- published: 19 Mar 2008
- views: 132326
- author: zzahier
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
add
Loading...
Branches of Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Applied mathematics
- Dynamical systems and differential equations
- Mathematical physics
- Computing
- Information theory and signal processing
- Probability and statistics
- Game theory
- Operations research
Related Topics
- Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Linear Equations
- Applied Physics
- Nano Technology
- Engineering Sciences
- Mathematical Medicine
- Fluid dynamics
- Computational Mathematics
- Gamma Ray Optics
- Onfrared Optics
- Relative Velocity
- Iciam
- Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
- Biomedical Engineering
- Neuroscience Research
- Quantum Cosmology
- Brain Research
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- .tw
- .台湾
- .台灣
- 1992 Consensus
- 1999 Jiji earthquake
- 228 Incident
- Abkhazia
- Afghanistan
- Agriculture
- Alejandro Jara
- American Samoa
- Ami people
- Ang Lee
- Anping, Tainan
- APEC Australia 1989
- APEC Australia 2007
- APEC Brunei 2000
- APEC Canada 1997
- APEC Chile 2004
- APEC Indonesia 1994
- APEC Indonesia 2013
- APEC Japan 1995
- APEC Japan 2010
- APEC Malaysia 1998
- APEC Mexico 2002
- APEC Peru 2008
- APEC Russia 2012
- APEC Singapore 1990
- APEC Singapore 2009
- APEC Thailand 1992
- APEC Thailand 2003
- APEC Vietnam 2006
- Apo Hsu
- Appellate Body
- Armenia
- Asia
- Atayal people
- Australia
- Azerbaijan
- Bahrain
- Bangladesh
- Baseball
- Bashi Channel
- Basketball
- Battle of Penghu
- Battle of Tamsui
- Beiyang Government
- Bhutan
- Bopomofo
- Brokeback Mountain
- Brunei
- Bubble tea
- Buddhism
- Bunun people
- Burma
- Bushiban
- Cabinet (government)
- Cambodia
- Capital city
- Capital punishment
- Catholics
- Censorship in Taiwan
- Changhua County
- Chen Shui-bian
- Chen Yi (KMT)
- Chen Yi (Kuomintang)
- Chianan Plain
- Chiang Ching-kuo
- Chiang Kai-shek
- Chiayi
- Chiayi City
- Chiayi County
- Chiefdom
- Chien-Ming Wang
- Chin-hui Tsao
- Chin-lung Hu
- China
- Chinese calendar
- Chinese calligraphy
- Chinese character
- Chinese Civil War
- Chinese folk art
- Chinese language
- Chinese nationalism
- Chinese New Year
- Chinese opera
- Chinese painting
- Chinese people
- Chinese Taipei
- Christianity
- Christmas Island
- CIA
- Cinema of Taiwan
- Civil servant
- Climate
- Colorado Rockies
- Common Era
- Communist
- Confucian temple
- Confucianism
- Constitution
- Control Yuan
- Cook Islands
- County (Taiwan)
- Court of Auditors
- Cultural Revolution
- Culture of China
- Culture of Taiwan
- Cyprus
- Dabajian Mountain
- Daylight saving time
- De facto
- Demonym
- Dependent territory
- Developed country
- Diplomacy
- Diplomatic relations
- District (Taiwan)
- Divisions of Taiwan
- Doha Declaration
- Dongsha Islands
- Dragon Boat Festival
- Dutch Empire
- Dutch Formosa
- Dwight D. Eisenhower
- East Asia
- East China Sea
- East Timor
- Easter Island
- Eat Drink Man Woman
- Economy of Albania
- Economy of Algeria
- Economy of Angola
- Economy of Argentina
- Economy of Armenia
- Economy of Australia
- Economy of Austria
- Economy of Bahrain
- Economy of Barbados
- Economy of Belgium
- Economy of Belize
- Economy of Benin
- Economy of Bolivia
- Economy of Botswana
- Economy of Brazil
- Economy of Brunei
- Economy of Bulgaria
- Economy of Burma
- Economy of Burundi
- Economy of Cambodia
- Economy of Cameroon
- Economy of Canada
- Economy of Chad
- Economy of Chile
- Economy of Colombia
- Economy of Croatia
- Economy of Cuba
- Economy of Cyprus
- Economy of Denmark
- Economy of Djibouti
- Economy of Dominica
- Economy of Ecuador
- Economy of Egypt
- Economy of Estonia
- Economy of Fiji
- Economy of Finland
- Economy of France
- Economy of Gabon
- Economy of Germany
- Economy of Ghana
- Economy of Greece
- Economy of Grenada
- Economy of Guatemala
- Economy of Guinea
- Economy of Guyana
- Economy of Haiti
- Economy of Honduras
- Economy of Hong Kong
- Economy of Hungary
- Economy of Iceland
- Economy of India
- Economy of Indonesia
- Economy of Israel
- Economy of Italy
- Economy of Jamaica
- Economy of Japan
- Economy of Jordan
- Economy of Kenya
- Economy of Kuwait
- Economy of Latvia
- Economy of Lesotho
- Economy of Lithuania
- Economy of Macau
- Economy of Malawi
- Economy of Malaysia
- Economy of Mali
- Economy of Malta
- Economy of Mauritius
- Economy of Mexico
- Economy of Moldova
- Economy of Mongolia
- Economy of Morocco
- Economy of Namibia
- Economy of Nepal
- Economy of Nicaragua
- Economy of Niger
- Economy of Nigeria
- Economy of Norway
- Economy of Oman
- Economy of Pakistan
- Economy of Panama
- Economy of Paraguay
- Economy of Peru
- Economy of Poland
- Economy of Portugal
- Economy of Qatar
- Economy of Romania
- Economy of Russia
- Economy of Rwanda
- Economy of Senegal
- Economy of Singapore
- Economy of Slovakia
- Economy of Slovenia
- Economy of Spain
- Economy of Sri Lanka
- Economy of Suriname
- Economy of Swaziland
- Economy of Sweden
- Economy of Taiwan
- Economy of Tanzania
- Economy of Thailand
- Economy of Togo
- Economy of Tonga
- Economy of Tunisia
- Economy of Turkey
- Economy of Uganda
- Economy of Ukraine
- Economy of Uruguay
- Economy of Venezuela
- Economy of Vietnam
- Economy of Zambia
- Economy of Zimbabwe
- Education in Taiwan
- Edward Yang
- Egypt
- Electoral college
- Embassy
- Emblem of Taiwan
- Empire of Japan
- Ethnicity
- Eurasian Plate
- European Union
- Examination Yuan
- Executive Yuan
- F-16 Fighting Falcon
- Fiji
- Finland
- Flag of Taiwan
- Fo Guang Shan
- Foochow Romanized
- Forbidden City
- Foreign policy
- Formosan languages
- Four Asian Tigers
- France
- Freedom of religion
- French Polynesia
- Fu-Te Ni
- Fujian
- Gan Chinese
- Geography of Taiwan
- Geology of Taiwan
- Georgia (country)
- Gini coefficient
- Government agency
- Gregorian calendar
- Guam
- Guangdong
- Gwoyeu Romatzyh
- Haian Range
- Hainan
- Hakka (language)
- Hakka Chinese
- Hakka people
- Han Chinese
- Harry S. Truman
- Hawaii
- Head of state
- Headhunting
- Health care
- Healthcare in Taiwan
- History of Taiwan
- Hokkien
- Hoklo people
- Holidays in Taiwan
- Hong Kong
- Hong-Chih Kuo
- Hou Hsiao-hsien
- Hsinchu
- Hsinchu City
- Hsinchu County
- Hualien County
- Huatung Valley
- Human Rights Day
- Hyperinflation
- I-Kuan Tao
- Identity politics
- Imperial examination
- India
- Indonesia
- Industrialization
- International law
- Iran
- Iraq
- Islam in Taiwan
- Island arc
- ISO 3166
- ISO 3166-2 TW
- ISO 4217
- Israel
- Japan
- Japanese diaspora
- Japanese language
- Japanization
- Jared Diamond
- Jordan
- JSTOR
- Judicial Yuan
- Judiciary
- Jury trial
- Jyutping
- Kaohsiung
- Kaohsiung City
- Kaohsiung Incident
- Karaoke
- Kavalan people
- Kazakhstan
- Keelung
- Keelung Campaign
- Keelung City
- Kidd class destroyer
- Kingdom of Middag
- Kingdom of Tungning
- Kinmen
- Kiribati
- Korfball
- Koxinga
- Kuan Chung
- Kuomintang
- Kuwait
- Kwang-chih Chang
- Kyrgyzstan
- Languages of Taiwan
- Lantern Festival
- Laos
- Late Pleistocene
- Law in Taiwan
- Lebanon
- Lee Teng-hui
- Legislative Yuan
- Legislature
- Literacy rate
- Literature of Taiwan
- Los Angeles Dodgers
- Lotus Lake
- LPGA Tour
- Lunar calendar
- Lust, Caution (film)
- Luzon Strait
- Luzon Volcanic Arc
- Ma Ying-jeou
- Macau
- Madagascar
- Mainland China
- Malaysia
- Maldives
- Mandarin Chinese
- Mao Zedong
- Marrakech Agreement
- Marshall Islands
- Mathematics
- Matsu Islands
- Media of Taiwan
- Meiyu
- Miaoli County
- Military of Taiwan
- Min Chinese
- Min Dong
- Min Nan
- Min-nan
- Ming Dynasty
- Minguo calendar
- Mojibake
- Money laundering
- Mongolia
- Monsoon
- Multiculturalism
- Music of Taiwan
- Nansha Islands
- Nantou County
- National Flag Anthem
- National sport
- Nauru
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Caledonia
- New Taipei
- New Taipei City
- New Taiwan dollar
- New Zealand
- Niue
- North Korea
- North Luzon Trough
- Northern Cyprus
- Official script
- Okinawa Plate
- Olympic Games
- Oman
- Ombudsman
- One China policy
- One-China policy
- Orchid Island
- Outer Mongolia
- Outline of Taiwan
- Pacific Ocean
- Paiwan people
- Pakistan
- Palau
- Paleolithic
- Pan-blue
- Pan-Blue Coalition
- Pan-green
- Pan-Green Coalition
- Papua New Guinea
- Paracel Islands
- Parliament
- Pascal Lamy
- Peace Clause
- Penghu
- Penghu Islands
- Penguin Books
- Pescadores Campaign
- Pe̍h-ōe-jī
- Philippine Sea
- Philippine Sea Plate
- Philippines
- Pingtung County
- Pinyin
- Politics of Taiwan
- Polytheistic
- Portal China
- Portal Taiwan
- Portuguese people
- Pratas Islands
- Prehistory of Taiwan
- President of Taiwan
- Privatization
- Professional golfer
- Protestants
- Province (China)
- PubMed Identifier
- Puyuma people
- Qatar
- Qing
- Qing Dynasty
- Quota Elimination
- Rai Hau-min
- Raid on Taipei
- Recession
- Religion in Taiwan
- Republic
- Republic of Formosa
- Resolution (law)
- Retrocession Day
- Rikichi Andō
- RIMPAC
- Rufus Yerxa
- Rukai people
- Russia
- Russian Far East
- Saisiyat people
- Sakizaya people
- Samoa
- Saudi Arabia
- Science
- Sea level
- Sediq people
- Seismic hazard map
- Shi Lang
- Shih Ming-teh
- Singapore
- Singapore issues
- Sinicization
- Sino-French War
- Siraya language
- Smoking in Taiwan
- Solomon Islands
- South China Sea
- South Korea
- South Ossetia
- Southeast Asia
- Sovereign state
- Sovereignty
- Spanish Formosa
- Sport in Taiwan
- Spratly Islands
- Sri Lanka
- Standard Chinese
- State of Palestine
- Status quo
- Subduction
- Sun Yat-sen
- Suriname
- Sweet potato
- Syria
- Taboo
- Taichung
- Taichung City
- Tainan
- Tainan City
- Taipei
- Taipei 101
- Taipei City
- Taiping Island
- Taitung County
- Taiwan
- Taiwan independence
- Taiwan Major League
- Taiwan Miracle
- Taiwan Prefecture
- Taiwan Province
- Taiwan Relations Act
- Taiwan Strait
- Taiwan Strait Crisis
- Taiwan, China
- Taiwanese aborigine
- Taiwanese aborigines
- Taiwanese cuisine
- Taiwanese Hokkien
- Taiwanese identity
- Taiwanese opera
- Taiwanese people
- Taiwanization
- Tajikistan
- Tamsui
- Tangwai
- Taoism
- Taoyuan City
- Taroko Gorge
- Tectonics
- Television in Taiwan
- Terrane
- Thailand
- Thao people
- The New York Times
- The World Factbook
- Tokelau
- Tonga
- Tongyong Pinyin
- Township (Taiwan)
- Traditional Chinese
- Treaty of Taipei
- Tropic of Cancer
- Tropical climate
- Truku people
- Tsai Ming-Liang
- Tsou people
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- TVBS
- Two Chinas
- Typhoon
- Unicameralism
- Unitary state
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United Nations
- United States
- Universiade
- Urheimat
- US Navy
- UTC+8
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Vietnam
- Village (Taiwan)
- Wade–Giles
- Waishengren
- Wallis and Futuna
- Wang Chien-shien
- Wang Jin-pyng
- Wang Tuoh
- Western Bloc
- Wikipedia Link rot
- Women in Taiwan
- World Fact Book
- World Factbook
- World Games 2009
- Wu Chinese
- Wu Den-yih
- Wuchang Uprising
- Wuchiu
- Wushe Incident
- Xinhai Revolution
- Yami people
- Yangtze Plate
- Yani Tseng
- Yemen
- Yilan County, Taiwan
- Yu Shan
- Yue Chinese
- Yunlin
- Yunlin County
- Zheng Jing
- Zheng Keshuang
- Zhongli
- Abkhazia
- Afghanistan
- American Samoa
- Armenia
- Australia
- Azerbaijan
- Bahrain
- Bangladesh
- Bashi Channel
- Bhutan
- Brunei
- Burma
- Cambodia
- Changhua County
- Chiayi City
- Chiayi County
- China
- Christmas Island
- Control Yuan
- Cook Islands
- Court of Auditors
- Cyprus
- Dabajian Mountain
- Dutch Empire
- East China Sea
- East Timor
- Easter Island
- Egypt
- Empire of Japan
- Executive Yuan
- Fiji
- Finland
- Forbidden City
- France
- French Polynesia
- Fujian
- Guam
- Guangdong
- Hainan
- Hawaii
- Hong Kong
- Hsinchu
- Hsinchu County
- Hualien County
- India
- Indonesia
- Iran
- Iraq
- Israel
- Japan
- Jordan
- Kaohsiung
- Kazakhstan
- Keelung
- Kingdom of Tungning
- Kinmen
- Kiribati
- Kuwait
- Kyrgyzstan
- Laos
- Lebanon
- Lotus Lake
- Luzon Strait
- Macau
- Madagascar
- Malaysia
- Maldives
- Marshall Islands
- Matsu Islands
- Miaoli County
- Ming Dynasty
- Mongolia
- Nantou County
- Nauru
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Caledonia
- New Taipei City
- New Zealand
- Niue
- North Korea
- Northern Cyprus
- Oman
- Orchid Island
- Pacific Ocean
- Pakistan
- Palau
- Papua New Guinea
- Penghu
- Philippine Sea
- Philippine Sea Plate
- Philippines
- Pingtung County
- Qatar
- Qing Dynasty
- Russia
- Samoa
- Saudi Arabia
- Singapore
- Siraya language
- Solomon Islands
- South China Sea
- South Korea
- South Ossetia
- Sri Lanka
- State of Palestine
- Suriname
- Syria
- Taichung
- Tainan
- Taipei
- Taipei 101
- Taitung County
- Taiwan
- Taiwan Province
- Taiwan Strait
- Tajikistan
- Taoyuan City
- Thailand
- Tokelau
- Tonga
- Tropic of Cancer
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Vietnam
- Wallis and Futuna
- Wushe Incident
- Yemen
- Yunlin County
- Zhongli
- Ang Lee
- Apo Hsu
- Bunun people
- Chiefdom
- Chinese people
- Edward Yang
- Hakka people
- Jared Diamond
- Kavalan people
- Koxinga
- Mao Zedong
- Paiwan people
- Pascal Lamy
- Portuguese people
- Puyuma people
- Rikichi Andō
- Rufus Yerxa
- Rukai people
- Saisiyat people
- Shi Lang
- Taiwanese aborigines
- Taiwanese people
- Truku people
- Tsou people
- Wang Tuoh
- Yami people
- Yani Tseng
- Zheng Jing
- Zheng Keshuang
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Good Lovin'
- Juste un mot
- Choisis-moi
- Interlude radio
- Si c'était à refaire
- Combien de fois
- Ailleurs
- La la
- Ce serait si simple
- How Could You
- Le Mec parfait
- Présomptions
- Danger
- Never Enough Love (live)
- Interludes Live
- Choisis-moi (remix)
- You Can't Treat Love That Way
- Runnin' Around
- Fast Livin'
- There Was a Time
- Shootout in the Parking Lot
- Never Gonna Let You Go
- Roll Me Over
- Little Dancer
- Come and Take My Love
- Days and Nights
- Près de toi
- Somebody
- Interlude
- On tourne en rond
- Ne crois pas
- Life Goes On
- Être là-bas
- Y'a pas moyen
- J'ai besoin d'amour (feat. Dee Dee Bridgewater)
- Tu disais
- Never Really Mattered
- Carmen
- T'es où ? (feat. Fabe)
- Gabriel
- Soleil
- Take the Time
- C'est fini
- Bad for Me
- Never Enough Love
- All of Me
- Baiser volé
- Choisir
- Let's Get Busy
- Battles of the Heart
- I'm on My Way
- Ce que je ressens
- À l'interieur de moi
- Time
- The Fight Is On
- In the Middle of the Night
- Hot Lovin' Night
- So Long (live)
- Second Chance
- Medicine Man
- Living on the Stage
- Rock City
- Sign in the Sky
- Animal Victim
- Wild Jealousy
- Proud Mary (live)
- Slow Dancing (remix)
- Somebody (demo)
- Rag Blues (demo)
- All Through the Night (demo)
- Pictures of You
- Medicine Man (intro)
- Medicine Man
- Slow Dancing in Hell
- She Did a Real Good Job
- So Damn Easy
- Lost Gardens
- Shake Your Cages
- Go All the Way
- Don't Let in the Night
- In Love Again
- Face to the Wind
- In Trouble With Angels
- Life Keeps Moving On
- You've Got Me
- The Great Wall
- Dead Lights
- Animal Victim
- In the Middle of the Night
- Won't Give It Up
- Sign in the Sky
- Don't Ever Say Goodbye
- Broken Dream
- Second Change
- Bitter Cold
- Take Your Time
- Harder Than Hell
- So Long
- Intro
- Shout It Out
- Back to You
- The Fight Is On
- Wild Jealousy
- Rock City
- Hot Lovin' Night
- Living on the Stage
- I Need Your Love
- One Shot to the Heart
- Staying Alive
- Don't Look Back
- Intro
- Shout It Out
- Back to You
- The Fight Is On
- Wild Jealousy
- Rock City
- Hot Lovin' Night
- Living on the Stage
- I Need Your Love
- When Passion Burns
- Staying Alive
- One Shot to the Heart
- Don't Look Back
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Anthem of Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:00
- Updated: 08 Apr 2013
Anthem of Taiwan For More Information please visit http://www.nationalanthems.us/
http://wn.com/Anthem_of_Republic_of_China
Anthem of Taiwan For More Information please visit http://www.nationalanthems.us/
Nelson Can - People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:24
- Updated: 09 Apr 2013
Official music video for the song "People's Republic of China" by the Danish girlband Nelson Can. Get the EP here: http://itunes.apple.com/dk/artist/nelson-c...
http://wn.com/Nelson_Can_People's_Republic_of_China
Official music video for the song "People's Republic of China" by the Danish girlband Nelson Can. Get the EP here: http://itunes.apple.com/dk/artist/nelson-c...
- published: 02 Apr 2012
- views: 19364
- author: Nelson Can
The Cost of Pollution in People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 29 Jan 2013
Qingfeng Zhang, an environment expert at ADB discussed the cost of pollution to the Chinese economy, the need for more effective environment tax and greater ...
http://wn.com/The_Cost_of_Pollution_in_People's_Republic_of_China
Qingfeng Zhang, an environment expert at ADB discussed the cost of pollution to the Chinese economy, the need for more effective environment tax and greater ...
- published: 29 Jan 2013
- views: 232
- author: AsianDevelopmentBank
Michael Brose at Saturday U- The People's Republic of China: Communist, Capitalist, or Confucian?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:48
- Updated: 17 Mar 2013
The People's Republic of China: Communist, Capitalist, or Confucian? by Michael C. Brose, Associate Professor and Chair, Department of History. China embodie...
http://wn.com/Michael_Brose_at_Saturday_U_The_People's_Republic_of_China_Communist,_Capitalist,_or_Confucian?
The People's Republic of China: Communist, Capitalist, or Confucian? by Michael C. Brose, Associate Professor and Chair, Department of History. China embodie...
- published: 04 Apr 2011
- views: 444
- author: wyomingvideos
The People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:06
- Updated: 17 Jan 2013
Discover everything from China's geography and religion to its rich history and culture. China's magic shows through with classical Chinese architecture and customs that date back hundreds of years.
http://wn.com/The_People's_Republic_of_China
Discover everything from China's geography and religion to its rich history and culture. China's magic shows through with classical Chinese architecture and customs that date back hundreds of years.
- published: 02 Jun 2011
- views: 48
- author: TravelVideoStore
Discovering China - Republic of China 101st Anniversary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:49
- Updated: 20 Mar 2013
In this episode we take a look at the 101st anniversary of the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Discovering_China_Republic_of_China_101st_Anniversary
In this episode we take a look at the 101st anniversary of the Republic of China.
- published: 12 Oct 2012
- views: 980
- author: NTDTV
PETS' REPUBLIC OF CHINA official trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Updated: 07 Apr 2013
Rent $1.99 on Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/Pets-Republic-of-China/dp/B0083J7V9S/
http://wn.com/PETS'_REPUBLIC_OF_CHINA_official_trailer
Rent $1.99 on Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/Pets-Republic-of-China/dp/B0083J7V9S/
- published: 01 Sep 2011
- views: 871
- author: Michael Zhao
People's Republic Of China National Anthem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 02 Apr 2013
This is my Revised Version of the People's Republic of China National Anthem Video.Hope U Like It!!!
http://wn.com/People's_Republic_Of_China_National_Anthem
This is my Revised Version of the People's Republic of China National Anthem Video.Hope U Like It!!!
- published: 28 Oct 2007
- views: 68596
- author: Frost Shields
Part 2: The Republic of China 1937 to 1952
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:29
- Updated: 11 Aug 2010
This series of videos concerns itself with the historical situation of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1937 to 1952. During this period of time, most countr...
http://wn.com/Part_2_The_Republic_of_China_1937_to_1952
This series of videos concerns itself with the historical situation of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1937 to 1952. During this period of time, most countr...
- published: 12 Sep 2009
- views: 436
- author: tprophet77
Republic of China 2009 Recruitment Center of National Armed Forces CM Full 60 secs
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 27 Mar 2013
This is a short clip bring you by Recruitment Center of National Armed Forces (國防部人才招募中心). It's a great clip, actually. But I know, it's a Transformers rip o...
http://wn.com/Republic_of_China_2009_Recruitment_Center_of_National_Armed_Forces_CM_Full_60_secs
This is a short clip bring you by Recruitment Center of National Armed Forces (國防部人才招募中心). It's a great clip, actually. But I know, it's a Transformers rip o...
- published: 25 Sep 2009
- views: 108035
- author: mikboy
國旗歌 | Republic of China National Banner Song
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:08
- Updated: 31 Mar 2013
The National Banner Song (Chinese: 國旗歌; pinyin: gúoqí gē) of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is played during the raising and lowering of the Flag of the Repu...
http://wn.com/國旗歌_|_Republic_of_China_National_Banner_Song
The National Banner Song (Chinese: 國旗歌; pinyin: gúoqí gē) of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is played during the raising and lowering of the Flag of the Repu...
- published: 06 Jul 2012
- views: 2449
- author: TheMarches09
Part 3A: The Republic of China 1937 to 1952
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:31
- Updated: 14 Aug 2010
In our previous two videos, we analyzed the historical situation of the Republic of China on Taiwan, concluding that it was (1) a subordinate occupying power...
http://wn.com/Part_3A_The_Republic_of_China_1937_to_1952
In our previous two videos, we analyzed the historical situation of the Republic of China on Taiwan, concluding that it was (1) a subordinate occupying power...
- published: 29 Oct 2009
- views: 338
- author: tprophet77
First Premier of the People's Republic of China: Zhou Enlai Interview (1965)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:12
- Updated: 02 Apr 2013
Zhou Enlai (周恩来 pinyin: Zhōu Ēnlái; Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai; IPA: [tʂóʊ ə́nlǎɪ]; 5 March 1898 -- 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Repu...
http://wn.com/First_Premier_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_Zhou_Enlai_Interview_1965
Zhou Enlai (周恩来 pinyin: Zhōu Ēnlái; Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai; IPA: [tʂóʊ ə́nlǎɪ]; 5 March 1898 -- 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Repu...
- published: 18 Aug 2012
- views: 2159
- author: thefilmarchives
中華民國國歌 -- National Anthem of the Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:06
- Updated: 09 Apr 2013
中華民國國歌，這是我做得第二版。 National Anthem of the Republic of China. Original Music File: http://english.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=442.
http://wn.com/中華民國國歌_-_National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China
中華民國國歌，這是我做得第二版。 National Anthem of the Republic of China. Original Music File: http://english.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=442.
- published: 30 May 2009
- views: 162359
- author: LiouTao
Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China - Wiki Article
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Updated: 31 Mar 2013
"Taiwan Province" (simplified Chinese: 台湾省; traditional Chinese: 臺灣省 or 台灣省; pinyin: Táiwān shěng) is, according to the law of the People's Republic of China...
http://wn.com/Taiwan_Province,_People's_Republic_of_China_Wiki_Article
"Taiwan Province" (simplified Chinese: 台湾省; traditional Chinese: 臺灣省 or 台灣省; pinyin: Táiwān shěng) is, according to the law of the People's Republic of China...
- published: 31 Mar 2013
- views: 4
- author: MrWikiPlay
中華人民共和國國歌 - People's Republic of China Anthem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:31
- Updated: 05 Apr 2013
October 1st, 1949.
http://wn.com/中華人民共和國國歌_People's_Republic_of_China_Anthem
40th anniversary of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:29
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
12 December 2012 ADDRESS ON THE 40TH ANNIVERSARY OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.
http://wn.com/40th_anniversary_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_People's_Republic_of_China
12 December 2012 ADDRESS ON THE 40TH ANNIVERSARY OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.
- published: 13 Dec 2012
- views: 43
- author: AndrewRobbMP
Mao declares the Peoples' Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:21
- Updated: 31 Mar 2013
Mao declares the Peoples' Republic of China. Tian'anmen Square, Beijing, October 1st 1949.
http://wn.com/Mao_declares_the_Peoples'_Republic_of_China
Mao declares the Peoples' Republic of China. Tian'anmen Square, Beijing, October 1st 1949.
- published: 01 Oct 2009
- views: 20448
- author: liuzhou
The 63rd Anniversary of The Founding of The People's Republic of China Celebration in Tasmania
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:18
- Updated: 01 Feb 2013
The 63rd Anniversary of The Founding of The People's Republic of China and the 40th Anniversary of the Founding of Diplomatic Relations between China and Aus...
http://wn.com/The_63rd_Anniversary_of_The_Founding_of_The_People's_Republic_of_China_Celebration_in_Tasmania
The 63rd Anniversary of The Founding of The People's Republic of China and the 40th Anniversary of the Founding of Diplomatic Relations between China and Aus...
- published: 26 Oct 2012
- views: 203
- author: shungyiu
The People's Republic and the Republic of China explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 24 Mar 2013
The People's Republic vs. the Republic of China... or Taiwan. Or Chinese Taipei... and the stupidity of "one China" policy.
http://wn.com/The_People's_Republic_and_the_Republic_of_China_explained
The People's Republic vs. the Republic of China... or Taiwan. Or Chinese Taipei... and the stupidity of "one China" policy.
- published: 17 Jun 2011
- views: 7192
- author: Eideric
中华人民共和国/People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:27
- Updated: 01 Apr 2013
March of the Volunteers.
http://wn.com/中华人民共和国_People's_Republic_of_China
The Cost of Pollution in People's Republic of China
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:17
- Updated: 20 Feb 2013
With the launch of the new environmental analysis report for People's Republic of China, Qingfeng Zhang, an environment expert at ADB discussed the cost of p...
http://wn.com/The_Cost_of_Pollution_in_People's_Republic_of_China
With the launch of the new environmental analysis report for People's Republic of China, Qingfeng Zhang, an environment expert at ADB discussed the cost of p...
- published: 13 Feb 2013
- views: 56
- author: Arabstodaytv
Republic of China Presidential Election Results (1948-2012) 中華民國歷屆總統選舉結果
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:47
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Republic_of_China_Presidential_Election_Results_1948-2012_中華民國歷屆總統選舉結果
photo: AP / Charles Krupa
15 Apr 2013
. Share. 0. Three explosions erupted at the famed Boston Marathon today, killing two people, injuring dozens more and turning the race into what looked like a war zone. The casualties were caused by two bombs that exploded almost simultaneously near the race finish line on Boylston Street before 3 p.m ... Police said that two people were killed and 23 injured. A third explosion occurred later at John F ... ABC News ... View Full Size. ABC News ... ....(size: 4.4Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
14 Apr 2013
London. Millions of people might face starvation by 2050 as a result of extreme temperature globally ... The experts warned that rising temperatures will also have a drastic effect on access to basic foodstuffs, with potentially dire consequences for the poor ... ANI ... First Published. Sunday, April 14, 2013, 12.34. ....(size: 1.6Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Daskos99
15 Apr 2013
BOSTON - Two explosions struck the Boston Marathon as runners crossed the finish line on Monday, witnesses said, injuring at least four people on a day when tens of thousands of people pack the streets to watch one of the world’s best known marathons. Pictures from the scene showed blood stains on the ground and several people knocked down ... Reporters in the media center heard two blasts. “There was an explosion ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
photo: GFDL File / Jerzy Strzelecki
15 Apr 2013
Summer ice in the Antarctic is melting 10 times quicker than it was 600 years ago, with the most rapid melt occurring in the last 50 years, a joint Australian-British study showed Monday. A research team from the Australian National University and the British Antarctic Survey drilled a 364-metre (1,194 feet) long ice core from James Ross Island in the continent’s north to measure past temperatures in the area....(size: 2.6Kb)
China Daily
16 Apr 2013
Wang reiterated that China opposes any form of hacking ... Kerry arrived in Beijing Saturday morning, kicking off his first China visit since taking office....(size: 0.8Kb)
China Daily
16 Apr 2013
BOSTON - China's manufacturing industry faces multiple challenges to maintain its momentum after two decades of rapid development, but experts gathering at Harvard University also see opportunities ... He said the reason was China's manufacturing had developed a clustering effect, and manufacturing was never about one or two factories ... "I believe China's manufacturing can learn from them and achieve success," he said....(size: 2.6Kb)
China Daily
16 Apr 2013
BEIJING - Chinese State Councilor Yang Jiechi and visiting US Secretary of State John Kerry on Saturday vowed to deepen China-US cooperation in clean energy. Yang and Kerry attended a China-US energy cooperation seminar in Beijing Saturday evening ... Kerry said the US attaches great importance to China's propositions on promoting bilateral cooperative partnership and exploring the new model of relationship....(size: 1.9Kb)
noodls
16 Apr 2013
TIA - Toy Industry Association Inc) TIA Members Among Companies to Join China Toy Safety Campaign ... Toy Industry Association (TIA), have joined the China Toy and Juvenile Products Association's (CTJPA) new "Campaign on Toys and Juvenile Products Safety to Media and Consumers." ... the long-standing safety and quality of products produced in China....(size: 2.1Kb)
South China Morning Post
16 Apr 2013
China's GDP report delivers disappointing news ... China's output of services is getting closer to overtaking industrial production, probably as soon as this year ... Gold price hits worst two-year loss in decades, as China's economy slows down ... China’s yuan climbed to a 19-year high, before paring gain on GDP slowdown ... The new China Railway Co....(size: 2.3Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
16 Apr 2013
As excuses for corrections go, China’s not-as-strong-as-expected economic growth yesterday was pretty lame ... Thus, because China’s December quarter GDP growth had been 7.9 per cent on the way up from the June quarter low of 7.4, the commentariat added 0.1 and said China’s GDP should show annual growth of 8 per cent in the March quarter....(size: 1.7Kb)
Chosunilbo
16 Apr 2013
Ford's share of the China auto market, the largest in the world, was 3 percent in 2012. Ford, which got a later start in China than industry leaders Volkswagen AG and General Motors Co, achieved a 3.6 percent market share in the first quarter, up from 2.5 percent the previous year, Schoch said....(size: 1.7Kb)
The Times of India
16 Apr 2013
The new 150-meter tall headquarters of the People's Daily, the main organ of the Communist Party of China, is drawing a lot of attention with many describing the structure as phallic ... China's Southeast University School of ......(size: 1.2Kb)
The Hollywood Reporter
16 Apr 2013
LAS VEGAS -- A gathering of top film executives and Motion Picture Association of America chairman-CEO Christopher Dodd Monday for a panel on the booming Chinese box office left unanswered the question of why Django Unchained was yanked from theaters in China late last week.our editor recommends ... Sony China 'Working to Reschedule' Chinese Release of 'Django Unchained'....(size: 3.1Kb)
China Daily
16 Apr 2013
Bloomberg
16 Apr 2013
Asian stocks fell, dragging the regional benchmark equities gauge lower for a second day, led by raw-material producers and energy companies amid concern slower growth in China will curb the global economic recovery. BHP Billiton Ltd ... in Tokyo, before markets open in Hong Kong and China ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)
noodls
16 Apr 2013
The visit will see early-career researchers visit the 'China 9' (C9) universities, which include Tsinghua University, Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Peking University and Nanjing University, all of whom are partners with the University of Melbourne. The trip comes at a time of intense interest in China by Australian educators; the ......(size: 3.2Kb)
China Daily
16 Apr 2013
... China's hybrid rice technology ... We will strengthen the friendship between Philippines and China through it," Yuan said ... Reports from China said that China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center (CNHR-RDC) has already hit a milestone in super hybrid rice program when it reached its goal of 13.5 metric tons for per hectare yield in 2011....(size: 4.2Kb)
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Taiwan (disambiguation).
"Republic of China" redirects here. For other uses, see Republic of China (disambiguation).
Taiwan (
i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory,[f] as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country,[1] and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
The Republic of China was established in mainland China in 1912 and governed varying amounts of the mainland until 1949. At the end of World War II, Japan surrendered Taiwan and associated islands to ROC forces. When Communist forces took control of mainland China and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, the ROC government moved to Taiwan. Since the founding of the PRC, international recognition of the ROC has gradually eroded as most countries switched recognition to the PRC. In 1971, the PRC assumed China's seat at the United Nations. Only 23 states now recognize the ROC as a sovereign state and maintain formal diplomatic relations with it.
Officially, the ROC government still claims sovereignty over all of "China", in a definition that includes mainland China and Mongolia, as well as Taiwan, via the ROC Constitution[21] but has not made retaking the mainland a political goal since 1992.[22] However, the government's stance on whether "retaking" or "reuniting" with China is desired or whether Taiwan and China are separate countries or are regions of one country depends on the which administration is in power (See Politics below). Meanwhile, the PRC also officially asserts itself to be the sole legal representation of China and actively claims Taiwan to be under its sovereignty, denying the status and existence of ROC as a sovereign state. It has not renounced the use of force as a response to any formal declaration of Taiwanese independence, or if it deems peaceful reunification no longer possible.[23] Cross-strait relations between Taiwan and China as well as issues of national identity within the country are important factors in Taiwanese politics and a cause of social and political division among political parties and their respective supporters.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Taiwan evolved into a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage. Building on the infrastructure and education improvements initiated during the Japanese era, Taiwan has experienced rapid economic growth and industrialization during the latter half of the 20th century and is now an advanced industrial economy. It is one of the Four Asian Tigers and a member of the WTO and APEC. The 19th-largest economy in the world,[24][25] its advanced technology industry plays a key role in the global economy. Taiwan is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care,[26] public education, economic freedom, and human development.[e][19][27]
Contents |
[edit] Names
Main article: Names of the Republic of China
See also: Chinese Taipei
There are various names of the island of Taiwan in use today, derived from explorers or rulers by each particular period. The former name "Formosa" dates from 1544, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means "Beautiful Island".[28] In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a commercial post at Fort Zeelandia (modern Anping, Tainan) on a coastal islet called "Tayouan" in the local Siraya language; the name was later extended to the whole island as "Taiwan".[29] Historically, "Taiwan" has also been written as 大灣, 臺員, 大員, 臺圓, 大圓 and 臺窩灣. Historically, the Japanese called Taiwan 高砂国 (State of Takasago) or 高砂 (Takasago).
The official name of the state is the "Republic of China"; it has also been known under various names throughout its existence. Shortly after the ROC's establishment in 1912, while it was still located on the Asian mainland, the government used the abbreviation "China" ("Zhongguó") to refer to itself. During the 1950s and 1960s, it was common to refer to it as "Nationalist China" to differentiate it from "Communist China" (or "Red China").[30] It was present at the UN under the name "China" until 1971, when it lost its seat to the People's Republic of China. Since then, the name "China" has been commonly used internationally to refer only to the People's Republic of China.[31] Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become commonly known as "Taiwan", after the island that composes most of its territory. The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name "Chinese Taipei" due to diplomatic pressure from the PRC. For instance, it is the name under which it has competed at the Olympic Games since 1979, and its name as an observer at the World Health Organization. Additionally, the PRC refers to Taiwan as "Taiwan, China" in pursuit of its sovereignty claim.
