof in jou
ik dacht altijd dat het wel redelijk ging
maar werd ik wakker in het holst van de nacht
dan zag 'k mezelf in een lege coup
van een trein waarop geen sterveling wacht
van een stil en vergeten station
voert een nevelig pad naar de zon
onzeker maar ik kijk niet meer om oh nee
want ik geloof in jou
Als je slaapt
als je slaapt kan ik uren naar je kijken
ik heb jouw dan zo ademloos lief
zo ver weg dat geen mens je kan bereiken
droom van mij alsjeblieft
nu zie ik met het maanlicht op ons beiden
schaduw daar waar de eenzaamheid wacht
woorden die 'k overdag niet goed kan vinden
fluister ik elke nacht
jouw hand even op de mijne
mijn stem als jij het niet meer weet
wij zijn vriendjes voor het leven
en daarna
maar voor nu wil ik nachtwacht over jouw zijn
voel ik zelfs iets voor eeuwige trouw
elke dag elke toekomst ieder einde
droom maar ik hou van jou
als je slaapt kan ik uren naar je kijken
ik heb jouw dan zo mateloos lief
zo dichtbij maar geen mens kan je bereiken
droom alsjeblieft van mij
droom alsjeblieft van mij
'N beetje meer
vriendin van mij lieve vriendin
ze begrijpen me nooit als ik zo begin
vriendin ik weet het ook niet goed
hoe je 'n vriend die 'n vrouw is nou noemen moet
en niemand gelooft me maar toch is het waar
we hebben nog nooit iets gehad met elkaar
vriendin van mij je bent altijd weer
alleen een vriendin met een beetje meer
ik was met een stel mensen in de stad
er was een dame bij waar ik wel trek in had
we zaten met z'n allen op een terras
ik vertelde haar net hoe leuk ze was
en toen sprong jij ineens op m'n schoot
de tafel ging om de verwarring was groot
jij begon me geweldig te zoenen
het bier zat iedereen in haren en schoenen
vriendin van mij daar was je weer
lieve vriendin met een beetje meer
ik zat onder jouw en onder het bier
die lekkere dame had geen plezier
'Hypocriet ! je had niets met haar
jullie zitten de hele tijd aan elkaar'
vriendin van mij je maakt het weer
je zei mij net dat beetje meer
maar jij was degene die wel iets deed
toen de rest mij mooi de straat op smeet
ik ging kapot 'k was zover heen
ze dachten die redt het wel alleen
natuurlijk iemand met zoveel verdriet
dat is zo leuk gezelschap niet
en dan heb ik ook nog te horen gekregen
stel je niet aan je kan er best tegen
je deed me in bad je deed me in bed
de ochtend daarna heb je koffie gezet
'k sliep in je armen die ene keer
toen was je net dat beetje meer
wat jullie niet snappen is natuurlijk weer
dat er vriendjes zijn en een beetje meer
vriendjes en soms een klein beetje meer
en soms een heel klein beetje meer
Voor 'n ander
liefde is wat je voelt voor een ander
die ineens zoveel meer is voor jouw
dat heel gewone ineens verlicht
je vindt je dromen in een gezicht
dat is misschien wat liefde is
liefde is wat je haast niet kunt noemen
als je weet dat je kwetsbaar mag zijn
niet langer eenzaam voorbij de schijn
en durven wennen aan samen zijn
dat is misschien wat liefde is
niet langer eenzaam voorbij de schijn
en durven wennen aan samen zijn
wie zal het zeggen
wie weet precies wat liefde is
Blijf je bij mij
ik werd vijftien jaar die zomer
dat mijn ouders gingen reizen
ik zou op het huis gaan passen
natuurlijk moest ik me bewijzen
en het was of het vanzelf ging
toen ik jouw heb meegenomen
in het westen werd de hemel
violet boven de duinen
en er viel een vreemde stilte
over dennenbos en tuinen
en ik zag iets in je ogen
dat me zo onzeker maakte
en we keken naar beneden
en jouw hand lag in de mijne
net als duizend jaar geleden en je vroeg
blijf je bij mij
wanneer het donker wordt
eerst was alles even prachtig
maar daar leer je gauw aan wennen
en jij bleef niet lang het meisje
dat ik graag had leren kennen
nu komt steeds meer koude argwaan
en meer afstand in je ogen
je gezicht verliest het zachte
en je mond verteerde bogen
en we hebben op een avond
voor het eerst gemeen geslagen
en daarna was het stilte
vol onuitgesproken vragen
blijf je bij mij
wanneer het donker wordt
misschien komt er eens een zomer
dat we over alles heen zijn
misschien voor ons beide samen
misschien zullen we alleen zijn
maar we zullen elkaar kennen
en ons weten aan te passen
ongelukkig of gelukkig hoe dan ook
als we weer onder de hemel staan
dan is het bij ons afscheid
of we blijven samen doorgaan
en dan is het ook voor altijd
maar we weten wat we deden
en jouw hand ligt in de mijne
net als duizend jaar geleden
blijf je bij mij
wanneer het donker wordt
Laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen toe vergeet de strijd
toe vergeet de nijd laat me niet alleen
en die domme tijd vol van misverstand
ach vergeten want het was verspilde tijd
hoe vaak hebben wij met een snijdend woord
ons geluk vermoord kom dat is voorbij
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
lief ik zoek voor jou in 't stof van de wegen
de paarlen van regen de paarlen van dauw
ik zal heel m'n leven werken zonder rust
om jouw licht en lust goud en goed te geven
ik sticht een gebied waar de liefde droomt
waar de liefde loont waar jouw wil geschiedt
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen ik bedenk voor jou
woorden rood en blauw taal voor jouw alleen
en met warme mond zeggen wij elkaar
eens was er een paar
dat zichzelf weer vond
ook vertel ik jou van de koning die
stierf van nostalgie hunkerend naar jou
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
want uit een vulkaan die was uitgeblust
breekt zich na wat rust toch het vuur weer aan
en op oude grond ziet men vaak het graan
heel wat hoger staan dan op verse grond
het wit mint het zwart zwakheid mint de kracht
dat licht mint de nacht mijn hart mint jou wacht
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen nee ik huil niet meer
nee ik spreek niet meer want ik wil alleen
horen hoe je praat kijken hoe je lacht
weten hoe je zacht door de kamer gaat
nee ik vraag niet meer ik wil je schaduw zijn
ik wil je voetstap zijn ik wil je adem zijn
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
laat me niet alleen
ze zeggen dat jij eenzaam bent
h Bo
ik heb je nauwelijks gekend
je was nooit bang alleen te zijn
maar wat nu
ben je echt vergeten waar ik ben
ik was zo blij dat jij bestond
want jij
jij geloofde dat ik alles kon
je zei je maakt het zonder mij
naar de top
liever zat ik met jou aan de grond
(refrein:)
als ik van jou zing
dan is het toch met iets van ach misschien
h h Bo
ik mis je meer dan ooit
en wat er fout ging
we waren veel te jong om dat te zien
h h BO
ouder werd ik nooit
ik woon weer net als jij alleen
't was mooi
maar ook die nieuwe vlam verdween
ik was een dromer en een clown
volgens haar
Bo kom terug we horen bij elkaar
(refrein)
ik was een dromer en een clown
is dat waar
Bo kom terug we horen bij elkaar
Enz.