History[link]
Main article: History of Taiwan
Evidence of inhabitation on Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. Organized control of parts of Taiwan was first established by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century and from 1683, Taiwan was placed under Qing rule until its cession to Japan in 1895, in the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War.
On mainland China, the rule of Qing Dynasty ended when the Republic of China was formally established in 1912. The early years of the nation were rife with fights for power among factions. From the latter half of the 1920s, rivalry intensified between the ruling Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, eventually leading to the Chinese Civil War.
In 1945, after the end of World War II, Taiwan was surrendered to ROC forces. In 1949, the central government of the ROC evacuated to Taiwan after it lost the civil war to the communists. The government on Taiwan was authoritarian until gradual liberalization from the mid-1980s onwards.
Aboriginal Taiwan[link]
Main article: Prehistory of Taiwan
.jpg)
Taiwan was joined to the Asian mainland in the Late Pleistocene, until sea levels rose about 10,000 years ago. Fragmentary human remains have been found on the island, dated 20,000 to 30,000 years ago, as well as later artifacts of a Paleolithic culture.[32][33][34]
More than 4,000 years ago farmers from mainland China, believed to be the ancestors of current Taiwanese aborigines, settled on Taiwan. Their languages belong to the Austronesian language family, which also includes the Malayo-Polynesian languages spanning a huge area from Madagascar to Easter Island. The aboriginal languages on Taiwan show much greater diversity than the rest of Austronesian put together, leading linguists to propose Taiwan as the Urheimat of the family, from which sea-faring peoples dispersed across southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans.[35][36]
Han Chinese began settling in the Penghu islands in the 13th century, but Taiwan's hostile tribes and its lack of trade resources valued in that era rendered it unattractive to all but "occasional adventurers or fishermen engaging in barter" until the 16th century.[37]
Opening in the 17th century[link]
The Dutch East India Company attempted to establish a trading outpost on the Penghu Islands (Pescadores) in 1622, but were driven off by the Ming authorities.[38] In 1624, the Company established a stronghold called Fort Zeelandia on an coastal islet of Tayouan, which is now part of the main island at Anping, Tainan.[29] David Wright, a Scottish agent of the Company who lived on the island in the 1650s, described the lowland areas of the island as being divided among 11 chiefdoms ranging in size from two settlements to 72. Some of these fell under Dutch control while others remained independent.[29][39] The Company began to import laborers from Fujian and Penghu (Pescadores), many of whom settled.[38]
In 1626, the Spanish landed on and occupied northern Taiwan, at the ports of Keelung and Tamsui, as a base to extend their trading. This colonial period lasted sixteen years until 1642, when the last Spanish fortress fell to Dutch forces.
Following the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), a self-styled Ming loyalist, arrived on the island and captured Fort Zeelandia in 1662, expelling the Dutch government and military from the island. Koxinga established the Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683), with his capital at Tainan. He and his heirs, Zheng Jing, who ruled from 1662 to 1682, and Zheng Keshuang, who ruled less than a year, continued to launch raids on the south-east coast of mainland China well into the Qing Dynasty.[38]
Qing rule[link]
Main article: Taiwan under Qing Dynasty rule
In 1683, following the defeat of Koxinga's grandson by an armada led by Admiral Shi Lang of southern Fujian, the Qing formally annexed Taiwan, placing it under the jurisdiction of Fujian province. The Qing imperial government tried to reduce piracy and vagrancy in the area, issuing a series of edicts to manage immigration and respect aboriginal land rights. Immigrants mostly from southern Fujian continued to enter Taiwan. The border between taxpaying lands and "savage" lands shifted eastward, with some aborigines becoming Sinicized while others retreated into the mountains. During this time, there were a number of conflicts between Chinese from different regions of southern Fujian, and between southern Fujian Chinese and aborigines.[28]
Northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were the scene of subsidiary campaigns in the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885). The French occupied Keelung on 1 October 1884, but were repulsed from Tamsui a few days later. The French won some tactical victories but were unable to exploit them and the Keelung Campaign ended in stalemate. The Pescadores Campaign, beginning on 31 March 1885, was a French victory, but had no long-term consequences. The French evacuated both Keelung and the Penghu archipelago after the end of the war.
In 1885, the Qing redesignated Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian as Taiwan Province, the twentieth in the empire, with its capital at Taipei.[28] This was accompanied by a modernization drive that included building Taiwan's first railroad and starting a postal service.[40]
Japanese rule[link]
Main articles: Taiwan under Japanese rule and Republic of Formosa
.jpg)
The Qing Dynasty was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and Taiwan and Penghu were ceded in full sovereignty to the Empire of Japan. Inhabitants wishing to remain Qing subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and move to mainland China. Very few Taiwanese saw this as feasible.[41] On 25 May 1895, a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist impending Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on 21 October 1895.[42]
Japanese rule was instrumental in the industrialization of the island, extending the railroads and other transportation networks, building an extensive sanitation system and establishing a formal education system.[43] Japanese rule ended the practice of headhunting.[44] During this period, both rice and sugarcane production greatly increased. By 1939, Taiwan was the seventh greatest sugar producer in the world.[45] Still, the Taiwanese and aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens. After supressing Chinese guerillas in the first decade of their rule, Japanese authorites engaged in a series of bloody campaigns against the mountain aboriginals, culminating in the Wushe Incident of 1930.[46]
Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire and people were taught to see themselves as Japanese. During World War II, tens of thousands of Taiwanese served in the Japanese military.[47] For example, former ROC President Lee Teng-hui's elder brother served in the Japanese navy and died while on duty in the Philippines in February 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwanese ports. The "South Strike Group" was based at the Taihoku Imperial University in Taipei. Many of the Japanese forces participating in the Aerial Battle of Taiwan-Okinawa were based in Taiwan. Important Japanese military bases and industrial centers throughout Taiwan, like Kaohsiung, were targets of heavy American bombing.[48]
In 1938 there were 309,000 Japanese settlers in Taiwan.[49] After World War II, most of the Japanese were repatriated to Japan.
After World War II[link]
Further information: Taiwan after World War II and Taiwan Strait Crisis
On 25 October 1945, the US Navy ferried ROC troops to Taiwan in order to accept the formal surrender of Japanese military forces in Taipei (then called "Taihoku"). General Rikichi Andō, governor-general of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all Japanese forces on the island, signed the instrument of surrender and handed it over to General Chen Yi of the ROC military to complete the official turnover. Chen Yi proclaimed that day to be "Retrocession Day of Taiwan," but the Allies considered Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to be under military occupation but still under Japanese sovereignty until 1952.[50][51]
The ROC administration of Taiwan under Chen Yi was strained by increasing tensions between Taiwanese and mainlanders, which were compounded by economic woes, such as hyperinflation. Furthermore, cultural and linguistic conflicts between Taiwanese and the mainland Chinese quickly led to the loss of popular support for the new government.[52] The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered island-wide unrest, which was suppressed with military force in what is now called the 228 Incident. Mainstream estimates of the number killed range from 18,000 to 30,000, mainly Taiwanese elites.[53][54]
Chinese Nationalist one-party rule[link]
Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and Nationalist Government
After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong. By 1949, a series of Chinese Communist offensives led to the defeat of the Nationalist army, and the Communists founded the People's Republic of China on 1 October.[55]
In December 1949, Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan and made Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC (also called the "wartime capital" by Chiang Kai-shek).[56] Some 2 million people, consisting mainly of soldiers, members of the ruling Kuomintang party and the intellectual and business elites, were evacuated from mainland China to Taiwan at that time, adding to the earlier population of approximately six million. In addition, the ROC government took to Taipei many national treasures including China's gold reserves and foreign currency reserves.[57][58][59]
From this point onwards, the Kuomintang was reduced to control of Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu Islands, and two major islands of Dongsha Islands and Nansha Islands. The Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over all "China", which it defined to include mainland China, Taiwan, Outer Mongolia and other areas. On mainland China, the victorious Communists claimed they ruled the sole and only China (which they claimed included Taiwan) and that the Republic of China no longer existed.[60]
Martial law, declared on Taiwan in May 1949,[61] continued to be in effect after the central government relocated to Taiwan. It was not repealed until 1987,[61] and was used as a way to suppress the political opposition in the intervening years.[62] During the White Terror, as the period is known, 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-Communist.[63] Many citizens were arrested, tortured, imprisoned and executed for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang. Since these people were mainly from the intellectual and social elite, an entire generation of political and social leaders was decimated. It was not until 2008 that a public apology was made for those actions. No form of restitution or compensation has been made as of 2010.[64]
From this period through the 1980s, Taiwan was governed under the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion". During this period of one-party rule, little distinction was made between the government and the Kuomintang, with public property, government property, and party property being largely interchangeable. Government workers and party members were mostly indistinguishable, with many government workers required to become KMT members, and party workers paid salaries and promised retirement benefits along the lines of government employees. In addition, the creation of other parties was outlawed, and many political opponents were persecuted and incarcerated.[citation needed]
Initially, the United States abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to the Communists. However, in 1950 the conflict between North Korea and South Korea, which had been ongoing since the Japanese withdrawal in 1945, escalated into full-blown war, and in the context of the Cold War, US President Harry S. Truman intervened again and dispatched the 7th Fleet into the Taiwan Straits to prevent hostilities between Taiwan and mainland China.[65] In the Treaty of San Francisco and the Treaty of Taipei, which came into force respectively on 28 April 1952 and 5 August 1952, Japan formally renounced all right, claim and title to Taiwan and Penghu, and renounced all treaties signed with China before 1942. Neither treaty specified to whom sovereignty over the islands should be transferred, because the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed on whether the ROC or the PRC was the legitimate government of China.[66] Continuing conflict of the Chinese Civil War through the 1950s, and intervention by the United States notably resulted in legislation such as the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty and the Formosa Resolution of 1955.
As the Chinese Civil War continued without truce, the government built up military fortifications throughout Taiwan. Within this effort, former KMT soldiers built the now famous Central Cross-Island Highway through the Taroko Gorge in the 1950s. The two sides would continue to engage in sporadic military clashes with seldom publicized details well into the 1960s on the nearby islands with an unknown number of night raids. During the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in September 1958, Taiwan's landscape saw Nike-Hercules missile batteries added, with the formation of the 1st Missile Battalion Chinese Army that would not be deactivated until 1997. Newer generations of missile batteries have since replaced the Nike Hercules systems throughout the island.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the ROC maintained an authoritarian, single-party government while its economy became industrialized and technology oriented. This rapid economical growth, known as the Taiwan Miracle, was the result of a fiscal regime independent from mainland China and backed up, among others, by the support of US funds and demand for Taiwanese products.[67][68] In the 1970s, Taiwan was economically the second fastest growing state in Asia after Japan.[69] Taiwan, along with Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore, became known as one of the Four Asian Tigers. Because of the Cold War, most Western nations and the United Nations regarded the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China until the 1970s. Later, especially after the termination of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, most nations switched diplomatic recognition to the PRC (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758).
Up until the 1970s, the government was regarded by Western critics as undemocratic for upholding martial law, for severely repressing any political opposition and for controlling media. The KMT did not allow the creation of new parties and those that existed did not seriously compete with the KMT. Thus, competitive democratic elections did not exist.[70][71][72][73][74] From the late 1970s to the 1990s, however, Taiwan went through reforms and social changes that transformed it from an authoritarian state to a democracy. In 1979, a pro-democracy protest known as the Kaohsiung Incident took place in Kaohsiung to celebrate Human Rights Day. Although the protest was rapidly crushed by the authorities, it is today considered as the main event that united Taiwan's opposition.[75]
Democratization[link]
Main article: Democratic reforms
Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek's son and successor as the president, began to liberalize the political system in the mid-1980s. In 1984, the younger Chiang selected Lee Teng-hui, an ethnically Taiwanese and U.S.-educated technocrat, to be his vice president. In 1986, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was formed and inaugurated as the first opposition party in Taiwan to counter the KMT. A year later Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law. With the advent of democratization, the issue of the political status of Taiwan has resurfaced as a controversial issue (previously, discussion of anything other than unification under the ROC was taboo).
After the death of Chiang Ching-kuo in January 1988, Lee Teng-hui succeeded him and became the first ethnically Taiwanese president of the ROC. Lee continued to democratize the government and decrease the concentration of government authority in the hands of mainland Chinese. Under Lee, Taiwan underwent a process of localization in which Taiwanese culture and history were promoted over a pan-China viewpoint in contrast to earlier KMT policies which had promoted a Chinese identity. Lee's reforms included printing banknotes from the Central Bank rather than the Provincial Bank of Taiwan, and streamlining the Taiwan Provincial Government with most of its functions transferred to the Executive Yuan. Under Lee, the original members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly, elected in 1947 to represent mainland Chinese constituencies and having held the seats without re-election for more than four decades, were forced to resign in 1991. The previously nominal representation in the Legislative Yuan was brought to an end, reflecting the reality that the ROC had no jurisdiction over mainland China, and vice versa. Restrictions on the use of Taiwanese Hokkien in the broadcast media and in schools were also lifted.
Democratic reforms continued in the 1990s, with Lee Teng-hui re-elected in 1996, in the first direct presidential election in the history of the ROC.[76] During the later years of Lee's administration, he was involved in corruption controversies relating to government release of land and weapons purchase, although no legal proceedings commenced. In 2000, Chen Shui-bian of the DPP was elected as the first non-KMT President and was re-elected to serve his second and last term since 2004. Polarized politics has emerged in Taiwan with the formation of the Pan-Blue Coalition of parties led by the KMT, favoring eventual Chinese reunification, and the Pan-Green Coalition of parties led by the DPP, favoring an eventual and official declaration of Taiwan independence.
On 30 September 2007, the ruling Democratic Progressive Party approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal country". It also called for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the Republic of China.[77] The Chen administration also pushed for referendums on national defense and UN entry in the 2004 and 2008 elections, which failed due to voter turnout below the required legal threshold of 50% of all registered voters.[78] The Chen administration was dogged by public concerns over reduced economic growth, legislative gridlock due to a pan-blue, opposition-controlled Legislative Yuan and corruption involving the First Family as well as government officials.[79][80]
The KMT increased its majority in the Legislative Yuan in the January 2008 legislative elections, while its nominee Ma Ying-jeou went on to win the presidency in March of the same year, campaigning on a platform of increased economic growth, and better ties with the PRC under a policy of "mutual nondenial".[78] Ma took office on 20 May 2008. Part of the rationale for campaigning for closer economic ties with the PRC stem from the strong economic growth China attained since joining the World Trade Organization. However, some analysts say that despite the election of Ma Ying-jeou, the diplomatic and military tensions with the PRC have not been reduced.[81]
Geography[link]
Main article: Geography of Taiwan
The island of Taiwan lies some 180 kilometers off the southeastern coast of China, across the Taiwan Strait, and has an area of 35,883 km2 (13,855 sq mi).[16] The East China Sea lies to the north, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Luzon Strait directly to the south and the South China Sea to the southwest.[82] The shape of the main island of Taiwan is similar to a sweet potato seen in a south-to-north direction, and therefore, Taiwanese, especially the Min-nan division, often call themselves "children of the Sweet Potato."[83]
The island is characterized by the contrast between the eastern two-thirds, consisting mostly of rugged mountains running in five ranges from the northern to the southern tip of the island, and the flat to gently rolling Chianan Plains in the west that are also home to most of Taiwan's population. Taiwan's highest point is Yu Shan (Jade Mountain) at 3,952 meters, and there are five other peaks over 3,500 meters.[82] This makes it the world's fourth-highest island.[84]
Taiwan lies on the Tropic of Cancer, and its climate is marine tropical.[85] The northern part of the island has a rainy season that lasts from January through late March during the northeast monsoon, and experiences meiyu in May.[86] The entire island experiences hot, humid weather from June through September. The middle and southern parts of the island do not have an extended monsoon season during the winter months. Typhoons are common between July and October.[82][87]
The Penghu Islands, 50 km west of the main island, have an area of 126.9 km2 (49.0 sq mi). More distant islands controlled by the Republic of China are the Kinmen, Wuchiu and Matsu Islands off the coast of Fujian, with a total area of 180.5 km2 (69.7 sq mi), and the Pratas Islands and Taiping Island in the South China Sea, with a total area of 2.9 km2 (1.1 sq mi) and no permanent inhabitants.[16]
Geology[link]
Main article: Geology of Taiwan
The island of Taiwan lies in a complex tectonic area between the Yangtze Plate to the west and north, the Okinawa Plate on the north-east, and the Philippine Mobile Belt on the east and south. The upper part of the crust on the island is primarily made up of a series of terranes, mostly old island arcs which have been forced together by the collision of the forerunners of the Eurasian Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. These have been further uplifted as a result of the detachment of a portion of the Eurasian Plate as it was subducted beneath remnants of the Philippine Sea Plate, a process which left the crust under Taiwan more buoyant.[88]
The east and south of Taiwan are a complex system of belts formed by, and part of the zone of, active collision between the North Luzon Trough portion of the Luzon Volcanic Arc and South China, where accreted portions of the Luzon Arc and Luzon forearc form the eastern Coastal Range and parallel inland Longitudinal Valley of Taiwan respectively.[89]
The major seismic faults in Taiwan correspond to the various suture zones between the various terranes. These have produced major quakes throughout the history of the island. On 21 September 1999, a 7.3 quake known as the "921 earthquake" killed more than 2,400 people. The seismic hazard map for Taiwan by the USGS shows 9/10 of the island as the highest rating (most hazardous).[90]
Political and legal status[link]
Main articles: Political status of Taiwan and Legal status of Taiwan
The political and legal status of Taiwan is a contentious issue. The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Republic of China government is illegitimate, referring to it as the "Taiwan Authority". The ROC, however, with its own constitution, independently elected president and a large army, continues to view itself as an independent sovereign state. The territory of Taiwan has never been controlled by the PRC.[91][92] Internationally, there is controversy on whether the ROC still exists as a state or a defunct state per international law due to the loss of membership / recognition in the United Nations and lack of wide diplomatic recognition. According to a poll taken by the TVBS in 2010, the majority of Taiwanese residents—64%—opt for the status quo (i.e. no independence, no unification with mainland China), while 19% favor independence and 5% unification.[93]
Relations with the PRC[link]
See also: Cross-Strait relations
The political environment is complicated by the potential for military conflict should overt actions toward independence or reunification be taken. It is the official PRC policy to use force to ensure reunification if peaceful reunification is no longer possible, as stated in its anti-secession law, and for this reason there are substantial military installations on the Fujian coast.[94][95] Although more recently the PRC has conducted to promote peaceful relation with the current ROC government and aimed at gradual reunification.
The PRC supports a version of the One-China policy, which states that Taiwan and mainland China are both part of China, and that the PRC is the only legitimate government of China. It uses this policy to prevent the international recognition of the ROC as an independent sovereign state. For its part, the People's Republic of China appears to find the retention of the name "Republic of China" more acceptable than an official declaration of an independent Taiwan. With the rise of the Taiwanese independence movement, the name "Taiwan" has been employed increasingly often on the island.[96]
Foreign relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the Republic of China
.png)
Before 1928, the foreign policy of Republican China was complicated by a lack of internal unity—competing centers of power all claimed legitimacy. This situation changed after the defeat of the Peiyang Government by the Kuomintang, which led to widespread diplomatic recognition of the Republic of China.[97]
After the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, most countries, notably the countries in the Western Bloc, continued to maintain relations with the ROC. Due to diplomatic pressure, recognition gradually eroded and many countries switched recognition to the PRC in the 1970s.
The PRC refuses to have diplomatic relations with any nation that recognizes the ROC, and requires all nations with which it has diplomatic relations to make a statement recognizing its claims to Taiwan.[98] As a result, there are only 23 states that have official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. In practice, most countries view the ROC as an independent state and as such maintain unofficial relations with it.[99]
The ROC maintains unofficial relations with most countries via de facto embassies and consulates called Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices (TECRO), with branch offices called "Taipei Economic and Cultural Offices" (TECO). Both TECRO and TECO are "unofficial commercial entities" of the ROC in charge of maintaining diplomatic relations, providing consular services (i.e. visa applications), and serving the national interests of the ROC in other countries.[100]
File:Taiwanarmspic1.jpg
F-16 fighters sold to the ROC by the United States
The United States is one of the main allies of the ROC and, since the Taiwan Relations Act passed in 1979, the United States has sold arms and provided military training to the Republic of China Armed Forces.[101] This situation continues to be an issue for the People's Republic of China which considers US involvement disruptive to the stability of the region. In January 2010, the Obama administration announced its intention to sell $6.4 billion worth of military hardware to Taiwan. As a consequence, the PRC threatened the US with economic sanctions and warned that their cooperation on international and regional issues could suffer.[102]
The official position of the United States is that the PRC is expected to "use no force or threat[en] to use force against Taiwan" and the ROC is to "exercise prudence in managing all aspects of Cross-Strait relations." Both are to refrain from performing actions or espousing statements "that would unilaterally alter Taiwan's status."[103]
Participation in international events and organizations[link]
The ROC was a founding member of the United Nations and held the seat of China on the Security Council and other UN bodies until 1971, when it was expelled by General Assembly Resolution 2758 and replaced in all UN organs with the PRC. Each year since 1992, the ROC has petitioned the UN for entry but its applications have not made it past committee.[104]
Due to its limited international recognition, the Republic of China is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, represented by a government-funded organization, the Taiwan Foundation for Democracy (TFD) under the name "Taiwan".[105][106]
Also due to its One China policy, the PRC only participates in international organizations where the ROC is not recognized as a sovereign country. Most member states, including the United States, do not wish to discuss the issue of the ROC's political status for fear of souring diplomatic ties with the PRC.[107] However, both the US and Japan publicly support the ROC's bid for membership in the World Health Organization as an observer.[108] However, though the ROC has applied for WHO membership every year since 1997 under various denominations, their efforts have consistently been blocked by PRC.
Due to PRC pressure, the ROC is forced to use the name "Chinese Taipei" in international events such as the Olympic Games where the PRC is also a party.[109] The ROC is typically barred from using its national anthem and national flag in international events due to PRC pressure; ROC spectators attending events such as the Olympics are often barred from bringing ROC flags into venues.[110] The ROC is able to participate as "China" in organizations that the PRC does not participate in, such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement.
Opinions within Taiwan[link]
See also: Taiwan independence and Chinese reunification
Within Taiwan, opinions are polarized between those supporting unification, represented by the Pan-Blue Coalition of parties, and those supporting independence, represented by the Pan-Green Coalition.
The KMT, the largest Pan-Blue party, supports the status quo for the indefinite future with a stated ultimate goal of unification. However, it does not support unification in the short term with the PRC as such a prospect would be unacceptable to most of its members and the public.[111] Ma Ying-jeou, chairman of the KMT and the incumbent president of the ROC, has set out democracy, economic development to a level near that of Taiwan, and equitable wealth distribution as the conditions that the PRC must fulfill for reunification to occur.[112]
The DPP, the largest Pan-Green party, officially seeks independence, but in practice also supports the status quo because its members and the public would not accept the risk of provoking the PRC.[113][114]
Former President Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party stated during his years of administration that any decision should be decided through a public referendum of the people of the ROC. Both parties' current foreign policy positions support actively advocating ROC participation in international organizations, but while the KMT accepts the One-China principle, the DPP encourages the participation of Taiwan as a sovereign state.
On 2 September 2008, El Sol de México asked President Ma about his views on the subject of "two Chinas" and if there was a solution for the sovereignty issues between the two. The president replied that the relations are neither between two Chinas nor two states. It is a special relationship. Further, he stated that the sovereignty issues between the two cannot be resolved at present, but he quoted the "1992 Consensus", currently accepted by both the Kuomingtang and the Communist Party of China, as a temporary measure until a solution becomes available.[115]
The relationship with the PRC and the related issues of Taiwanese independence and Chinese reunification continue to dominate politics.[116] For any particular resolution, public favor shifts greatly with small changes in wording, illustrating the complexity of public opinion on the topic.[citation needed]
Government[link]
Main article: Government of the Republic of China
.JPG)
The government of the Republic of China was founded on the Constitution of the ROC and its Three Principles of the People, which states that the ROC "shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people."[117] The government is divided into five administrative branches (Yuan): the Executive Yuan (cabinet), the Legislative Yuan, the Judicial Yuan, the Control Yuan (audit agency), and the Examination Yuan (civil service examination agency). The Pan-Blue Coalition and Pan-Green Coalition are presently the dominant political blocs in the Republic of China.
The head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president, who is elected by popular vote for a maximum of 2 four-year terms on the same ticket as the vice-president. The president has authority over the Yuan. The president appoints the members of the Executive Yuan as his cabinet, including a premier, who is officially the President of the Executive Yuan; members are responsible for policy and administration.[117]
The main legislative body is the unicameral Legislative Yuan with 113 seats. Seventy-three are elected by popular vote from single-member constituencies; thirty-four are elected based on the proportion of nationwide votes received by participating political parties in a separate party list ballot; and six are elected from two three-member aboriginal constituencies. Members serve four-year terms. Originally the unicameral National Assembly, as a standing constitutional convention and electoral college, held some parliamentary functions, but the National Assembly was abolished in 2005 with the power of constitutional amendments handed over to the Legislative Yuan and all eligible voters of the Republic via referendums.[117]
The premier is selected by the president without the need for approval from the legislature, but the legislature can pass laws without regard for the president, as neither he nor the Premier wields veto power.[117] Thus, there is little incentive for the president and the legislature to negotiate on legislation if they are of opposing parties. After the election of the pan-Green's Chen Shui-bian as President in 2000, legislation repeatedly stalled because of deadlock with the Legislative Yuan, which was controlled by a pan-Blue majority.[118] Historically, the ROC has been dominated by strongman single party politics. This legacy has resulted in executive powers currently being concentrated in the office of the president rather than the premier, even though the constitution does not explicitly state the extent of the president's executive power.[119]
The Judicial Yuan is the highest judicial organ. It interprets the constitution and other laws and decrees, judges administrative suits, and disciplines public functionaries. The president and vice-president of the Judicial Yuan and additional thirteen justices form the Council of Grand Justices.[120] They are nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan. The highest court, the Supreme Court, consists of a number of civil and criminal divisions, each of which is formed by a presiding judge and four associate judges, all appointed for life. In 1993, a separate constitutional court was established to resolve constitutional disputes, regulate the activities of political parties and accelerate the democratization process. There is no trial by jury but the right to a fair public trial is protected by law and respected in practice; many cases are presided over by multiple judges.[117]
Like most Asian democracies, Taiwan still allows for capital punishment. Efforts have been made by the government to reduce the number of executions, although they have not been able to completely abolish the punishment. As of 2006, about 80% of Taiwanese want to keep the death penalty.[121]
The Control Yuan is a watchdog agency that monitors (controls) the actions of the executive. It can be considered a standing commission for administrative inquiry and can be compared to the Court of Auditors of the European Union or the Government Accountability Office of the United States.[117] The Control Yuan is sometimes also compared to an ombudsman or national human rights institution.[citation needed] The Examination Yuan is in charge of validating the qualification of civil servants. It is based on the old imperial examination system used in pre-modern China. It can be compared to the European Personnel Selection Office of the European Union or the Office of Personnel Management of the United States.[117]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of the Republic of China
See also: Elections in the Republic of China and Human rights in Taiwan
The constitution of the Republic of China was drafted before the fall of mainland China to the Communists. It was created by the KMT for the purpose of all of its claimed territory, including Taiwan, even though the Chinese Communist party boycotted the drafting of the constitution. The constitution went into effect on 25 December 1947.[122]
The ROC remained under martial law from 1948 until 1987 and much of the constitution was not in effect. Political reforms beginning in the late 1970s and continuing through the early 1990s liberalized the country and transformed into a multiparty democracy. Since the lifting of martial law, the Republic of China has democratized and reformed, suspending constitutional components that were originally meant for the whole of China. This process of amendment continues. In 2000, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidency, ending KMT's continuous control of the government. In May 2005, a new National Assembly was elected to reduce the number of parliamentary seats and implement several constitutional reforms. These reforms have been passed; the National Assembly has essentially voted to abolish itself and transfer the power of constitutional reform to the popular ballot.[123]
Major camps[link]
Emblem of the Democratic Progressive Party, the main Pan-Green Coalition party.
Emblem of the Kuomintang, the main Pan-Blue Coalition party.
The tension between the PRC and Taiwan colors most of the political life, and any government move towards "Taiwan independence" is met by threat of military attack from the PRC.[124] The PRC's official policy is to reunify Taiwan and mainland China under the formula of "one country, two systems" and refuses to renounce the use of military force, especially should Taiwan seek a declaration of independence.[125]
The political scene is generally divided into two major camps in terms of views on how Taiwan should relate to China or the PRC, referred to as Cross-Strait relations. It is the main political difference between two camps: the Pan-Blue Coalition, composed of the pro-unification Kuomintang, People First Party (PFP), and New Party, who believe that the ROC is the sole legitimate government of "China" (including Taiwan) and supports eventual Chinese reunification. The opposition Pan-Green Coalition is composed of the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party and Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU). It regards Taiwan as an independent, sovereign state synonymous with the ROC, opposes the definition that Taiwan is part of "China", and seeks wide diplomatic recognition and an eventual declaration of formal Taiwan independence.[126] The Pan-Green camp tends to favor emphasizing the Republic of China as being a distinct country from the People's Republic of China. Thus, in September 2007, the then ruling Democratic Progressive Party approved a resolution asserting separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal country". It called also for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the "Republic of China".[127] Some members of the coalition, such as former President Chen Shui-bian, argue that it is unnecessary to proclaim independence because "Taiwan is already an independent, sovereign country" and the Republic of China is the same as Taiwan.[128] Despite being a member of KMT prior to and during his presidency, Lee Teng-hui also held a similar view and was a supporter of the Taiwanization movement.[129]
Pan-Blue members generally support the concept of the One-China policy, which states that there is only one China and that its only government is the ROC. They favor eventual re-unification of China.[130] The more mainstream Pan-Blue position is to lift investment restrictions and pursue negotiations with the PRC to immediately open direct transportation links. Regarding independence, the mainstream Pan-Blue position is to maintain the status quo, while refusing immediate reunification.[111] President Ma Ying-jeou stated that there will be no unification nor declaration of independence during his presidency.[131][132] As of 2009, Pan-Blue members usually seek to improve relationships with mainland China, with a current focus on improving economic ties.[133]
Current political issues[link]
The dominant political issue in Taiwan is its relationship with the PRC. For almost 60 years, there were no direct transportation links, including direct flights, between Taiwan and mainland China. This was a problem for many Taiwanese businesses that had opened factories or branches in mainland China. The former DPP administration feared that such links would lead to tighter economic and political integration with mainland China, and in the 2006 Lunar New Year Speech, President Chen Shui-bian called for managed opening of links. Direct weekend charter flights between Taiwan and mainland China began in July 2008 under the current KMT government, and the first direct daily charter flights took off in December 2008.[134]
Other major political issues include the passage of an arms procurement bill that the United States authorized in 2001.[135] In 2008, however, the United States were reluctant to send over more arms to Taiwan out of fear that it would hinder the recent improvement of ties between the PRC and the ROC.[136] Another major political issue is the establishment of a National Communications Commission to take over from the Government Information Office, whose advertising budget exercised great control over the media.[137]
The politicians and their parties have themselves become major political issues. Corruption among some DPP administration officials has been exposed. In early 2006, President Chen Shui-bian was linked to possible corruption. The political effect on President Chen Shui-bian was great, causing a divide in the DPP leadership and supporters alike. It eventually led to the creation of a political camp led by ex-DPP leader Shih Ming-teh which believes the president should resign. The KMT assets continue to be another major issue, as it was once the richest political party in the world.[138] Nearing the end of 2006, KMT's chairman Ma Ying-jeou was also hit by corruption controversies, although he has since then been cleared of any wrong-doings by the courts.[139] Since completing his second term as President, Chen Shui-bian has been charged with corruption and money laundering.[140]
The merger of the KMT and People First Party (PFP) was thought to be certain, but a string of defections from the PFP to the KMT have increased tensions within the Pan-Blue camp.[141][142]
National identity[link]
Main articles: Taiwanese identity and Chinese nationalism
Roughly 84% of Taiwan's population descends from Han Chinese who migrated from mainland China between 1661 and 1895. Another significant fraction descends from Han Chinese who immigrated from mainland China in the 1940s and 1950s. But between 1895 and the present, Taiwan and mainland China have shared a common government for only 4 years. The shared cultural origin combined with several hundred years of geographical separation, some hundred years of political separation and foreign influences, as well as hostility between the rival ROC and PRC have resulted in national identity being a contentious issue with political overtones. Since democratization and the lifting of martial law, a distinct Taiwanese identity (as opposed to Taiwanese identity as a subset of a Chinese identity) is often at the heart of political debates. Its acceptance makes the island distinct from mainland China, and therefore may be seen as a step towards forming a consensus for de jure Taiwan independence.[143] The pan-green camp supports a distinct Taiwanese identity, while the pan-blue camp supports a Chinese identity only.[130] The KMT has downplayed this stance in the recent years and now supports a Taiwanese identity as part of a Chinese identity.[144][145]
According to a survey conducted in March 2009, 49% of the respondents consider themselves as Taiwanese only, and 44% of the respondents consider themselves as Taiwanese and Chinese. 3% consider themselves as only Chinese.[93] Another survey, conducted in Taiwan in July 2009, showed that 82.8% of respondents consider that the ROC and the PRC are two separate countries developing each on its own.[146] A recent survey conducted in December 2009 showed that 62% of the respondents consider themselves as Taiwanese only, and 22% of the respondents consider themselves as both Taiwanese and Chinese. 8% consider themselves as only Chinese. The survey also shows that among 18–29 year old respondents, 75% consider themselves as Taiwanese only.[147]
| Survey | Taiwanese | Chinese | Taiwanese and Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Research, Development, and Evaluation Commission, Executive Yuan (April 2008)[148] | 67.1% | 13.6% | 15.2% |
| TVBS Poll Center (June 2008)[148] | 45% | 4% | 45% |
| Common Wealth Magazine (December 2009)[147] | 62% | 8% | 22% |
| National Chengchi University (June 2010)[149] | 51.6% | 3.8% | 40.4% |
| TVBS Poll Center (March 2009)[93][150] | 72% | 16% | (not an option for this question) |
| TVBS Poll Center (March 2009)[93][151] | 49% | 3% | 44% |
Military[link]
Main article: Republic of China Armed Forces
See also: Republic of China Military Academy
The Republic of China Army takes its roots in the National Revolutionary Army, which was established by Sun Yat-sen in 1925 in Guangdong with a goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang. When the People's Liberation Army won the Chinese Civil War, much of the National Revolutionary Army retreated to Taiwan along with the government. It was later reformed into the Republic of China Army. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army.
Today, the Republic of China maintains a large and technologically advanced military, mainly as defense against the constant threat of invasion by the PRC under the Anti-Secession Law of the People's Republic of China.[95] From 1949 to the 1970s, the primary mission of the military was to "retake the mainland" through the Project National Glory. As this mission has shifted to defense, the ROC military has begun to shift emphasis from the traditionally dominant Army to the air force and navy. Control of the armed forces has also passed into the hands of the civilian government.[152] As the ROC military shares historical roots with the KMT, the older generation of high ranking officers tends to have Pan-Blue sympathies. However, many have retired and there are many more non-mainlanders enlisting in the armed forces in the younger generations, so the political leanings of the military have moved closer to the public norm in Taiwan.[153]
The ROC began a force reduction program to scale down its military from a level of 450,000 in 1997 to 380,000 in 2001.[154] As of 2009, the armed forces of the ROC number approximately 300,000,[155] with nominal reserves totaling 3.6 million as of 2005.[156] Conscription remains universal for qualified males reaching age eighteen, but as a part of the reduction effort many are given the opportunity to fulfill their draft requirement through alternative service and are redirected to government agencies or defense related industries.[157] Current plans call for a transition to a predominantly professional army over the next decade.[158][159] Conscription periods are planned to decrease from 14 months to 12.[160] In the last months of the Bush administration, Taipei took the decision to reverse the secular trend of declining defense spending, at a time when most Asian countries kept on reducing their military expenditures. It also decided to modernize both defensive and offensive capabilities. Taipei still keeps a large military apparatus relative to the island’s population: defense expenditures for 2008 were NTD 334 billion (approximately U.S. $10.5 billion), which accounted for 2.94% of GDP.
The armed forces' primary concern at this time is the possibility of an attack by the PRC, consisting of a naval blockade, airborne assault and/or missile bombardment. Four upgraded Kidd class destroyers were recently purchased from the United States, significantly upgrading Taiwan's air defense and submarine hunting abilities.[161] The Ministry of National Defense planned to purchase diesel-powered submarines and Patriot anti-missile batteries from the United States, but its budget has been stalled repeatedly by the opposition-Pan-Blue Coalition controlled legislature. The defense package was stalled from 2001–2007 where it was finally passed through the legislature and the US responded on 3 October 2008, with a $6.5 billion arms package including PAC III Anti-Air defense systems, AH-64D Apache Attack helicopters and other arms and parts.[162] A significant amount of military hardware has been bought from the United States, and, as of 2009, continues to be legally guaranteed by the Taiwan Relations Act.[101] In the past, France and the Netherlands have also sold military weapons and hardware to the ROC, but they almost entirely stopped in the 1990s under pressure of the PRC.[163][164]
The first line of defense against invasion by the PRC is the ROC's own armed forces. Current ROC military doctrine is to hold out against an invasion or blockade until the US military responds.[165] There is, however, no guarantee in the Taiwan Relations Act or any other treaty that the United States will defend Taiwan, even in the event of invasion.[166] The joint declaration on security between the US and Japan signed in 1996 may imply that Japan would be involved in any response. However, Japan has refused to stipulate whether the "area surrounding Japan" mentioned in the pact includes Taiwan, and the precise purpose of the pact is unclear.[167] The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS Treaty) may mean that other US allies, such as Australia, could theoretically be involved.[168] In practice, the risk of losing economic ties with China may prevent Australia from taking action.[169] The United States, United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Australia, Canada, Chile, and Peru conduct maritime exercises in the Pacific Ocean every 2 years called RIMPAC. They are conducted to promote stability and to be able to respond in case of an armed conflict in the region – that includes an invasion of Taiwan by China.[170]
Administrative divisions[link]
Main article: Administrative divisions of the Republic of China
.svg)
According to the 1947 constitution, written and promulgated whilst the ROC government still controlled mainland China, the territory of the ROC consisted of provinces, special municipalities, as well as Mongolia[171] and Tibet. Accordingly, when the ROC retreated to Taiwan in 1949, its claimed territory consisted of 35 provinces, 12 special municipalities, 1 special administrative region, as well as Mongolia[171] and Tibet. However, since its retreat, the ROC has controlled only Taiwan Province and some islands of Fujian Province. The ROC also controls the Pratas Islands (Dong-Sha) and Taiping Island in the Spratly Islands, which are part of the disputed South China Sea Islands. They were placed under Kaohsiung administration after the retreat to Taiwan.[172]
Since 1949, the government has made some changes in the area under its control. Taipei became a special municipality in 1967 and Kaohsiung in 1979. The two provincial governments were "streamlined", with their functions transferred to the central government (Fujian in 1956 and Taiwan in 1998).[173] In 2010, New Taipei, Taichung and Tainan were upgraded to special municipalities. This brought the top-level divisions of the ROC to their current state:[174]
| Level | Division type | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | Special municipality (直轄市 zhíxiáshì) (5) |
Province (省 shěng) (2) (Streamlined) | 22 | |||
| 2nd | Provincial city (市 shì) (3) |
County (縣 xiàn) (14) | ||||
| 3rd | District (區 qū) (157) | County-controlled city (縣轄市 xiànxiáshì) (17) |
Urban Township (鎮 zhèn) (41) |
Rural Township (鄉 xiāng) (153) |
368 | |
| 4th | Village (里 lǐ) | Village (村 cūn) | 7,835 | |||
| 5th | Neighborhood (鄰 lín) | 147,877 | ||||
According to Article 4 of the Local Government Act, laws pertaining to special municipalities also apply to counties with a population exceeding 2 million. This provision is currently applied only to Taoyuan County.[175]
Economy[link]
Main articles: Economy of Taiwan and Economic history of Taiwan
The quick industrialization and rapid growth of Taiwan during the latter half of the 20th century has been called the "Taiwan Miracle". Taiwan is one of the "Four Asian Tigers" alongside Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore.
Japanese rule prior to and during World War II brought changes in the public and private sectors, most notably in the area of public works, which enabled rapid communications and facilitated transport throughout much of the island. The Japanese also improved public education and made it compulsory for all Taiwanese citizens.
By 1945, hyperinflation was in progress in mainland China and Taiwan as a result of the war with Japan. To isolate Taiwan from it, the Nationalist government created a new currency area for the island, and started a price stabilization program. These efforts helped significantly slow the inflation.
When the KMT government fled to Taiwan it brought millions of taels of gold and the foreign currency reserve of mainland China to the island, which, according to the KMT stabilized prices and reduced hyperinflation.[176] Perhaps more importantly, as part of its retreat to Taiwan, the KMT brought the intellectual and business elites from Mainland China.[177] The KMT government instituted many laws and land reforms that it had never effectively enacted on mainland China. The government also implemented a policy of import-substitution, attempting to produce imported goods domestically. Much of this was made possible through US economic aid, subsidizing the higher cost of domestic production.
In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War, the US began an aid program which resulted in fully stabilized prices by 1952.[178] The KMT government instituted many laws and land reforms that it had never effectively enacted on mainland China; it implemented a policy of import-substitution, and it attempted to produce imported goods domestically. Much of this was made possible through US economic aid, subsidizing the higher cost of domestic production.
In 1962, Taiwan had a per-capita gross national product (GNP) of $170, placing its economy on a par with those of Zaire and Congo. By 2011 per-capita GNP, adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), had risen to $37,000, contributing to a Human Development Index equivalent to that of other developed countries. Taiwan's HDI in 2007 is 0.943 (25th, very high),[179] and stands at 0.868 in 2010 (18th, very high), according to the UN's new calculating method ("Inequality-adjusted HDI").
Today Taiwan has a dynamic, capitalist, export-driven economy with gradually decreasing state involvement in investment and foreign trade. In keeping with this trend, some large government-owned banks and industrial firms are being privatized.[180] Real growth in GDP has averaged about 8% during the past three decades. Exports have provided the primary impetus for industrialization. The trade surplus is substantial, and foreign reserves are the world's fifth largest.[181] The Republic of China has its own currency, the New Taiwan dollar.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, the economic ties between Taiwan and Mainland China have been very prolific. As of 2008, more than US$150 billion[182] have been invested in the PRC by Taiwanese companies, and about 10% of the Taiwanese labour force works in the PRC, often to run their own businesses.[183] Although the economy of Taiwan benefits from this situation, some have expressed the view that the island has become increasingly dependent on the Mainland Chinese economy. A 2008 white paper by the Department of Industrial Technology states that "Taiwan should seek to maintain stable relation with China while continuing to protect national security, and avoiding excessive 'Sinicization' of Taiwanese economy."[184] Others argue that close economic ties between Taiwan and Mainland China would make any military intervention by the PLA against Taiwan very costly, and therefore less probable.[185]
Taiwan’s total trade in 2010 reached an all-time high of US$526.04 billion, according to Taiwan's Ministry of Finance. Both exports and imports for the year reached record levels, totaling US$274.64 billion and US$251.4 billion, respectively.[186]
In 2001, agriculture constituted only 2% of GDP, down from 35% in 1952.[187] Traditional labor-intensive industries are steadily being moved offshore and with more capital and technology-intensive industries replacing them. High-technology industrial parks have sprung up in every region in Taiwan. The ROC has become a major foreign investor in the PRC, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Vietnam. It is estimated that some 50,000 Taiwanese businesses and 1,000,000 businesspeople and their dependents are established in the PRC.[188]
Because of its conservative financial approach and its entrepreneurial strengths, Taiwan suffered little compared with many of its neighbors from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Unlike its neighbors, South Korea and Japan, the Taiwanese economy is dominated by small and medium sized businesses, rather than the large business groups. The global economic downturn, however, combined with poor policy coordination by the new administration and increasing bad debts in the banking system, pushed Taiwan into recession in 2001, the first whole year of negative growth since 1947. Due to the relocation of many manufacturing and labor intensive industries to the PRC, unemployment also reached a level not seen since the 1970s oil crisis. This became a major issue in the 2004 presidential election. Growth averaged more than 4% in the 2002–2006 period and the unemployment rate fell below 4%.[189]
Since the global financial crisis starting with United States in 2007, the unemployment rate has risen to over 5.9% and Economic Growth fallen to –2.9%.[citation needed] However, Taiwan managed to emerge from the crisis in very good shape. In 2010, economic growth reached 10%, the highest rate in almost 30 years, international trade jumped more than 39% to US$526.04 billion, and the job market rose with most businesses set to recruit. As a result, the IMF estimated Taiwan's 2010 GDP-PPP per capita at over US$34,700, surpassing those of Finland, France and Japan.
The ROC often joins international organizations under a politically neutral name. The ROC is a member of governmental trade organizations such as the World Trade Organization under the name Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) since 2002.[190]
Education[link]
Main article: Education in Taiwan
The higher education system was established in Taiwan by Japan during the colonial period. However, after the Republic of China took over Taiwan from Japan in 1945, the system was promptly replaced by the same system as in mainland China which mixed with features of the Chinese and American educational systems.[191]
The educational system includes six years of elementary school, three years of middle school, three years of high school, and four years of university.[192] The system has been successful in that pupils in Taiwan boast some of the highest test scores in the world, especially in mathematics and science;[193] However, it has also been criticized for placing excessive pressure on students and eschewing creativity in favor of rote memorization.[194][195]
Many Taiwanese students attend cram schools, or bushiban, to improve skills and knowledge on problem solving against exams of subjects like mathematics, nature science, history and many others. Courses are available for most popular subjects. Lessons are organized in lectures, reviews, private tutorial sessions, and recitations.[196][197]
As of 2003, the literacy rate in Taiwan is 96.1%.[5]
Demographics[link]
Main article: Demographics of Taiwan
Taiwan's population was estimated in 2012 at 23,239,268, most of whom are on the island of Taiwan. The remainder live on Penghu (97,268), Kinmen (105,434) and the Matsu Islands (10,135).[16]
Ethnic groups[link]
Main articles: Taiwanese aborigines and Taiwanese people
About 98% of Taiwan's population is of Han Chinese ethnicity.[5] Of these, 86% are descendants of early Han Chinese immigrants known as the "benshengren" (Chinese: 本省人; pinyin: Běnshěng rén; literally "home-province person") in Chinese.[5] This group is often referred to "native Taiwanese" in English, but the term is also frequently used for the Taiwanese aborigines. The benshengren group contains two subgroups: the Hoklo people (70% of the total population), whose ancestors migrated from the coastal southern Fujian (Min-nan) region in the southeast of mainland China starting in the 17th century, and the Hakka (15% of the total population), whose ancestors originally migrated south to Guangdong, its surrounding areas and Taiwan.[5]
About 12% of the population are known as waishengren (Chinese: 外省人; pinyin: Wàishěng rén; literally "out-of-province person"), composed of people who (or whose ancestors) emigrated from mainland China after the Chinese Civil War with the KMT government.[5]
The other 2% of the population are about 521,000 Taiwanese aborigines, divided into 14 major groups. The Ami, Atayal, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Sakizaya, Sediq, Thao, Truku and Tsou live mostly in the eastern half of the island, while the Yami inhabit Orchid Island.[5][198][199]
Languages[link]
Main article: Languages of Taiwan
Mandarin is the official national language and is spoken by the vast majority of the population of Taiwan. It has been the primary language of instruction in schools since the Japanese were forced out in the 1940s. Like Hong Kong and Macau, the ROC uses Traditional Chinese characters.[200] However, a small number of characters differ from those used in Hong Kong and Macau.
Most Waishengren speak primarily Mandarin. The 70% of the population belonging to the Hoklo ethnic group speak Taiwanese (a variant of the Min Nan speech of Fujian province) as their mother tongue, in addition to Mandarin, and many others have some degree of understanding. The Hakka ethnic group (15% of the population) use the Hakka language.[201] Although Mandarin is the language of instruction in schools and dominates television and radio, non-Mandarin languages or dialects have undergone a revival in public life in Taiwan, particularly since restrictions on their use were lifted in the 1990s.[200]
People educated during the period of Japanese rule (1895–1945) were taught using Japanese as the medium of instruction. A declining number of people in the older generations understand little or no Mandarin, speaking only the Japanese they learned in school and the Taiwanese or Hakka they spoke at home.
Taiwan's indigenous languages, the Formosan languages, do not belong to the Chinese or Sino-Tibetan language family, but rather to the Austronesian language family. Their use among Taiwan's aboriginal minority groups has been in decline as usage of Mandarin has risen.[200]
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in Taiwan
The Constitution of the Republic of China protects people's freedom of religion and the practices of belief.[202] There are approximately 18,718,600 religious followers in Taiwan as of 2005 (81.3% of total population) and 14–18% are non-religious. According to the 2005 census, of the 26 religions recognized by the ROC government, the five largest are: Buddhism (8,086,000 or 35.1%), Taoism (7,600,000 or 33%), I-Kuan Tao (810,000 or 3.5%), Protestantism (605,000 or 2.6%), and Roman Catholicism (298,000 or 1.3%).[203] But according to the CIA World Factbook and other latest sources from US State Department or the Religious Affairs Section of the MOI, over 93% of Taiwanese are adherents of a combination of the polytheistic ancient Chinese religion, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism; 4.5% are adherents of Christianity, which includes Protestants, Catholics, and other, non-denominational, Christian groups; and less than 2.5% are adherents of other religions, such as Islam.[5][204] Taiwanese aborigines comprise a notable subgroup among professing Christians: "...over 64 percent identify as Christian... Church buildings are the most obvious markers of Aboriginal villages, distinguishing them from Taiwanese or Hakka villages."[205]
Confucianism is a philosophy that deals with secular moral ethics, and serves as the foundation of both Chinese and Taiwanese culture. The majority of Taiwanese people usually combine the secular moral teachings of Confucianism with whatever religions they are affiliated with.
As of 2009, there are 14,993 temples in Taiwan, approximately one place of worship per 1,500 residents. 9,202 of those temples were dedicated to Taoism. In 2008, Taiwan had 3,262 Churches, an increase of 145.[206]
Largest cities[link]
Main article: List of cities in Taiwan
The figures below are the 2011 estimates for the twenty largest urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total metropolitan area populations (in such rankings the Taipei-Keelung metro area is by far the largest agglomeration).
|
Largest cities or towns of Taiwan http://www.geonames.org/TW/largest-cities-in-taiwan.html |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | City name | Division | Pop. | ||||||
 New Taipei |
1 | New Taipei | New Taipei City | 3,913,595 |  Taichung |
||||
| 2 | Kaohsiung | Kaohsiung City | 2,773,855 | ||||||
| 3 | Taichung | Taichung City | 2,662,770 | ||||||
| 4 | Taipei | Taipei City | 2,647,122 | ||||||
| 5 | Tainan | Tainan City | 1,876,706 | ||||||
| 6 | Hsinchu | Hsinchu City | 419,384 | ||||||
| 7 | Taoyuan | Taoyuan County | 409,796 | ||||||
| 8 | Keelung | Keelung City | 380,281 | ||||||
| 9 | Zhongli | Taoyuan County | 372,117 | ||||||
| 10 | Chiayi | Chiayi City | 271,594 | ||||||
Public health[link]
Main article: Healthcare in Taiwan
Health care in Taiwan is managed by the Bureau of National Health Insurance (BNHI).[207]
The current program was implemented in 1995, and is considered social insurance. The government health insurance program maintains compulsory insurance for citizens who are employed, impoverished, unemployed, or victims of natural disasters with fees that correlate to the individual and/or family income; it also maintains protection for non-citizens working in Taiwan. A standardized method of calculation applies to all persons and can optionally be paid by an employer or by individual contributions.[208]
BNHI insurance coverage requires co-payment at the time of service for most services unless it is a preventative health service, for low-income families, veterans, children under three years old, or in the case of catastrophic diseases. Low income households maintain 100% premium coverage by the BNHI and co-pays are reduced for disabled or certain elderly peoples.
According to a recently published survey, out of 3,360 patients surveyed at a randomly chosen hospital, 75.1% of the patients said they are "very satisfied" with the hospital service; 20.5% said they are "okay" with the service. Only 4.4% of the patients said they are either "not satisfied" or "very not satisfied" with the service or care provided.[209]
Taiwan has its own Center for Disease Control, and during the SARS outbreak in March of 2003 there were 347 confirmed cases. During the outbreak the CDC and local governments set up monitored stations throughout public transportation, recreational sites and other public areas. With full containment in July 2003, there has not been a case of SARS since.[210]
As of 2006, the BNHI Facility Contract Distribution facilities total 17,259, including:[211]
| Number | Subject |
|---|---|
| 16,174 | outpatient-only facilities |
| 5,701 | dental clinics |
| 2,422 | Chinese medicine clinics |
| 1,085 | inpatient/outpatient facilities |
| 437 | local community hospitals |
| 35 | Chinese medicine hospitals |
| 123 | academic medical centers |
Basic coverage areas of the insurance include:
|
|
|
In 2004, the infant mortality rate was 5.3 with 15 physicians and 63 hospital beds per 10,000 people. The life expectancy for males was 73.5 years and 79.7 years for females according to the World Health Report.
Other health related programs in Taiwan are the Centers for Disease Control[212] and the Department of Health.[213]
Culture[link]
Main article: Culture of Taiwan
The cultures of Taiwan are a hybrid blend of various sources, incorporating elements of traditional Chinese culture, attributable to the historical and ancestry origin of the majority of its current residents, Japanese culture, traditional Confucianist beliefs, and increasingly Western values.
After their move to Taiwan, the Kuomintang imposed an official interpretation of traditional Chinese culture over Taiwan. The government launched a program promoting Chinese calligraphy, traditional Chinese painting, folk art, and Chinese opera.
The status of Taiwanese culture is debated.[214] It is disputed whether Taiwanese culture is a regional form of Chinese culture or a distinct culture. Reflecting the continuing controversy surrounding the political status of Taiwan, politics continues to play a role in the conception and development of a Taiwanese cultural identity, especially in the prior dominant frame of a Taiwanese and Chinese dualism. In recent years, the concept of Taiwanese multiculturalism has been proposed as a relatively apolitical alternative view, which has allowed for the inclusion of mainlanders and other minority groups into the continuing re-definition of Taiwanese culture as collectively held systems of meaning and customary patterns of thought and behavior shared by the people of Taiwan.[215] Identity politics, along with the over one hundred years of political separation from mainland China, has led to distinct traditions in many areas, including cuisine and music.
One of Taiwan's greatest attractions is the National Palace Museum, which houses more than 650,000 pieces of Chinese bronze, jade, calligraphy, painting and porcelain, and is considered one of the greatest collections of Chinese art and objects in the world.[216] The KMT moved this collection from the Forbidden City in Beijing in 1949 when it fled to Taiwan. The collection, estimated to be one-tenth of China's cultural treasures, is so extensive that only 1% is on display at any time. The PRC had said that the collection was stolen and that it legitimately belongs in China, but Taiwan has long defended its collection as a necessary act to protect the pieces from destruction, especially during the Cultural Revolution. Relations regarding this treasure have warmed recently as each side has agreed to lend relics to the other; Beijing Palace Museum Curator Zheng Xinmiao said that artifacts in both Chinese and Taiwanese museums are "China's cultural heritage jointly owned by people across the Taiwan Strait."[217]
Karaoke, drawn from contemporary Japanese culture, is extremely popular in Taiwan, where it is known as KTV. KTV businesses operate in a hotel-like style, renting out small rooms and ballrooms varying on the number of guests in a group. Many KTV establishments partner with restaurants and buffets to form all-encompassing elaborate evening affairs for families, friends, or businessmen. Tour buses that travel around Taiwan have several TV's, equipped not for watching movies, but primarily for singing Karaoke. The entertainment counterpart of a KTV is an MTV, being found much less frequently out of the city. There, movies out on DVD can be selected and played in a private theater room. However MTV, more so than KTV, has a growing reputation for being a place that young couples will go to be alone and intimate.
Taiwan has a high density of 24-hour convenience stores, which, in addition to the usual services, provide services on behalf of financial institutions or government agencies such as collection of parking fees, utility bills, traffic violation fines, and credit card payments.[218] They also provide a service for mailing packages.
Taiwanese culture has also influenced other cultures. Bubble tea and milk tea are available in Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Europe and North America. Taiwan television shows are popular in Singapore, Malaysia and other Asian countries. Taiwanese films have won various international awards at film festivals around the world. Ang Lee, a Taiwanese director, has directed critically acclaimed films such as: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon; Eat Drink Man Woman; Sense and Sensibility; Brokeback Mountain; and Lust, Caution. Other famous Taiwanese directors include Tsai Ming-Liang, Edward Yang and Hou Hsiao-hsien.
Sports[link]
Main article: Sport in Taiwan
Baseball is Taiwan's national sport and it is a popular spectator sport. One of the most famous Taiwanese baseball pitchers is Chien-Ming Wang, who is a starting pitcher in Major League Baseball. Other notable players playing in the United States include Chin-hui Tsao who played for the Colorado Rockies (2003–2005) and the Los Angeles Dodgers (2007), Hong-Chih Kuo, Fu-Te Ni, and Chin-lung Hu. The Chinese Professional Baseball League in Taiwan was established in 1989,[219] and eventually absorbed the competing Taiwan Major League in 2003. As of 2008[update], the CPBL has four teams with average attendance of approximately 3,000 per game.
_cropped.jpg)
Besides baseball, basketball is Taiwan's major sport.[220] The national team's forth place at the 1959 FIBA World Championship remains the second best finish ever of an Asian nation to this date.
Taekwondo has also become a rather mature and successful sport in recent years. In the 2004 Olympics, Mu Yen Chu and Shih Hsin Chen proudly won the first two gold medals in men's flyweight event and women's flyweight event, respectively. Ever since the 2004 Olympics, Taiwan's taekwondo potential has become extremely prominent. Subsequent taekwondo competitors such as Shu Chun Yang successfully consolidated Taiwan's taekwondo culture.
The ROC participates in international sporting organizations and events under the name of "Chinese Taipei" due to the ambiguity of the political status of Taiwan. In 2009, Taiwan hosted two international sporting events on the island. The World Games 2009 were held in Kaohsiung between 16 and 26 July 2009. Taipei hosted the 21st Summer Deaflympics in September of the same year. Furthermore, Taipei will host the Summer Universiade in 2017.[221]
Taiwan is also a major Asian country for Korfball. In 2008, Taiwan hosted the World Youth Korfball Championship and took the silver medal.[222] In 2009, Taiwan's korfball team won a bronze medal at the World Game.[223]
Yani Tseng is the most famous Taiwanese professional golfer currently playing on the U.S.-based LPGA Tour. She is the youngest player ever, male or female, to win five major championships and has been ranked number 1 in the Women's World Golf Rankings since February 2011.
Calendar[link]
Main article: Minguo calendar
See also: Chinese calendar and Public holidays in Taiwan
Taiwan uses two official calendars: the Gregorian calendar, and the Minguo calendar. The latter numbers years starting from 1911, the year of the founding of the Republic of China. For example, 2007 is the "96th year of the Republic",[224] while its months and days are numbered according to the Gregorian calendar.
Usually, year numbering may use the Gregorian system as well as the ROC era system. For example, 3 May 2004, may be written 2004-05-03 or 93–05–03. The use of two different calendar systems in Taiwan may be confusing, in particular for foreigners. For instance, products for export marked using the Minguo calendar can be misunderstood as having an expiration date 11 years earlier than intended.[225]
Taiwan also uses the lunar calendar for traditional festivals such as the Chinese New Year, the Lantern Festival, and the Dragon Boat Festival.[226]
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ See Names of the Republic of China.
- ^ Waishengren usually refers to people who moved from mainland China to Taiwan after 1949 when the KMT retreated to Taiwan due to the Chinese Civil War, and to their descendants born in Taiwan. It usually does not include citizens of the People's Republic of China who more recently moved to Taiwan.
- ^ Taiwanese aborigines are officially categorised into 14 separate ethnic groups by the Republic of China.
- ^ Although the territories controlled by the ROC imply that the demonym is "Taiwanese", some consider that it is "Chinese" due to the claims of the ROC over all of China. Taiwanese people have various opinions regarding their own national identity.
- ^ a b The UN has not calculated an HDI for the ROC, which is not a member nation. The ROC government calculated its HDI for 2010 to be 0.868, which would rank it 18th among countries.
- ^ The island of Taiwan covers an area of 36,008 km2 (13,902.8 sq mi), while the total area under the jurisdiction of the ROC (Free Area) covers around 36,191 km2 (13,973.4 sq mi).[16]
References[link]
- ^ a b "Yearbook 2004". Yearbook. Government Information Office of the Republic of China. 2004. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2004/P045.htm. "Taipei is the capital of the ROC"
- ^ "Taiwan (self-governing island, Asia)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 1975-04-05. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580902/Taiwan. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ "The Republic of China Yearbook 2009. Chapter 2 – People and Language". Government Information Office. 2009. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ch02.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010. [dead link]
- ^ "The Republic of China Yearbook 2009 / Chapter 2: People and Language". Gio.gov.tw. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ch02.html. Retrieved 1 August 2010. [dead link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h Taiwan entry at The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ "The ROC's Humanitarian Relief Program for Afghan Refugees". Gio.gov.tw. 2001-12-11. Archived from the original on 15 December 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20041215030432/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/relief/help_41.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ "Taiwanese health official invited to observe bird-flu conference". Gio.gov.tw. 2005-11-11. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/4-oa/20051111/2005111101.html. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ "Demonyms – Names of Nationalities". Geography.about.com. http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa030900a.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ Jacobs, Andrew (14 January 2012). "President of Taiwan Is Re-elected, a Result That Is Likely to Please China". The New York Times: p. A6. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/asia/taiwan-presidential-election.html?_r=1. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "About us » Vice President Wu Den-yih » Biography". english.president.gov.tw. Office of the President, Republic of China (Taiwan). http://english.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=1407. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
- ^ "Executive Yuan ─ Chen Chun (aka Sean Chen)". www.ey.gov.tw. Executive Yuan. 16 April 2012. http://www.ey.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=86851&ctNode=1328&mp=11. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "President > Brief Introduction". www.ly.gov.tw. Legislative Yuan. 2010. http://www.ly.gov.tw/en/02_chief/chiefIntro.action?id=1. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "Hau-Min Rai". Justices of the Constitutional Court. Judicial Yuan. http://www.judicial.gov.tw/constitutionalcourt/en/p01_03_01.asp?curno=24. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "President Wang, Chien-shien". www.cy.gov.tw. Control Yuan. 1 June 2011. http://www.cy.gov.tw/mp21.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "The Examination Yuan of ROC - President". www.exam.gov.tw. Examination Yuan. 27 March 2012. http://www.exam.gov.tw/lp.asp?CtNode=608&CtUnit=268&BaseDSD=58&mp=5&nowpage=1&pagesize=20. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ a b c d e f "Number of Villages, Neighborhoods, Households and Resident Population". MOI Statistical Information Service. http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/month/m1-01.xls. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
- ^ a b c d "Republic of China (Taiwan)". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2011&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=528&s=NGDP%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPPC%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=55&pr.y=14. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "Table 4. Percentage Share of Disposable Income by Quintile Group of Households and Income Inequality Indices". Report on The Survey of Family Income and Expenditure. Taipei, Taiwan: Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics. 2010. http://win.dgbas.gov.tw/fies/doc/result/99/a11/Year04.xls.
- ^ a b http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/Attachment/11715383471.doc
- ^ "ICANN Board Meeting Minutes". ICANN. 25 June 2010. http://brussels38.icann.org/meetings/brussels2010/transcript-board-25jun10-en.txt.
- ^ "'1 country, 2 areas' in line with ROC Constitution: MAC deputy". The China Post. 26 March 2012. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan-relations/2012/03/26/335822/1-country.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-05.
- ^ "Chapter XIII. Fundamental National Policies". Office of the President of the Republic of China. http://english.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=1118. Retrieved 2011-05-02. "The foreign policy of the Republic of China...in order to protect the rights and interests of Chinese citizens residing abroad"
- ^ "Full text of Anti-Secession Law". People's Daily Online. 2005-03-14. http://english.people.com.cn/200503/14/eng20050314_176746.html. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
- ^ CIA World Factbook- GDP (PPP)
- ^ Chan, Rachel (17 June 2009). "Taiwan needs to boost public awareness on climate change: EU envoy". The China Post. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/life/environment/2009/06/17/212626/Taiwan-needs.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ Yao, Grace; Yen-Pi Cheng and Chiao-Pi Cheng (6 October 2008). "The Quality of Life in Taiwan". Social Indicators Research 92 (The Quality of Life in Confucian Asia: From Physical Welfare to Subjective Well–Being). "a second place ranking in the 2000 Economist's world healthcare ranking"
- ^ "2010中華民國人類發展指數 (HDI)" (in Chinese) (PDF). Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.. 2010. http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/Data/11715541971.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
- ^ a b c "Chapter 3: History". The Republic of China Yearbook. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2011. pp. 41–53. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch03.pdf.
- ^ a b c Oosterhoff, J.L. (1985). "Zeelandia, a Dutch colonial city on Formosa (1624–1662)". In Ross, Robert; Telkamp, Gerard J.. Colonial Cities: Essays on Urbanism in a Colonial Context. Springer. pp. 51–62. ISBN 978-90-247-2635-6.
- ^ Garver, John W. (April 1997). The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia. M.E. Sharp. ISBN 978-0-7656-0025-7. http://books.google.com/?id=SDqjW8G5H4cC.
- ^ "The Birth of the Republic of China". Government Information Office, ROC. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ch3.html. [dead link]
- ^ Chang, K.C. (1989). translated by W. Tsao, ed. by B. Gordon. "The Neolithic Taiwan Strait". Kaogu 6: 541–550, 569. http://http-server.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/App.18ChangKC89.pdf.
- ^ Olsen, Sari; Miller-Antonio (1992). "The Palaeolithic in Southern China". Asian Perspectives 31 (2): 129–160. http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17011.
- ^ Jiao, Tianlong (2007). The neolithic of southeast China: cultural transformation and regional interaction on the coast. Cambria Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-1-934043-16-5.
- ^ Diamond, Jared M (2000). "Taiwan's gift to the world" (PDF). Nature 403 (6771): 709–710. DOI:10.1038/35001685. PMID 10693781. http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf.
- ^ Fox, James J (2004). "Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies" (PDF). Symposium Austronesia. Universitas Udayana, Bali. https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/2/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf.
- ^ Shepherd, John R. (1993). Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800. Stanford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8047-2066-3. Reprinted Taipei: SMC Publishing, 1995.
- ^ a b c Wills, John E., Jr. (2006). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A.. Taiwan: A New History. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106. ISBN 978-0-7656-1495-7.
- ^ Campbell, William (1903). Formosa Under the Dutch: Described from Contemporary Records, with Explanatory Notes and a Bibliography of the Island. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. pp. 6–7. http://www.archive.org/details/formosaunderdut01campgoog.
- ^ Taiwan Railway Administration "Build History of Main Routes of Taiwan Railway". Taiwan Railway Administration. 2006. Archived from the original on 18 February 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060218073123/http://www.railway.gov.tw/n/n1_01.htm Taiwan Railway Administration. Retrieved 6 March 2006.
- ^ Ryotaro, Shiba. Taiwan Kikou
- ^ Morris, Andrew (2002). "The Taiwan Republic of 1895 and the failure of the Qing modernizing project". In Corcuff, Stéphane. Memories of the future: national identity issues and the search for a new Taiwan. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 3–24. ISBN 978-0-7656-0792-8.
- ^ Chou, Chuing Prudence; Ho, Ai-Hsin (2007). "Schooling in Taiwan". In Postiglione, Gerard A.; Tan, Jason. Going to school in East Asia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 344–377. ISBN 978-0-313-33633-1. http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~iaezcpc/Going%20to%20School%20in%20East%20Asia%20--%20SCHOOLING%20IN%20TAIWAN.htm.
- ^ Hsu, Mutsu (1991). Culture, Self and Adaptation: The Psychological Anthropology of Two Malayo-Polynesian Groups in Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica. ISBN 957-9046-78-6.
- ^ "The History of Taiwan". The Republic of China Year Book 2001, fourth last paragraph, last sentence. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2001/chpt04-3.htm.
- ^ Tierney, Robert (2010). Tropics of Savagery: The Culture of Japanese Empire in Comparative Frame. University of California Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-520-94766-5.
- ^ "History". Oversea Office Republic of China (Taiwan). 2007. http://www.roc-taiwan.org/ct.asp?xItem=456&CtNode=2243&mp=1&xp1=. Retrieved 2 July 2007.
- ^ "Shu LinKou Air Station: World War II". Shu LinKou Air Station: World War II. Ken Ashley, U.S. military photo archives. http://shulinkou.tripod.com/dawg2e.html. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ Grajdanzev, A. J. (1942). "Formosa (Taiwan) Under Japanese Rule". Pacific Affairs 15 (3): 311–324. JSTOR 2752241.
- ^ "Far East (Formosa and the Pescadores)". Hansard (U.K. Parliament) 540 (cc1870–4). 4 May 1955. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1955/may/04/far-east-formosa-and-the-pescadores#S5CV0540P0_19550504_HOC_582. Retrieved 2010-09-01. "The sovereignty was Japanese until 1952. The Japanese Treaty came into force, and at that time Formosa was being administered by the Chinese Nationalists, to whom it was entrusted in 1945, as a military occupation."
- ^ Charney, Jonathan I.; Prescott, J. R. V. (2000). "Resolving Cross-Strait Relations Between China and Taiwan". American Journal of International Law 94 (3): 453–477. JSTOR 2555319. "After occupying Taiwan in 1945 as a result of Japan's surrender, the Nationalists were defeated on the mainland in 1949, abandoning it to retreat to Taiwan."
- ^ "This Is the Shame". Time (New York). 10 June 1946. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792979,00.html.
- ^ "China: Snow Red & Moon Angel". Time (New York). 7 April 1947. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804090,00.html.
- ^ Shackleton, Allan J. (1998). "Formosa Calling: An Eyewitness Account of the February 28th, 1947 Incident". http://homepage.usask.ca/~llr130/taiwanlibrary/formosacalling/formosa-calling.pdf.
- ^ Kubek, Anthony (1963). How the Far East was lost: American policy and the creation of Communist China. ISBN 0-85622-000-0.
- ^ "A brief history of Taiwan" (in Chinese). Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://info.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=27358&CtNode=2527&mp=21. Retrieved 2009-09-13. "1949年，國民政府退守臺灣後，以臺北為戰時首都"
- ^ "Taiwan Timeline – Retreat to Taiwan". BBC News. 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1949_1955.stm. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
- ^ Dunbabin, J. P. D. (2008). The Cold War. Pearson Education. p. 187. ISBN 0-582-42398-8. http://books.google.com/?id=IVriqPvx7iwC&pg=PA187. "In 1949 Chiang Kai-shek had transferred to Taiwan the government, gold reserve, and some of the army of his Republic of China."
- ^ Ng, Franklin (1998). The Taiwanese Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-313-29762-5. http://books.google.com/?id=lPzsB_wJQW0C&pg=PA10.
- ^ "The One-China Principle and the Taiwan Issue". PRC Taiwan Affairs Office and the Information Office of the State Council. 2005. http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4. "Section 1: Since the KMT ruling clique retreated to Taiwan, its regime has continued to use the designations 'Republic of China' and 'government of the Republic of China,' despite having long since completely forfeited its right to exercise state sovereignty on behalf of China." [dead link]
- ^ a b "三、 台灣戒嚴令 (III. Decree to establish martial law in Taiwan)". 2 October 2009. http://www.archives.gov.tw/Publish.aspx?cnid=1014&p=857. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "28 February 1947 – Taiwan's Holocaust Remembered – 60th Commemoration". New Taiwan, Ilha Formosa. 2007. http://www.taiwandc.org/228-intr.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
- ^ "Taiwan president apologises for 'white terror' era". Reuters. http://www.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Malaysia/Story/A1Story20080716-77050.html. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
- ^ Gluck, Caroline (16 July 2008). "Taiwan sorry for white terror era". BBC News Online (London). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7509805.stm.
- ^ US Department of Defense (1950). Classified Teletype Conference, dated 27 June 1950, between the Pentagon and General Douglas MacArthur regarding authorization to use naval and air forces in support of South Korea. Papers of Harry S. Truman: Naval Aide Files. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. p. 1 and 4. http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week1/kw_22_1.htm. "Page 1: In addition 7th Fleet will take station so as to prevent invasion of Formosa and to insure that Formosa not be used as base of operations against Chinese mainland." Page 4: "Seventh Fleet is hereby assigned to operational control CINCFE for employment in following task hereby assigned CINCFE: By naval and air action prevent any attack on Formosa, or any air or sea offensive from Formosa against mainland of China."
- ^ Alagappa, Muthiah (2001). Taiwan's presidential politics. M.E. Sharpe. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-7656-0834-5. http://books.google.com/?id=2Zx7nPeGWgwC&pg=PA265.
- ^ "Taiwan Timeline – Cold war fortress". BBC News. 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1955_1972.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
- ^ Makinen & Woodward 1989: "Yet, the Chinese Nationalist government attempted to isolate Taiwan from the mainland inflation by creating it as an independent currency area. And during the later stages of the civil war it was able to end the hyperinflation on Taiwan, something it was unable to do on the mainland despite two attempts."
- ^ "China: Chiang Kai-shek: Death of the Casualty". TIME: p. 3. 14 April 1975. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917286-3,00.html. Retrieved 16 December 2009.
- ^ Sun, Yat-sen; Julie Lee Wei, Ramon Hawley Myers, Donald G. Gillin (1994). Julie Lee Wei, Ramon Hawley Myers, Donald G. Gillin. ed. Prescriptions for saving China: selected writings of Sun Yat-sen. Hoover Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-8179-9281-2. http://books.google.com/?id=YA3TzmnYRpYC. "The party first applied Sun's concept of political tutelage by governing through martial law, not tolerating opposition parties, controlling the public media, and using the 1947 constitution drawn up on the China mainland to govern. Thus, much of the world in those years gave the government low scores for democracy and human rights but admitted it had accomplished an economic miracle."
- ^ Chao, Linda; Ramon Hawley Myers (1997). Democracy's new leaders in the Republic of China on Taiwan. Hoover Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8179-3802-8. http://books.google.com/?id=tIiAd4MABAIC. "Although this party [the KMT] had initiated a democratic breakthrough and guided the democratic transition, it had also upheld martial law for thirty-six years and severely repressed political dissent and any efforts to establish an opposition party. [...] How was it possible that this party, so hated by opposition politicians and long regarded by Western critics as a dictatorial, Leninist-type party, still remained in power?"
- ^ (Fung 2000, p. 67) "Nanjing was not only undemocratic and repressive but also inefficient and corrupt. [...] Furthermore, like other authoritarian regimes, the GMD sought to control people's mind."