'N schaduw
ze weet dat hij
haar hart misbruikt
maar als hij gaat
dan slaapt ze met zijn hemd
omdat dat naar hem ruikt
soms blijft hij weg
wat zijn ze vrij
maar zij zit thuis
want uitgaan vindt ze niets
zonder hem erbij
en ze kijkt om zich heen
ze is veel meer dan alleen
ze is z'n schaduw en zijn helft
maar hij verdwijnt
en waar blijft zij dan zelf
ze voelt dat hij
haar zo vergeet
ze wacht en wacht
met opgestoken haar
omdat dat hem iets deed
nog vaak denkt zij
aan hoe het was
maar op een dag
gooit zij z'n foto weg
en pakt opeens haar tas
en het geeft niet waarheen
ze is veel liever alleen
ze is geen schaduw en geen helft
maar zo veel meer
verborgen in zichzelf
en het geeft niet waarheen
ze is veel liever alleen
ze is geen schaduw en geen helft
maar zo veel meer
verborgen in zichzelf
ze geeft weer om zichzelf
ze is geen schaduw en geen helft
maar zo veel meer
gevonden in zichzelf
ze houd weer van zichzelf
Na 't feest
op 't grasveld in de regen
liggen sporen van 't feest
lege flessen vuile tafels ach
het is te gek geweest
ik lig op iemands kussen
op een drank- en as-tapijt
want als er al een bed is hier
dan is het toch niet vrij
en ik denk meisje
meisje waar ben je naar toe
meisje zie je niet wat je me doet
wat zou je zeggen als ik na dit feest
bij je aanwip en je vraag
h hoe heet je
en wat doe je vandaag
de kaarsen en de lampion
zijn stuk en uit en nat
maar gisteravond wezen ze
de plek aan waar ze zat
en ik met al m'n praatjes
wist geen woorden meer voor haar
maar wat ik deed en waar ik keek
ik voelde zij is daar
en ik dacht meisje
meisje waar ga je naar toe
meisje zie je niet wat je me doet
wat zou je zeggen als ik heel erg diep
in je glaasje kijk en vraag
h hoe heet je
en wat doe je vandaag
en murengrijze ochtend
in dit uitgefeeste huis
er wacht geen mens op mij
en zij heeft zij wel iemand thuis
ik zoek mijn autosleutels
en ik trek mijn laarzen aan
vanochtend heb ik voor het eerst
een echte reden op te staan
wat zou je zeggen als ik bij 't ontbijt
uit je eitje kruip en vraag
h hoe heet je
en wat doe je vandaag
h hoe heet je
en wat doe je vandaag
L.A.T.
twee uur s'nachts
de deur sluit achter jou
ik blaas de kaarsen uit
het bed is nog warm
en ruikt naar man en vrouw
en onze plaat draait door
muziek voor twee
heeft plots'ling geen doel
en het speelt in de leegte
die ik voel
m'n hart schreeuwt om jou
ik wou dat je bleef
ik droom maar ik hou m'n mond dicht
ik wacht op jou
en speel dat ik leef
maar zet de klok stil tot jij komt
de tijd stil tot jij komt
en weet dat 't zo
niet langer kan
ik lig op de bank
en ik wacht op de dag
die zinloos naar jou komt
het eerste licht
valt op jouw lege glas
en doet me denken
aan je mond
ik zeg het je niet
zolang we samen zijn
maar jou vrije jongen
heeft n groot geheim
m'n hart schreeuwt om jou
ik wou dat je bleef
ik droom maar ik hou m'n mond dicht
ik wacht op jou
en speel dat ik leef
maar zet de klok stil tot jij komt
de tijd stil tot jij komt
en weet dat 't zo
niet langer kan
ik zet de klok stil tot jij komt
de tijd stil tot jij komt
en weet dat 't zo
niet langer kan
Voor Robbert
wat moet jij met wijze raad
in de lente van je leven
wie weet hoe het verder gaat
'k heb zoveel aan jou te geven
maar je slaapt nog en je droomt
van de hemel die jij kent
dus ik vraag zolang aan God
die weet wat jij voor mij betekent
spaar hem elke lange nacht
elke angst die ik gekend heb
zeg hem dat er iemand wacht
iemand die hem overeind helpt
neem hem nooit de dromen af
die ook ik als jongen had
en geef hem alles wat u gaf
telkens als ik daarom bad
en m'n dagen in de zon
al m'n zorgeloze zomers
toen ik elke kant op kon
en de regen nog moest komen
zijn voor m'n zoon net als de dag
waarop hij weet waarvoor hij leeft
en dat ondanks bitt're kou
Look up roman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Roman or Romans may refer to:
|
Note: the following entries are arranged in an etymological tree.
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. |
Gaius Julius Caesar | |
---|---|
Dictator of the Roman Republic | |
The "Tusculum portrait", possibly the only surviving bust of Caesar made during his lifetime |
|
Reign | October 49 BC – 15 March 44 BC (as dictator and/or consul) |
Full name | Gaius Julius Caesar |
Born | July 100 BC |
Birthplace | Subura, Rome |
Died | 15 March 44 BC (aged 55) |
Place of death | Curia of Pompey, Rome |
Consort | Cornelia Cinna minor 84 – 69 BC Pompeia 68 – 63 BC Calpurnia Pisonis 59 – 44 BC |
Offspring | Julia Caesaris c. 73 – 54 BC Caesarion 47 – 30 BC Augustus 63 BC – 14 AD (grand-nephew, posthumously adopted as Caesar's son in 44 BC) |
Royal House | Julio-Claudian |
Father | Gaius Julius Cæsar |
Mother | Aurelia Cotta[1] |
These articles cover the Ancient Roman Comitium of the Republican era | |
---|---|
Structures- | Rostra, Curia Hostilia, Curia Julia, Lapis Niger |
Politicians- | Cicero, Gaius Gracchus, Julius Caesar |
Assemblies- | Roman Senate, comitia curiata |
Gaius Julius Caesar[2] (Classical Latin: [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.lɪ.ʊs ˈkaj.sar],[3] July 100 BC[4] – 15 March 44 BC)[5] was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus and Pompey formed a political alliance that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power through populist tactics were opposed by the conservative elite within the Roman Senate[citation needed], among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain.