- ^ (Fung 2000, p. 85) "The response to national emergency, critics argued, was not merely military, it was, even more important, political, requiring the termination of one-party dictatorship and the development of democratic institutions."
- ^ Copper, John Franklin (2005). Consolidating Taiwan's democracy. University Press of America. p. 8. ISBN 0-7618-2977-6. http://books.google.com/?id=761bWuEtEfEC. "Also, the "Temporary Provisions" (of the Constitution) did not permit forming new political parties, and those that existed at this time did not seriously compete with the Nationalist Party. Thus, at the national level the KMT did not permit competitive democratic elections."
- ^ "Out with the old". BBC News. 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1972_1986.stm. Retrieved 2009-10-30.
- ^ "Taiwan Timeline – Path to democracy". BBC News. 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1986_1999.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-03.
- ^ "AP, Taiwan Party Asserts Separate Identity". http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jF4syWWBWq5u3MZEs-3s9IUT8pGgD8RVKVM80. [dead link]
- ^ a b Lam, Willy (28 March 2008). "Ma Ying-jeou and the Future of Cross-Strait Relations" ( – Scholar search). China Brief (Jamestown Foundation) 8 (7). Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080413105956/http://www.jamestown.org/china_brief/article.php?articleid=2374064. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
- ^ "The Nationalists are back in Taiwan". The Economist (London). 23 March 2008.
- ^ "Straitened times: Taiwan looks to China". The Financial Times. 03-25. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/07d43e18-fa9a-11dc-aa46-000077b07658.html.
- ^ August 2009-voa17.cfm "Taiwan-China Economic Ties Boom, Military Tensions Remain | News | English". Voanews.com. 20 August 2009. http://www.voanews.com/english/20 August 2009-voa17.cfm. Retrieved 1 August 2010. [dead link]
- ^ a b c "Chapter 1: Geography". The Republic of China Yearbook. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2011. pp. 13–25. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch01.pdf.
- ^ Chao, Kang; Johnson, Marshall (2000). "Nationalist Social Sciences and the Fabrication of Subimperial Subjects in Taiwan." Positions 8(1) p. 167.
- ^ "Tallest Islands of the World — World Island Info web site". Worldislandinfo.com. http://www.worldislandinfo.com/TALLESTV1.htm. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
- ^ "Field Listing — Climate". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2059.html. Retrieved 8 March 2006.
- ^ "Monthly Mean Days of Precipitation". Climate Data. ROC Central Weather Bureau. Archived from the original on 3 December 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051203145112/http://www.cwb.gov.tw/V4e/climate/Data/table2_e.html. Retrieved 8 March 2006.
- ^ "Rescuers hunt quake survivors". BBC. 21 September 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/453087.stm.
- ^ "Geology of Taiwan — University of Arizona". Geo.arizona.edu. http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~anderson/taiwan/tai_index.html. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
- ^ Clift, Schouten and Draut (2003) in Intra-Oceanic Subduction Systems: Tectonic and Magmatic Processes, ISBN 1-86239-147-5 p84–86
- ^ "USGS seismic hazard map of Eastern Asia". Seismo.ethz.ch. http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/GSHAP/eastasia/asiafin.gif. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
- ^ "The One-China Principle and the Taiwan Issue". PRC Taiwan Affairs Office and the Information Office of the State Council. 2005. http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4. Retrieved 2006-03-06. [dead link] Section 1: "Since the KMT ruling clique retreated to Taiwan, although its regime has continued to use the designations "Republic of China" and "government of the Republic of China," it has long since completely forfeited its right to exercise state sovereignty on behalf of mainland China and, in reality, has always remained only a separate state on the island of Taiwan."
- ^ BBC News, "Taiwan Flashpoint", "But Taiwan's leaders say it is clearly much more than a province, arguing that it is a sovereign state. It has its own constitution, democratically elected leaders, and 400,000 troops in its armed forces."
- ^ a b c d "ECFA issues and the nationality identification". TVBS. http://www.tvbs.com.tw/FILE_DB/DL_DB/yijung/200905/yijung-20090508145032.pdf.
- ^ "Liancheng / Lianfeng Airbase – Chinese Military Forces". Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/facility/liancheng.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-07. "In March 2000 it was reported that the PLA Air Force was deploying new air-defense missiles [possibly batteries of Russian-made S-300 missiles] opposite Taiwan at the coastal cities of Xiamen and Shantou, and at Longtian, near Fuzhou."
- ^ a b "2004 National Defense Report" (PDF). ROC Ministry of National Defense. 2004. pp. 89–90. Archived from the original on 11 March 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060311012134/http://report.mnd.gov.tw/eng/pdf/all-1-360.pdf. Retrieved 2006-03-05. "The PRC refusal to renounce using military power against Taiwan, its current emphasis on 'enhancing preparation for military struggle', its obvious intention of preparing a war against Taiwan reflected in operational deployment, readiness efforts, and annual military exercises in the Southeast China coastal region, and its progress in aerospace operations, information warfare, paralyzing warfare, and non-conventional warfare, all of these factors work together so that the ROC Armed Forces face an increasingly complicated and difficult situation in terms of self-defense and counterattack. These multiple daunting challenges are testing our defense security."
- ^ Macartney, Jane (6 March 2007). "War of words after call for independence". Times Online (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1475250.ece. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
- ^ "Countries – China". US Department of State, Office of the Historian. http://history.state.gov/countries/china. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Henckaerts, Jean-Marie (1996). The international status of Taiwan in the new world order. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 96–97. ISBN 90-411-0929-3. http://books.google.com/?id=_9kuVIayxDoC&pg=PA96.
- ^ BBC News, "Taiwan Flashpoint", "Given the huge divide between these two positions, most other countries seem happy to accept the current ambiguity, whereby Taiwan has most of the characteristics of an independent state, even if its legal status remains unclear."
- ^ Vang, Pobzeb (2008). Five Principles of Chinese Foreign Policies. AuthorHouse. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4343-6971-0. http://books.google.com/?id=TvXlFsxmJiMC.
- ^ a b Yates, Stephen J. (16 April 1999). "The Taiwan Relations Act After 20 Years: Keys to Past and Future Success". The Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1272.cfm. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
- ^ "China: US spat over Taiwan could hit co-operation". Agence France Presse. 2 February 2010. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jDzKLVZ7X2dz8yrsshklcJZh38Cg.
- ^ "Overview of US Policy Towards Taiwan" (Press release). US Department of State. 2004-04-21. http://www.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2004/31649.htm. [dead link]
- ^ "Taiwan and the United Nations". New Taiwan. http://www.taiwandc.org/un-2001.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan". UNPO. http://www.unpo.org/content/view/7908/146/. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ "About TFD". TFD. http://www.tfd.org.tw/english/about.php.
- ^ "JOHN TKACIK ON TAIWAN: Taiwan’s ‘undetermined’ status". Taipei Times. 2009-05-13. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2009/05/13/2003443455. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "WHO application: a question of health or politics?". Taipei Times. 2004-05-19. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/05/19/2003156094.
- ^ "Taiwan insists on 'Chinese Taipei'". 2008-07-25. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan%20relations/2008/07/25/167036/Taiwan-insists.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan flags in S.L. ruffle a few feelings". The Deseret News. 2002-02-10. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/894748/Taiwan-flags-in-SL-ruffle-a-few-feelings.html.
- ^ a b "Looking behind Ma's 'three noes'". 2008-01-21. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/01/21/2003398185. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Enav, Peter (2008-05-16). "Unification with China unlikely ‘in our lifetimes’: president-elect". The China Post. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national%20news/2008/05/16/156644/Unification-with.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-13. "'It is very difficult for us to see any unification talks even in our lifetimes,' Ma said. 'Taiwanese people would like to have economic interactions with the mainland, but obviously they don’t believe their political system is suitable for Taiwan.'"
- ^ Eckholm, Erik (2000-03-22). "Why a Victory in Taiwan Wasn't Enough for Some – The New York Times". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/22/world/why-a-victory-in-taiwan-wasn-t-enough-for-some.html. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan Flashpoint: Independence debate". BBC News. 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/independence_debate.stm. "Since neither outcome looks likely in the short or even medium term, it is perhaps not surprising that opinion polls suggest most Taiwanese people want things to stay as they are, with the island's ambiguous status unresolved."
- ^ "Impulsa Taiwan la reconciliación" (in Spanish). El Sol de México. 2008-09-02. http://www.oem.com.mx/oem/notas/n836891.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-09. "Esencialmente, no definiríamos la relación a través del estrecho de Taiwan como una relación de dos países o dos Chinas, porque nuestra Constitución no lo permite. Nosotros definiríamos está relación como una relación muy especial, ya que la Constitución nuestra, igual que la Constitución de China continental, no permite la existencia de otro país dentro del territorio."
- ^ "The Official Position of the Republic of China on China's Passing of the Anti-secession (Anti-Separation) Law" (Press release). Mainland Affairs Council, ROC Executive Yuan. 2005-03-29. http://www.mac.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=68048&ctNode=5910&mp=3. "Section II-2: "'The Republic of China is an independent and sovereign state. Taiwan's sovereignty belongs to the 23 million people of Taiwan. Only the 23 million citizens of Taiwan may decide on the future of Taiwan.' This statement represents the greatest consensus within Taiwan's society today concerning the issues of national sovereignty and the future of Taiwan. It is also a common position shared by both the ruling and opposition parties in Taiwan. A recent opinion poll shows that more than 90% of the people of Taiwan agree with this position."
- ^ a b c d e f g "Chapter 4: Government". The Republic of China Yearbook. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2011. pp. 55–65. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch04.pdf.
- ^ "Letter: KMT holds the key". Taipei Times. 2006-09-14. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/09/14/2003327608. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Jayasuriya, Kanishka (1999). Law, capitalism and power in Asia. Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-415-19743-4. http://books.google.com/?id=OqGSrD9QhXcC&pg=PA217.
- ^ "Article 5 of the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China (Taiwan)". Office of the President. http://english.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=435. Retrieved 2012-03-23.
- ^ Chang, Rich (2006-01-02). "Nation keeps death penalty, but reduces executions". Taipei Times. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/01/02/2003287050. Retrieved 2009-11-02.
- ^ Ginsburg, Tom (2003). Judicial review in new democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-521-52039-8. http://books.google.com/?id=qJrsouEjOZEC&pg=PA111.
- ^ "Taiwan assembly passes changes". BBC News. 2005-06-07. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4616043.stm.
- ^ "Country profile: Taiwan". BBC News. 2009-09-11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1285915.stm. Retrieved 17 January 2010.
- ^ "China's Threats, Editorial". Washington Post. 2000-02-23. http://www.fapa.org/chinawp/chinathreatwp223.html. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ BBC News, "Taiwan Flashpoint", "Officially, the DPP still favours eventual independence for Taiwan, while the KMT favours eventual re-unification."
- ^ "Taiwan party asserts separate identity from China". USATODAY.Com. 2007-09-30. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-30-taiwan_N.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ Crisis Group (6 June 2003). "Taiwan Strait I: What's Left of 'One China'?". International Crisis Group. Archived from the original on 9 July 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080709035143/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=1653&l=1. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ Shirk, Susan L. (2007). China: Fragile Superpower. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530609-5.
- ^ a b Pares, Susan (2005-02-24). A political and economic dictionary of East Asia. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 978-1-85743-258-9. http://books.google.com/?id=xJKePP5ATKUC. "The Pan-Blue coalition on the whole favours a Chinese nationalist identity and policies supporting reunification and increased economic links with the People's Republic of China."
- ^ "Ma refers to China as ROC territory in magazine interview". Taipei Times. 2008-10-08. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/10/08/2003425320.
- ^ "Taiwan and China in 'special relations': Ma". China Post. 2008-09-04. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan%20relations/2008/09/04/173082/Taiwan-and.htm.
- ^ "World | Asia-Pacific | Taiwan opposition leader in China". BBC News. 2005-04-26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4482617.stm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Yu, Sophie; Jane Macartney (16 December 2008). "Direct flights between China and Taiwan mark new era of improved relations". Times Online (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5346905.ece. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
- ^ Michael S. Chase (2008-09-04). "Caliber – Asian Survey – 48(4):703 – Abstract". Caliber.ucpress.net. DOI:10.1525/as.2008.48.4.703. http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/as.2008.48.4.703?journalCode=as. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ "US Keeps Taiwan at Arm's Length | David Isenberg | Cato Institute: Commentary". Cato.org. http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=9556. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ "NCC relinquishes power over China-related media". 2007-08-09. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2007/08/09/2003373313. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ Bristow, Michael (2001-10-26). Wealth probe for 'world's richest' party. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1621048.stm. Retrieved 2007-11-12
- ^ "Court clears Ma of graft charges". 2008-04-25. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/2008/04/25/153499/Court-clears.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ "Chen Shui-bian lied about Lien Chan-endorsed check". 2008-10-03. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national%20news/2008/10/03/177135/Chen-Shui-bian.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ "No headway in KMT, PFP merger talks". http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/13/content_502869.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ "PFP rejects merger with KMT". 2002-05-01. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/05/01/0000134077. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ Shambaugh, David L. (2006). Power shift. University of California Press. pp. 179–183. ISBN 0-520-24570-9. http://books.google.com/?id=rMicZHVR_y4C&pg=PA179.
- ^ Okazaki, Hisahiko (30 December 2008). "No sign of a 'peace agreement'". The Japan Times Online. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/eo20081230ho.html. Retrieved 2009-07-15. "For one thing, I believe there is recognition that the awareness of Taiwanese identity is now irreversible. The KMT government did things like rename the "Taiwan Post" to "Chunghwa Post" as soon as it came in. But it did not take much time to perceive that it would cause a backlash among the Taiwan populace. The cross-strait exchanges have also brought about opposition demonstrations from time to time. This appears to be one of the reasons for the abrupt decline in the approval rating of the Ma administration."
- ^ "10 Questions: Ma Ying-jeou". TIME. 10 July 2006. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1211639,00.html. Retrieved 2009-07-15. "I am Taiwanese as well as Chinese."
- ^ "Survey on President Ma’s Approval Rating and Cross-Strait Relations After First Year of Direct Flights". Global Views Survey Research Center. 24 July 2009. http://www.gvm.com.tw/gvsrc/200907_GVSRC_others_E.pdf. Retrieved 23 December 2009. [dead link]
- ^ a b "天下雜誌民調顯示：6成1民眾擔心經濟傾中 7成5年輕人自認台灣人" (in Traditional Chinese). http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2009/new/dec/16/today-t1.htm.
- ^ a b "附表十二:民眾對自我認同的看法" (in Traditional Chinese). http://www.mac.gov.tw/public/Attachment/973944270.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
- ^ "資料庫─台灣民眾 台灣人/中國人認同趨勢分布" (in Traditional Chinese). National Chengchi University. http://esc.nccu.edu.tw/modules/tinyd2/content/TaiwanChineseID.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ Quote: "Table 12: In Taiwan, some people identify themselves as Chinese, some identify themselves as Taiwan (sic). Do you identify yourself as Taiwanese or Chinese? (Do not prompt both Taiwanese and Chinese)"
- ^ Quote: "Table 13: In Taiwan, some people identify themselves as Chinese, some identify themselves as Taiwan (sic). Do you identify yourself as Taiwanese, Chinese or both Taiwanese and Chinese?"
- ^ "Committed to Taiwan". The Wall Street Journal. 2001-04-26. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB988242686540854310.html?mod=googlewsj. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Swaine 2001, p. 65, "The ROC military functioned until very recently as an instrument of KMT rule [and] the bulk of the officer corps is still composed of Mainlanders, many of whom allegedly continue to support the values and outlook of more conservative KMT and New Party members. This is viewed as especially the case among the senior officers of the ROC Army. Hence, many DPP leaders insist that the first step to building a more secure Taiwan is to bring the military more fully under civilian control, to remove the dominant influence of conservative KMT elements, and to reduce what is regarded as an excessive emphasis on the maintenance of inappropriate ground force capabilities, as opposed to more appropriate air and naval capabilities."
- ^ "Taiwan Yearbook 2004". Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2004/P101.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Bishop, Mac William (2004-01-01). "Women Take Command". Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://www.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=28601&ctNode=3389. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^ "Taiwan Yearbook 2005". Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2005/p104.html. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "ASIA-PACIFIC | Military alternative in Taiwan". BBC News. 2000-05-01. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/729500.stm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "The myth: a professional military in five years". 2009-03-21. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2009/03/21/2003439010/wiki. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan to end conscription". The Straits Times. 2009-03-09. http://www.straitstimes.com/print/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_347888.html. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan to shorten conscription term to one year". Central News Agency website, Taipei. 2008-12-03. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=124D9E23B9033ED0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Kidd-class warships set sail for Taiwan". Taipei Times. 2005-10-31. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2005/10/31/2003278135.
- ^ Rickards, Jane (2008-10-05). "Taiwanese leader hails weapons deal with US". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/04/AR2008100400477.html.
- ^ Cabestan, Jean-Pierre (2001). "France's Taiwan Policy: A Case of Shopkeeper Diplomacy". CERI. http://www.ceri-sciencespo.com/archive/july01/jpcabest.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-05. "By excluding the French companies from the bidding lists of many contract, Peking wanted above all to stop a growing trend (...) to disregard its objections and interests in the Taiwan issue. (...) In spite of the ban of arms sales to Taiwan approved by the French government in January 1994, discreet and small-sized deals have continued to be concluded since then."
- ^ "Taiwan trying to shore up weapons support". USATODAY.com. 2004-09-24. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-09-24-taiwan_x.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Swaine, Michael; James C. Mulvenon (2001) [2001] (PDF). Taiwan's Foreign and Defense Policies: Features and Determinants. RAND Corporation. ISBN 0-8330-3094-9. http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1383/MR1383.ch3.pdf. Retrieved 2006-03-05.
- ^ "China Threat to Attack Taiwan Alarms Asia". Associated Press. 2005-03-14. http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/03/14/international/i003051S91.DTL. [dead link]
- ^ Kapstein, Ethan B.; Michael Mastanduno (1999). Unipolar politics. Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-231-11309-9. http://books.google.com/?id=68s2k0ztkCMC&pg=PA194. "The Japanese leadership openly split on whether a crisis in Taiwan was included in the geographic expression "area surrounding Japan." In the event, Japan refused to stipulate the contingencies under which it would provide rear area support for U.S. forces or even the geographic scope of the "area surrounding Japan". (...) The two sides have not articulated clearly what the alliance stands for, nor who it is defined to protect against."
- ^ Tow, William (2005). "ANZUS: Regional versus Global Security in Asia?". International Relations in the Asia-Pacific 5 (2): 197. DOI:10.1093/irap/lci113.
- ^ "China and Taiwan: flashpoint for a war". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2004-07-14. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/07/13/1089694360063.html. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
- ^ Lotta Danielsson-Murphy. "ECFA poses new risks for Taiwan-Japan ties". http://www.etaiwannews.com/etn/news_content.php?id=1305355&lang=eng_news&cate_img=46.jpg&cate_rss=news_Editorial. Retrieved 2010-08-02.
- ^ a b Article 119 of the Constitution of the Republic of China regards Mongolia as a self-governing provincial-level locality
- ^ "World: Asia-Pacific Analysis: Flashpoint Spratly". BBC. 1999-02-14. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/279170.stm.
- ^ Hwang, Jim (1 October 1999). "Gone with the Times". Taiwan Review. http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=1465&CtNode=1347. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ "中華民國國情簡介 政府組織". Taipei: Government Information Office. http://info.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=19878&ctNode=2840&mp=21. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ "Premier Wu greenlights Taoyuan County upgrade". Taiwan Today. 14 December 2010. http://www.taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=136286&ctNode=445.
- ^ "Gold Shipped to Taiwan in 1949 Helped Stabilize ROC on Taiwan". http://www.kmt.org.tw/english/page.aspx?type=article&mnum=112&anum=9442. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ Roy, Denny (2003). Taiwan: A Political History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 76, 77. ISBN 0-8014-8805-2.
- ^ Makinen & Woodward 1989: "It was the fiscal regime change on Taiwan, as in the European episodes, that finally brought price stability. It was the aid program that brought the budget to near balance, and when the aid program reached its full proportions in 1952, prices stabilized."
- ^ As calculated by Taiwan's Ministry of Budget, National Accountancy and Statistics, based on the following figures (2007): life expectancy / 78.4 years ; literacy rate / 97.6% ; gross combined schooling rate / 101.9% ; per capita GDP-PPP / US$30,352
- ^ Her, Kelly (2005-01-12). "Privatization Set in Motion". http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=1153&CtNode=128. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^ "Reserves of foreign exchange and gold". World Fact Book. CIA. 4 September 2008. Archived from the original on 26 September 2008. http://www.webcitation.org/5b7FcMQjc. Retrieved 3 January 2011. "Rank 5 Taiwan $ 274,700,000,000 31 December 2007"
- ^ Harding, Phil (2010-01-23). "Taiwan's Grand Hotel welcome for Chinese visitors". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8475215.stm.
- ^ DoIT 2008, p. 5 "Notably, cross-strait political tensions have not prevented Taiwanese firms from investing heavily in China. The cross-strait investments now exceed US$ 100 billions. Four Taiwanese-owned firms rank among China's top 10 biggest exporters. 10% of the Taiwanese labor force now works in China."
- ^ DoIT 2008, p. 5 "Although used-to-be-hostile tension between Taiwan and China has been eased to a certain degree, Taiwan should seek to maintain stable relation with China while continuing to protect national security, and avoiding excessive "Sinicization" of Taiwanese economy. Strategies to avoid excessive "Sinicization" of the Taiwanese economy could include efforts to increase geographic diversity of overseas Taiwanese employment, diversifying Taiwan's export markets and investment. "
- ^ BBC News, "Taiwan Flashpoint", "Some Taiwanese worry their economy is now dependent on China. Others point out that closer business ties makes Chinese military action less likely, because of the cost to China's own economy."
- ^ "Taiwan’s 2010 trade hits record high". 2010-01-10. http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=142731&ctNode=453&mp=9.
- ^ "US-Taiwan FTA would have limited impact". bilaterals.org. http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=242. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Morris, Peter (4 February 2004). "Taiwan business in China supports opposition". Asia Times Online. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FB04Ad04.html.
- ^ "Coping with Asian financial crisis: The Taiwan experience | Seoul Journal of Economics". Find Articles at BNET. 2009-04-28. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5411/is_199801/ai_n21432097/. Retrieved 2009-05-28. [dead link]
- ^ "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) and the WTO". World Trade Organization. http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/chinese_taipei_e.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- ^ Postiglione, Gerard A.; Grace C. L. Mak (1997). Asian higher education. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 346–348. ISBN 0-313-28901-8. http://books.google.com/?id=RTE8KCespeEC&pg=PA347.
- ^ "The Story of Taiwan-Education Taiwan's Educational Development and Present Situation". Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/taiwan-story/education/edown/3-1.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ Gary Phillips (17 November 2007) (PDF). Chance Favors the Prepared Mind: Mathematics and Science Indicators for Comparing States and Nations. American Institutes for Research. Archived from the original on 26 November 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071126225257/http://www.air.org/publications/documents/phillips.chance.favors.the.prepared.mind.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-21.
- ^ Bucknall, Keven (2002). Chinese Business Etiquette and Culture. C&M Online Media, Inc.. p. 15. ISBN 0-917990-44-7. http://books.google.com/?id=npxUXbUg6uUC&pg=PA15.
- ^ "Betting on Taiwan's future with the Nankang software park". Taipei Times. 1999-11-01. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/1999/11/01/0000009019. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Over 70% of Taiwanese parents send kids to English bushibans". Invest in Taiwan, Department of Investment Services. 2005-09-02. Archived from the original on 8 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080608050510/http://investintaiwan.nat.gov.tw/en/news/200509/2005090201.html. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ C. Smith, Douglas (1997). Middle education in the Middle Kingdom. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 119. ISBN 0-275-95641-5. http://books.google.com/?id=NqJP5uE9LewC&pg=PA119.
- ^ "Indigenous People". MOI Statistical Information Service. Feb 2012. http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/month/m1-04.xls. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "An Overview of Taiwan's Indigenous Groups". Taipei: Government Information Office. 2006. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/culture/indigenous/. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ a b c Languages, The Republic of China Yearbook 2011, Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan).
- ^ Lynn F. Lee. "Languages in Taiwan Today". Government Information Office, Republic of China. http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2002/chpt03-2.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
- ^ Constitution of the Republic of China - Chapter II, Article 13: "The people shall have freedom of religious belief."
- ^ "Taiwan Yearbook 2006". Government of Information Office. 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-07-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-01.
- ^ "Taiwan: International Religious Freedom Report 2010". US Department of State: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 17 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148895.htm. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^ Stainton, Michael (2002). "Presbyterians and the Aboriginal Revitalization Movement in Taiwan". Cultural Survival Quarterly 26.2, 5 May 2010 . Retrieved 21 March 2012.
- ^ "15,000 temples", Taiwan News, 28 July 2009. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
- ^ "Bureau of National Health Insurance". Taiwan BNHI. 2006-07-18. http://www.nhi.gov.tw.
- ^ "Bureau of National Health Insurance-National Health Insurance Act". Bureau of National Health Insurance, ROC. http://www.nhi.gov.tw/english/webdata.asp?menu=11&menu_id=295&webdata_id=1865. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwanese Hospital Public Satisfaction Poll". Taiwan Department of Health. October 2004. http://www.hcquality.helthe.net/reports/showreports.php?id=2_1. [dead link]
- ^ "Center for Disease Control". Taiwan CDC. 2006-07-18. http://www.cdc.gov.tw.
- ^ "Bureau of National Health Insurance Full Summary" (PDF). Taiwan BNHI. 18 July 2006. http://www.nhi.gov.tw/english/file/s92.pdf.
- ^ "Centers for Disease Control, ROC (Taiwan)" (in Traditional Chinese). http://www.cdc.gov.tw. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^ "Department of Health, Executive Yuan, ROC (Taiwan)" (in Traditional Chinese). http://www.doh.gov.tw. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ (Yip 2004:230-248; Makeham 2005:2-8; Chang 2005:224)
- ^ (Makeham & Hsiau 2005:125–129); (Winckler 1994:23–41)
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Taiwan to loan art to China amid warming ties". Agence France-Presse. 22 September 2010. Archived from the original on 9 October 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5tLc0bqi3.
- ^ American Chamber of Commerce in Taipei. "Convenience Stores Aim at Differentiation" ( – Scholar search). Taiwan Business Topics 34 (11). http://www.amcham.com.tw/publication_topics_view.php?volume=34&vol_num=11&topics_id=558. [dead link]
- ^ "Intro of CPBL". Cpbl.com.tw. http://www.cpbl.com.tw/html/english/cpbl.asp. Retrieved 1 August 2010. [dead link]
- ^ Wang, Audrey (2008-06-01). "A Passion for Hoops". The Taiwan Review (Taiwan Review). http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=43967&CtNode=128. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ Yeh, Joseph (2011-12-01). "Taipei to host 2017 Summer Universiade". The China Post (The China Post.). http://www.chinapost.com.tw/sports/other/2011/12/01/324608/Taipei-to.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Netherlands Retains World Youth Korfball Champion; Taiwan is On the Way to the World...". Reuters Newswire. Sat 8 November 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/08/idUS82890+08-Nov-2008+BW20081108. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ Hazeldine, Richard (22 July 2009). "Jujitsu, korfball put Taiwan back on winning track". Taipei Times. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2009/07/22/2003449286. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ Lotta Danielsson-Murphy. "Taiwan Calendar and Holidays". US-Taiwan Business Council. http://www.us-taiwan.org/taiwan_holidays.html. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Taiwan may drop idiosyncratic Republican calendar". Taipei Times. 2006-02-25. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2006/02/25/2003294523. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
- ^ "Holidays and Festivals in Taiwan". Government Information Office, ROC. http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/festival_c/index_e.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
Works cited[link]
- Fenby, Jonathan (2009). The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850–2009. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-7139-9832-6.
- "2008 White Paper On Taiwan Industrial Technology". Department of Industrial Technology. 2008. http://doit.moea.gov.tw/itech/data/2008_1_1_EN.pdf. Retrieved 27 November 2009.
- Fung, Edmund S. K. (2000). In search of Chinese democracy: civil opposition in Nationalist China, 1929–1949. Cambridge modern China series. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77124-5.
- Makinen, Gail E.; Woodward, G. Thomas (1989). "The Taiwanese hyperinflation and stabilization of 1945–1952". Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 21 (1): 90–105. JSTOR 1992580.
- Makeham, John; Hsiau, A-chin, eds. (2005). Cultural, Ethnic, and Political Nationalism in Contemporary Taiwan: Bentuhua. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-7020-6.
Further reading[link]
- "Taiwan Flashpoint". BBC News. 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/introduction.stm.
- Bush, R.; O'Hanlon, M. (2007). A War Like No Other: The Truth About China's Challenge to America. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-98677-1.
- Bush, R. (2006). Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-8157-1290-1.
- Carpenter, T. (2006). America's Coming War with China: A Collision Course over Taiwan. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6841-1.
- Cole, B. (2006). Taiwan's Security: History and Prospects. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36581-3.
- Copper, J. (2006). Playing with Fire: The Looming War with China over Taiwan. Praeger Security International General Interest. ISBN 0-275-98888-0.
- Federation of American Scientists et al. (2006). "Chinese Nuclear Forces and US Nuclear War Planning". http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/Book2006.pdf.
- Feuerwerker, Albert (1968). The Chinese Economy, 1912–1949. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Gill, B. (2007). Rising Star: China's New Security Diplomacy. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-8157-3146-9.
- Shirk, S. (2007). China: Fragile Superpower: How China's Internal Politics Could Derail Its Peaceful Rise. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530609-0.
- Tsang, S. (2006). If China Attacks Taiwan: Military Strategy, Politics and Economics. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-40785-0.
- Tucker, N.B. (2005). Dangerous Strait: the US-Taiwan-China Crisis. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13564-5.
External links[link]
| Find more about Republic of China on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
Overviews and data[link]
- Taiwan entry at The World Factbook
- Taiwan flashpoint BBC News
- Taiwan country profile BBC News
- Background Note: Taiwan US Department of State
- Taiwan Travel Information and Travel Guide Lonely Planet
- Taiwan's 400 years of history New Taiwan, Ilha Formosa
- Key Development Forecasts for Taiwan from International Futures
Government agencies[link]
- Office of the government
- Office of the President
- Executive Yuan
- Judicial Yuan
- Control Yuan
- Examination Yuan
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Taipei Economic & Cultural Representative Office in the US
- Government Information Office
- National Assembly
- Taiwan, The Heart of Asia, Tourism Bureau, Republic of China (Taiwan)
Maps[link]
 |
 ChinaTaiwan Strait |
East China Sea |  JapanEast China Sea |
|
| China Taiwan Strait |
 |
Japan Pacific Ocean |
||
  Taiwan East |
||||
 |
||||
South China Sea Brunei /  Indonesia / Malaysia /  Vietnam |
 PhilippinesBashi Channel |
Pacific Ocean |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Coordinates: 22°57′N 120°12′E / 22.95°N 120.2°E / 22.95; 120.2
http://wn.com/Taiwan
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the People's Republic of China. For other uses, see China (disambiguation).
"PRC" redirects here. For other uses, see PRC (disambiguation).
| People's Republic of China
中华人民共和国
Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
Anthem:
 "March of the Volunteers" 《义勇军进行曲》 (Pinyin: "Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ") |
||||||
.svg) |
||||||
| Capital | Beijing 39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.917°N 116.383°E / 39.917; 116.383 |
|||||
| Largest city | Shanghai[1][2] | |||||
| Official language(s) | Standard Chinese[3] | |||||
| Recognised regional languages | Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Zhuang, and various others | |||||
| Official written language | Vernacular Chinese | |||||
| Official script | Simplified Chinese[3] | |||||
| Ethnic groups | 91.51% Han;[4] 55 recognised minorities |
|||||
| Demonym | Chinese | |||||
| Government | Nominally Marxist–Leninist single-party state[5][a] | |||||
| - | President[b] | Hu Jintao | ||||
| - | Congress Chairman | Wu Bangguo | ||||
| - | Premier | Wen Jiabao | ||||
| - | Conference Chairman | Jia Qinglin | ||||
| Legislature | National People's Congress | |||||
| Establishment | ||||||
| - | Unification of China under the Qin Dynasty | 221 BC | ||||
| - | Republic established | 1 January 1912 | ||||
| - | People's Republic proclaimed | 1 October 1949 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 9,640,821 km2 [c] or 9,671,018 km² [c](3rd/4th) 3,704,427 sq mi |
||||
| - | Water (%) | 2.8[d] | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2010 census | 1,339,724,852[4] (1st) | ||||
| - | Density | 139.6/km2 (53rd) 363.3/sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $11.299 trillion[6] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $8,382[6] (91st) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $7.298 trillion[6] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $5,413[6] (90th) | ||||
| Gini (2007) | 41.5[7] | |||||
| HDI (2011) |  0.687[8] (medium) (101st) |
|||||
| Currency | Renminbi (yuan) (¥) (CNY) |
|||||
| Time zone | China Standard Time (UTC+8) | |||||
| Date formats | yyyy-mm-dd or yyyy年m月d日 (CE; CE-1949) |
|||||
| Drives on the | right, except for Hong Kong & Macau | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | CN | |||||
| Internet TLD | .cn[c] .中國[9] .中国 | |||||
| Calling code | +86[c] | |||||
| a. ^ Simple characterizations of the political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible.[10]
b. ^ As paramount leader, Hu Jintao holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission for both state and party.[11] c. ^ 9,598,086 km2 (3,705,842 sq mi) excludes all disputed territories. |
||||||
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area,[13] and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.[14]
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China.[15] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau).[16] Its capital city is Beijing.[17] The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
China's landscape is vast and diverse, with forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts occupying the arid north and northwest near Mongolia and Central Asia, and subtropical forests being prevalent in the wetter south near Southeast Asia. The terrain of western China is rugged and elevated, with the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separating China from South and Central Asia. The world's apex, Mt. Everest (8,848 m), lies on the China–Nepal border, while the world's second-highest point, K2 (8,611 m), is situated on China's border with Pakistan. The country's lowest and the world's third-lowest point, Lake Ayding (−154 m), is located in the Turpan Depression. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, have their sources in the Tibetan Plateau and continue to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long—the 11th-longest in the world—and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas.
The nation of China has had numerous historical incarnations. The ancient Chinese civilization—one of the world's earliest—flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain.[18] China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (approx. 2000 BC) and ending with the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Since 221 BC, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times. The Republic of China, founded in 1911 after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. In 1945, the ROC acquired Taiwan from Japan following World War II.
In the 1946–1949 phase of the Chinese Civil War, the Chinese Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949. The Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to Taiwan, establishing its capital in Taipei. The ROC's jurisdiction is now limited to Taiwan and several outlying islands, including Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu. Since 1949, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (now widely known as "Taiwan") have remained in dispute over the sovereignty of China and the political status of Taiwan, mutually claiming each other's territory and competing for international diplomatic recognition. In 1971, the PRC gained admission to the United Nations and took the Chinese seat as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the BCIM and the G-20. As of September 2011, all but 23 countries have recognized the PRC as the sole legitimate government of China.
Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1978, China has become the world's fastest-growing major economy.[19] As of 2012, it is the world's second-largest economy, after the United States, by both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP),[20] and is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. In per capita terms, China ranked 90th by nominal GDP and 91st by GDP (PPP) in 2011, according to the IMF. China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defense budget. In 2003, China became the third nation in the world, after the former Soviet Union and the United States, to independently launch a successful manned space mission. China has been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of academics,[21] military analysts,[22] and public policy and economics analysts.[23]
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Main article: Names of China
| China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese: | 中国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese: | 中國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning: | Middle Kingdom[24][25] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| People's Republic of China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese: | 中华人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese: | 中華人民共和國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian: |  |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tibetan name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tibetan: | ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Uyghur name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Uyghur: | جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىت | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Zhuang name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Zhuang: | Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 |
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. |
The word "China" is derived from Cin (چین), a Persian name for China popularized in medieval Europe by the account of the 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo.[26][27] The first recorded use in English dates from 1555.[28] The Persian word is, in turn, derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन),[29] which was used as a name for China as early as AD 150.[30] There are various scholarly theories regarding the origin of this word. The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that "China" is derived from "Qin" (秦), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty, or from the succeeding Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC).[31] The word Cīna is used in two Hindu scriptures – the Mahābhārata of the 5th century BC and the Laws of Manu of the 2nd century BC – to refer to a country located in the Tibetan-Burman borderlands east of India.[32][33]
In China, common names for the country include Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国; literally "the Central State(s)") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhongguo appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BC,[34] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia from the barbarians. The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states in the central plain. It was only in the nineteenth century that the term emerged as the formal name of the country. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", since other civilizations had the same view.[35]
History[link]
Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history
Prehistory[link]
Main article: Chinese prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[36] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits fossils dated at between 300,000 and 780,000 BC.[37][38][39] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire. There are also remains of Homo sapiens dating back to 18,000–11,000 BC found at the Peking Man site.[40]
Early dynastic rule[link]
See also: Dynasties in Chinese history
Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province in 1959.[41] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.
The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang (Yin), settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BC. The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters used throughout East Asia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States Period, there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its own king, ministry and army.
Imperial China[link]
The first unified Chinese state was established by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin state in 221 BC. Qin Shi Huang proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" (始皇帝), and imposed many reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[42][43]
The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that extends to the present day.[42][43] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. China was for a large part of the last two millennia the world's largest economy.[44] However, in the later part of the Qing Dynasty, China's economic development began to slow and Europe's rapid development during and after the Industrial Revolution enabled it to surpass China.
After the collapse of Han, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms.[45] Independent Chinese states of this period such as Wu opened diplomatic relations with Japan,[46] introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui.[47] However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it.[48][49]
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith.[50] The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire.[51] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[52] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses.
Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts. Landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.
.jpg)
In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[53]
Late dynastic rule[link]
A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.[54] Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure.
Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. In 1644, Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty.
The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in an imperialistic expansion of its own into Central Asia. At this time, China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous for China:
The Arrow War (1856–1860) [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeat for China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856 and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreign penetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to the British. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnities had to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by the foreigners.[55]
The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequal treaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. One consequence[according to whom?] was the Taiping Rebellion, a civil war which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in World War I), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), Nien Rebellion (1851–1868), Miao Rebellion (1854–73), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Dungan revolt (1862–1877).[56][57]
These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.[58][59][60] The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese Diaspora began; today, about 35 million overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia.[61] Emigration rates were strengthened by domestic catastrophes such as the famine of 1876–79, which claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.[62] From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,[63] or one per year, somewhere in the empire.[64]
While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military, and set its sights on the conquest of Korea and Manchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Qing government sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion in 1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of Taiwan (including the Pescadores) to Japan.
Following this series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Guangxu Emperor in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing.
By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort became the Empress Dowager Longyu. In another coup de'tat, Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.
Republic of China (1912–1949)[link]
Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and History of the Republic of China
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) |
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of Imperial China. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China, but was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic in the face of popular condemnation, not only from the general population but also from among his own Beiyang Army and its commanders.
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in Beijing. Regional warlords exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the nationalist Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition. The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang, but the party was politically divided into competing cliques. This political division made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, which the Kuomintang had been warring against since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists were forced to retreat in the Long March, until the Xi'an Incident and Japanese aggression forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a part of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. The Japanese "three-all policy" in northern China—"kill all, burn all and destroy all"—led to numerous war atrocities being committed against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians were killed.[65][66] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[67] Japan unconditionally surrendered to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was retroceded. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[citation needed]
People's Republic of China (1949–present)[link]
Main article: History of the People's Republic of China
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China,[68] which was commonly known in the West as "Communist China" or "Red China" during the Cold War.[69] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC, occupying Tibet, and defeating the majority of the remaining Kuomintang forces in Yunnan and Xinjiang provinces, though some Kuomintang holdouts survived until much later.
.jpg)
Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[70] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[71] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In that same year, for the first time, the number of countries recognizing the PRC surpassed those recognizing the ROC in Taipei as the government of China.[72] In February 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met Richard Nixon in Beijing. However, the U.S. did not officially recognise the PRC as China's sole legitimate government until 1 January 1979.
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor Hua Guofeng. Although he never became the head of the party or state himself, Deng was in fact the Paramount Leader of China at that time, his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some "market socialism";[73] the Communist Party of China officially describes it as "socialism with Chinese characteristics". China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.
The death of pro-reform official Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.[74][75] The "Tank Man" incident in particular became famous.
President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led the nation in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[76][77] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
Although rapid economic growth has made the Chinese economy the world's second-largest, this growth has also severely impacted the country's resources and environment.[78] Another concern is that the benefits of economic development has not been distributed evenly, resulting in a wide development gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the Chinese government initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, though the outcome remains to be seen.[79] More than 40 million farmers have been displaced from their land,[80] usually for economic development, contributing to the 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.[81] Living standards have improved significantly but political controls remain tight.[82]
Geography[link]
Main article: Geography of the People's Republic of China
See also: Geography of Taiwan
A composite satellite image showing the topography of China.
Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi.
The Li River in Guangxi.
Political geography[link]
The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area after Russia[13] and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[83] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[84] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[85] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[86] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook,[87] and 9,640,011 km2 (3,722,029 sq mi) including Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract, which are controlled by China and claimed by India.[88] None of these figures include the 1,000 square kilometres (386.1 sq mi) of territory ceded to China by Tajikistan following the ratification of a Sino-Tajik border agreement in January 2011.[89]
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996.[90]
China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin. China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14. China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[91] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; a small section of Russian Altai and Mongolia in Inner Asia; and the Russian Far East and North Korea in Northeast Asia.
Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam and the Philippines. The PRC and the Republic of China (Taiwan) make mutual claims over each other's territory and the frontier between areas under their respective control is closest near the islands of Kinmen and Matsu, off the Fujian coast, but otherwise run through the Taiwan Strait. The PRC and ROC assert identical claims over the entirety of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, and the southern-most extent of these claims reach Zengmu Ansha (James Shoal), which would form a maritime frontier with Malaysia.
Landscape and climate[link]
Mount Everest, the world's highest mountain, in Tibet.
The South China Sea coast at Hainan.
The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west, major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. China's highest point, Mt. Everest (8848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert, which is currently the world's fifth-largest desert.[92][93] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. According to China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[94] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[95]
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to a pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's extensive and complex topography.
Biodiversity[link]
Main article: Wildlife of China
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[96] lying in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. In the Palearctic zone, mammals such as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa can be found. Among the species found in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various monkey and ape species. Some overlap exists between the two regions due to natural dispersal and migration; deer, antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and numerous rodent species can all be found in China's diverse climatic and geological environments. The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Yangtze River. China suffers from a continuing problem with trade in endangered species, although there are now laws to prohibit such activities.
China also hosts a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and the Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo as an understorey, replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew. Subtropical forests, which dominate central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China.
Environmental issues[link]
Main article: Environment in the People's Republic of China
In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[97] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, enforcement of them is poor, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development.
Environmental campaigners such as Ma Jun have warned of the danger that water pollution poses to Chinese society.[98] According to the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources, roughly 300 million Chinese do not have access to safe drinking water, and 40% of China’s rivers have been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste as of late 2011.[99] This crisis is compounded by the perennial problem of water shortages, with 400 out of 600 surveyed Chinese cities reportedly short of drinking water.[100][101]
However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy technologies, with $34.6 billion invested in 2009 alone.[102][103] China produces more wind turbines and solar panels than any other country,[104] and renewable energy projects, such as solar water heating, are widely pursued at the local level.[105] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[106] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[107]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China
See also: Politics of the Republic of China
The People's Republic of China, along with Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and Cuba, is one of the five remaining official Communist states in the world.[108][109] but simple characterizations of China's political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible.[10] The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian, with heavy restrictions remaining in many areas, most notably on the Internet, the press, freedom of assembly, reproductive rights, and freedom of religion.[110] Its current political/economic system has been termed by its leaders as "Socialism with Chinese characteristics".
Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China is far different from liberal democracy or social democracy that exists in most of Europe or North America, and the National People's Congress (highest state body) has been described as a "rubber stamp" body.[111] China's incumbent President is Hu Jintao, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, and its Premier is Wen Jiabao, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee.
The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[112] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[113] The political system is partly decentralized,[114] with limited democratic processes internal to the party and at local village levels, although these experiments have been marred by corruption. There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).
There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels,[115][116] and that legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time. However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include lessening the growing gap between rich and poor and fighting corruption within the government leadership.[117]
The level of support to the government action and the management of the nation is among the highest in the world, with 86% of people who express satisfaction with the way things are going in their country and with their nation's economy according to a 2008 Pew Research Center survey.[118]
Administrative divisions[link]
Main articles: Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China, Districts of Hong Kong, and Municipalities of Macau
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces, and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[119] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau.
|
|
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|||||
| †Taiwan is claimed by the PRC but governed by the Republic of China | |||||
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|||||
Foreign relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
China has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[120] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. Sweden was the first western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic on 9 May 1950.[121] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[122] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[123]
Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, China has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[124] especially in the matter of armament sales.[125] Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as it considers Tibet to be formally part of China.[126]
Much of China's current foreign policy is reportedly based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence of Zhou Enlai—non-interference in other states' affairs, non-aggression, peaceful coexistence, equality and mutual benefits. China's foreign policy is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy has led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea, and Iran.[127] Conflicts with foreign countries have occurred at times in China's recent history, particularly with the United States; for example, the US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the US-China spy plane incident in April 2001. China's foreign relations with many Western nations suffered for a time following the military crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, although in recent years China has improved its diplomatic links with the West.[128][129]
Trade relations[link]
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, China proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues, pointedly excluding the United States.[130] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics.
In 2000, the U.S. Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[131] Both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.[132] Bush was furthermore an advocate of China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO).[133] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[134] In the early 2010s, U.S. politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[135]
Sinophobic attitudes often target Chinese minorities and nationals living outside of China. Sometimes, such anti-Chinese attitudes turn violent, as occurred during the 13 May Incident in Malaysia in 1969 and the Jakarta riots of May 1998 in Indonesia, in which more than 2,000 people died.[136] In recent years, a number of anti-Chinese riots and incidents have also occurred in Africa and Oceania.[137][138] Anti-Chinese sentiment is often rooted in socio-economics.[139]
Territorial disputes[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China#International territorial disputes
China has been involved in a number of international territorial disputes, mostly resulting from the legacy of unequal treaties imposed on China during the historical period of New Imperialism. Since the 1990s, China has been entering negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, usually by offering concessions and accepting less than half of the disputed territory with each party. China's only remaining land border disputes are a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in more minor multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas.[140][141]
Sino-Japanese relations[link]
Main article: Sino-Japanese relations
The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its wartime past to the satisfaction of China. Revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some Japanese history textbooks regarding the 1937 Nanjing Massacre have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after Shinzo Abe became the Prime Minister of Japan in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of World War 2-era atrocities.[142] However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable rare earth elements.[143]
China and the developing world[link]
China is heavily engaged, both politically and economically, with numerous nations in the developing world. Most notably, they have followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation.[144][145] Xinhua, China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.[146] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[147][148] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies, and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya in Hainan Province in April 2011.[149]
Emerging superpower status[link]
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century. Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[150][151][152][153][154]
Sociopolitical issues and reform[link]
See also: Human rights in the People's Republic of China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, and Feminism in the People's Republic of China
The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been greatly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the State.[155][156][157]
As the Chinese economy expanded following Deng Xiaoping's 1978 reforms, tens of millions of rural Chinese who have moved to the cities[158] find themselves treated as second-class citizens by China's hukou household registration system, which controls state benefits.[159] Property rights are often poorly protected, and eminent domain land seizures have had a disproportionate effect on poorer peasants.[158] In 2003, the average Chinese farmer paid three times more taxes than the average urban dweller, despite having one-sixth of the annual income.[159] However, a number of rural taxes have since been reduced or abolished, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[160][161][162]
Censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[163] is openly and routinely used in China to silence criticism of the government and the ruling Communist Party.[164][165] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of perceived press freedom.[166] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Communist Party has had mixed success in controlling information: a powerful and pervasive media control system faces equally strong market forces, an increasingly educated citizenry, and technological and cultural changes that are making China more open to the wider world, especially on environmental issues.[167][168] However, attempts are still made by the Chinese government to control public access to outside information, with online searches for politically sensitive material being blocked by the so-called Great Firewall.[169]
A number of foreign governments and NGOs routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations, including systematic use of lengthy detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, mistreatment of prisoners, and restrictions of freedom of speech, assembly, association, religion, the press, and labor rights.[110] China executes more people than any other country, accounting for 72% of the world's total in 2009, though it is not the largest executioner per capita.[170] This high execution rate is partly due to the fact that numerous white-collar crimes, such as fraud, are punishable by death in China. However, in the early 2010s, China began restricting the application of capital punishment for some such crimes.[171]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development, and focus more on the people's rights to subsistence and development in poorer countries.[172] The rise in the standard of living, literacy, and life expectancy for the average Chinese since the 1970s is seen by the government as tangible progress made in human rights.[173] Improvements in workplace safety, and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods, are also portrayed in China as progress in human rights for a still largely poor country.[172][174]
Some Chinese politicians have spoken out in favor of reforms, while others remain more conservative. In 2010, Premier Wen Jiabao stated that China needs "to gradually improve the democratic election system so that state power will truly belong to the people and state power will be used to serve the people." Despite his status, Wen's comments were later censored by the government.[175]
As the social, cultural and political consequences of economic growth and reform become increasingly manifest, tensions between the conservatives and reformists in the Communist Party are sharpening. Zhou Tianyong, the vice director of research of the Central Party School, argues that gradual political reform as well as repression of those pushing for overly rapid change over the next thirty years will be essential if China is to avoid an overly turbulent transition to a democratic, middle-class-dominated polity.[176][177]
Military[link]
Main article: People's Liberation Army
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[178] The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery Corps. According to SIPRI, China's military expenditure in 2011 totalled US$129.2 billion (923 billion yuan), constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[179] However, other nations, such as the United States, have claimed that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[180]
As a recognised nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[181] As of August 2011, China's Second Artillery Corps is believed to maintain at least 195 nuclear missiles, including 75 ICBMs.[182] Nonetheless, China is the only member of the UN Security Council to have relatively limited power projection capabilities.[183] To offset this, it has begun developing power projection assets, such as aircraft carriers, and has established a network of foreign military relationships that has been compared to a string of pearls.
China has made significant progress in modernizing its military since the early 2000s. It has purchased advanced Russian fighter jets, such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and has also produced its own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10 and Shenyang J-11.[184] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft, the Chengdu J-20.[185][186][187] China's ground forces have also undergone significant modernisations, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I systems to enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[188] China has furthermore acquired and improved upon the Russian S-300 surface-to-air missile system.[189] Russia later produced the next-generation S-400 Triumf system, with China reportedly having spent $500 million on a downgraded export version of it.[190] A number of indigenous missile technologies have also been developed – in 2007, China conducted a successful test of an anti-satellite missile,[191] and its first indigenous land-attack cruise missile, the CJ-10, entered service in 2009. In 2011, the Pentagon reported that China was believed to be testing the JL-2 missile, a submarine-launched nuclear ICBM with multiple-warhead delivery capabilities.[182]
In recent years, much attention has been focused on enhancing the blue-water capabilities of the People's Liberation Army Navy.[192] In August 2011, China's first aircraft carrier, the refurbished Soviet vessel Varyag, began sea trials.[193] China furthermore maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[194] On 13 March 2011, the PLAN missile frigate Xuzhou was spotted off the coast of Libya, marking the first time in history a Chinese warship sailed into the Mediterranean. The ship's entrance into the Mediterranean was officially part of a humanitarian mission to rescue Chinese nationals from the 2011 Libyan civil war, though analysts such as Fareed Zakaria viewed the mission as also being an attempt to increase China's global military presence.[195]
Little information is available regarding the motivations supporting China's military modernization. A 2007 report by the US Secretary of Defense noted that "China's actions in certain areas increasingly appear inconsistent with its declaratory policies".[196] For its part, China claims it maintains an army purely for defensive purposes.[197]
Economy[link]
Main articles: Economy of the People's Republic of China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
As of 2012, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling approximately US$7.298 trillion according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[6] However, China's 2011 nominal GDP per capita of US$5,184 puts it behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[6] If PPP is taken into account in total GDP figures, China is again second only to the United States—in 2011, its PPP GDP reached $11.316 trillion, corresponding to $8,394 per capita.[6] In 2009, China's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries contributed 10.6%, 46.8%, and 42.6% respectively to its total GDP.
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy, without private businesses or capitalism. To propel the country towards a modern, industrialized communist society, Mao Zedong instituted the Great Leap Forward in the early 1960s, although this had decidedly mixed economic results.[199] Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Collectivization of the agriculture was dismantled and farmlands were privatized to increase productivity. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,[200][201] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[202][203]
Under the post-Mao market reforms, a wide variety of small-scale private enterprises were encouraged, while the government relaxed price controls and promoted foreign investment. Foreign trade was focused upon as a major vehicle of growth, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), first in Shenzhen and then in other Chinese cities. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured by introducing western-style management systems, with unprofitable ones being closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. By the latter part of 2010, China was reversing some of its economic liberalization initiatives, with state-owned companies buying up independent businesses in the steel, auto and energy industries.[204]
Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China's investment- and export-led[205] economy has grown almost a hundredfold[206] and is the fastest-growing major economy in the world.[207] According to the IMF, China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%, and the Chinese economy is predicted to grow at an average annual rate of 9.5% between 2011 and 2015. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.[208] According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.[209]
China is the third-most-visited country in the world, with 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[210] It is a member of the WTO and is the world's second-largest trading power behind the US, with a total international trade value of US$3.64 trillion in 2011.[211] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[212][213] China owns an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[214] China, holding US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[215] is the largest foreign holder of US public debt.[216][217] China is the world's third-largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $115 billion in 2011 alone, marking a 9% increase over 2010.[218][219] China also increasingly invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $68 billion in 2010.[220]
| <timeline>
ImageSize = width:300 height:140 PlotArea = left:60 bottom:20 top:10 right:0 AlignBars = justify DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:0 till:16000 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal Colors = id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5000 start:0 gridcolor:line2 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1000 start:0 gridcolor:line1 BarData = bar:USA text:USA bar:China text:China bar:Japan text:Japan bar:Germany text:Germany bar:France text:France PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:USA from:start till:15094 text:15,094 color:yellow width:10 bar:China from:start till:7298 text:7,298 color:tan1 width:10 bar:Japan from:start till:5869 text:5,869 bar:Germany from:start till:3577 text:3,577 bar:France from:start till:2776 text:2,776 TextData = pos:(5,1) textcolor:gray fontsize:S text:US$ bn </timeline> |
| A graph comparing the 2011 nominal GDPs of major economies in US$ billions, according to IMF data.[221] |
China's success has been primarily due to manufacturing as a low-cost producer. This is attributed to a combination of cheap labor, good infrastructure, relatively high productivity, favorable government policy, and a possibly undervalued exchange rate. The latter has been sometimes blamed for China's huge trade surplus (US$262.7 billion in 2007)[222] and has become a major source of dispute between China and its major trading partners—the US, EU, and Japan—despite the yuan having been de-pegged and having risen in value by 20% against the US dollar since 2005.[223] China is moreover widely criticised for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods—in 2005, the Asia Business Council alleged that the counterfeiting industry accounted for 8% of China's GDP at the time.[224][225]
The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" industries (such as energy and heavy industries), but private enterprise (composed of around 30 million private businesses)[226] has expanded enormously; in 2005, it accounted for anywhere between 33%[227] to 70%[228] of national GDP, while the OECD estimate for that year was over 50%[229] of China's national output, up from 1% in 1978.[230] The Shanghai Stock Exchange has raised record amounts of IPOs, and its benchmark Shanghai Composite index has doubled since 2005. SSE's market capitalization reached US$3 trillion in 2007, making it the world's fifth-largest stock exchange.
China now ranks 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index,[231] although it is only ranked 135th among the 179 countries measured in the Index of Economic Freedom.[232] 46 Chinese companies made the list in the 2010 Fortune Global 500 (Beijing alone with 30).[233] Measured using market capitalization, four of the world's top ten most valuable companies are Chinese. Some of these include first-ranked PetroChina, third-ranked Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (the world's most valuable bank), fifth-ranked China Mobile (the world's most valuable telecommunications company) and seventh-ranked China Construction Bank.[234]
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population live below the poverty line of US$1 per day (down from 64% in 1978), while life expectancy has increased to 73 years. More than 93% of the population is literate,[235] compared to only 20% in 1950.[236] Urban unemployment in China reportedly declined to 4% by the end of 2007, although true overall unemployment may be as high as 10%.[237]
China's middle-class population (defined as those with annual income of at least US$17,000) has reached more than 100 million as of 2011,[238] while the number of super-rich individuals worth more than 10 million yuan (US$1.5 million) is estimated to be 825,000, according to Hurun Report.[239] Based on the Hurun rich list, the number of US dollar billionaires in China doubled from 130 in 2009 to 271 in 2010, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires.[240] China's retail market was worth RMB 8.9 trillion (US$1.302 trillion) in 2007, and is growing at 16.8% annually.[241] China is also now the world's second-largest consumer of luxury goods behind Japan, with 27.5% of the global share.[242]
In recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation,[243] causing the prices of basic goods to rise steeply. Food prices in China increased by over 21% in the first four months of 2008 alone.[244] To curb inflation and moderate rising property prices, the Chinese government has instituted a number of fiscal regulations and amendments, raising interest rates and imposing limits on bank loans. In September 2011, consumer prices rose by 6.1% compared to a year earlier, marking a reduction in inflation from the peak of 6.5% in July 2011.[245] A side-effect of increased economic regulation was a slowdown in overall growth – China's quarterly GDP growth fell to 9.1% in October 2011, down from 9.5% in the previous quarter,[245] and sank to 8.1% in April 2012.[246]
The Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient—on average, industrial processes in China between 20% and 100% more energy than similar ones in OECD countries.[247] China became the world's largest energy consumer in 2010,[248] but still relies on coal to supply about 70% of its energy needs.[249] Coupled with lax environmental regulations, this has led to massive water and air pollution, leaving China with 20 of the world's 30 most polluted cities.[247] Consequently, the government has promised to use more renewable energy, planning to make renewables constitute 30% of China's total energy production by 2050.[250] In 2010, China became the largest wind energy provider in the world, with a total installed wind power capacity of 41.8 GW.[251] In January 2011, Russia began scheduled oil shipments to China, pumping 300,000 barrels of oil per day via the Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.[252]
Science and technology[link]
Main article: Science and technology in the People's Republic of China
 |
| History of science and technology in China |
|---|
| Inventions |
| Discoveries |
| By era |
| Han Dynasty |
| Tang Dynasty |
| Song Dynasty |
| People's Republic of China |
| Present-day China |
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), contributed to the economic development of Asia and Europe. However, Chinese scientific activity entered a prolonged decline in the fourteenth century. Unlike European scientists, medieval Chinese thinkers did not attempt to reduce observations of nature to mathematical laws, and they did not form a scholarly community offering peer review and progressive research. There was an increasing concentration on literature, the arts, and public administration, while science and technology were seen as trivial or restricted to limited practical applications.[253] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communist victory in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union. However, Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution of 1966-76 had a catastrophic effect on Chinese research, as academics were persecuted and the training of scientists and engineers was severely curtailed for nearly a decade. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations, and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[253]
In modern China, science and technology are seen as vital for achieving economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[254] Almost all of the members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China have engineering degrees.[255] Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has become one of the world's leading technological powers, spending over US$100 billion on scientific research and development in 2011 alone.[256] China is also rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and engineering; in 2009, it produced over 10,000 Ph.D. engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[257] China is also the world's second-largest publisher of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.[258]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.[259] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I. In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. In 2008, China conducted its first spacewalk with the Shenzhou 7 mission. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by 2020.[260] The active Chinese Lunar Exploration Program includes a planned lunar rover launch in 2013, and possibly a manned lunar landing in 2025.[261] Experience gained from the lunar program may be used for future programs such as the exploration of Mars and Venus.[262]
Infrastructure[link]
Communications[link]
Main article: Telecommunications in the People's Republic of China
China currently has the most cellphone users of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users as of May 2012.[263][264] It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users.[265] By December 2010, China had around 457 million internet users, an increase of 19% over the previous year, and by the end of 2011 the number of internet users had exceeded 500 million.[266][267][268] According to the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), China's average internet connection speed is 100.9 kbit/s, less than half of the global average of 212.5 kbit/s.[269]
China Telecom and China Unicom, the country's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers, whereas the world's ten largest broadband service providers combined accounted for 39% of the world's broadband customers. China Telecom alone serves 55 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million. The massive rise in internet use in China continues to fuel rapid broadband growth, whereas the world's other major broadband ISPs operate in the mature markets of the developed world, with high levels of broadband penetration and rapidly slowing subscriber growth.[270]
Transport[link]
Main article: Transport in the People's Republic of China
Transportation in mainland China has undergone intense state-led development since the late 1990s. The national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of expressways, known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). By the end of 2011, China's expressways had reached a total length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), second only to the network of the United States.[271] Private car ownership is growing rapidly in China, which surpassed the United States as the world's largest automobile market in 2009, with total car sales of over 13.6 million.[272] Analysts predict that annual car sales in China may rise as high as 40 million by 2020.[273]
China also possesses the world's longest high-speed rail network, with over 9,676 km (6,012 mi) of service routes. Of these, 3,515 km (2,184 mi) serve trains with top speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph).[274] In 2011, China unveiled a prototype train capable of reaching speeds of 310 mph (500 km/h), the first ultra-high-speed train developed solely by its domestic railway industry.[275] China intends to operate approximately 16,000 km (9,900 mi) of high-speed rail lines by 2020.[276]
As of 2012, China is the world's largest constructor of new airports, and the Chinese government has begun a US$250 billion five-year project to expand and modernize domestic air travel.[277] However, long-distance transportation remains dominated by railways and charter bus systems. Railways are the vital carrier in China; they are monopolized by the state, divided into various railway bureaux in different regions. Due to huge demand, the system is regularly subject to overcrowding, particularly during holiday seasons, such as Chunyun during the Chinese New Year. The Chinese rail network carried an estimated 1.68 billion total passengers in 2010 alone.[276]
Rapid transit systems are also rapidly developing in China's major cities, in the form of networks of underground or light rail systems. Hong Kong has one of the most developed transport systems in the world, while Shanghai has a high-speed maglev rail line connecting the city to its main international airport, Pudong International Airport. China is additionally developing its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services in mainland China in 2011, and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020.[278]
Demographics[link]
Main article: Demographics of the People's Republic of China
As of July 2010, the People's Republic of China has an estimated total population of 1,338,612,968. About 21% of the population (145,461,833 males; 128,445,739 females) are 14 years old or younger, 71% (482,439,115 males; 455,960,489 females) are between 15 and 64 years old, and 8% (48,562,635 males; 53,103,902 females) are over 65 years old. The population growth rate for 2006 was 0.6%.[279]
By end of 2010, the proportion of mainland Chinese people aged 14 or younger was 16.60%, while the number aged 60 or older grew to 13.26%, giving a total proportion of 29.86% dependents. The proportion of the population of workable age was thus around 70%.[280]
With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted, with mixed results,[281] to implement a strict family planning policy. The government's goal is one child per family, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas. It is hoped that population growth in China will stabilize in the early decades of the 21st century, though some projections estimate a population of anywhere between 1.4 billion and 1.6 billion by 2025. China's family planning minister has indicated that the one-child policy will be maintained until at least 2020.[282]
The one-child policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys (who can later serve as male heirs). Families who breach the policy often lie during the census.[283] Official government policy opposes forced sterilization or abortion, but allegations of coercion continue as local officials, who are faced with penalties for failing to curb population growth, may resort to forcible measures, or manipulation of census figures.[citation needed]
The decreasing reliability of China population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult.[283] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1.4.[284] The government is particularly concerned with the large imbalance in the sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of a combination of traditional preference for boys and family planning pressure, which led to a ban on using ultrasound devices in an attempt to prevent sex-selective abortion.
According to the 2010 census, there were 118.06 boys born for every 100 girls, which is 0.53 points lower than the ratio obtained from a population sample survey carried out in 2005.[285] However, the gender ratio of 118.06 is still beyond the normal range of around 105 percent, and experts warn of increased social instability should this trend continue.[286] For the population born between the years 1900 and 2000, it is estimated that there could be 35.59 million fewer females than males.[287] Other demographers argue that perceived gender imbalances may arise from the underreporting of female births.[288][289][290][291] A recent study suggests that as many as three million Chinese babies are hidden by their parents every year.[291] According to the 2010 census, males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population, while females made up 48.73 percent of the total.[285]
Ethnic groups[link]
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in China, and Ethnic groups in Chinese history
| Ethnic composition (2000)[292] | |
|---|---|
| Han | 91.59% |
| Zhuang | 1.28% |
| Manchu | 0.84% |
| Hui | 0.78% |
| Miao | 0.71% |
| Uyghur | 0.66% |
| Tujia | 0.63% |
| Other | 3.51% |
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total population.[293] The Han Chinese—the world's largest single ethnic group—outnumber other ethnic groups in every province, municipality and autonomous region except Tibet and Xinjiang, and are descended from ancient Huaxia tribes living along the Yellow River.
Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[293] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[293]
The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[294]
Languages[link]
Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China
The languages most spoken in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family. There are also several major linguistic groups within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (includes Shanghainese), Yue (includes Cantonese and Taishanese), Min (includes Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Hmong and Korean.[295] Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds.
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written vernacular Chinese, or baihua, is the written standard, based on the Mandarin dialect and first popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adopted, with significant modifications, during the early 20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum, and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. Since their promulgation by the government in 1956, Simplified Chinese characters have become the official standardized written script used to write the Chinese language within mainland China, supplanting the use of the earlier Traditional Chinese characters.
Urbanization[link]
See also: List of cities in the People's Republic of China, List of cities in the People's Republic of China by population, and Metropolitan regions of China
Since 2000, China's cities have expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. It is estimated that China will add 400 million people to its urban population by 2025.[296] The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 46.8% between 1978 and 2009, a scale unprecedented in human history.[297] Between 150 and 200 million migrant workers work part-time in the major cities, returning home to the countryside periodically with their earnings.[298][299]
Today, the People's Republic of China has dozens of cities with one million or more long-term residents, including the three global cities of Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. The figures in the table below are from the 2008 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[300] the figures below do not include the floating population, only long-term residents.
|
Largest cities or towns of the People's Republic of China Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2010) |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Shanghai |
1 | Shanghai | Shanghai | 22,315,426 | 11 | Shenyang | Liaoning | 5,743,718 |  Tianjin |
| 2 | Beijing | Beijing | 18,827,000 | 12 | Hangzhou | Zhejiang | 5,695,313 | ||
| 3 | Tianjin | Tianjin | 11,090,314 | 13 | Chongqing | Chongqing | 5,402,721 | ||
| 4 | Guangzhou | Guangdong | 11,070,654 | 14 | Harbin | Heilongjiang | 4,517,549 | ||
| 5 | Shenzhen | Guangdong | 10,357,938 | 15 | Suzhou | Jiangsu | 4,074,000 | ||
| 6 | Dongguan | Guangdong | 8,220,937 | 16 | Jinan | Shandong | 3,922,180 | ||
| 7 | Chengdu | Sichuan | 7,123,697 | 17 | Xi'an | Shaanxi | 3,890,098 | ||
| 8 | Hong Kong | Hong Kong | 7,055,071 | 18 | Wuxi | Jiangsu | 3,542,319 | ||
| 9 | Nanjing | Jiangsu | 6,852,984 | 19 | Hefei | Anhui | 3,352,076 | ||
| 10 | Wuhan | Hubei | 6,434,373 | 20 | Changchun | Jilin | 3,341,700 | ||
Education[link]
Main article: Education in the People's Republic of China
In 1986, China set the long-term goal of providing compulsory nine-year basic education to every child. As of 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.[301] In February 2006, the government advanced its basic education goal by pledging to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[302] Free compulsory education in China consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (ages 6–15); almost all children in urban areas continue with three years of high school.
As of 2007[update], 93.3% of the population over age 15 are literate.[279] In 2000, China's literacy rate among 15-to-24-year-olds was 98.9% (99.2% for males and 98.5% for females).[303] In March 2007, the Chinese government declared education a national "strategic priority"; the central budget for national scholarships was tripled between 2007 and 2009, and 223.5 billion yuan (US$28.65 billion) of extra state funding was allocated between 2007 and 2012 to improve compulsory education in rural areas.[304]
In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[305]
The quality of Chinese colleges and universities varies considerably across the country. The consistently top-ranked universities in mainland China are:[306][307]
- Beijing: Peking University, Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Beijing Normal University
- Shanghai: Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Tongji University, East China Normal University
- Harbin: Harbin Institute of Technology
- Tianjin: Nankai University, Tianjin University
- Xi'an: Xi'an Jiaotong University
- Nanjing: Nanjing University
- Hefei: University of Science and Technology of China
- Hangzhou: Zhejiang University
- Wuhan: Wuhan University
- Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University (aka Zhongshan University)
Health[link]
Main article: Public health in the People's Republic of China
The Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaux, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.[308] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.
After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly due to better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatised, and experienced a significant rise in quality. The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 35 years in 1949 to 73.18 years in 2008,[309][310] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 23 per thousand in 2006.[39][311] Malnutrition as of 2002[update] stood at 12% of the population, according to United Nations FAO sources.[312] In 2009, the government began a large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion, which is expected to eventually cover 90% of China's population.[313]
Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution[314] and hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[315][316] a possible future HIV/AIDS epidemic, and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[317][318] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[319]
Estimates of excess deaths in China from environmental pollution (apart from smoking) are placed at 760,000 people per annum from air and water pollution (including indoor air pollution).[320] In 2007, China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of carbon dioxide.[321] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[322] and nearly 500 million people lacked access to safe drinking water in 2005.[323] Reports by the World Bank and the New York Times have claimed industrial pollution, particularly of the air, to be a significant health hazard in China.[324]
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in China
In mainland China, the government allows a degree of religious freedom to members of state-approved religious organizations. An accurate number of religious adherents is hard to obtain because of a lack of official data, but there is a general consensus that religion has been enjoying a resurgence in China since the late 1980s.[325] A 1998 survey by Adherents.com found that 59% (over 700 million) of the population was irreligious.[326] A later survey, conducted in 2007, found that there were 300 million religious believers in China, constituting 23% of the population, as distinct from an official figure of 100 million.[325]
Despite the surveys' varying results, most agree that China's traditional religions—Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions—are the dominant faiths. According to various sources, Buddhism in China accounts for between 660 million (~50% of the population) and over 1 billion (~80%),[327][328][329][330] while Taoists number as many as 400 million (~30%).[331][332] However, because of the fact that one person may subscribe to two or more of these traditional beliefs simultaneously, and the difficulty in clearly differentiating Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions, there is likely a strong degree of overlap in the number of adherents of these religions. In addition, some who subscribe to Buddhism and Taoism follow their philosophies in principle but stop short of believing in any kind of deity or divinity.[333][334][335]
Most Chinese Buddhists are merely nominal adherents, because only a small proportion of the population (around 8% or 100 million)[337][338] may have taken the formal step of going for refuge.[339][340] Even then, it is still difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists, because they do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies.[341] Mahayana Buddhism (大乘, Dacheng) and its subsets Pure Land (Amidism), Tiantai and Chán (better known in English by its Japanese pronunciation Zen) are the most widely practiced denominations of Buddhism. Other forms, such as Theravada and Tibetan Buddhism, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland.[342]
Christianity was first introduced to China during the Tang Dynasty, with the arrival of Nestorian Christianity in 635 AD. This was followed by Franciscan missionaries in the 13th century, Jesuits in the 16th century, and finally Protestants in the 19th century. Of China's minority religions, Christianity is one of the fastest-growing. The total number of Christians is difficult to determine, as many belong to unauthorized house churches, but estimates of their number have ranged from 40 million (3% of the total population)[325][343] to 54 million (4%)[344] to as many as 130 million (10%).[345] Official government statistics put the number of Christians at 25 million, but these count only members of officially sanctioned church bodies.[346] China is believed to now have the world's second-largest evangelical Christian population—behind only the United States—and is also experiencing a surge in mainstream Christian publishing.[347][348] In 2011, it was reported that more people attended Sunday church services in China than in all of Europe.[346]
Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, only 18 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims initially came to China for trade, becoming prominent in the trading ports of the Song Dynasty.[349][350] Later, Muslims such as Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding became influential in government circles, and Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[351] Accurate statistics on China's Muslim population are hard to find; most estimates give a figure of between 20 and 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the total population).[352][353][354][355][356]
China also plays host to numerous minority religions, including Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bön, and a number of more modern religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism). In July 1999, the Falun Gong spiritual practice was officially banned by the authorities,[357] and many international organizations have criticized the government's treatment of Falun Gong that has occurred since then.[358] There are no reliable estimates of the number of Falun Gong practitioners in China,[359] although informal estimates have given figures as high as 70 million.[360][361]
Culture[link]
Main articles: Culture of the People's Republic of China and Chinese culture
A traditional Beijing opera being performed.[362]
Beijing's Forbidden City, showing its classical Chinese architectural style.
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative philosophies. For centuries, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious Imperial examinations, which were instituted in 605 AD to help the Emperor select skilful bureaucrats. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy and literati painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama.
A number of more authoritarian and rational strains of thought were also influential, with Legalism being a prominent example. There was often conflict between the philosophies – for instance, the individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians believed that Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians have claimed that modern democratic ideals and human rights are compatible with traditional Confucian values.[363]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state.
Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism'. Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time.
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[364][365] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[366]
Prior to the beginning of maritime Sino-European trade in the 16th century, medieval China and the European West were linked by the Silk Road, which was a key route of cultural as well as economic exchange. Artifacts from the history of the Road, as well as from the natural history of the Gobi desert, are displayed in the Silk Route Museum in Jiuquan.[367]
Cuisine[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130416005523/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history. The dynastic emperors of ancient China were known to host banquets with over 100 dishes served at a time,[368] employing countless imperial kitchen staff and concubines to prepare the food. Such royal dishes gradually became a part of wider Chinese culture. China's staple food is rice, but the country is also well known for its meat dishes. Spices are endemic to Chinese cuisine.
Numerous foreign offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the various nations which play host to the Chinese diaspora.
Sports[link]
Main article: Sport in the People's Republic of China
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that a form of association football was played in China around 1000 AD.[369] Today, some of the most popular sports in the country include martial arts, basketball, football, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (weiqi), xiangqi, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[370]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture. Morning exercises are a common activity, with elderly citizens encouraged to practice qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan. Young people in China are also keen on basketball, especially in urban centers with limited space and grass areas. The American National Basketball Association has a huge following among Chinese youths, with Chinese players such as Yao Ming being held in high esteem.[371]
Many more traditional sports are also played in China. Dragon boat racing occurs during the annual nationwide Dragon Boat Festival, and has since gained popularity abroad. In Inner Mongolia, sports such as Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrianism are a part of traditional festivals.[372]
China has participated at the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, and received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[373] China will host the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Youth Olympic Games in Nanjing.