These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's standing. The balance of power was further upset by the death of Crassus in 53 BC. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a standoff between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. Ordered by the Senate to stand trial in Rome for various charges, Caesar marched on Rome with one legion—legio XIII—from Gaul to Italy, crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC.[6] This sparked a civil war from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity". A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the constitutional government of the Republic. However, the result was a series of civil wars, which ultimately led to the establishment of the permanent Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir Octavius (later known as Augustus). Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources.
Contents |
Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus.[7] The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedere, caes-).[8] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[9]
Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia,[10] while his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.[11]
Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. There were several wars from 91 BC to 82 BC, although from 82 BC to 80 BC, the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla was purging Rome of his political enemies. Domestically, Roman politics was bitterly divided. In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly[12] so at sixteen Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new high priest of Jupiter.[13]
Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to a plebeian girl he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Lucius Cinna's daughter Cornelia.[14] Meanwhile, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to Rome and had himself appointed to the revived office of dictator.[15]
Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.[11]
Caesar left Rome and joined the army, where he won the Civic Crown for his part in an important siege. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumors of an affair with the king arose, which Caesar would vehemently deny for the rest of his life.[16] Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.[17]
Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in a lower-class neighborhood of Rome.[18] Instead, he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.
On the way across the Aegean Sea,[19] Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner.[20] He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty.[21][22] After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity[23]—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.[citation needed]
On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC,[24] and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia. His wife, Cornelia, also died that year.[25] After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain.[26] While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realized with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC,[27] he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced.[28]
In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.[29] When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.[30]
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Spain, but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus be open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.[31]
As imperator, Caesar was entitled to a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.[32]
In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates. The election was sordid – even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favor of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus.[33]
Caesar was already in Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia.[34] Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.[35]
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavorable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His bodyguards had their ceremonial axes broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar."[36]
When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over.[37] With the help of political allies, Caesar later overturned this, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.[38] When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.[39]
Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion[40] or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.[41]
In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north (directly opposite Britain).[42] During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirate held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.[43] The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained.[44] Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain.
In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year possibly the Veneti of Brittany.[45] His intelligence information was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.[46] He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances. However, poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.[47]
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the edge of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.[48]
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.[49] Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year,[50] Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men during the Gallic Wars, of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved. The Romans subjugated 300 tribes and destroyed 800 cities.[51] However, in view of the difficulty in finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the stated totals of enemy combatants are likely to be too high.
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished.[52] Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. In January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only one legion and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast".[53]
Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea icta esto" let the die be cast.[54] Pompey and much of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in his newly raised troops. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture him before his legions could escape.[55]
Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Caesar decided to head for Spain, while leaving Italy under the control of Mark Antony. Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where in July 48 BC at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. He decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement later that year.[56]
In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator,[57] with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorship.[57][58] Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, where Pompey was soon murdered.[59]
Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head,[60] which was offered to him by the pharaoh as a gift. In any event, Caesar withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.[61]
Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman law recognized marriages only between two Roman citizens. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted fourteen years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and may have fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.[62]
Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year.[58] After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.[63] On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited from May 27 to 29, 47 BC, (May 25-27greg.) Tarsus, where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point.[64][65][66] Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide.[67]
After this victory, he was appointed Dictator for ten years.[68] Nevertheless, Pompey's sons escaped to Spain; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC.[69] During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).
While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honors on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honor Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.[70] On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Marcus Junius Brutus would be the next heir in succession.
During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system that had made its members rich.[citation needed]
Between his crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.[71] First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the empire. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit.[71]
The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.[71] To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,[72] and so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.[citation needed]
When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went Caesar's way. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.[73] Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars.[74] At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horse and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.[74]
After the triumph, Caesar set forth to passing an unprecedented legislative agenda.[74][dubious ] He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and that jurors could only come from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed.[74]
The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works. Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.[75] From 47 to 44 BC he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.[76]
The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had resulted in a great deal of disorder. Caesar replaced this calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year.[77]
To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC.[74][77] This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar.
Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.[74] He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theater, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria.[74]
He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians, Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilization. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honor.[74]
He was granted further honors, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch; coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Mark Antony as his high priest.[74]
The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the Proconsulship.[72] His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies.[72] He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within eleven days. In 48 BC, he was re-appointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for ten years.[78]
In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator for life. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants,[78] mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy.[78] In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul without a colleague.[79]
In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[80] which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[80] although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office.[80] This was not the first time that Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.[80]
In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors.[80] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks that the ordinary censors were subject to, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honors upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator".[78]
Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during senate meetings.[78] Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters.[79]
Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This addressed the underlying problem that had caused the Social War decades earlier, where individuals outside Rome and Italy were not considered "Roman", and thus were not given full citizenship rights. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the emperor Augustus.
When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, and so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900.[79] All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him.[81] To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,[78] Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits.[78]
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC.[79] This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.[79]
On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified Liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns this action to delay Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the senate chamber, Antony fled.[82]
According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.[83] The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").[84]
At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"[85] Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.[86]
According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.[87] The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;"[88] (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, for himself, Suetonius says Caesar said nothing.[89]
Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.[90] The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?");[91][92] this derives from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular when the play was written.[93]
According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.[94] Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumor of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it.
Caesar's body was cremated, and on the site of his cremation the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum). Nowadays, only its altar remains.[95][96] A lifesize wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighboring buildings. In the ensuing chaos Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire.
The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.[97] The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.[98]
The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the Liberators' civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.[99] Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position.
To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC,[100] the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus.[101] It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of a god").[102]
Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla.[103] It engaged in the legally-sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.[104] Antony and Octavius defeated them at Philippi.[105]
Afterward, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to the status of a deity.[106]
Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.[107] His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results.
Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius or Divus Julius (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honors during his lifetime:[108] and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest).[109] Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (son of a god).
Based on remarks by Plutarch,[110] Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.[111] Despite the commonly held belief that Caesar suffered from epilepsy, several specialists in headache medicine believe that a more accurate diagnosis would be migraine headache.[112]
Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.[113][114][115]
In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.[116]
A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.[117] No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defense.[118]
The Roman historian Suetonius describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes."[119]
Using the Latin alphabet as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name would be rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR"; the form "CAIVS" is also attested, using the old Roman representation of G by C; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". The standard abbreviation was, and this is not archaic, "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ligature, which is often encountered in Latin inscriptions where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".)
In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaːjus ˈjuːljus ˈkajsar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ, reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser.
In Vulgar Latin, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate – hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and [ˈtseːsar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. The original /k/ is preserved in Norse mythology, where he is manifested as the legendary king Kjárr.[120]
Caesar's cognomen would itself become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became the German Kaiser and Slavic Tsar/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name.
Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."[123] According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. It is very likely that the rumors were spread only as a form of character assassination; Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.[124] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.[citation needed]
Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers,[125] but later apologised.[126]
Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor.[127]
Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.[128] Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato and respond to Cicero's Cato memorial. Poems by Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.[129] His works other than his war commentaries have been lost, although a few sentences are quoted by other authors.
Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are:
These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front." Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's Commentarii are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated tracts, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats[citation needed] in Rome, Italy, and the provinces.
This section requires expansion. |
In the Middle Ages Caesar was created a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry.
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For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007–8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see Arles portrait bust.
Bust in Naples National Archaeological Museum, photograph published in 1902
Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum
Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, Rimini, Italy
Find more about Julius Caesar on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Learning resources from Wikiversity |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
Political offices | ||
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Preceded by Lucius Afranius and Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer |
Consul of the Roman Republic with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus 59 BC |
Succeeded by Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus and Aulus Gabinius |
Preceded by none office last held by Sulla in 81 BC |
Dictator 49 BC (eleven days) |
Succeeded by none office next held by himself in 48 BC |
Preceded by Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus and Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior |
Consul of the Roman Republic with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus 48 BC |
Succeeded by Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius |
Preceded by none office last held by himself in 49 BC |
Dictator 48 – 47 BC |
Succeeded by none office next held by himself in 46 BC |
Preceded by Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius |
Consul of the Roman Republic with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus 46 BC |
Succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar alone without colleague |
Preceded by none office last held by himself in 47 BC |
Dictator for ten years 46–44 BC |
Succeeded by himself as Dictator in perpetuity |
Preceded by Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus |
Consul of the Roman Republic alone without colleague 45 BC |
Succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Antonius |
Preceded by Gaius Julius Caesar alone without colleague |
Consul of the Roman Republic with Marcus Antonius 44 BC |
Succeeded by Publius Cornelius Dolabella (with Marcus Antonius) |
Preceded by himself as Dictator for ten years |
Dictator in perpetuity and consul for ten years 44 BC |
Succeeded by none, office abolished |
Religious titles | ||
Preceded by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius |
Pontifex Maximus 63–44 BC |
Succeeded by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus |
Caesar was acclaimed Imperator in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium.
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Nicki Minaj | |
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Minaj at 2010 MTV Music Awards |
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Background information | |
Birth name | Onika Tanya Maraj |
Born | [1] Saint James, Trinidad and Tobago |
December 8, 1982
Origin | South Jamaica, Queens, New York, U.S. |
Genres | Hip hop, R&B, pop |
Occupations | Rapper, singer-songwriter |
Years active | 2002–present |
Labels | Cash Money Records, Young Money Entertainment, Universal Republic Records, Universal Motown |
Associated acts | Young Money |
Website | mypinkfriday.com |
Onika Tanya Maraj (born December 8, 1982), known by her stage name Nicki Minaj ( /mɪˈnɑːʒ/), is a Trinidadian-born American rapper and singer-songwriter. She was born in Saint James, Trinidad and Tobago and when she was 5 years of age she moved to the New York City borough of Queens, where she grew up.
After releasing three mixtapes between 2007 and 2009 and being signed to Young Money Entertainment in August 2009, Minaj released her debut album, Pink Friday, in November 2010. It quickly became a commercial success, peaking at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and being certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) a month after its release.[2][3] She became the first female solo artist to have seven singles on the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time.[4] Her second single, "Your Love", reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot Rap Songs chart, making Minaj the first female artist to top the chart unaccompanied since 2002.[5] She also became the first female artist to be included on MTV's Annual Hottest MC List.[6] Minaj was named the 2011 Rising Star by Billboard.[7] Her second studio album, Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded was released on April 3, 2012.
Contents |
Maraj was born in 1982[1][note 1] in Saint James, a suburb of Trinidad and Tobago's capital city Port of Spain.[8][9][10] Her parents are of mixed Indian and Afro-Trinidadian ancestry[11][12] and she lived in Saint James with her grandmother until age five, because her parents were looking for a place to live in the Queens borough of New York City at the time. Her mother would occasionally visit, and one day, when Minaj was five, her mother picked her up to move to Queens.[13] According to Minaj, her father drank heavily, took drugs, and once tried to kill her mother by setting the house on fire.[14]
She attended Elizabeth Blackwell Middle School 210, where she played the clarinet.[13] She graduated from LaGuardia High School.[15][16] At LaGuardia, a school specializing in music and the visual and performing arts, Minaj participated in the drama program.[15] She had initially planned to sing at LaGuardia but lost her voice on the day of the audition.[15]
Minaj released her first mixtape in 2007 after releasing Playtime Is Over with Dirty Money Records. She released another mixtape on July 7, 2008, titled Sucka Free, under the label Be. On April 18, 2009, Minaj released a third mixtape and appeared in XXL magazine.[17] She won the Female Artist of the Year award at the 2008 Underground Music Awards.[18] Minaj released Beam Me Up Scotty, another mixtape, in April 2009 under the label of Trapaholics Records; it received positive coverage on both BET and MTV.[19][20]
In August 2009, Minaj signed a record deal with Young Money Entertainment, with distribution from Universal Motown Records, after fellow American rapper Lil Wayne discovered her and secured the record deal.[17][21] She then had a solo rap verse in their single "BedRock," which became a commercial success, reaching number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100. Minaj also appeared on "Roger That", which charted at number 56. The song, and in particular Minaj, received positive reviews from critics.[22] Both songs were included in Young Money Entertainment's debut collaborative studio album We Are Young Money, which was released in December 2009. The album charted in the top ten on the Billboard 200, reaching number 9 and later receiving a Gold Certification by the RIAA. She was then chosen by Mariah Carey to be featured on her single and music video for "Up Out My Face". Critics praised her collaboration for helping to maintain Carey's feminine image and providing a polite track for the female R&B singer.[23]
After a major record label bidding war, Young Money Entertainment announced on August 31, 2009 that Minaj had been released from a 360 deal with the label in which she retains and owns all of her 360 rights – including merchandising, sponsorships, endorsements, touring and publishing.[24] In an interview with 95.8 Capital FM, Rihanna stated that after the two collaborated on "Raining Men" from her album Loud that the duo would be teaming up together for a possible second collaboration on Minaj's Pink Friday.[25] Hip-hop rap artist and producer Kanye West was also confirmed for the album.[26] On August 3, 2010 Minaj revealed on a Ustream.tv channel that the album's name would be Pink Friday, in reference to Black Friday.[27]
Pink Friday was released on November 19, 2010 in both standard and deluxe versions.[28][29] A buzz single, "Massive Attack", was released in April.[30] In August, Minaj released "Your Love" as the first official single from her debut album. The single peaked at 14 on the Billboard Hot 100, 7 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and topped the Rap Songs chart. Minaj became the first female artist to be included on MTV's Annual Hottest MC List[6] and the first female artist to top the chart unaccompanied since 2002.[31] In October 2010, Minaj became the first artist to have seven songs on the Billboard Hot 100 chart simultaneously.[4] Minaj released a joint single with The Black Eyed Peas front man, will.i.am titled, "Check It Out", which is Minaj's most successful single to date in Europe. "Right thru Me" was released September 24, 2010; the music video was released in late October. "Moment 4 Life" was released as the fourth single. The track featured Canadian rapper Drake and was released on December 7, 2010, becoming a success on the Billboard Hot 100. The single peaked at number 5 on the Hot Rap Songs.[32] The album gained a Platinum certification in the United States a month after the release.[3]
On January 29, 2011, Minaj appeared on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest, performing "Right Thru Me" and "Moment 4 Life". On February 9, 2011, it was announced that Pink Friday had reached number one on the Billboard 200 in its eleventh week on the chart.[33] It was hinted by Simon Cowell that Minaj would join the judging panel of the American version of the The X Factor.[34] Starting in June 2011, Minaj will be supporting Pink Friday by serving as an opening act along with Jessie and the Toy Boys and Nervo on Britney Spears' sixth concert tour, the Femme Fatale Tour, in support of her seventh studio album, Femme Fatale.[35] She also was featured on the official remix of Spears' track "Till the World Ends" along with Spears and singer Kesha, which charted at number 3 in the US in April 2011.[36] "Super Bass" was released from Pink Friday in May 2011, the single charted within the top 10 in many countries including; United Kingdom, United States, Australia, Canada and more.[37] The song gained positive reviews from critics.[38][39] Minaj will voice a character in the 3D animated film, Ice Age: Continental Drift, as an unknown character.[40][41] Minaj is also featured on French DJ David Guetta's 2011 album, Nothing but the Beat on "Where Them Girls At" and "Turn Me On".
Minaj's second studio album, Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded, was first announced through Twitter in November 2011 and was released on April 2, 2012 in the United Kingdom and April 3, 2012 in the United States. The album features collaborations with producers Hit-Boy, Dr. Luke, Rico Beats, Kenoe, RedOne and Oak. Cash Money A&R Joshua Berkman told HitQuarters that Minaj was extremely particular about the beats and music she used saying: "She wouldn't just rap or sing on anything – I could give her a thousand tracks and she may only like one or two."[42] Preceding the album's release, three promotional singles were released: Roman in Moscow (which didn't make the final cut of the album), "Stupid Hoe," and "Roman Reloaded." The album's first single, "Starships", was released on February 14.[43] "Starships" became Minaj's best-peaking single in the United Kingdom, when it reached a peak of 2. It has also peaked at number 5 on the US Billboard Hot 100, making it her second top 10 arrival following, "Super Bass" in 2011. The music video was released on April 26th, 2012.[44]
On February 12, 2012, Minaj debuted her song "Roman Holiday" at the 54th Grammy Awards. It was the first song ever performed on the Grammy stage by a solo female rapper.[45] The exorcism-themed performance drew a mixed response online.[46][47]
She was featured on Madonna's twelfth studio album, titled MDNA, alongside M.I.A. on its lead single "Give Me All Your Luvin'", for which a music video has been directed by Megaforce.[48] The trio performed the song for the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show.[49] She was also featured on a song called "I Don't Give A", another track from the album.