See also[link]
.svg){kind=small} |
Asia portal |
 |
China portal |
 |
Geography portal |
 |
Hong Kong portal |
 |
Macau portal |
 |
People's Republic of China portal |
 |
Shanghai portal |
- Outline of China
- Index of China-related articles
- International rankings of the People's Republic of China
References[link]
- ^ Chan, Kam Wing (2007). "Misconceptions and Complexities in the Study of China's Cities: Definitions, Statistics, and Implications". Eurasian Geography and Economics 48 (4): 383–412. DOI:10.2747/1538-7216.48.4.383. http://courses.washington.edu/chinageo/ChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf. Retrieved 7 August 2011. p. 395
- ^ "What are China's largest and richest cities?" University of Southern California – US-China Institute, 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
- ^ a b "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)". Gov.cn. http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm. Retrieved 27 April 2010. "For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters."
- ^ a b "Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China. Retrieved 15 March 2010. "Form of government: single-party people's republic with one legislative house"
- ^ a b c d e f g "China". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=14&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=924&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
- ^ CIA World Factbook [Gini rankings]
- ^ "Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "ICANN Board Meeting Minutes". ICANN. http://brussels38.icann.org/meetings/brussels2010/transcript-board-25jun10-en.txt. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ a b Boum, Aomar (1999). Journal of Political Ecology: Case Studies in History and Society. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
- ^ "Communist Party of China in Brief". China Daily, 10 July 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
- ^ "GDP expands 11.4 percent, fastest in 13 years". Chinadaily.net. 24 January 2008. http://www.chinadaily.net/china/2008-01/24/content_6418067.htm. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ a b "Countries of the world ordered by land area". Listofcountriesoftheworld.com. http://www.listofcountriesoftheworld.com/area-land.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of China and the United States. See List of countries and outlying territories by area for more information.
- ^ Walton, Greg; International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development (2001). "Executive Summary". China's golden shield: Corporations and the development of surveillance technology in the People's Republic of China. Rights & Democracy. p. 5. ISBN 978-2-922084-42-9. http://books.google.com/?id=S9rP0A2q14UC&lpg=PA4&dq=single-party%20%22people's%20republic%20of%20china%22&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q=%22single-party%20state%22. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ "Sino-British Joint Declaration". http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
- ^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". People's Daily Online. http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html. Retrieved 23 November 2009. "Article 138. The capital of the People's Republic of China is Beijing."
- ^ "Rivers and Lakes". China.org.cn. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/China2004/106396.htm. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "Output, prices and jobs". The Economist. 28 January 2012. http://www.economist.com/node/21543570. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
- ^ Altucher, James (8 January 2010). "There's no stopping China". New York Post. http://www.nypost.com/p/news/business/there_no_stopping_china_0H8GJaMgzHCYenL038Yh2N. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
- ^ Muldavin, Joshua (9 February 2006). "From Rural Transformation to Global Integration: The Environmental and Social Impacts of China's Rise to Superpower". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://www.carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=eventDetail&id=851&prog=zch. Retrieved 17 January 2010.
- ^ (Lt Colonel, USAF) Uckert, Merri B. (April 1995). China as an Economic and Military Superpower: A Dangerous Combination?. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air War College, Air University. p. 33. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/uckertmb.pdf.
- ^ Bergsten, C. Fred; Gill, Bates; Lardy, Nicholas R.; Mitchell, Derek (17 April 2006). China: The Balance Sheet: What the World Needs to Know about the Emerging Superpower (Illustrated Hardcover ed.). PublicAffairs. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-58648-464-4.
- ^ Tang, Xiaoyang (2010). Guo, Sujian; Guo, Baogang. ed. Greater China in an era of globalization. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7391-3534-1.
- ^ Challen, Paul (2005). Life in ancient China. New York: Crabtree Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7787-2037-9.
- ^ Wood, Francis, Did Marco Polo go to China? (1995), p. 61. ISBN 978-0-8133-8999-8.
- ^ "China", Online Etymology Dictionary
- ^ Eden, Richard, Decades of the New World (1555) "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world."
- ^ "china", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000.
- ^ Found in Book 2 of Kautilya's Arthashastra. (Denis Crispin Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank, The Ch'in and Han Empires 221 B.C.-A.D. 220, p. 20.)
- ^ Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.
- ^ Liu, Lydia He, The Clash of Empires, p. 77.
- ^ Wade, Geoff, "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China'", Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.
- ^ 尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」 Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhōngguó to our ancestors".
- ^ Endymion Wilkinson, Chinese History: A Manual (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Rev. and enl., 2000 ISBN 0-674-00247-4 ), 132.
- ^ "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" by Archaeological Institute of America
- ^ Ian Tattersall (1997). "Out of Africa again...and again?". Scientific American 276 (4): 60–68. DOI:10.1038/scientificamerican0497-60.
- ^ Shen, G; Gao, X; Gao, B; Granger, De (Mar 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature 458 (7235): 198–200. Bibcode 2009Natur.458..198S. DOI:10.1038/nature07741. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19279636.
- ^ a b CIA World Factbook. 20 April 2006. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
- ^ "Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian". http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/449.
- ^ "Bronze Age China" by National Gallery of Art
- ^ a b Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- ^ a b Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. London: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9.
- ^ "Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed January 30, 2008". Eric.ed.gov. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Whiting, Marvin C., (2002). Imperial Chinese Military History. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-22134-3
- ^ Jacques Gernet, (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7. p.198
- ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank, (1986). The Cambridge history of China, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0. p.375
- ^ Ki-Baik Lee, (1984). A new history of Korea. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2. p.47
- ^ David Andrew Graff, (2002). Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23955-9. p.13
- ^ Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 1-4039-3456-8
- ^ City University of HK Press, (2007). China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. City University of HK Press. ISBN 962-937-140-5. p.71
- ^ Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-05090-2. p. 136.
- ^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53.
- ^ "Ming Dynasty[dead link]". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 31 October 2009.
- ^ Busky, Donald F. (2002). "Communism in History and Theory. Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2.
- ^ Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994.
- ^ Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China Volume 9 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
- ^ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0
- ^ Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- ^ Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980).
- ^ The world's successful diasporas. Management Today. 3 April 2007.
- ^ Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
- ^ Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History. Princeton University Press.
- ^ China: Land of Famine. Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs.
- ^ "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan". BBC — History.
- ^ Himeta, Mitsuyoshi (姫田光義) (日本軍による『三光政策・三光作戦をめぐって』) (Concerning the Three Alls Strategy/Three Alls Policy By the Japanese Forces), Iwanami Bukkuretto, 1996, Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2000
- ^ "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East". Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities). November 1948.
- ^ The Chinese people have stood up. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
- ^ Smith, Joseph; and Davis, Simon. [2005] (2005). The A to Z of the Cold War. Issue 28 of Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest. Volume 8 of A to Z guides. Scarecrow Press publisher. ISBN 0-8108-5384-1, ISBN 978-0-8108-5384-3.
- ^ Madelyn Holmes (2008). "Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews". McFarland. p. 185. ISBN 0-7864-3288-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=lJK-GRriJAoC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
- ^ Akbar, Arifa (17 September 2010). "Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
- ^ Michael Y.M. Kao, "Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification," in Harvey Feldman, Michael Y.M. Kao, eds., Taiwan in a Time of Transition (New York: Paragon House, 1988), 188.
- ^ Hart-Landsberg, Martin; and Burkett, Paul. "China and Socialism. Market Reforms and Class Struggle". Retrieved 30 October 2008.
- ^ Youngs, R. The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-924979-4.
- ^ Carroll, J. M. A Concise History of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3.
- ^ Nation bucks trend of global poverty (11 July 2003). China Daily
- ^ China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World (1 March 2000). People's Daily.
- ^ "China’s Environmental Crisis". New York Times. 26 August 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/20070826_CHINA_GRAPHIC.html#. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
- ^ China worried over pace of growth. BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
- ^ China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan. Migration News. January 2006.
- ^ In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms. The Washington Post. 28 January 2006.
- ^ "Frontline: The Tank Man transcript". Frontline. PBS. 11 April 2006. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
- ^ "The People's Republic of China" (7 September 2005). Foreign & Commonwealth Office
- ^ ""Land area" ''GOV.cn, Chinese Government's Official Web Portal". English.gov.cn. http://english.gov.cn/2006-02/08/content_182551.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "United States". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:2lOa44xXcrgJ:www.britannica.com/eb/article-9111233/United-States+United+States+Area+encyclopedia+britannica&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ "Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). United Nations Statistics Division. 2008. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2008/Table03.pdf. Retrieved 24 September 2011
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Field Listing – Disputes – international, CIA World Factbook
- ^ Mcquaid, Elwood (13 January 2011). "China, Tajikistan sign border agreement". Jerusalem Post. http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=203416. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ The CIA has updated the total area of United States a number of times since the initial publication of the World Factbook. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added). Note: From 1989 to 1996, China was listed as the world's third-largest country by total area according to the CIA World Factbook. The United States replaced China in 1997 after additional water spaces were added.
- ^ China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed Kashmir province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India.
- ^ "Gobi Desert Facts". http://gobidesert.org/content/facts. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "The gathering sandstorm: Encroaching desert, missing water". The Independent. 9 November 2007.
- ^ "Himalaya glaciers melting much faster". MSNBC. 24 November 2008. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27894721/. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ "Biodiversity Theme Report". Environment.gov.au. 10 December 2009. http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Ma Xiaoying; Ortalano, Leonard (2002) [2000]. Environmental Regulation in China. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- ^ "Tackling China’s water crisis online". ChinaDialogue.net, 21 September 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
- ^ "China's decade plan for water". The Earth Institute, Columbia University, 24 October 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
- ^ Ma, Jun Li, Naomi (2006). "Tackling China's Water Crisis Online". chinadialogue.net. http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/392-Tackling-China-s-water-crisis-online. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
- ^ "300 million Chinese drinking unsafe water". People's Daily Online. 23 December 2004. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200412/23/eng20041223_168329.html. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Friedman, Lisa (25 March 2010). "China Leads Major Countries With $34.6 Billion Invested in Clean Technology". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2010/03/25/25climatewire-china-leads-major-countries-with-346-billion-15729.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Black, Richard (26 March 2010). "China steams ahead on clean energy". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8587319.stm. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Bradsher, Keith (30 January 2010). "China leads global race to make clean energy". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/31/business/energy-environment/31renew.html.
- ^ "China's big push for renewable energy". Scientific American, 4 August 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ China tops the world in clean energy production. Ecosensorium. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ "Splashing out: China to spend 4 trillion yuan on water projects". Want China Times, 11 July 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
- ^ Randall Hoven, 7 November 2007. American Thinker. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Cienciala, Anna (1996). The Rise and Fall of Communist Nations 1917–1994. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
- ^ a b "Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2011: China". http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2011&country=8016.
- ^ "BBC, Country Report: China". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". People's Daily. http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Article 97 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China
- ^ "CFR.org". CFR.org. http://www.cfr.org/publication/14482/communist_party_of_china.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Unknown Author (2003). "Beijingers Get Greater Poll Choices". China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/08/content_288018.htm. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
- ^ Lohmar, Bryan; and Somwaru, Agapi; Does China’s Land-Tenure System Discourage Structural Adjustment?, 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. Accessed 3 May 2006.
- ^ China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
- ^ 22 July 2008 (22 July 2008). "PEWresearch.org". PEWresearch.org. http://pewresearch.org/pubs/906/china-economy. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Gwillim Law (2 April 2005). Provinces of China. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
- ^ "Background Note: China". Bureau of Public Affairs. U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
- ^ "China and Sweden". Chinaembassy.se. http://www.chinaembassy.se/eng/zrgx/t100751.htm. Retrieved 15 June 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). Perseverance will pay off at the UN, The Taipei Times.
- ^ "China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent". People's Daily. 21 December 2009. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ "Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report". Agence France-Presse. 11 January 2010. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iNP2McsYhIeRMgrn036WkQdrN3LQ.
- ^ Macartney, Jane (1 February 2010). "China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article7010435.ece.
- ^ Moore, Malcolm (8 January 2010). "China cancels UK human rights summit after Akmal Shaikh execution". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/6952556/China-cancels-UK-human-rights-summit-after-Akmal-Shaikh-execution.html.
- ^ Keith, Ronald C.. China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world. PlutoPress.
- ^ "Ready to face the world?". The Economist. 6 March 1997. http://www.economist.com/node/144689. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
- ^ "China and Europe: A summit dominated by trade could get frosty". The Economist. 27 November 2007. http://www.economist.com/node/10202169?story_id=E1_TDNDNTGJ. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
- ^ Dillon, Dana; and Tkacik, John, Jr.; China’s Quest for Asia, Policy Review, December 2005 and January 2006, Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
- ^ "Clinton signs China trade bill". CNN.com. 10 October 2000
- ^ "The China Trade Debate". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 18 May 2000.
- ^ "Bush woos China on trade", 30 May 2001, BBC News
- ^ "US trade gap widens on increased Chinese imports". BBC News. 14 October 2010
- ^ "Chinese President Hu Jintao resists Obama calls on yuan". BBC News. 13 April 2010.
- ^ Malaysia's race rules. The Economist Newspaper Limited (25 August 2005). Requires login.
- ^ Algeria: Xenophobia against Chinese on the rise in Africa. Afrik.com. 5 August 2009.
- ^ Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea's anti-Chinese riots. The Australian. 23 May 2009.
- ^ Overseas and under siege. The Economist. 11 August 2009.
- ^ Ramachandran, Sudha (27 January 2011). "China plays long game on border disputes". Asia Times. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MA27Ad02.html. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ "China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal". BBC, 12 May 2012.
- ^ Nanjing by the Numbers. Foreign Policy. 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Backlash over the alleged China curb on metal exports". The Daily Telegraph, London, 29 Aug 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
- ^ McLaughlin, Abraham; A rising China counters US clout in Africa, The Christian Science Monitor, 30 March 2005 edition.
- ^ Lyman, Princeton N.; China’s Rising Role in Africa, 21 July 2005 Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved 26 June 2007.
- ^ Politzer, Malia; China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration. Migration Information Source. August 2008
- ^ "Is Brazil a derivative of China?" Forbes.com, 24 August 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ "China, Argentina agree to further strategic ties". Xinhua.com, 9 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ "BRICS summit ends in China". BBC, 14 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ^ Khanna, Parag (27 January 2008). "Waving Goodbye to Hegemony". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/magazine/27world-t.html?_r=1&ref=magazine&oref=slogin. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ "China as a global power". University of Southern California US-China Institute. 13 November 2007. http://china.usc.edu/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=848. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Broughton, Philip Delves (23 January 2004). "The Dragon's catastrophic potential". The First Post. http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/4591,opinion,chinas-bad-loans-will-ruin-us-all. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Sanders, Sol (29 June 2007). "China's utterly distorted economy is a train wreck waiting to happen". World Tribune. http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2007/s6_29.asp. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Williams, Ian (23 January 2004). "China-US: Double bubbles in danger of colliding". Asia Times. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/FA23Dj01.html. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ "Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009". Hrw.org. http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2009/china. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants / Chen Guidi and Wu Chuntao (2006) ISBN 1-58648-358-7
- ^ Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century / Guy Sorman (2008) ISBN 1-59403-216-5
- ^ a b Wingfield, Rupert (7 March 2006). "China's rural millions left behind". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4782194.stm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ a b Luard, Tim (10 November 2005). "China rethinks peasant apartheid". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4424944.stm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Ni, Ching-Ching (30 December 2005). "LAtimes.com". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2005/dec/30/world/fg-agtax30. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Harvard.eu[dead link]
- ^ "China ends school fees for 150m". BBC News. 13 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6174847.stm. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Media Control in China published 2004 by Human Rights in China, New York. Revised edition 2006 published by Liming Cultural Enterprises of Taiwan
- ^ "Freedom House: Freedom on the Net Report: China". http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/FotN/China2011.pdf.
- ^ "Freedom House: Freedom of the Press Survey: China". http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2010&country=7801.
- ^ "Reporters sans frontières – Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index – 2005". Rsf.org. 30 April 2009. Archived from the original on 19 April 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080419011906/http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ 1998 US Embassy Beijing report "The Fading of Environmental Secrecy".[dead link] Retrieved 4 February 2007.
- ^ 1997 US Embassy Beijing report "Environmental NGOs in China: Green is Good, But Don't Openly Oppose the Party".[dead link] Retrieved 4 February 2007.
- ^ "Egypt not trending in China". English.aljazeera.net. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2011/01/201112991712140318.html. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Yixiang, Lin (1 April 2009). "China Responsible for 72 Percent of Executions Worldwide". The Epoch Times. http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/content/view/14602/. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
- ^ "Amnesty sees hope in China on death penalty". Google News. Agence France-Presse. 26 March 2012. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i6n_b7W2ZAWhxU505Vt2mk7ldTDw?docId=CNG.ebc5b029965a9d188d5cd8a21b6d832c.21. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
- ^ a b "China's Progress in Human Rights". July 2005. Accessed: 18 April 2008.
- ^ "China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier". 11 December 2003. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. Retrieved 28 April 2006.
- ^ "China seeks to improve workplace safety". USA Today, 30 January 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ "Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao talks reform, but most countrymen never get to hear what he says". Washington Post.
- ^ Part I of summary of Zhou Tianyong's 2004 book Reform of the Chinese Political System[dead link] Accessed 7 February 2007.
- ^ Part II of summary of Zhou Tianyong's 2004 book Reform of the Chinese Political System[dead link] Accessed 7 February 2007.
- ^ China Seeks to Allay US Fears as Summit Nears (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
- ^ Military Expenditure Data. SIPRI. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
- ^ Annual Report To Congress – Military Power of the People’s Republic of China 2009 (PDF). Defenselink.mil. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
- ^ Nolt, James H. Analysis: The China-Taiwan military balance. Asia Times. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
- ^ a b China expanding its nuclear stockpile The Washington Times, 2011-08-25. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- ^ Martin Andrew. "AsianResearch.org". AsianResearch.org. http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2680.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Sinodefence.com". Sinodefence.com. 28 March 2009. http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j10b.asp. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Early Eclipse: F-35 JSF Prospects in the Age of Chinese Stealth." China-Defense. Retrieved: 23 January 2011.
- ^ "Chengdu J-20 – China’s 5th Generation Fighter." Defense Update. Retrieved: 23 January 2011.
- ^ "China's first stealth fighter flies ahead of the pack after second prototype takes to the air". Daily Mail India, 22 May 2012.
- ^ SinoDefence.com – Ground Forces. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ SinoDefence: Surface-to-air Missile System (2006). Retrieved 7 July 2009.
- ^ "HQ-19 (S-400) (China) – Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems". Janes.com. 23 December 2008.
- ^ China plays down fears after satellite shot down, Agence France-Presse via Channelnewsasia, 20 January 2007
- ^ SinoDefence: Aircraft carrier programme (2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
- ^ "China's first aircraft carrier completes sea trial". Xinhua News Agency. 15 August 2011. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/video/2011-08/15/c_131050307.htm. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
- ^ China unveils fleet of submarines The Guardian, 2009-04-22. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- ^ "GPS: China Flexes Military Muscle". CNN News. 13 March 2011. http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2011/03/13/gps.china.flex.cnn?iref=allsearch. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
- ^ "China Military Power Report.indd" (PDF). http://www.defense.gov/pubs/pdfs/070523-China-Military-Power-final.pdf. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "China fury at US military report". BBC News. 26 March 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7965084.stm. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Shanghai's GDP grows 8.2% in 2011". China Daily, 20 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ The Great Leap Forward. History Learning Site. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
- ^ "Berkeley.edu" (PDF). http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~yqian/how%20far%20across%20the%20river.pdf. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "China is already a market economy—Long Yongtu, Secretary General of Boao Forum for Asia". English.eastday.com. http://english.eastday.com/e/ICS/u1a4035916.html. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Communism Is Dead, But State Capitalism Thrives, by Vahan Janjigian, forbes.com, 22 Mar. 2010.
- ^ The Winners And Losers In Chinese Capitalism, by Gady Epstein, forbes.com, 31 Aug. 2010.
- ^ "China's State-Planned Economy Is Doomed to Flop: David Pauly" Bloomberg. Accessed: 16 April 2011
- ^ "China must be cautious in raising consumption". China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-11/21/content_7228346.htm. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ 16 August 2010, China Overtakes Japan as World's Second-Biggest Economy, Bloomberg
- ^ "China's gross domestic product (GDP) growth". Chinability. http://www.chinability.com/GDP.htm. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
- ^ Walker, Andrew (16 June 2011). "Will China's Economy Stumble?". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13802453. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Joe Weisenthal (22 February 2011). "3G Countries". Businessinsider.com. http://www.businessinsider.com/willem-buiter-3g-countries-2011-2?slop=1. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Microsoft Word - UNWTO Barom07 2 en.doc" (PDF). http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/UNWTO_Barom10_update_april_en_excerpt.pdf. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ 2011 China trade data. GTIG.com, 12 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "China's Foreign-Exchange Reserves Surge, Exceeding $2 Trillion". Bloomberg L.P.. 15 July 2009. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=alZgI4B1lt3s. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ "China's forex reserves reach USD 2.85 trillion". Smetimes.tradeindia.com. http://smetimes.tradeindia.com/smetimes/news/global-business/2011/Jan/11/china-s-forex-reserves-reach-usd-2.85-trillion624606.html. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China must keep buying US Treasuries for now-paper". Reuters. 20 August 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/bondsNews/idUSPEK16627420090820. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
- ^ "China now owns $1.16 trillion of U.S. debt". CBS News. 28 February 2011
- ^ Washington learns to treat China with care. CNNMoney.com. 29 July 2009.
- ^ Hornby, Lucy (23 September 2009). "Factbox: US-China Interdependence Outweighs Trade Spat". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE58M25U20090923. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
- ^ "China FDI hits $115 billion in 2011, eases in December". CNBC, 5 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
- ^ 19 Jan 2011 p.ambre (19 January 2011). "China scores number one on FDI penetration, 16% rise in 2010". Stockmarketdigital.com. http://www.stockmarketdigital.com/sectors/shanghai-se-shenzhen-se-china/china-scores-number-one-fdi-penetration-16-rise-2010. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Insight: Bullish China shops in industrial Germany". Reuters, 3 April 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
- ^ Nominal GDP comparison of China, Germany, France, Japan and USA. IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
- ^ "2007 trade surplus hits new record – $262.2B". China Daily. 11 January 2008. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-01/11/content_6387775.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ "China widens yuan, non-dollar trading range to 3%". 23 September 2005. http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/gyzg/t213645.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ Intellectual Property Rights. Asia Business Council, September 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
- ^ "MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index". http://web.mit.edu/cis/fpi_china.html. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
- ^ Putting Democracy in China on Hold John Lee, The Center for Independent Studies. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
- ^ English@peopledaily.com.cn (13 July 2005). "People.com". People. http://english.people.com.cn/200507/13/eng20050713_195876.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Businessweek.com". BusinessWeek. 22 August 2005. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Microsoft Word - China2bandes.doc" (PDF). http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "China Is a Private-Sector Economy". BusinessWeek. 22 August 2005. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
- ^ The Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010 World Economic Forum. Retrieved on 24 September 2009.
- ^ "2011 Index of Economic Freedom" The Heritage Foundation. Accessed 17 April 2011
- ^ Money.cnn.com Retrieved on 27 July 2010.
- ^ Global 500 2009, Financial Times, Retrieved on 12 August 2009.
- ^ "CIA – The World Fact Book". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ Plafker, Ted, China's Long—but Uneven—March to Literacy[dead link] International Herald Tribune
- ^ Urban unemployment declines to 4% in China People's Daily Online (22 January 2008). Retrieved on 27 July 2008.
- ^ Abigmission.com China’s 100 million strong middle-class need to be reached. Retrieved on 30 August 2009.
- ^ One Person in Every 1700 in China has at least 10 Million Yuan[dead link] Hurun Report (14 April 2009). Retrieved on 4 March 2010.
- ^ "China's billionaires double in number". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
- ^ Total Retail Sales of Consumer Goods (2007.12) National Bureau of Statistics of China (13 March 2008). Retrieved on 21 November 2008.
- ^ Super Rich have Craze for luxury goods China Daily (3 March 2010). Retrieved on 4 March 2010.
- ^ "China inflation exceeding 6%". Businessweek, 14 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ "Steep rise in Chinese food prices". BBC, 16 April 2008. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ a b "China's GDP grows 9.1% in third quarter" Financial Times. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ "China Q1 GDP growth cools to 8.1 pct". CRI.cn, 17 April 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
- ^ a b "China Quick Facts". World Bank. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/CHINAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20680895~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:318950,00.html. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
- ^ Swartz, Spencer; Oster, Shai (19 July 2010). "China Becomes World's Biggest Energy Consumer". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703720504575376712353150310.html?mod=djemalertNEWS. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ Feller, Gordon. "China's Coal". ECOworld. http://www.ecoworld.com/home/articles2.cfm?tid=450. Retrieved 19 July 2010. [dead link]
- ^ "China have set a Renewable Energy Target of 10% of Electric Power Capacity by 2010". Reuters. 11 March 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS39879+12-Mar-2008+BW20080312. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ Wind power in the People's Republic of China
- ^ Reuters: Russia in milestone oil pipeline supply to China. Reuters. 1 January 2011
- ^ a b Donald D. DeGlopper (1987), Chapter 9 - Science and Technology, A Country Study: China, Library of Congress. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
- ^ David Kang and Adam Segal, The Siren Song of Technonationalism, March 2006, Far Eastern Economic Review.
- ^ "2011 Global R&D Funding Forecast", Battelle.org, 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
- ^ "China 'to overtake US on science' in two years". BBC News, 28 March 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ "Desperately seeking math and science majors". CNN, 29 July 2009. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
- ^ "China publishes the second most scientific papers in international journals in 2010: report". Xinhua, 2 December 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
- ^ David Eimer, "China's huge leap forward into space threatens US ascendancy over heavens". The Telegraph, 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Rocket launches Chinese space lab". BBC. 29 September 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
- ^ "China could make moon landing in 2025". The Guardian, 20 September 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- ^ LOUISE WATT, China's Space Program Shoots for Moon, Mars, Venus, Associated Press, July 11, 2011.
- ^ "Squeezing cash from China's billion phone app market". BBC. 22 May 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18119515.
- ^ "China August mobile phone users top 823 million". People's Daily. http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20100928VL201.html. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
- ^ Barboza, David (26 July 2008). "China Surpasses US in Number of Internet Users". NY times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/26/business/worldbusiness/26internet.html. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
- ^ "China's internet users breach half billion mark". Reuters, 11 January 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- ^ "China: 485 million internet users". TechNode, 20 July 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
- ^ China's online population rises to 477mn – Yahoo! News
- ^ "Shanghai: Home to the slowest internet in all of China – Shanghaiist". Shanghaiist.com. 21 January 2011. http://shanghaiist.com/2011/01/21/shanghai_home_to_the_slowest_intern.php. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Broadband provider rankings: The Rise and Rise of China". Telegeography.com. 28 July 2010. http://www.telegeography.com/cu/article.php?article_id=33858. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China's total mileage of expressways open to traffic reached 65,000 kilometers". People's Daily. 15 Jan 2010. http://chinaautoweb.com/2010/12/chinas-highway-network-expands-74000-kilometers//. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ "China auto sales officially surpass US in 2009, 13.6 million vehicles sold". Industry News. 8 January 2010. http://www.egmcartech.com/2010/01/08/china-auto-sales-officially-surpass-u-s-in-2009-13-6-million-vehicles-sold/. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ "China premium car sector remains bright spot". Reuters, 23 April 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
- ^ "Japan's bullet train will have a top speed of 310 mph". Daily Mail (London). 16 February 2011. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1357455/Japans-bullet-train-speed-310-mph.html?ITO=1490. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China pushes ahead with high-speed rail". Financial Times, 27 December 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ a b "China boasts biggest high-speed rail network". Agence France-Presse via The Raw Story, 24 July 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
- ^ "China's New Plan: A Great Leap Into The Air". NPR. 2012-05-19. http://www.npr.org/2012/05/19/152945291/chinas-new-plan-a-great-leap-into-the-air.
- ^ "The final frontier". China Daily, 27 April 2012.
- ^ a b HDRstats.undp.org (2009). UNHD.
- ^ Michael Bristow Beijing (28 April 2011). "China census shows population ageing and urban". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13218733. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "The New England Journal of Medicine, September 2005". Content.nejm.org. DOI:10.1056/NEJMhpr051833. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/11/1171. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "China to keep one-child policy". CNN. 10 March 2008. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/03/10/china.onechild/index.html. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ a b USembassy-china.org.cn[dead link]
- ^ "The most surprising demographic crisis". The Economist. 5 May 2011. http://www.economist.com/node/18651512. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ a b "Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data". Xinhua, 28 April 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
- ^ "Chinese facing shortage of wives". BBC News. 12 January 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6254763.stm. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
- ^ Estimation of the Number of Missing Females in China: 1900–2000 page 20
- ^ M. G. Merli and A. E. Raftery. 1990. "Are births under-reported in rural China? Manipulation of statistical records in response to China's population policies", Demography 37 (February): 109–126.
- ^ Johansson, Sten; Nygren, Olga (1991). "The missing girls of China: a new demographic account". Population and Development Review 17 (1): 35–51. DOI:10.2307/1972351. JSTOR 1972351.
- ^ Merli, M. Giovanna; Raftery, Adrian E. (2000). "Are births underreported in rural China?". Demography 37 (1): 109 126.
- ^ a b "Chinese hiding three million babies a year". The Daily Telegraph, 30 May 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
- ^ National Bureau of Statistics (in Chinese). Retrieved 20 October 2011.
- ^ a b c Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census (No. 1). Retrieved 4 October 2011.
- ^ "Major Figures on Residents from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan and Foreigners Covered by 2010 Population Census". National Bureau of Statistics of China, 29 April 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
- ^ Languages. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
- ^ Sridhar, Asha (14 December 2011). "Round and about: Urban planning gone haywire". The Hindu (Chennai, India). http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/article2714400.ece.
- ^ Zhou Qun, Lin Yanhua. Nov. 2005/14441.html China's urbanization encounters "urban disease"[dead link], Chinanews.cn (中国新闻网), 11 November 2005. Retrieved 21 April 2005.
- ^ Harney, Alexandra (3 February 2008). "Migrants are China's 'factories without smoke'". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/01/china.migrants/index.html. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Tschang, Chi-Chu (4 February 2009). "A Tough New Year for China's Migrant Workers". Business Week. http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/feb2009/gb2009024_357998.htm. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
- ^ Francesco Sisci, "China's floating population a headache for census", The Straits Times, 22 September 2000.
- ^ Factbox: Education in China (2008). China-Arab Education Information Network
- ^ China pledges free 9-year education in rural west (21 February 2006). China Economic Net.
- ^ "Where And Who Are The World's Illiterates: China". UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/b44872c5f2dfd9c825236194562a2b7fRoss_China.doc. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Premier Wen announces hefty educational investment (2007). Retrieved 6 March 2007.
- ^ "China Beats Out Finland for Top Marks in Education". TIME.
- ^ 2005 Chinese University Ranking unveiled (21 February 2005). China Daily. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
- ^ All-around Ranking (2003). Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ China AIDS Survey at Yahoo. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
- ^ "Population Growth in China : The Basic Characteristics of China's Demographic Transition" (PDF). http://www.globalgeografia.it/temi/Population%20Growth%20in%20China.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China". CIA World Factbook, 16 May 2008
- ^ China’s Infant Mortality Rate Down. 11 September 2001. CHINA.ORG.CN. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
- ^ "Nutrition country profiles: China summary". Archived from the original on 15 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070915190801/http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/cpr-e.stm. Retrieved 22 July 2007.
- ^ Noam N. Levey (12 May 2012). "Global push to guarantee health coverage leaves U.S. behind". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-global-health-reform-20120512,0,4695600.story. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ McGregor, Richard (2 July 2007). "750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html. Retrieved 22 July 2007.
- ^ "Smoking 'will kill one third of young Chinese men'". 16 August 2001. Honolulu Community College. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power" article by Didi Kirsten Tatlow in The New York Times 10 June 2010
- ^ "Serving the people?". 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts". 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "China’s latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain". 18 May 2004. World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "China 'buried smog death finding'". BBC News. 3 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6265098.stm. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ John Vidal and David Adam (19 June 2007). "China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/jun/19/china.usnews. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies". China Daily. 7 June 2005. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Kahn, Joseph (26 August 2007). "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". The New York Times (China). http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Air Pollution in Yixian". Air Pollution in Yixian. 1900-1-0. http://7ride.com/rides/cycling-china-2009/day-6-fangshan-to-yixian.aspx. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
- ^ a b c "Asia-Pacific | Survey finds 300 m (980 ft) China believers". BBC News. 7 February 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "Nonreligious, continued...". Adherents.com. http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_473.html. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "China Beliefs". Justchina.org. http://www.justchina.org/china/china-beliefs.asp. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Buddhism in China. ForeignerCN.com, 22 April 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
- ^ "China culture exploring assistant". Chinabusinessinterpreter.com. http://www.chinabusinessinterpreter.com/Dasiy/16.aspx. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Buddhists in the world". Vipassanafoundation.com. http://www.vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html. Retrieved 15 June 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "How Now Tao?". Asia Sentinel. 27 April 2007. http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC)" (PDF). http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/SCMP%20Daoism%2030%20April%202007.pdf. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Religions and Beliefs in China". Travelchinaguide.com. http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion/. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Society for Anglo Chinese Understanding". SACU. http://www.sacu.org/religion.html. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions". Index-china.com. http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter". Yu-lin Wu (1995). World Scientific. p.68. ISBN 981-02-2287-4
- ^ "Buddhism". Adherents.com. http://adherents.com/largecom/com_buddhist.html. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Buddhism in China". AskAsia. http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "TheAmericanForum For Global Education". Globaled.org. http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "US Department of States – International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Macintosh, R. Scott. China's prosperity inspires rising spirituality (9 March 2006). Retrieved 15 April 2006.
- ^ Watts, Jonathan (7 February 2007). "Christian population in China". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,,2007690,00.html. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
- ^ "China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe". Assistnews.net. 1 October 2007. http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "Sons of heaven". The Economist. 2 October 2008. http://www.economist.com/node/12342509.
- ^ a b "Christians in China: Is the country in spiritual crisis?" BBC News, 12 September 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
- ^ God and Caesar in China: policy implications of church-state tensions. Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=5jfVmF6MX7IC&pg=PA2&dq=China+now+has+the+world's+second-+largest+evangelical+Christian+population+%E2%80%94+behind+only+the+Unired+Stares+%E2%80%94+and+if+current+growth+rates+continue,+China+will+become+a+global+center+of+evangelical+Christianity+in+coming+decades&hl=en&ei=vfJrTfXYF8at8AP9sK3yBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=China%20now%20has%20the%20world's%20second-%20largest%20evangelical%20Christian%20population%20%E2%80%94%20behind%20only%20the%20Unired%20Stares%20%E2%80%94%20and%20if%20current%20growth%20rates%20continue%2C%20China%20will%20become%20a%20global%20center%20of%20evangelical%20Christianity%20in%20coming%20decades&f=false. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Discipling the Dragon: Christian Publishing Finds Success in China". Christianity Today, 20 January 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
- ^ "BBC Islam in China (650–present)". BBC News. 2 October 2002. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Islamic culture in China – amended 1958 text. Religion-Online.org. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
- ^ "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam". http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm. [dead link]
- ^ Counting up the number of people of traditionally Muslim nationalities who were enumerated in the 1990 census gives a total of 17.6 million, 96% of whom belong to just three nationalities: Hui 8.6 million, Uyghurs 7.2 million, and Kazakhs 1.1 million. Other nationalities that are traditionally Muslim include Kyrghyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salar, Bonan, and Dongxiang. See Dru C. Gladney, "Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?", Paper presented at Symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China, Hong Kong, 2002. Available at islamsymposium.cityu.edu.hk. The 2000 census reported a total of 20.3 million members of Muslim nationalities, of which again 96% belonged to just three groups: Hui 9.8 million, Uyghurs 8.4 million, and Kazakhs 1.25 million.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – China". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
- ^ "NW China region eyes global Muslim market". China Daily. 9 July 2008. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/09/content_6831389.htm. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 24 March 2008. http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Xinhua, China Bans Falun Gong, People's Daily, 22 July 1999
- ^ Mary-Anne Toy, Underground existence for Falun Gong faithful, The Age, 26 July 2008.
"The US State Department, US Congress, the United Nations and human rights groups such as Amnesty say persecution of Falun Gong practitioners in China is a continuing abuse of human rights." - ^ Xu Jiatun, Cultural Revolution revisited in crackdown, Taipai Times, 8 September 1999.
- ^ Seth Faison, "In Beijing: A Roar of Silent Protestors," New York Times, 27 April 1999
- ^ "Falun Gong said to total tens of millions". United Press International, 24 April 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
- ^ "Tour Guidebook: Beijing". China National Tourism Administration. http://en.cnta.gov.cn.
- ^ Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values".[dead link] Columbia University.
- ^ ""China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies". Lcweb2.loc.gov. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0133). Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "China: Cultural life: The arts". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258942/China. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ ""China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies". Lcweb2.loc.gov. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0138). Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Silk Route Museum". Silk Route Museum. http://www.silkroutemuseum.com. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Kong, Foong, Ling. [2002]. The Food of Asia. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-7946-0146-4
- ^ "Origins of the Great Game". Athleticscholarships.net. http://athleticscholarships.net/history-of-soccer.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ "Chinese players dominate at Malaysia open chess championship". TheStar.com, 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ Beech, Hannah (28 April 2003). "Yao Ming". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html. Retrieved 30 March 2007.
- ^ Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China. About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
- ^ "China targets more golds in 2012". BBC Sport, 27 August 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
Further reading[link]
- Chang, Jung (1992). Wild Swans. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-42547-3.
- Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.
- Farah, Paolo, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China’s Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism, Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263–304, 2006. Abstract.