She released her second single, "Right by My Side", which features Chris Brown, on March 27, 2012, after premiering on Minaj's website on March 20, 2012.[50] Following the album's release, it peaked at number 24 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart. It also peaked in the lower regions of the UK singles chart, at position #101. The third single, "Beez in the Trap", which features 2 Chainz was released to U.S. Urban radio on April 24, 2012. It was premiered on DJ Flex's radio show at Hot 97 on March 20, 2012. It has peaked at number 24 on the US Billboard Rap Songs Chart.[51] The video was premiered on April 6, 2012 on Minaj's official VEVO account.[52]
Minaj has been noted by the media for her curvaceous figure.[53][54][55][56] In an interview with Vibe Minaj discussed her sexual image stating, "[w]hen I grew up I saw females doing certain things, and I thought I had to do that exactly. The female rappers of my day spoke about sex a lot... and I thought that to have the success they got, I would have to represent the same thing. When in fact I didn’t have to represent the same thing."[57] In an interview with Interview, Minaj commented on her sexual image again stating, "I made a conscious decision to try to tone down the sexiness, I want people—especially young girls—to know that in life, nothing is going to be based on sex appeal. You’ve got to have something else to go with that.”[58] Minaj has a tattoo in Chinese characters that reads "上帝與你常在" (shàngdì yǔ nǐ cháng zài)[59] on her left arm, meaning, "God is always with you."[60]
While growing up, Minaj's home life was often chaotic, with her parents constantly fighting.[61] As a means of escape, she would create characters and live her life through them.[61] In an interview with New York she stated, "To get away from all their fighting, I would imagine being a new person. 'Cookie' was my first identity – that stayed with me for a while. I went on to 'Harajuku Barbie,' then 'Nicki Minaj'. Fantasy was my reality."[61]
On November 18, 2010, Minaj assumed a different alter-ego named "Nicki Teresa".[62] Wearing a colorful scarf around her head, she went around as the "healer to her fans" as she visited them at The Garden of Dreams Foundation at Fuse studios in New York City.[62] Minaj made an appearance on Lopez Tonight on December 6, 2010 and presented a different alter-ego for the Spanish-inspired occasion, named "Rosa" (pronounced Rrrrrosa).[63]
In April 2012, Minaj was asked if Roman, Martha and Rosa come out in the bedroom saying “No, they don’t come out in the bedroom, but other people come out in the bedroom,” she told Big Boy during his “Backstage Breakfast,” adding, “And there’s only one person that would know who that personality is". Minaj did not name her alter-ego.[64]
For her debut album, Minaj created another alter-ego named "Roman Zolanski".[65] She stated that in songs like "Bottoms Up" with Trey Songz it is not Minaj rapping, but instead Roman Zolanski, and claims that Roman is her "twin brother". She claims that he was born inside her, out of rage, and becomes him when she is angry. She has also said 'He is a demon inside her'. Roman has been compared to Eminem's alter ego Slim Shady, and on the song "Roman's Revenge" from Pink Friday, Minaj and Eminem collaborate, using these alter egos.[66] On the collaboration, she said "The new album is going to have a lot of Roman on it ... And if you're not familiar with Roman, then you will be familiar with him very soon. He’s the boy that lives inside of me. He's a lunatic and he's gay and he'll be on there a lot."[67] Roman also has a "mother" called "Martha Zolanski",[68] who also appeared on the song "Roman's Revenge", with a British accent,[69] and on "Roman Holiday", singing for the first time.[70][71] Martha appears in the video for "Moment 4 Life" where she appears to be Minaj's magical Godmother. In songs such as "All I Do Is Win (Remix)" it is Minaj rapping.[65] Minaj stated that on her debut album, fans will get to "meet" Nicki, Roman and Onika.[65]
Minaj has stated that artists who have influenced her musical style include Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes, Lil Wayne, Lauryn Hill, Jadakiss, Natasha Bedingfield, Foxy Brown, Lil' Kim and Missy Elliott.[72][73] She was also inspired by Janet Jackson,[74] Madonna, Britney Spears, Marilyn Monroe, Grace Jones,[75] M.I.A. and Cyndi Lauper.[76][77][78]
During her career, Minaj has signed contracts with a variety of corporate interests. Companies she contracted with include soft drink manufacturer Pepsi;[79] Mattel, which produced a custom a Nicki Minaj-themed Barbie;[80] and MAC Cosmetics, as part of an AIDS-awareness campaign in Latin America.[81]
Minaj is a Christian, and on Christmas Day in 2011, she indicated her faith in Jesus by tweeting John 3:16.[82][83] In addition, she states that after her father went to rehab and started attending church, "he got saved and started changing his life."[84] Minaj states that her heroes are "God. And my mother."[85][86]
While some songs and interviews have implied that Minaj is bisexual,[87][88] she has said that she does not date nor have sex with women,[15] but added in an interview with Out magazine, "I don’t date men either."[89] In an interview with Vibe she commented, "I just embrace all people of all lifestyles and I don’t tell them they are bad people. And I say girls are beautiful and girls are sexy and they need to be told that, and if they don’t have anyone to tell them that and mean it, I’m gonna tell them that. But I feel like people always wanna define me and I don’t wanna be defined."[90] She reiterated her dislike of being labeled in an interview with Out, saying: "The point is, everyone is not black and white. There are so many shades in the middle, and you’ve got to let people feel comfortable with saying what they want to say when they want to say it."[89]
During an interview in the May 2010 issue of Details, Minaj was asked if she felt hip-hop was becoming more gay-friendly. She responded, "I think the world is getting more gay-friendly, so hip-hop is too. But it's harder to imagine an openly gay male rapper being embraced, people view gay men as having no street credibility. But I think we'll see one in my lifetime."[88]
In July 2011, Minaj's cousin Nicholas Telemaque was murdered near his home in Brooklyn, New York City.[91] Telemaque was referenced in Minaj's song "Champion" in her second studio album.[92]
Book: Nicki Minaj | |
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. |
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Kyle Clifford | |
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Born | Ayr, ON, CAN |
January 13, 1991
Height | 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) |
Weight | 207 lb (94 kg; 14 st 11 lb) |
Position | Left Wing |
Shoots | Left |
NHL team | Los Angeles Kings |
NHL Draft | 35th overall, 2009 Los Angeles Kings |
Playing career | 2009–present |
Kyle Clifford (born January 13, 1991) is a Canadian ice hockey left winger currently playing for the Los Angeles Kings in the National Hockey League. He was selected by the Los Angeles Kings in the 2nd round (35th overall) of the 2009 NHL Entry Draft.
Clifford played junior hockey with the Barrie Colts of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He spent three seasons with the Colts, amassing 45 goals and 100 points in 184 games, also totaling 327 penalty minutes. After the 2009-10 season, Clifford joined the Manchester Monarchs of the American Hockey League (AHL) for the postseason.
In 2010-11, he earned a roster spot with the Los Angeles Kings out of training camp. He scored his first NHL goal on December 9, 2010 against Miikka Kiprusoff of the Calgary Flames.[citation needed]
Regular season | Playoffs | |||||||||||||
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Season | Team | League | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM | ||
2007–08 | Barrie Colts | OHL | 66 | 1 | 14 | 15 | 83 | 9 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | ||
2008–09 | Barrie Colts | OHL | 60 | 16 | 12 | 28 | 133 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | ||
2009–10 | Barrie Colts | OHL | 58 | 28 | 29 | 57 | 111 | 17 | 5 | 9 | 14 | 28 | ||
2009–10 | Manchester Monarchs | AHL | — | — | — | — | — | 7 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 12 | ||
2010–11 | Los Angeles Kings | NHL | 76 | 7 | 7 | 14 | 141 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 7 | ||
OHL totals | 194 | 45 | 55 | 100 | 327 | 31 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 54 | ||||
NHL totals | 76 | 7 | 7 | 14 | 141 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 7 |
Riquelme in training with Boca |
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Personal information | |||||||||||||||
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Full name | Juan Román Riquelme | ||||||||||||||
Date of birth | June 24, 1978 | ||||||||||||||
Place of birth | San Fernando, Argentina | ||||||||||||||
Height | 1.82 m (5 ft 11 1⁄2 in) | ||||||||||||||
Playing position | Attacking midfielder | ||||||||||||||
Club information | |||||||||||||||
Current club | Boca Juniors | ||||||||||||||
Number | 10 | ||||||||||||||
Youth career | |||||||||||||||
Argentinos Juniors | |||||||||||||||
1995–2000 | Boca Juniors | ||||||||||||||
Senior career* | |||||||||||||||
Years | Team | Apps† | (Gls)† | ||||||||||||
1996–2002 | Boca Juniors | 151 | (38) | ||||||||||||
2002–2005 | Barcelona | 30 | (3) | ||||||||||||
2003–2005 | → Villarreal (loan) | 68 | (23) | ||||||||||||
2005–2008 | Villarreal | 127 | (61) | ||||||||||||
2007–2008 | → Boca Juniors (loan) | 26 | (10) | ||||||||||||
2008– | Boca Juniors | 153 | (29) | ||||||||||||
National team | |||||||||||||||
1996–2008 | Argentina U23 | ||||||||||||||
1997 | Argentina U20 | 7 | (4) | ||||||||||||
1997–2008 | Argentina | 51 | (17) | ||||||||||||
Honours
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* Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only and correct as of 15:11, 25 June 2011 (UTC). † Appearances (Goals). |
Juan Román Riquelme (born 24 June 1978) is an Argentine footballer who plays for Boca Juniors as an attacking midfielder.
A playmaker, he combines passing, vision and skills with goalscoring ability from midfield. He spent most of his career with Boca Juniors, but also had a significant spell in Spain with Villarreal. He was named the Argentine Footballer of the Year four times.[1]
A longtime Argentine international, Riquelme represented the nation at the 2006 World Cup and two Copa América tournaments.
Contents |
Born in San Fernando, Buenos Aires, Riquelme was born into a family of ten in poverty, and grew up in Don Torcuato. Boca Juniors and Club Atlético River Plate spotted him when he was a youth player for Argentinos Juniors, and he chose to move to the former in 1995 for US$800,000, as he had been a fan of the club since childhood.
On 10 November 1996, aged 18, Riquelme made his Primera División debut, in a 2–0 win against Unión de Santa Fe. Two weeks later, he scored his first senior goal, in a 6–0 triumph over Club Atlético Huracán.
In late November 2002, after seven successful seasons with Boca Juniors which brought him and the club six major titles, including the Intercontinental Cup and the Copa Libertadores in 2000, Riquelme was transferred to FC Barcelona in Spain, for a reported €11 million.[2] Shortly before his departure, his brother, Cristian, was kidnapped: Riquelme negotiated for his brother's release and eventually paid the ransom, later stating this was one of the reasons why he chose to leave Boca.
Manager Louis van Gaal described Riquelme as a "political signing"[3] and treated him with indifference. When the Dutch did play him, he did so rarely, deploying him as a winger; thus, the player was unable to find his form during a period of largely substitute appearances, losing his place in the first team. He played mainly - as a starter - in the Spanish Cup, and netted the game's only goal in a rare UEFA Champions League first XI opportunity, at Club Brugge K.V. in the group stage.
When Barcelona signed Ronaldinho, the club exceeded the maximum foreign players that Spanish teams were allowed and so, Riquelme was loaned to fellow La Liga side Villarreal CF for the following two years. There, he played alongside four compatriots, including Rodolfo Arruabarrena and Juan Pablo Sorín.
At the end of 2004–05, Spanish sports newspaper Marca awarded Riquelme with the title of Most Artistic Player, and he also earned a nomination for the 2005 FIFA World Player of the Year award, after scoring a career-best 15 goals in 35 games as the Valencian finished in a best-ever third position. In an effort to keep hold of him, Villarreal bought up 75% of his rights from Barcelona for up to €8 million, depending on Villarreal performance in the next two seasons, and gave the player a four-year contract;[4] a 25% transfer fee would also given to Barça if Villarreal resold him.
A peculiar contract situation arose when, on 7 December 2005, Villarreal beat French club Lille OSC 1–0 to win its Champions League group, knocking out English giants Manchester United and advancing to the knockout stages in the club's debut season in the main continental competition: because of a clause in the transfer contract with Barcelona, Villarreal had to pay €1 million to the Catalan club; additionally, the contract included another two €1 million clauses; one if Villarreal finished in one of the top four league positions in 2005–06, and an identical clause for the following season.
On 25 April 2006, as Villarreal reached the last-four in the Champions League, in the second leg against Arsenal, Jens Lehmann saved a Riquelme penalty that would have taken the match to extra time. The game ended 0–0 at El Madrigal.[5]
Following a tense situation between player, board of directors and manager Manuel Pellegrini, Riquelme accepted a five-month loan back to Boca Juniors, in February 2007.[6][7] He went on to play a monumental part in Boca's success in the 2007 Libertadores run, scoring against Club Atlético Vélez Sársfield in the round-of-16, Club Libertad in the quarterfinals and Cúcuta Deportivo in the last-four, earning Boca a place in the finals: in the first leg of the final against Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense, he netted once, adding two more in the return in an eventual 5–0 aggregate win - he also won the competition's Most Valuable Player award.
In August 2007, it was reported that Boca had given up hope of re-signing Riquelme. However, a few days later the situation changed, as the team's director Juan Carlos Crespi expressed confidence in the player's return "within 10 days". The negotiations stalled when Villarreal's offer to give up Riquelme in exchange for €4 million, Rodrigo Palacio and half the rights to either Mauro Boselli or Jonathan Maidana was rejected by Boca; it was announced on the 30th that he had been signed by Atlético Madrid for a fee of €8 million - this transfer, however, fell through at the last minute, and Riquelme remained a Villareal player, being awarded the 16 shirt.
On 26 November 2007, Riquelme reached an agreement with the Spaniards and was allowed to re-join Boca Juniors after the transfer window re-opened in January 2008.[8] He had managed no official appearances for the Yellow Submarine during the first half of 2007–08.
Upon his official return to the club, Riquelme played in the 2008 Clausura and the 2008 Libertadores, with Boca reaching the semi-finals of the latter tournament: in the last group stage game against Venezuela's Maracaibo, he assisted Gabriel Paletta and scored one himself in a 3–0 home win - he netted four times during the competition.