- Heilig, Gerhard K., China Bibliography – Online. 2006, 2007.
- Lynch, Michael (1998). People’s Republic of China 1949–90. Trafalgar Square Publishing. ISBN 0-340-68853-X.
- Murphey, Rhoads (1996). East Asia: A New History. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-321-07801-2.
- Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's Republic. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24514-8.
- Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 0-85345-532-5.
- Terrill, Ross (2003). The New Chinese Empire, And What It Means For The United States. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-08412-5.
- Thurston, Anne F. (1994). China Bound: A Guide to Academic Life and Work in the PRC. Washington: National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-04932-6.
External links[link]
| Find more about China on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
|
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
|
News stories from Wikinews |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
|
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Overviews
- China at a Glance from People's Daily
- BBC News – Country Profile: China
- China entry at The World Factbook
- Modern China: A Primer—slideshow by Life magazine
- "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China" by Yiching Wu
- Key Development Forecasts for China from International Futures
- Documentaries
- "China on the Rise" PBS Online NewsHour, October 2005
- China in the Red PBS Frontline, 1998–2001
- China From the Inside A documentary series co-produced by KQED Public Television and Granada Television
- Government
- The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (English)
- China Internet Information Center (English)—Authorized government portal site to China
- Studies
- Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006
- The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power, 11 February 2005
- History of The People's Republic of China—Timeline of key events since 1949
- Media, advertising, and urban life in China
- Travel
- Maps
- Google Maps—China
- Google Maps—China—Interesting locations
- Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
Coordinates: 35°N 103°E / 35°N 103°E / 35; 103
|
 Kazakhstan Russia |
Russia Mongolia |
Russia |
|
 Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Afghanistan |
|
 North KoreaYellow Sea East China Sea |
||
| China East |
||||
|
||||
 Pakistan India Nepal Bhutan |
India Burma Laos Vietnam |
Taiwan South China Sea |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/China
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Zhou Enlai 周恩来 |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Premier of the People's Republic of China | |
| In office 1 October 1949 – 8 January 1976 (&1000000000000002600000026 years, &1000000000000009900000099 days) |
|
| President | Mao Zedong Liu Shaoqi |
| Deputy | Dong Biwu Chen Yun Lin Biao Deng Xiaoping |
| Leader | Mao Zedong (CPC Chairman) |
| Succeeded by | Hua Guofeng |
| Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China | |
| In office 28 September 1956 – 1 August 1966 |
|
| In office 30 August 1973 – 8 January 1976 |
|
| Chairman | Mao Zedong |
| 2nd Chairman of the National Committee Of the CPPCC | |
| In office December 1954 – 8 January 1976 |
|
| Honorary Chairman | Mao Zedong |
| Preceded by | Mao Zedong |
| Succeeded by | vacant (1976–1978) Deng Xiaoping |
| Member of the National People's Congress |
|
| In office 15 September 1954 – 8 January 1976 |
|
| Constituency | Beijing At-large |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1898-03-05)5 March 1898 Huai'an, Jiangsu, Qing Dynasty |
| Died | 8 January 1976(1976-01-08) (aged 77) Beijing, People's Republic of China |
| Nationality | Chinese |
| Political party | Communist Party of China |
| Spouse(s) | Deng Yingchao |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Battles/wars | Eastern Expeditions Nanchang Uprising Encirclement Campaigns Second Sino-Japanese War Chinese Civil War |
| Zhou Enlai | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simplified Chinese | 周恩来 | ||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 周恩來 | ||||||||
|
|||||||||
Zhou Enlai (pinyin: Zhōu Ēnlái; Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai; IPA: [tʂóʊ ə́nlǎɪ]; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou served under Mao Zedong and was instrumental in consolidating the control of the Communist Party's rise to power, forming foreign policy, and developing the Chinese economy.
A skilled and able diplomat, Zhou served as the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. Advocating peaceful coexistence with the West after the stalemated Korean War, he participated in the 1954 Geneva Conference and helped orchestrate Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China. He helped devise policies regarding the bitter disputes with the U.S., Taiwan, the Soviet Union (after 1960), India and Vietnam. Zhou is best known as the long-time top aide to Mao Zedong, specializing in foreign policy. Their contrasting personalities made them an effective team, according to Henry Kissinger, the American diplomat who had extensive dealings with both men:
- Mao dominated any gathering; Zhou suffused it. Mao's passion strove to overwhelm opposition; Zhou's intellect would seek to persuade or outmaneuver it. Mao was sardonic; Zhou penetrating. Mao thought of himself as a philosopher; Zhou saw his role as an administrator or a negotiator. Mao was eager to accelerate history; Zhou was content to exploit its currents.[1]
Largely due to his expertise, Zhou was able to survive the purges of other top officials during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s. His attempts at mitigating the Red Guards' damage and his efforts to protect others from their wrath made him immensely popular in the Revolution's later stages. As Mao Zedong's health began to decline in 1971 and 1972, Zhou and the Gang of Four struggled internally over leadership of China. Zhou's health was also failing, however, and he died eight months before Mao on 8 January 1976. The massive public outpouring of grief in Beijing turned to anger towards the Gang of Four, leading to the Tiananmen Incident. Although succeeded by Hua Guofeng, it was Deng Xiaoping, Zhou's ally, who was able to outmaneuver the Gang of Four politically and eventually take Mao's place as Paramount leader by 1977.
Contents
|
Early life[link]
Youth[link]
Zhou Enlai was born in Huai'an, Jiangsu province on 5 March 1898, the first son of his branch of the Zhou family. The Zhou family were originally from Shaoxing in Zhejiang province. During the late Qing dynasty, Shaoxing was famous as the home of families such as Zhou's, whose members worked as government "clerks" (shiye) generation after generation.[2] To move up the ladder in civil service, the men in these families often had to get transferred, and in the late years of the Qing dynasty, Zhou Enlai's branch of the family moved to Huai'an. Even after the move, however, the family continued to view Shaoxing as its ancestral home.[3]
Zhou's grandfather, Zhou Panlong, and his granduncle, Zhou Jun'ang, were the first members of the family to move to Huai'an. Panlong apparently passed the provincial examinations, and Zhou Enlai later claimed that Panlong served as magistrate governing Huai'an county.[4] Zhou's father, Zhou Yineng, was the second of Zhou Panlong's four sons. Zhou's birth mother, surnamed Wan, was the daughter of a prominent Jiangsu official.[5]
Like many others, the economic fortunes of Zhou's large family of scholar-officials were decimated by a great economic recession that China suffered in the late 19th century. Zhou Yineng had a reputation for honesty, gentleness, intelligence, and concern for others, but was also considered "weak" and "lacking in discipline and determination." He was unsuccessful in his personal life, and drifted across China doing various occupations, working in Beijing, Shandong, Anhui, Shenyang, Inner Mongolia, and Sichuan. Zhou Enlai later remembered his father as being always away from home and generally unable to support his family.[6]
Soon after birth, Zhou Enlai was adopted by his father's youngest brother, Zhou Yigan, who was ill with tuberculosis. Apparently the adoption was arranged because the family feared Yigan would die without an heir.[7] Zhou Yigan died soon after the adoption, and Zhou Enlai was raised by Yigan's widow, whose surname was Chen. Madame Chen was also from a scholarly family and received a traditional literary education. According to Zhou's own account, he was very close to his adoptive mother and acquired his lasting interest in Chinese literature and opera from her. Madame Chen taught Zhou to read and write at an early age, and Zhou later claimed to have read the famous vernacular novel Xiyouji at the age of six.[8] By the age of eight, he was reading other traditional Chinese novels, including the Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Dream of the Red Mansion.[9]
Zhou's birth mother Wan died in 1907 when Zhou was 9, and his adoptive mother Chen in 1908 when Zhou was 10. Zhou's father was working in Hubei, far from Jiangsu, so Zhou and his two younger brothers returned to Huai'an and lived with his father's remaining younger brother Yikui for the next two years.[10] In 1910, Zhou's uncle Yigeng, his father's older brother, offered to care for Zhou. The family in Huai'an agreed, and Zhou was sent to stay with his uncle in Manchuria at Shenyang, where Zhou Yigeng worked in a government office.[11]
Education[link]
In Shenyang, Zhou attended the Dongguan Model Academy, a Western style school. His previous education consisted entirely of home schooling. In addition to new subjects such as English and science, Zhou was also exposed to the writings of reformers and radicals such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Chen Tianhua, Zou Rong and Zhang Binglin.[12][13] At the age of fourteen, Zhou declared that his motivation for pursuing education was to "become a great man who will take up the heavy responsibilities of the country in the future."[14] In 1913, Zhou's uncle was transferred to Tianjin, where Zhou entered the famous Nankai Middle School.
Nankai Middle School was founded by Yan Xiu, a prominent scholar and philanthropist, and headed by Zhang Boling, one of the most important Chinese educators of the 20th century.[15] Nankai's teaching methods were unusual by contemporary Chinese standards. By the time Zhou began attending, it had adopted the educational model used at Phillips academy in the United States.[16] The school's reputation, with its "highly disciplined" daily routine and "strict moral code"[17] attracted many students who later became prominent in public life. Zhou's friends and classmates there ranged from Ma Jun (an early communist leader executed in 1927) to K. C. Wu (later mayor of Shanghai and governor of Taiwan under the Nationalist party).[18] Zhou's talents also attracted the attention of Yan Xiu and Zhang Boling. Yan in particular thought highly of Zhou, helping to pay for his studies in Japan and later France.[19]
Yan was so impressed with Zhou that he encouraged Zhou to marry his daughter, but Zhou declined. Zhou later expressed the reasons to his decision not to marry Yan's daughter to his classmate, Zhang Honghao. Zhou said that he declined the marriage because he feared that his financial prospects would not be promising, and that Yan would, as his father-in-law, later dominate his life.[20]
Zhou did well in his studies at Nankai; he excelled in Chinese, won several awards in the school speech club, and became editor of the school newspaper in his final year. Zhou was also very active in acting and producing dramas and plays at Nankai; many students who were not otherwise acquainted with him knew of him through his acting.[21] Nankai preserves a number of essays and articles written by Zhou at this time, and these reflect the discipline, training, and concern for country that Nankai's founders attempted to instill in their students. At the school's tenth commencement in June 1917, Zhou was one of five graduating students honored at the ceremony, and one of the two valedictorians.[22]
By the time that he graduated from Nankai, Zhang Boling's teachings of gong (public spirit) and neng (ability) had made a great impression on him. His participation in debates and stage performances contributed to his eloquence and skills of persuasion. Zhou left Nankai with a great desire to pursue public service, and to acquire the skills required to do so.[23]
Following many of his classmates, Zhou went to Japan in July 1917 for further studies. During his two years in Japan, Zhou spent most of his time in the East Asian Higher Preparatory School, a language school for Chinese students. Zhou's studies were supported by his uncles, and apparently Nankai founder Yan Xiu as well, but their funds were limited and during this period Japan suffered from severe inflation.[24] Zhou originally planned on winning one of the scholarships offered by the Chinese government; these scholarships, however, required Chinese students to pass entrance examinations in Japanese universities. Zhou took entrance examinations for at least two schools, but failed to gain admission.[25] Zhou's reported anxieties were compounded by the death of his uncle, Zhou Yikui, an inability to master Japanese, and an acute Japanese cultural chauvinism that discriminated against Chinese. By the time that Zhou returned to China in the spring of 1919, he had become deeply disenchanted with Japanese culture, rejecting the idea that the Japanese political model was relevant to China and disdaining the values of elitism and militarism that he observed.[26]
Zhou's diaries and letters from his time in Tokyo show a deep interest in politics and current events, in particular, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks' new policies. He began to read avidly Chen Duxiu's progressive and left-leaning magazine, New Youth.[27] He probably read some early Japanese works on Marx, and it has been claimed that he even attended Kawakami Hajime's lectures at Kyoto University. Kawakami was an important figure in the early history of Japanese Marxism, and his translations and articles influenced a generation of Chinese communists.[28] However, it now seems unlikely that Zhou met him or heard any of his lectures.[29] Zhou's diaries also show his concern over Chinese student strikes in Japan in May 1918, when the Chinese government failed to send the students' scholarships, but he apparently was not deeply involved in the protest. His active role in political movements began after his return to China.
Early political activities[link]
Zhou returned to Tianjin sometime in the spring of 1919. Historians disagree over Zhou's participation in the May Fourth Movement (May to June 1919). Zhou's "official" Chinese biography states that he was a leader of the Tianjin student protests in the May Fourth movement,[30] but many modern scholars believe that it is highly unlikely that Zhou participated at all, based on the total lack of direct evidence among the surviving records from the period.[30][31] On July 1919, however, Zhou became editor of the Tianjin Student Union Bulletin, apparently at the request of his Nankai classmate, Ma Jun, a founder of the Union.[32] During its brief existence from July 1919 to early 1920, the Bulletin was widely read by student groups around the country and suppressed on at least one occasion by the national government as "harmful to public safety and social order."[33]
When Nankai became a university in August 1919, Zhou was in the first class, but he was an activist full time. His political activities continued to expand, and in September he and several other students agreed to establish the "Awakening Society", a small group never numbering more than 25.[34] In explaining the goals and purpose of the Awakening Society, Zhou declared that "anything that is incompatible with progress in current times, such as militarism, the bourgeoisie, partylords, bureaucrats, inequality between men and women, obstinate ideas, obsolete morals, old ethics... should be abolished or reformed", and affirmed that it was the purpose of the Society to spread this awareness among the Chinese people. It was in this society that Zhou first met his future wife, Deng Yingchao.[35] In some ways, the Awakening Society resembled the clandestine Marxist study group at Peking University headed by Li Dazhao, with the group members using numbers instead of names for "secrecy." (Zhou was "Number Five," a pseudonym which he continued to use in later years.)[36] Indeed, immediately after the group was established, it invited Li Dazhao to give a lecture on Marxism.
Zhou assumed more prominent active role in political activities over the next few months.[37] The largest of these activities were rallies in support of a nation-wide boycott of Japanese goods. As the boycott became more effective, the national government, under pressure from Japan, attempted to suppress it. On 23 January 1920, a confrontation over boycott activities in Tianjin led to the arrest of a number of people, including several Awakening Society members, and on 29 January Zhou led a march on the Governor's Office in Tianjin to present a petition calling for the arrestees' release. Zhou and three other leaders were themselves arrested. The arrestees were held for over six months; during their detention, Zhou supposedly organized discussions on Marxism.[38] At their trial in July, Zhou and six others were sentenced to two months; the rest were found not guilty. All were immediately released since they had already been held over six months.
After Zhou's release, he and the Awakening Society met with several Beijing organizations and agreed to form a "Reform Federation"; during these activities Zhou became more familiar with Li Dazhao and met Zhang Shenfu, who was the contact between Li in Beijing and Chen Duxiu in Shanghai. Both men were organizing underground Communist cells in cooperation with Grigori Voitinsky, a Comintern agent, but Zhou apparently did not meet Voitinsky at this point.
Soon after his release, Zhou decided to go to Europe to study. (He was expelled from Nankai University during his detention.) Although money was a problem, he received a scholarship from Yan Xiu.[39] In order to gain greater funding, he successfully approached a Tianjin newspaper, Yishi bao, for work as "special correspondent" in Europe. Zhou left Shanghai for Europe on 7 November 1920 with a group of 196 work study students, including friends from Nankai and Tianjin.[40]
Zhou's experiences after the May Fourth incident seem to have been crucial in his radicalization. Zhou's friends in the Awakening Society were similarly affected. 15 of the group's members became Communists for at least some time, and the group remained close later on. Zhou and six other group members wound up going to Europe in the next two years, and Zhou eventually married the group's youngest member, Deng Yingchao.
European activities[link]
Zhou's group arrived in Marseilles 13 December. Unlike most other Chinese students, who traveled to Europe on work-study programs, Zhou's scholarship and position with Yishi bao meant that he was well provided for and did not have to do any work during his stay. Because of his financial position, he was able to devote himself full-time to revolutionary activities.[40] In a letter to his cousin in January 30, 1921, Zhou said that his goals in Europe were to discover the social conditions in foreign countries and their methods of resolving social issues, for the purpose of later applying these lessons to China after his return. In the same letter he told his cousin that, regarding his adoption of a specific ideology, "I still have to make up my mind."[41]
While in Europe, Zhou studied the differing approaches to resolving class conflict adopted by various European nations. In London on January 1929, Zhou witnessed a large miners' strike and wrote a series of articles for the Yishi bao (generally sympathetic to the miners) examining the conflict between workers and employers, and the conflict's resolution. After five weeks in London he moved to Paris, where interest in Russia's 1917 October Revolution was high. In a letter to his cousin, Zhou identified two broad paths of reform for China: "gradual reform" (as in England) or "violent means" (as in Russia). Zhou wrote that "I do not have a preference for either the Russian or the British way... I would prefer something in-between, rather than one of these two extremes."[41]
Still interested in academic programs, Zhou traveled to Britain in January 1921 to visit Edinburgh University. Concerned by financial problems and language requirements, he did not enroll, returning to France at the end of January. There are no records of Zhou entering any academic program in France. In spring 1921, he joined a Chinese Communist cell.[42] Zhou was recruited by Zhang Shenfu, whom he had met in August of the previous year in connection with Li Dazhao. He also knew Zhang through Zhang's wife, Liu Qingyang, a member of the Awakening Society. Zhou has sometimes been portrayed at this time as uncertain in his politics,[43] but his swift move to Communism suggests otherwise.[44]
The cell Zhou belonged to was based in Paris; in addition to Zhou, Zhang, and Liu it included two other students, Zhao Shiyan and Chen Gongpei. Over the next several months, this group eventually formed a united organization with a group of Chinese radicals from Hunan, who were living in Montargis south of Paris. This group included such later prominent figures as Cai Hesen, Li Lisan, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Deng Xiaoping, and also Guo Longzhen, another member of the Awakening Society. Unlike Zhou, most of the students in this group were participants in the work-study program. A series of conflicts with the Chinese administrators of the program over low pay and poor working conditions resulted in over a hundred students occupying the program's offices at the Sino-French Institute in Lyon in September 1921. The students, including several people from the Montargis group, were arrested and deported. Zhou was apparently not one of the occupying students and remained in France until February or March 1922, when he moved with Zhang and Liu from Paris to Berlin. Zhou's move to Berlin was perhaps because the relatively "lenient" political atmosphere in Berlin made it more favorable as a base for overall European organizing.[45] In addition, the Western European Secretariat of the Comintern was located in Berlin and it is clear that Zhou had important Comintern connections, though the nature of these is disputed.[46] After moving operations to Germany, Zhou regularly shuttled between Paris and Berlin.
Zhou returned to Paris by June 1922, where he was one of the twenty two participants present at the organization of the Chinese Youth Communist Party, established as the European Branch of the Chinese Communist Party.[47] Zhou helped draft the party's charter and was elected to the three member executive committee as director of propaganda.[48] He also wrote for and helped edit the party magazine, Shaonian (Youth), later renamed Chiguang (Red Light). It was in Zhou's capacity as general editor of this magazine that Zhou first met Deng Xiaoping, only seventeen years old, who Zhou hired to operate a mimeograph (copy) machine.[49] The party went through several reorganizations and name changes, but Zhou remained a key member of the group throughout his stay in Europe. Other important activities Zhou undertook included recruiting and transporting students for the University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow, and the establishment of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT) European branch.
In June 1923, the Third Congress of the Chinese Communist Party accepted the Comintern's instructions to ally with the KMT, led at the time by Sun Yat-sen. These instructions called for CCP members to join the Nationalist Party as "individuals", while still retaining their association with the CCP. After joining the CCP, they would work to lead and direct it, transforming it into a vehicle of revolution. Within several years, this strategy would become the source of serious conflict between the KMT and the CCP.[50]
Zhou not only joined the KMT, but actually helped organize the founding of the Nationalist Party European branch in November 1923. Under Zhou's influence, most of the European branch's officers were in fact communists. Zhou's wide ranging contacts and personal relationships formed during this period were central to his career. Important party leaders, such as Zhu De and Nie Rongzhen, were first admitted to the party by Zhou.
By 1924, the Soviet-Nationalist alliance was expanding rapidly and Zhou was summoned back to China for further work. He left Europe probably in late July 1924,[51] returning to China as one of the most senior Chinese Communist Party members in Europe.
Political and military work in Whampoa[link]
Establishment in Guangzhou[link]
Zhou returned to China in late August or early September 1924 to join the Political Department of the Whampoa Military Academy, probably through the influence of Zhang Shenfu, who had previously worked there.[52] The exact positions Zhou held at Whampoa and the dates he held them are not clear. A few months after his arrival, possibly October 1924, he became deputy director of the Academy's Political Department, and later, possibly November 1924, director of the department.[53] Even though it was technically responsible to the central government, Zhou's political department operated under a direct mandate to indoctrinate Whampoa's cadets in the ideology of the KMT for the purpose of improving loyalty and morale. While he was serving in Whampoa, Zhou was also made the secretary of the Communist Party of Guandong-Guanxi, and served as the CCP representative with the rank of major-general.[54]
The island of Whampoa, ten miles downriver from Guangzhou, was at the heart of the Soviet-Nationalist Party alliance. Conceived as the training center of the Nationalist Party Army, it was to provide the military base from which the Nationalists would launch their campaign to unify China, which was split into dozens of military satrapies. From its beginning, the school was funded, armed, and partly staffed by the Soviets.[55]
The Political Department, where Zhou worked, was responsible for political indoctrination and control. As a result, Zhou was a prominent figure at most Academy meetings, often addressing the school immediately after commandant Chiang Kai-shek. He was extremely influential in establishing the political department/party representative (commissar) system which was adopted in Nationalist armed forces in 1925.[56]
Concurrent with his Whampoa appointment, Zhou became secretary of the Communist Party's Guangdong Provincial Committee, and at some point a member of the Provincial Committee's Military Section.[57] Zhou vigorously extended Communist influence at the Academy. He soon arranged for a number of other prominent Communists to join the Political Department, including Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Yun Daiying, and Xiong Xiong.[58] Zhou played an important role in establishing the Young Soldiers Association, a youth group which was dominated by the Communists, and Sparks, a short-lived Communist front group. He thus recruited numerous new Communist party members from cadet ranks, and eventually set up a covert Communist Party branch at the academy to direct the new members.[59] When Nationalists concerned with the increasing number of Communist members and organizations at Whampoa set up a "Society for Sun Yatsenism," Zhou attempted to squelch it; the conflict between these student groups set the background for Zhou's removal from the academy.[60]
Military activities[link]
Zhou participated in two military operations conducted by the Nationalist regime in 1925, later known as the first and second Eastern Expeditions. The first was in January 1925 when Chen Jiongming, an important Cantonese military leader previously driven out of Guangzhou by Sun Yat-sen, attempted to retake Guangzhou. The Nationalist regime's campaign against Chen consisted of forces from the Guangdong Army under Xu Chongzhi, and two training regiments of the Nationalist Party Army, led by Chiang Kai-shek and staffed by Academy officers and cadets.[61] The fighting lasted through May 1925, with the defeat, but not destruction, of Chen's forces.[62] Zhou accompanied the Whampoa cadets on the expedition as a political officer.
When Chen regrouped and attacked Guangzhou again in September 1925, the Nationalists launched a second expedition. Nationalist forces by this time had been reorganized into five corps (or armies), and adopted the commissar system with Political Departments and Nationalist party representatives in most divisions. The First Corps, made up of the Nationalist Party Army, was led by Whampoa graduates and commanded by Chiang Kai-shek, who personally appointed Zhou director of the First Corps Political Department.[63] Soon after, the Nationalist Party's Central Executive Committee appointed Zhou Nationalist Party party representative, making Zhou chief commissar of the First Corps.[64] The first major battle of expedition saw the capture of Chen's base in Huizhou on 15 October. Shantou was taken on 6 November, and by the end of 1925, the Nationalists controlled all of Guangdong province.
Zhou's appointment as chief commissar of the First Corps allowed him to appoint Communists as commissars in four of the Corps' five divisions.[65] Following the conclusion of the Expedition, Zhou was appointed special commissioner for the East River District, which placed him in temporary administrative control of several counties; he apparently used this opportunity to establish a Communist party branch in Shantou and strengthen the CPC's control of local unions.[66] This marked the high point of Zhou's time at Whampoa.
Political activities[link]
In personal terms, 1925 was also an important year for Zhou. Zhou had kept in touch with Deng Yingchao, who he had met in the Awakening Society while in Tianjin; and, in January 1925, Zhou asked for and received permission from CCP authorities to marry Deng. The two married in Guangzhou on August 8, 1925.[67]
Zhou's work at Whampoa came to an end with the Zhongshan Warship Incident of March 20, 1926, in which a gunboat with a mostly Communist crew moved from Whampoa to Guangzhou without Chiang's knowledge or approval. This event led to Chiang's exclusion of Communists from the Academy by May 1926, and the removal of numerous Communists from high positions in the Nationalist Party. In his memoirs, Nie Rongzhen suggested that the gunboat had moved in protest of Zhou Enlai's (brief) arrest.[59]
Zhou's time in Whampoa was a significant period in his career. His pioneering work as a political officer in the military made him an important Communist Party expert in this key area; much of his later career centered in the military. Zhou's work in the CCP Guangdong Regional Committee Military Section was typical of his covert activities in the period. The Section was a secret group consisting of three members of the Provincial Central Committee, and was first responsible for organizing and directing CCP nuclei in the army itself. These nuclei, organized at the regimental level and above, were "illegal," meaning they were formed without Nationalist knowledge or authorization. The Section was also responsible for organizing similar nuclei in other armed groups, including secret societies and key services such as railroads and waterways. Zhou did extensive work in these areas until the final separation of the Nationalist and Communist parties and the end of the Soviet-Nationalist alliance in 1927.[68]
The Nationalist-Communist split[link]
Extent of cooperation[link]
Zhou's activities immediately after his removal from his positions at Whampoa are uncertain. An earlier biographer claims that Chiang Kai-shek put Zhou in charge of "an advanced training center for the CCP members and commissars withdrawn from the army."[69] More recent Chinese Communist sources claim that Zhou had an important role at this time in securing Communist control of Ye Ting's Independent Regiment. The regiment and Ye Ting later played a leading role in the Communist's first major military action, the Nanchang Revolt.[59]
In July 1926, the Nationalists began the Northern Expedition, a massive military attempt to unify China. The Expedition was led by Chiang Kai-shek and the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), an amalgam of earlier military forces with significant guidance from Russian military advisors and numerous Communists as both commanding and political officers. With the early successes of the Expedition, there was soon a race between Chiang Kai-shek leading the "right-wing" of the Nationalist Party and the Communists, running inside the "left-wing" of the Nationalists, for control of major southern cities such as Nanjing and Shanghai. At this point the Chinese portion of Shanghai was controlled by Sun Chuanfang, one of the militarists targeted by the North Expedition. Distracted by fighting with the NRA and defections from his army, Sun reduced his forces in Shanghai, and the Communists, whose party headquarters was located in Shanghai, made three attempts to seize control of the city, later called "the three Shanghai Uprisings", in October 1926, February 1927, and March 1927.