In 1997 Riquelme won the South American Youth Championship and captained the under-20 team to the FIFA U-20 World Cup, on both occasions under coach José Pekerman. He played regularly for the full squad during 1999, but would not be selected for the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
In the 2006 World Cup in Germany, Riquelme played all the games as Argentina were defeated in the quarter-finals by the hosts on penalties after a 1–1 draw after extra-time. He delivered the corner from which Roberto Ayala scored the Albiceleste goal.
Following Pekerman's resignation as head coach, Riquelme was tipped by many to take over the reins of captain, in place of the outgoing Sorín. However, after taking that role in the first match under new coach Alfio Basile, he announced on 13 September 2006 his decision to retire from the Selección, claiming that the frequent critics from sectors of the press and public had negatively affected his mother's health, who was hospitalized twice in two months after the 2006 World Cup;[9][10] at that point, he had played 37 international matches, scoring eight goals.
On 26 June 2007, Riquelme was recalled to the national team by Basile as part of the 23-man squad to represent Argentina in the 2007 Copa América.[11] He scored twice in the second group stage game, against Colombia (4–2 win), adding another brace in the quarter-finals against Peru and assisting Lionel Messi on another (4–0); his fifth came in the semi-finals clash against Mexico (3–0), as the national team went on to lose in the final to Brazil.
On 14 October 2007, Riquelme emerged from three months of inactivity at Villarreal to score two free kicks in a 2–0 win against Chile to get his team off to a winning start in the 2010 World Cup qualifiers. On 17 November, he netted twice again in Argentina's 3–0 victory over Bolivia; in March 2009, however, he decided to retire from the national team after a disagreement with coach Diego Maradona.[12]
Argentina included Riquelme as one of the three permitted overage players in the squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics football tournament in Beijing.[13] He captained the team to the gold medal scoring once, against Brazil in the semi-final.[14]
Former manager Sergio Batista stated he would have liked for Riquelme to return to international play, hinting at the possibility of the player appearing in a friendly with Spain in August 2010,[15] which eventually did not happen.
# | Date | Venue | Opponent | Score | Result | Competition |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | 30 April 2003 | Tripoli, Libya | Libya | 3–1 | Win | Friendly |
2. | 17 November 2004 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Venezuela | 3–2 | Win | 2006 World Cup qualification |
3. | 8 June 2005 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Brazil | 3–1 | Win | 2006 World Cup qualification |
4. | 15 June 2005 | Cologne, Germany | Tunisia | 2–1 | Win | 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup |
5. | 18 June 2005 | Nuremberg, Germany | Australia | 4–2 | Win | 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup |
6. | 21 June 2005 | Nuremberg, Germany | Germany | 2–2 | Draw | 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup |
7. | 9 October 2005 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Peru | 2–0 | Win | 2006 World Cup qualification |
8. | 16 November 2005 | Doha, Qatar | Qatar | 3–0 | Win | Friendly |
9. | 2 July 2007 | Maracaibo, Venezuela | Colombia | 4–2 | Win | 2007 Copa América |
10. | 2 July 2007 | Maracaibo, Venezuela | Colombia | 4–2 | Win | 2007 Copa América |
11. | 8 July 2007 | Barquisimeto, Venezuela | Peru | 4–0 | Win | 2007 Copa América |
12. | 8 July 2007 | Barquisimeto, Venezuela | Peru | 4–0 | Win | 2007 Copa América |
13. | 11 July 2007 | Puerto Ordaz, Venezuela | Mexico | 3–0 | Win | 2007 Copa América |
14. | 13 October 2007 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Chile | 2–0 | Win | 2010 World Cup qualification |
15. | 13 October 2007 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Chile | 2–0 | Win | 2010 World Cup qualification |
16. | 17 November 2007 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Bolivia | 3–0 | Win | 2010 World Cup qualification |
17. | 17 November 2007 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | Bolivia | 3–0 | Win | 2010 World Cup qualification |
Club performance | League | Cup | Continental | Total | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Season | Club | League | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |
Argentina | League | Cup | South America | Total | ||||||
1996–97 | Boca Juniors | Primera División | 22 | 4 | 22 | 4 | ||||
1997–98 | 19 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 21 | 0 | ||||
1998–99 | 37 | 10 | 5 | 0 | 42 | 10 | ||||
1999–2000 | 24 | 4 | 16 | 3 | 40 | 7 | ||||
2000–01 | 27 | 10 | 14 | 3 | 41 | 13 | ||||
2001–02 | 22 | 10 | 6 | 0 | 28 | 10 | ||||
Subtotal | 151 | 38 | 43 | 6 | 194 | 44 | ||||
Spain | League | Copa del Rey | Europe | Total | ||||||
2002–03 | Barcelona | La Liga | 30 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 11 | 2 | 42 | 6 |
2003–04 | Villarreal | La Liga | 33 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 12 | 4 | 48 | 13 |
2004–05 | 35 | 15 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 2 | 46 | 17 | ||
2005–06 | 25 | 12 | 1 | 0 | 12 | 2 | 38 | 14 | ||
2006–07 | 13 | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | 13 | 1 | ||
Subtotal | 136 | 39 | 5 | 2 | 46 | 10 | 187 | 51 | ||
Argentina | League | Cup | South America | Total | ||||||
2007 | Boca Juniors | Primera División | 15 | 2 | 11 | 8 | 26 | 10 | ||
2007–08 | 10 | 1 | 10 | 4 | 20 | 5 | ||||
2008–09 | 28 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 35 | 9 | ||||
2009–10 | 24 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 26 | 3 | ||||
2010–11 | 13 | 4 | 13 | 4 | ||||||
2011–12 | 20 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 3 | 30 | 7 | ||
Subtotal | 110 | 19 | 1 | 0 | 39 | 19 | 150 | 38 | ||
Country | Argentina | 261 | 57 | 1 | 0 | 82 | 25 | 344 | 82 | |
Spain | 136 | 39 | 5 | 2 | 46 | 10 | 187 | 51 | ||
Total | 397 | 96 | 6 | 2 | 128 | 35 | 531 | 133 |
Argentina national team | ||
---|---|---|
Year | Apps | Goals |
1997 | 1 | 0 |
1998 | 0 | 0 |
1999 | 5 | 0 |
2000 | 0 | 0 |
2001 | 0 | 0 |
2002 | 1 | 0 |
2003 | 3 | 1 |
2004 | 6 | 1 |
2005 | 13 | 6 |
2006 | 8 | 0 |
2007 | 9 | 9 |
2008 | 5 | 0 |
Total | 51 | 17 |
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