Activities in Shanghai[link]
Zhou was transferred to Shanghai to assist in these activities, probably in late 1926. It seems he was not present for the first uprising on 23–24 Oct,[70] but he was certainly in Shanghai by December 1926. Early accounts credit Zhou with labor organizing activities in Shanghai after his arrival, or, more credibly, working to "strengthen the indoctrination of political workers in labor unions and smuggle arms for the strikers."[71] Reports that Zhou "organized" or "ordered" the second and third uprisings on 20 February and 21 March exaggerate his role. Major decisions during this period were made by the Communist head in Shanghai, Chen Duxiu, the Party's general secretary, with a special committee of eight party officials coordinating Communist actions. The committee also consulted closely on decisions with the Comintern representatives in Shanghai, headed by Grigori Voitinsky.[72] The partial documentation available for this period shows that Zhou headed the Communist Party Central Committee's Military Commission in Shanghai.[73] He participated in both the February and March actions, but was not the guiding hand in either event, instead working with A. P. Appen, the Soviet military advisor to the Central Committee, training the pickets of the General Labor Union, the Communist controlled labor organization in Shanghai. He also worked to make union strong arm squads more effective when the Communists declared a "Red Terror" after the failed February uprising; this action resulted in the murder of twenty "anti-union" figures, and the kidnapping, beating, and intimidation of others associated with anti-union activities.[74]
The third Communist uprising in Shanghai took place from March 20–21. 600,000 rioting workers cut power and telephone lines and seized the city's post office, police headquarters, and railway stations, often after heavy fighting. During this uprising, the insurrectionists were under strict orders not to harm foreigners, which they obeyed. The forces of Sun Chuanfang withdrew and uprising was successful, despite the small number of armed forces available. The first Nationalist troops entered the city the next day.[75]
As the Communists attempted to install a soviet municipal government, conflict began between the Nationalists and Communists, and on 12 April Nationalist forces, including both members of the Green Gang and soldiers under the command of Nationalist general Bai Chongxi attacked the Communists and quickly overcame them. On the eve of the Nationalist attack, Wang Shouhua, who was both the head of the CCP Labour Committee and the Chairman of the General Labour Committee, accepted a dinner invitation from "Big-eared Du" (a Shanghai gangster) and was strangled after he arrived. Zhou himself was nearly killed in a similar trap, when he was arrested after arriving at a dinner held at the headquarters of Si Lie, a Nationalist commander of Chiang's Twenty-sixth Army. Despite rumors that Chiang had put a high price on Zhou's head, he was quickly released by Bai Chongxi's forces. The reasons for Zhou's sudden release may have been that Zhou was then the most senior Communist in Shanghai, that Chiang's efforts to exterminate the Shanghai Communists were highly secretive at the time, and that his execution would have been noticed as a violation of the cooperation agreement between the CCP and the KMT (which was technically still in effect). Zhou was finally only released after the intervention of a representative of the Twenty-sixth Army, Zhao Shu, who was able to convince his commanders that the arrest of Zhou had been a mistake.[76]
Flight from Shanghai[link]
Fleeing Shanghai, Zhou made his way to Hankou (now part of Wuhan), and was a participant at the CCP's 5th National Congress there from 27 April to 9 May. At the end of the Congress, Zhou was elected to the Party's Central Committee, again heading the military department.[77] After Chiang Kai-shek's suppression of the Communists, the Nationalist Party split in two, with the Nationalist Party's "left-wing" (led by Wang Jingwei) controlling the government in Hankou, and Chiang and the party "right-wing" (led by Chiang Kai-shek) establishing a rival government in Nanjing. Still following Comintern instructions, the Communists remained as a "bloc inside" the Nationalist Party, hoping to continue expanding their influence through the Nationalists.[78] After being attacked by a warlord friendly to Chiang, Wang's leftist government disintegrated later in May 1927, and Chiang's troops began an organized purge of Communists in territories formerly controlled by Wang.[79] In mid-July Zhou was forced to go underground.[78]
Pressured by their Comintern advisors, and themselves convinced that the "revolutionary high tide" had arrived, the Communists decided to launch a series of military revolts.[80] The first of these was the Nanchang Revolt. Zhou was sent to oversee the event, but the moving figures seem to have been Tan Pingshan and Li Lisan, while the main military figures were Ye Ting and He Long. In military terms, the revolt was a disaster, with the Communists' forces decimated and scattered.[81]
Zhou himself contracted malaria during the campaign, and was secretly sent to Hong Kong for medical treatment by Nie Rongzhen and Ye Ting. After reaching Hong Kong, Zhou was disguised as a businessman named "Li", and entrusted to the care of local Communists. In a subsequent meeting of the CCP Central Committee, Zhou was blamed for the failure of the Nanchang campaign and temporarily demoted to being an alternate member of the Politburo.[82]
Activities during the Chinese Civil War[link]
The Sixth Party Congress[link]
After the failure of the Nanchang Uprising, Zhou left China for the Soviet Union to attend the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) Sixth National Party Congress in Moscow, in June–July 1928.[83] The Sixth Congress had to be held in Moscow because conditions in China were considered dangerous. KMT control was so tight that many Chinese delegates attending the Sixth Congress were forced to travel in disguise: Zhou himself was disguised as an antiquarian.[84]
At the Sixth Congress, Zhou delivered a long speech insisting that conditions in China were not favorable for immediate revolution, and that the main task of the CCP should be to develop revolutionary momentum by winning over the support of the masses in the countryside and establishing a Soviet regime in southern China, similar to the one that Mao Zedong and Zhu De were already establishing around Jiangxi. The Congress generally accepted Zhou's assessment as accurate. Although Xiang Zhongfa was made secretary general of the Party, but was soon found incapable of fulfilling his role, so Zhou emerged as the de facto leader of the CCP. Zhou was only thirty years old.[84]
During the Sixth Congress, Zhou was elected Director of the Central Committee Organization Department. His ally, Li Lisan, took over propaganda work. Zhou finally returned to China, after more than a year abroad, in 1929. At the Sixth Congress in Moscow, Zhou had given figures indicating that, by 1928, fewer than 32,000 union members remained who were loyal to the Communists, and that only ten percent of Party members were proletarians. By 1929, only three percent of the Party were proletarians.[85]
In early 1930, Zhou began to disagree with the timing of Li Lisan's strategy of favoring rich peasants and concentrating military forces for attacks on urban centers. Zhou did not openly break with these more orthodox notions, and even tried to implement them later, in 1931, in Jiangxi.[86] When the Soviet agent Pavel Mif arrived in Shanghai to lead the Comintern in China in December 1930, Mif criticized Li's strategy as "left adventurism", and criticized Zhou for compromising with Li. Zhou "acknowledged" his mistakes in compromising with Li in January 1931 and offered to resign from the Politburo, but was retained while other senior CCP leaders, including Li Lisan and Qu Qiubai, were removed. Like Mao later recognized, Mif understood that Zhou's services as Party leader were indispensable, and that Zhou would willingly cooperate with whoever was holding power.[87]
Underground work: establishment[link]
After arriving back in Shanghai in 1929, Zhou began to work underground, establishing and overseeing a network of independent Communist cells. Zhou's greatest danger in his underground work was the threat of being discovered by the KMT secret police, which had been established in 1928 with the specific mission of identifying and eliminating Communists. In order to avoid detection, Zhou and his wife changed residences at least once a month, and used a variety of aliases. Zhou often disguised himself as a businessman, sometimes wearing a beard. Zhou was careful that only two or three people ever knew his whereabouts. Zhou disguised all urban Party offices, made sure that CCP offices never shared the same buildings when in the same city, and required all Party members to use passwords to identify one another. Zhou restricted all of his meetings to either before 7AM or after 7PM. Zhou never used public transportation, and avoided being seen in public places.[88]
In November 1928, the CCP also established its own intelligence agency (the "Special Service section of the Central Committee", or "Zhongyang Teke" (Chinese:中央特科), often abbreviated as "Teke"), which Zhou subsequently came to control. Zhou's chief lieutenants were Gu Shunzhang, who had strong ties to Chinese secret societies and became an alternate member of the Politburo, and Xiang Zhongfa. Teke had four operational sections: one for the protection and safety of Party members; one for intelligence gathering; one for facilitating internal communications; and, one to conduct assassinations, a team that became known as the "Red Squad" （红队）.[89]
Zhou's main concern in running Teke was to establish an effective anti-espionage network within the KMT secret police. Within a short amount of time the head of Teke's intelligence section, Chen Geng, succeeded in planting a large network of moles inside the Investigation Section of the Central Operations Department in Nanjing, which was the center of KMT intelligence. The three most successful agents used by Zhou to infiltrate the KMT secret police were Qian Zhuangfei, Li Kenong, and Hu Di, who Zhou referred to as "the three most distinguished intelligence workers of the Party" in the 1930s. Agents planted within various KMT offices were later critical in the survival of the CCP, helping the Party escape Chiang's Encirclement Campaigns[90]
KMT response to Zhou's intelligence work[link]
In late April 1931 Zhou's chief aide in security affairs, Gu Shunzhang, was arrested by the KMT in Wuhan. Gu was a former labour organizer with strong mafia connections and weak commitments to the CCP. Under threat of heavy torture, Gu gave the KMT secret police detailed accounts of underground CCP organizations in Wuhan, leading to the arrest and executions of over ten senior CCP leaders in the city. Gu offered to provide the KMT with details of CCP activities in Shanghai, but only if he could give the information directly to Chiang Kai-shek.[91]
One of Zhou's agents working in Nanjing, Qian Zhuangfei, intercepted a telegram requesting further instructions from Nanjing on how to proceed, and abandoned his cover to personally warn Zhou of the impending crackdown. The two days before Gu arrived in Nanjing to meet with Chiang gave Zhou time to evacuate Party members and to change the communication codes used by Teke, all of which were known to Gu. After meeting briefly with Chiang in Nanjing, Gu arrived in Shanghai and assisted the KMT secret police in raiding CCP offices and residences, capturing members who could not be evacuated in time. The summary executions of those suspected of Communist sympathies resulted in the largest death-toll since the Shanghai massacre of 1927.[92]
Zhou's reaction to Gu's betrayal was extreme. More than fifteen members of Gu's family, some of which worked for Teke, were murdered by the Red Squad and buried in quiet residential areas of Shanghai. The Red Squad then assassinated Wang Bing, a leading member of the KMT secret police who was known for moving around Shanghai in rickshaws, without the protection of bodyguards. Most surviving CCP members were relocated to the Communist base in Jiangxi. Because most senior staff had become exposed by Gu, most of its best agents were also relocated. Zhou's most senior aide not yet under suspicion, Pan Hannian, became Teke's director.[93]
The night before he was scheduled to leave Shanghai in June 1931, Xiang Zhongfa, who was one of Zhou's most senior agents, decided to spend the night in a hotel with his mistress, ignoring Zhou's warnings about the danger. In the morning, a KMT informant who had been trailing Xiang spotted him as he was leaving the hotel. Xiang was immediately arrested and imprisoned within the French Concession. Zhou attempted to prevent Xiang's expected extradition to KMT-controlled China by having his agents bribe the chief of police in the French Concession, but the KMT authorities appealed directly to the authorities of the French Concession, ensuring that the chief of police could not intervene. Zhou's hopes that Xiang would be transferred to Nanjing, giving him an opportunity to kidnap Xiang, also came to naught. The French agreed to transfer Xiang to the Shanghai Garrison Headquarters, under the command of General Xiong Shihui, who subjected Xiang to relentless torture and interrogation. Once he became convinced that Xiang had given his torturers all the information that they requested, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Xiang to be executed.[94]
Zhou Enlai later succeeded in secretly purchasing a copy of Xiang's interrogation records. The records showed that Xiang had disclosed everything to the KMT authorities before his execution, including the location of Zhou's residence. Another round of arrests and executions followed Xiang's capture, but Zhou and his wife were able to escape capture because they had abandoned their apartment on the morning of Xiang's arrest. After establishing a new Politburo Standing Committee in Shanghai, Zhou and his wife relocated to the Communist base in Jiangxi near the end of 1931.[94] By the time Zhou left Shanghai, he was one of the most wanted men in China.[95]
The Jiangxi Soviet[link]
Main article: Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet
Following the failed Nanchang and Autumn Harvest Uprisings of 1927, the Communists began to focus on establishing a series of rural bases of operation in southern China. Even before moving to Jiangxi, Zhou had become involved in the politics of these bases. Mao, claiming the need to eliminate counterrevolutionaries and Anti-Bolsheviks operating within the CCP, began an ideological purge of the populace inside the Jiangxi Soviet. Zhou, perhaps due to his own success planting moles within various levels of the KMT, agreed that an organized campaign to uncover subversion was justified, and supported the campaign as de facto leader of the CCP.[96]
Mao's efforts soon developed into a ruthless campaign driven by paranoia and aimed not only at KMT spies, but at anyone with an ideological outlook different from Mao's. Suspects were commonly tortured until they confessed to their crimes and accused others of crimes, and wives and relatives who inquired of those being tortured were themselves arrested and tortured even more severely. Mao's attempts to purge the Red Army of those who might potentially oppose him led Mao to accuse [[Chen Yi (communist) Chen Yi]], the commander and political commissar of the Jiangxi Military Region, as a counterrevolutionary, provoking a violent reaction against Mao's persecutions that became known as the "Futian Incident" in January 1931. Mao was eventually successful in subduing the Red Army, reducing its numbers from forty thousand to less than ten thousand. The campaign continued throughout 1930 and 1931. Historians estimate the total number who died due to Mao's persecution in all base areas to be approximately one hundred thousand.[97]
The entire campaign occurred while Zhou was still in Shanghai. Although he had supported the elimination of counterrevolutionaries, Zhou actively suppressed the campaign when he arrived in Jiangxi in December 1931, criticizing the "excess, the panic, and the oversimplification" practiced by local officials. After investigating those accused of Anti-Bolshevism, and those persecuting them, Zhou submitted a report criticizing the campaign for focusing on the narrow persecution of anti-Maoists as anti-Bolshevists, exaggerating the threat to the Party, and condemning the use of torture as an investigative technique. Zhou's resolution was passed and adopted on January 7, 1932, and the campaign gradually subsided.[98]
Zhou moved to the Jiangxi base area and shook up the propaganda-oriented approach to revolution by demanding that the armed forces under Communist control actually be used to expand the base, rather than just to control and defend it. In December 1931, Zhou replaced Mao Zedong as Secretary of the First Front Army with Xiang Ying, and made himself political commissar of the Red Army, in place of Mao. Liu Bocheng, Lin Biao and Peng Dehuai all criticized Mao's tactics at the October 1932 Ningdu Conference.[99][100]
After moving to Jiangxi, Zhou met Mao for the first time since 1927, and began his long relationship with Mao as Mao's superior. In the Ningdu conference, Mao was demoted to being a figurehead in the Soviet government. Zhou, who had come to appreciate Mao's strategies after the series of military failures waged by other Party leaders since 1927, defended Mao, but was unsuccessful. After achieving power Mao later purged or demoted those who had opposed him in 1932, but remembered Zhou's defense of his policies.[101]
Chiang's Encirclement Campaigns[link]
Main article: Encirclement Campaigns
In early 1933, Bo Gu arrived with the German Comintern adviser Otto Braun (Li De) and took control of party affairs. Zhou at this time, apparently with strong support from Party and military colleagues, reorganized and standardized the Red Army. Under Zhou, Bo, and Braun, the Red Army defeated four attacks by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist troops.[102] The military structure that led the Communists to victory was:
-
Leaders Unit Designation Lin Biao, Nie Rongzhen 1st Corps Peng Dehuai, Yang Shangkun 3rd Corps Xiao Jinguang 7th Corps Xiao Ke 8th Corps Luo Binghui 9th Corps Fang Zhimin 10th Corps
Chiang's fifth campaign, launched in September 1933, was much more difficult to contain. Chiang's new use of "blockhouse tactics" and larger numbers of troops allowed his army to advance steadily into Communist territory, and they succeeded in seizing several major Communist strongholds. Bo Gu and Otto Braun (Li De) adopted orthodox tactics to respond to Chiang, and Zhou, although personally opposed to them, directed these. Following their subsequent defeat, he and other military leaders were blamed.[103]
Although Zhou's subsequently cautious military approach was distrusted by hardliners, he was again appointed to the position of vice chairman of the Military Commission. Zhou was accepted as leader largely because of his organizational talent and devotion to work, and because he had never shown any overt ambition to pursue supreme power within the Party. Within months, the continuing orthodox tactics of Bo and Braun led to a serious defeat for the Red Army, and forced the leaders of the CCP to seriously consider abandoning their bases in Jiangxi.[104]
The Long March[link]
Main article: Long March
After the decision to abandon Jiangxi was announced, Zhou was placed in charge of organizing and supervising the logistics of the Communist withdrawal. Making his plans in absolute secrecy and informing even senior leaders when and were they were to leave only at the last moment, Zhou's objective was to break through the enemy encirclement with as few casualties as possible, and before Chiang's forces were able to completely occupy all Communist bases. It is not known what criteria were used to determine who would stay and who would go, but 16,000 troops and some of the Communists' most notable commanders at the time (including Xiang Ying, Chen Yi, Tan Zhenlin, and Qu Qiubai) were left to form a rear guard to divert the main force of Nationalist troops from noticing the Communists' general withdrawal.[105]
The withdrawal of 84,000 soldiers and civilians began in early October, 1934. Zhou's intelligence agents were successful in identifying a large section of Chiang's blockhouse lines that were manned by troops under General Chen Jitang, a Guangdong warlord who Zhou identified as being likely to prefer preserving the strength of his troops over fighting. Zhou sent Pan Hannian to negotiate for safe passage with General Chen, who subsequently allowed the Red Army to pass through the territory that he controlled without fighting.[106]
After passing through three of the four blockhouse fortifications needed to escape Chiang's encirclement, the Red Army was finally intercepted by regular Nationalist troops, and suffered heavy casualties. Of the 86,000 Communists who attempted to break out of Jiangxi, only 36,000 successfully escaped. This loss demoralized some Communist leaders (particularly Bo Gu and Otto Braun), but Zhou remained calm and retained his command.[106]
During the Communists' subsequent Long March, there were numerous high-level disputes over the direction that the Communists should take, and on the causes of the Red Army's defeats. During the power struggles that ensued, Zhou consistently backed Mao Zedong against the interests of Bo Gu and Otto Braun. Bo and Braun were later blamed for the Red Army's defeats, and were eventually removed from their positions of leadership.[107] The Communists eventually succeeded in re-establishing a base in northern Shaanxi on October 20, 1935, arriving with only 8,000-9,000 remaining members.[108]
Zhou's position within the CCP changed numerous times throughout the Long March. By the early 1930s, Zhou was recognized as the de facto leader of the CCP, and exercised superior influence over other members of the CCP even when sharing power with Bo and Braun.[109] In the months following the January 1935 Zunyi Conference, in which Bo and Braun were removed from senior positions, Zhou mostly retained his position because he displayed a willingness to display responsibility, because his tactics in defeating Chiang's Fourth Encirclement Campaign were recognized as being successful, and because he supported Mao Zedong, who was gaining influence inside the Party: after the Zunyi Conference, Mao became Zhou's assistant.[110] After the Communists reached Shaanxi and completed the Long March, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in the CCP, while Zhou took a secondary position as vice-Chairman. Mao and Zhou would retain their positions within the CCP until their deaths in 1976.[111]
The Xi'an Incident[link]
Main article: Xi'an Incident
During the seventh congress of the Comintern, held in August 1936, Wang Ming issued an anti-Fascist manifesto, indicating that the CCP's previous policy of "opposing Chiang Kai-shek and resisting Japan" was to be replaced by a policy of "uniting with Chiang Kai-shek to resist Japan". Zhou was instrumental in carrying out this policy. Zhou made contact with one of the most senior KMT commanders in the northwest, Zhang Xueliang. By 1935 Zhang was well known for his anti-Japanese sentiments and his doubts about Chiang's willingness to oppose the Japanese. Zhang's disposition made him easily influenced by Zhou's indications that the CCP would cooperate to fight against the Japanese.[112]
Zhou established a "northeast working committee" for the purpose of promoting cooperation with Zhang. The committee worked to persuade Zhang's Northeast Army to unite with the Red Army to fight Japan and retake Manchuria. The committee also created new patriotic slogans, including "Chinese must not fight Chinese", to promote Zhou's goals. Using his network of secret contacts, Zhou arranged a meeting with Zhang in Yan'an, then controlled by Zhang's "Northeast Army".[113]
The first meeting between Zhou and Zhang occurred inside a church on April 7, 1936. Zhang showed a great interest in ending the civil war, uniting the country, and fighting the Japanese, but warned that Chiang was firmly in control of the national government, and that these goals would be difficult to pursue without Chiang's cooperation. Both parties ended their meeting with an agreement to find a way to secretly work together. At the same time that Zhou was establishing secret contacts with Zhang, Chiang was growing suspicious of Zhang, and became increasingly dissatisfied with Zhang's inaction against the Communists. In order to deceive Chiang, Zhou and Zhang deployed mock military units in order to give the impression that the Northeast Army and the Red Army were engaged in battle.[113]
In December 1936, Chang Kai-shek flew to the Nationalist headquarters in Xi'an in order to test the loyalty of local KMT military forces under Marshal Zhang Xueliang, and to personally lead these forces in a final attack on Communist bases in Shaanxi, which Zhang had been ordered to destroy. Determined to force Chiang to direct China's forces against the Japanese (who had taken Zhang's territory of Manchuria and were preparing a broader invasion), on December 12 Zhang and his followers stormed Chiang's headquarters, killed most of his bodyguards, and seized the Generalissimo in what became known as the Xi'an Incident.[114]
Reactions to Chiang's kidnapping in Yan'an were mixed. Some, including Mao Zedong and Zhu De, viewed it as an opportunity to have Chiang killed. Others, including Zhou Enlai and Zhang Wentian, saw it as an opportunity to achieve a united-front policy against the Japanese, which would strengthen the overall position of the CCP.[115] Debate within Yan'an ended when a long telegram from Joseph Stalin arrived, urging the CCP to work towards Chiang's release, explaining that a united-front was the best position from which to resist the Japanese, and that only Chiang had the prestige and authority to carry out such a plan.[116]
After initial communications with Zhang on the fate of Chiang, Zhou Enlai reached Xi'an on December 16, on a plane specifically sent for him by Zhang Xueliang, as the chief Communist negotiator. From then until Christmas Day, 1936, Zhou attempted to negotiate with Chiang and Zhang, proposing a national united-front government with Chiang as leader, a demarcation line between KMT and CPP territories, a national conference including a CCP delegation, and a series of future negotiations in Nanjing.[117] Through days of intense negotiation, exercising extreme caution and courtesy, Zhou was largely successful in reconciling their positions.[115]
On December 20, T.V. Soong arrived in Xi'an, and Soong Meiling arrived two days later, in order to negotiate Chiang's release. At first, Chiang was opposed to negotiating with a CCP delegate, but withdrew his opposition when it became clear that his life and freedom were largely dependent on Communist goodwill towards him. On December 24, Chiang received Zhou for a meeting, the first time that the two had seen each other since Zhou had left Whampoa over ten years earlier. Zhou began the conversation by saying: "In the ten years since we have met, you seem to have aged very little." Chiang nodded and said: "Enlai, you were my subordinate. You should do what I say." Zhou replied that, if Chiang would halt the civil war and resist the Japanese instead, the Red Army would willingly accept Chiang's command. By the end of this meeting, Chiang promised to end the civil war, to resist the Japanese together, and to invite Zhou to Nanjing for further talks.[115]
On December 25, 1936, Zhang released Chiang and accompanied him to Nanjing. Subsequently, Zhang was court-martialed and sentenced to house arrest, and most of the officers who participated in the Xi'an Incident were executed. Although the KMT formally rejected collaboration with the CCP, Chiang ended active military activity against Communist bases in Yan'nan, implying that he had implicitly given his word to change the direction of his policies. Following the end of KMT attacks, the CCP was able to consolidate its territories and to prepare to resist the Japanese.[117]
After news arrived that Zhang had been betrayed and arrested by Chiang, Zhang's old officer corps became very agitated, and some of them murdered a Nationalist general, Wang Yizhe, who was seen as largely responsible for the military's lack of response. While Zhou was still in Xi'an, he himself was surrounded in his office by a number of Zhang's officers, who accused the Communists of instigating the Xi'an Incident and of betraying Zhang by convincing the general to travel to Nanjing. At gunpoint, they threatened to kill Zhou. Zhou maintained his composure and eloquently defended his position. In the end, Zhou succeeded in calming the officers, and they departed, leaving him unharmed. In a series of negotiations with the KMT that lasted until June 1937 (when the Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred), Zhou attempted to gain Zhang's release, but failed.[118]
Activities during World War II[link]
Propaganda and intelligence in Wuhan[link]
When the capital of Nanjing fell to the Japanese on December 13, 1937, Zhou accompanied the Nationalist government to its temporary capital of Wuhan. As the chief representative of the CCP in the nominal KMT-CCP cooperation agreement, Zhou established and headed the official KMT-CCP liaison office. While running the liaison office, Zhou established the Yangtze Bureau of the Central Committee. Under cover of its association with the Eighth Route Army, Zhou used the Yangtze Bureau to conduct clandestine operations within southern China, secretly recruiting Communist operatives and establishing Party structures throughout KMT-controlled areas.[119]
In August 1937, the CCP secretly issued orders to Zhou that his united front work was to focus on Communist infiltration and organization at all levels of the government and society. Zhou agreed to these orders, and applied his considerable organizational talents to completing them. Shortly after Zhou's arrival in Wuhan, he convinced the Nationalist government to approve and fund a Communist newspaper, Xinhua ribao ("New China Daily"), justifying it as a tool to spread anti-Japanese propaganda. This newspaper became a major tool for spreading Communist propaganda, and the Nationalists later viewed its approval and funding as one of their "biggest mistakes".[120]
Zhou was successful in organizing large numbers of Chinese intellectuals and artists to promote resistance against the Japanese. The largest propaganda event that Zhou staged was a week-long celebration in 1938, following the successful defense of Tai'erzhuang. In this event, between 400,000-500,000 people took part in parades, and a chorus of over 10,000 people sung songs of resistance. Fundraising efforts during the week raised over a million yuan. Zhou himself donated 240 yuan, his monthly salary as deputy director of the Political Department.[120]
While he was working in Wuhan, Zhou was the CCP's main contact person with the outside world, and worked hard to reverse the public perception of the Communists as a "bandit organization". Zhou established and maintained contacts with over forty foreign journalists and writers, including Edgar Snow, Agnes Smedley, Anna Louise Strong, and Rewi Alley, many of whom became sympathetic to the Communist cause and wrote about their sympathies in foreign publications. In sympathy with his efforts to promote the CCP to the outside world, Zhou arranged for a Canadian medical team, headed by Norman Bethune, to travel to Yan'an, and assisted the Dutch film director Rodney Evans in producing a documentary, 400 Million People.[121]
Zhou was unsuccessful in averting the public defection of Zhang Guotao, one of the founders of the CCP, to the KMT. Zhang was prepared to defect due to a disagreement with Mao Zedong over the implementation of the united front policy, and because he resented Mao's authoritarian leadership style. Zhou, with the aid of Wang Ming, Bo Gu, and Li Kenong, intercepted Zhang after he arrived in Wuhan, and engaged in extensive negotiations through April 1938, in order to convince Zhang not to defect, but these negotiations were unsuccessful. In the end, Zhang refused to compromise and placed himself under the protection of KMT secret police. On April 18, the CCP Central Committee expelled Zhang from the Party, and Zhang himself issued a statement accusing the CCP of sabotaging efforts to resist the Japanese. The entire episode was a serious setback for Zhou's attempts to improve the prestige of the Party.[122]
Military strategy in Wuhan[link]
In January 1938, the Nationalist government appointed Zhou as the deputy director to the Political Department of the Military Committee, working directly under General Cheng Cheng. As a senior Communist statesman holding the rank of lieutenant-general, Zhou was the only Communist to hold a high-level position within the Nationalist government. Zhou used his influence within the Military Committee to promote Nationalist generals that he believed were capable, and to promote cooperation with the Red Army.[119]
In the Tai'erzhuang campaign, Zhou used his influence to ensure that the most capable Nationalist general available, Li Zongren be appointed overall commander, despite Chiang's reservations about Li's loyalty. When Chiang was hesitant to commit troops to the defense of Tai'erzhuang, Zhou convinced Chiang to do so by promising that the Communist Eighth Route Army would simultaneously attack the Japanese from the north, and that the New Fourth Army would sabotage the Tianjin-Pukou railroad, cutting off Japanese supplies. In the end, the defense of Tai'erzhuang was a major victory for the Nationalists, killing 20,000 Japanese soldiers and capturing a large amount of supplies and equipment.[119]
Adoption of orphans[link]
While serving as the CCP ambassador to the KMT, the childless Zhou met and befriended numerous orphans. While in Wuhan Zhou adopted a young girl, Sun Weishi, in 1937. Sun's mother had taken her to Wuhan after Sun's father was executed by the KMT in 1927, during the White Terror. Zhou came upon the sixteen-year-old Sun crying outside of the Eighth Route Army Liaison Office because she had been refused permission to travel to Yan'an, due to her youth and lack of political connections. After Zhou befriended and adopted her as his daughter, Sun was able to travel to Yan'an. She pursued a career in acting and direction, and later became the first female director of spoken drama (huaju) in the PRC.[123]
Zhou also adopted Sun's brother, Sun Yang.[124] After accompanying Zhou to Yan'an, Sun Yang became Zhu De's personal assistant. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Sun Yang became the president of Renmin University.[123]
In 1938 Zhou met and befriended another orphan, Li Peng. Li was only three when, in 1931, his father was also killed by the Kuomintang. Zhou subsequently looked after him in Yan'an. After the war, Zhou systematically groomed Li for leadership and sent him to be educated in energy-related engineering in Moscow. Zhou's placement of Li within the powerful energy bureaucracy shielded Li from Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution, and Li's eventual rise to the level of Premier surprised no one.[125]
Flight to Chongqing[link]
When the Japanese army approached Wuhan in the fall of 1938, the Nationalists abandoned the city without a fight and withdrew farther inland, to Chongqing. While he was en route to Chongqing, Zhou was nearly killed in the "fire of Changsha", which lasted for three days, destroyed two thirds of the city, killed twenty thousand civilians, and left hundreds of thousands of people homeless. This fire was deliberately caused by the retreating Nationalist army in order to prevent the city from falling to the Japanese. Due to an organizational error (it was claimed), the fire was begun without any warning to the residents of the city.[126]
After escaping from Changsha, Zhou took refuge in a Buddhist temple in a nearby village and organized the evacuation of the city. Zhou demanded that the causes of the fire be thoroughly investigated by authorities, that those responsible by punished, that reparations be given to the victims, that the city be thoroughly cleaned up, and that accommodations be provided for the homeless. In the end, the Nationalists blamed three local commanders for the fire and executed them. Newspapers across China blamed the fire on (non-KMT) arsonists, but the blaze contributed to a nation-wide loss of support for the KMT.[127]
Early activities in Chongqing[link]
Zhou Enlai reached Chongqing in December 1938, and resumed the official and unofficial operations that he had been conducting in Wuhan in January 1939. Zhou's activities included those required by his formal positions within the Nationalist government, his running of two pro-Communist newspapers, and his covert efforts to form reliable intelligence networks and increase the popularity and organization of CCP organizations in southern China. At its peak, the staff working under him in both official and covert roles totaled several hundred people.[128] After finding that his father, Zhou Shaogang, was unable to support himself, Zhou looked after his father in Chongqing until his father's death in 1942.[129]
Soon after arriving in Chongqing, Zhou successfully lobbied the Nationalist government to release Communist political prisoners. After their release, Zhou often assigned these former prisoners as agents to organize and lead Party organizations throughout southern China. The efforts of Zhou's covert activities were extremely successful, increasing CCP membership across southern China tenfold within months. Chiang was somewhat aware of these activities and introduced efforts to suppress them, but was generally unsuccessful.[130]
In July 1939, while in Yan'an to attend a series of Politburo meetings, Zhou had an accident horseback riding in which he fell and fractured his right elbow. Because there was little medical care available in Yan'an, Zhou traveled to Moscow for medical treatment, using the occasion to brief the Comintern on the status of the united front. Zhou arrived in Moscow too late to mend the fracture, and his right arm remained bent for the rest of his life. Joseph Stalin was so displeased with the CCP's refusal to work more closely with the Nationalists that he refused to see Zhou during his stay.[131] Zhou's adopted daughter, Sun Weishi, accompanied Zhou to Moscow. She remained in Moscow after Zhou left in order to study for a career in theatre.[123]
Intelligence work in Chongqing[link]
On May 4, 1939, the Politburo accepted Zhou's assessment that Zhou should focus his efforts on creating a network of secret CCP agents working covertly and for long periods. Communists were directed to join the KMT, if doing so would increase the ability of agents to infiltrate the KMT administrative, educational, economic, and military establishments. Under the cover of the Office of the Eighth Route Army (moved to a stately building on the outskirts of Chongqing), Zhou adopted a series of measures to expand the CCP intelligence network.[132]
By the time that Zhou returned to Chongqing in May 1940, a serious rift had formed between the KMT and the CCP. Over the course of the next year, the relationship between the two parties degenerated into arrests and executions of Party members, covert attempts by agents of both sides to eliminate each other, propaganda efforts attacking each other, and major military clashes. The united front was officially abolished after the Anhui Incident in January 1941, when 9,000 Communist soldiers of the New Fourth Army were ambushed, and their commanders either killed or imprisoned by government troops.[133]
Zhou responded to the rift between the KMT and CCP by directing Party leaders to conduct their operations more secretly. He maintained propaganda efforts via the newspapers that he directed and kept in close contact with foreign journalists and ambassadors. Zhou increased and improved CCP intelligence efforts within the KMT, Wang Jingwei's Nanjing government, and the Empire of Japan, recruiting, training, and organizing a large network of Communist spies. Yuan Baohang, a secret Party member active in Chongqing diplomatic circles, informed Zhou that Hitler was planning to attack the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Under Zhou's signature, this information reached Stalin on June 20, two days before Hitler attacked.[134]
Economic and diplomatic activities[link]
Despite worsening relations with Chiang Kai-shek, Zhou operated openly in Chongqing, befriending Chinese and foreign visitors and staging public cultural activities, especially Chinese theater. Zhou cultivated a close personal friendship with General Feng Yuxiang, making it possible for Zhou to circulate freely among the officers of the Nationalist Army. Zhou befriended the General He Jifeng, and convinced He to secretly become a member of the CCP during an official visit to Yan'an. Zhou's intelligence agents penetrated the Sichuanese army of General Deng Xihou, resulting in Deng's secret agreement to supply ammunition to the Communist New Fourth Army. Zhou convinced another Sichuanese general, Li Wenhui, to covertly install a radio transmitter that facilitated secret communication between Yan'an and Chongqing. Zhou befriended Zhang Chong and Nong Yun, commanders in the Yunnan armed forces, who became secret CCP members, agreed to cooperate with the CCP against Chiang Kai-shek, and established a clandestine radio station that broadcast Communist propaganda from the provincial government building in Kunming.[135]
Zhou remained the primary CCP representative to the outside world during his time in Chongqing. Zhou enjoyed receiving foreign visitors and reportedly made a favorable impression among American, British, Canadian, Russian, and other foreign diplomats, despite Chiang's attempts to isolate him from the international community. Zhou was variously described by visitors as being charming, urbane, hard-working, and living a very simple lifestyle. In 1941, Zhou received a visit from Ernest Hemingway and his wife, Martha. Martha later wrote that she and Ernest were extremely impressed with Zhou (and extremely unimpressed with Chiang), and they became convinced that the Communists would take over China after meeting him.[136]
Because Yan'an was incapable of funding Zhou's activities, Zhou attempted to fund himself through various means. Zhou partially funded his efforts though donations from sympathetic foreigners, overseas Chinese, and the China Defense League (supported by Sun Yat-sen's widow, Song Qingling). Because Zhou was not able to fund his operations solely through donations, Zhou also undertook efforts to start and run a number of businesses throughout KMT- and Japanese- controlled China. Zhou's businesses grew to include several trading companies operating in a variety of Chinese cities (primarily Chongqing and Hong Kong), a silk and satin store in Chongqing, an oil refinery, and numerous factories for producing industrial materials, various cloths, Western medicines, and other commodities.[137]
Under Zhou, Communist businessmen made great profits engaging in currency trading and commodity speculation, especially in the international markets for American dollars and gold. Zhou's most lucrative business was generated by several opium plantations that Zhou established in remote areas. Although the CCP had been engaged in the eradication of opium smoking since its establishment, Zhou justified opium production and distribution in KMT-controlled areas by the huge profits generated for the CCP, and by the debilitating effects that opium addiction might have on KMT soldiers and government officials.[137]
Relationship with Mao Zedong[link]
In 1943, Zhou's relationship with Chiang Kai-shek deteriorated, and he returned permanently to Yan'an. By then, Mao Zedong had emerged as the most powerful leader of the CCP, and was attempting to have his political theories (literally "Mao Zedong Thought") accepted as the Party's dogma. Following his ascent to power, Mao organized a campaign to indoctrinate the members of the CCP. This campaign became the foundation of the Maoist personality cult that later dominated Chinese politics until the end of the Cultural Revolution.[138]
After returning to Yan'an, Zhou Enlai was strongly and excessively criticized in this campaign. Zhou was labelled, along with the generals Peng Dehuai, Liu Bocheng, Ye Jianying, and Nie Rongzhen, as an "empiricist" because he had a history of cooperating with the Comintern and with Mao's enemy, Wang Ming. Mao publicly attacked Zhou as "a collaborator and assistant of dogmatism... who belittled the study of Marxism-Lenninism". Mao and his allies then claimed that the CCP organizations that Zhou had established in southern China were in fact led by KMT secret agents, a charge which Zhou firmly denied, and which was only withdrawn after Mao became convinced of Zhou's subservience in the latest period of the campaign.[138]
Zhou defended himself by engaging in a long series of public reflections and self-criticisms, and he gave a number of speeches praising Mao and Mao Zedong Thought and giving his unconditional acceptance of Mao's leadership. He also joined Mao's allies in attacking Peng Shuzhi, Chen Duxiu, and Wang Ming, who Mao viewed as enemies. The persecution of Zhou Enlai distressed Moscow, and Georgi Dimitrov wrote a personal letter to Mao indicating that "Zhou Enlai... must not be severed from the Party." In the end, Zhou's enthusiastic acknowledgement of his own faults, his praise for Mao's leadership, and his attacks on Mao's enemies eventually convinced Mao that Zhou's conversion to Maoism was genuine, a precondition for Zhou's political survival. By the seventh congress of the CCP in 1945, Mao was acknowledged as the overall leader of the CCP, and the dogma of Mao Zedong Thought was firmly entrenched among the Party's leadership.[138]
Diplomatic efforts with the United States[link]
The Dixie mission[link]
Main article: Dixie Mission
After the United States joined the war against Japan in 1941, American politicians and military advisors became increasingly interested in making contact with the Communists in order to coordinate attacks on the Japanese. In June 1944, Chiang Kai-shek agreed to allow an American military observation group, known as the "Dixie mission", to travel to Yan'an. Mao and Zhou welcomed this mission and held numerous talks in the interest of gaining access to American aid. They pledged support for any future American military actions on Chinese soil, and attempted to convince the Americans that the CCP was committed to a united KMT-CCP government. In a gesture of goodwill, People's Liberation Army (PLA) guerrilla units were instructed to rescue Allied soldiers held prisoner in China (who were mostly American airmen). By the time that the Americans left Yan'an, many had become convinced that the CCP was "a party seeking orderly democratic growth towards socialism", and the mission formally suggested greater cooperation between the CCP and the American military.[139]
1944-1945[link]
In 1944, Zhou wrote to General Joseph Stillwell, the American commander of the China Burma India war theater, attempting to convince Stillwell of the need for the Americans to supply the Communists, and of the Communist's desire for a united Chinese government after the war. Stillwell's open disenchantment with the Nationalist government in general, and with Chiang Kai-shek specifically, motivated President Franklin D. Roosevelt to remove him that same year, before Zhou's diplomacy could be effective. Stillwell's replacement, Patrick J. Hurley, was receptive to Zhou's appeals, but ultimately refused to align the American military with the CCP unless the Party made concessions to the KMT, which Mao and Zhou found unacceptable. Soon after Japan surrendered in 1945, Chiang invited Mao and Zhou to Chongqing to take part in an American-endorsed peace conference.[140]
The Chongqing negotiations[link]
There was widespread apprehension in Yan'an that the invitation from Chiang was a trap, and that the Nationalists were planning to assassinate or imprison the two instead. Zhou took control over Mao's security detail, and his subsequent inspections of their plane and lodgings found nothing. Throughout the trip to Chongqing, Mao refused to enter his accommodations until they had been personally inspected by Zhou. Mao and Zhou traveled together to receptions, banquets, and other public gatherings, and Zhou introduced him to numerous local celebrities and statesmen that he had befriended during his earlier stay in Chongqing.[141]
During the forty-three days of negotiations, Mao and Chiang met eleven times to discuss the conditions of post-war China, while Zhou worked on confirming the details of the negotiations. In the end, the negotiations resolved nothing. Zhou's offer to withdraw the Red Army from southern China was ignored, and P.J. Hurley's ultimatum to incorporate the CCP into the KMT insulted Mao. After Mao returned to Yan'an on October 10, 1945, Zhou stayed behind to sort out the details of the conference's resolution. Zhou returned to Yan'an on November 27, 1945, when major skirmishes between the Communists and Nationalists made future negotiations pointless. Hurley himself subsequently announced his resignation, accusing members of the US embassy of undermining him and favoring the Communists.[142]
The Marshall negotiations[link]
Main article: Marshall Mission
After Harry Truman became President of the United States, he nominated General George Marshall as his special envoy to China on December 15, 1945. Marshall was charged with brokering a ceasefire between the CCP and KMT, and to influence both Mao and Chiang to abide by the Chongqing agreement, which both had signed. The top leadership within the CCP, including Zhou, viewed Marshall's nomination as a positive development, and hoped that Marshall would be a more flexible negotiator than Hurley had been. Zhou arrived in Chongqing to negotiate with Marshall on December 22.[143]
The first phase of talks went smoothly. Zhou represented the Communists, Marshall represented the Americans, and Zhang Qun (later replaced by Zhang Zhizhong represented the KMT. In January 1946 both sides agreed to cease hostilities, and to reorganize their armies on the principle of separating the army from political parties. Zhou signed these agreements in the knowledge that neither side would be able to implement these changes. Chiang delivered a speech promising political freedom, local autonomy, free elections, and the release of political prisoners. Zhou welcomed Chiang's statements and expressed his opposition to civil war.[144]
The leadership of the CCP viewed these agreements optimistically. On January 27, 1946 the CCP Secretariat appointed Zhou as one of eight leaders to participate in a future coalition government (other leaders included Mao, Liu Shaoqi, and Zhu De). It was suggested that Zhou be nominated as China's vice president. Mao expressed a desire to visit the United States, and Zhou received orders to manipulate Marshall in order to advance the peace process.[145]
Marshall's negotiations soon deteriorated, as neither the KMT nor the CCP were willing to sacrifice any of the advantages that they had gained, to de-politicize their armies, or to sacrifice any degree of autonomy in areas that they side controlled. Military clashes in Manchuria became increasingly frequent in the spring and summer of 1946, eventually forcing Communist forces to retreat after a few major battles. Government armies increased their attacks in other parts of China.[146]
On May 3, 1946, Zhou and his wife left Chongqing for Nanjing, where the Nationalist capital returned. Negotiations deteriorated, and on October 9 Zhou informed Marshall that he no longer had the confidence of the CCP. On October 11 Nationalist troops seized the Communist city of Zhangjiakou in northern China. Chiang, confident in his ability to defeat the Communists, called the National Assembly into session without the participation of the CCP and ordered it to draft a constitution on November 15. On November 16 Zhou held a press conference, in which he condemned the KMT for "tearing up the agreements from the political consultative conference". On November 19 Zhou and the entire CCP delegation left Nanjing for Yan'an.[147]
Resumption of Civil War[link]
Military strategist and intelligence chief[link]
Following the failure of negotiations, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest. Zhou turned his focus from diplomatic to military affairs, while retaining a senior interest in intelligence work. Zhou worked directly under Mao as his chief aide, as the vice chairman of the Military Commission of the Central Committee, and as the general chief of staff. As the head of the Urban Work Committee of the Central Committee, an agency established to coordinate work inside KMT-controlled areas, Zhou continued to direct underground activities.[148]
A superior force of Nationalist troops captured Yan'an in March 1947, but Zhou's intelligence agents (primarily Xiong Xianghui) were able to provide Yan'an's commanding general, Peng Dehuai, with details of the KMT army's troop strength, distribution, positions, air cover, and dates of deployment. This intelligence allowed Communist forces to avoid major battles and to engage Nationalist forces in a protracted campaign of guerrilla warfare that eventually led to Peng achieving a series of major victories. By February 1948 over half the KMT troops in the northwest were either defeated or exhausted. On May 4, 1948 Peng captured 40,000 army uniforms and over a million pieces of artillery. By January 1949 Communist forces seized Beijing and Tianjin, and were firmly in control of north China.[149]
Diplomacy[link]
On January 21, 1949 Chiang stepped down as president of the Nationalist government and was succeeded by General Li Zongren. On April 1, 1949 Li began a series of peace negotiations with a six-member CCP delegation. The CCP delegates were led by Zhou Enlai, and the KMT delegates were led by Zhang Zhizhong.[150]
Zhou began the negotiations by asking: "Why did you go to Xikou (where Chiang had retired) to see Chiang Kai-shek before leaving Nanjing?" Zhang responded that Chiang still had power, even though he had technically retired, and that his consent would be needed to finalize any agreement. Zhou responded that the CCP would not accept a bogus peace dictated by Chiang, and asked whether Zhang had come with the necessary credentials to implement the terms desired by the CCP. Negotiations continued until April 15, when Zhou produced a "final version" of a "draft agreement for internal peace", which was essentially an ultimatum to accept CCP demands. The KMT government did not respond after five days, signaling that it was not prepared to accept Zhou's demands.[151]
On April 21 Mao and Zhou issued an "order to the army for country-wide advance". PLA troops captured Nanjing on April 23, and captured Li's stronghold of Guangdong in October, forcing Li to go into exile in America. In December 1949 PLA troops captured Chengdu, the last KMT-controlled city on mainland China, forcing Chiang to evacuate to Taiwan.[151]
PRC diplomat and statesman[link]
Diplomatic situation of the PRC in 1949[link]
By the early 1950s, China's international influence was extremely low. By the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, China's pretentions of universalism had been shattered by a string of military defeats and incursions by Europeans and Japanese. By the end of Yuan Shikai's reign and the subsequent Warlord Era, China's international prestige had declined to "almost nothing". In World War II, China's effective role was sometimes questioned by other Allied leaders. The 1950–1953 Korean War greatly exacerbated China's international position by fixing the United States in a position of animosity, ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control and that the PRC would remain outside of the United Nations for the foreseeable future.[152]
Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in October 1, 1949, Zhou was appointed both Premier of the Government Administration Council (later replaced by the State Council) and Minister of Foreign Affairs. Through the coordination of these two offices and his position as a member of the five-man standing committee of the Politburo, Zhou became the architect of early PRC foreign policy, presenting China as a new, yet responsible member of the international community. By the early 1950s, Zhou was an experienced negotiator and was respected as a senior revolutionary within China.[152]
Zhou's earliest efforts to improve the prestige of the PRC involved recruiting prominent Chinese politicians, capitalists, intellectuals, and military leaders who were not technically affiliated with the CCP. Zhou was able to convince Zhang Zhizhong to accept a position inside the PRC in 1949, after Zhou's underground network successfully escorted Zhang's family to Beijing. All of the other members of the KMT delegation that Zhou had negotiated with in 1949 accepted similar terms.[153]
Sun Yat-sen's widow, Song Qingling, who was estranged from her family and who had opposed the KMT for many years, readily joined the PRC in 1949. Huang Yuanpei, a prominent industrialist who had refused offers of a government post for many years, was persuaded to accept a position as vice premier in the new government. Fu Zuoyi, the KMT commander who had surrendered the Beijing garrison in 1948, was persuaded to join the PLA, and to accept a position as the minister of water conservation.[154]
Diplomacy with India[link]
Zhou's first diplomatic successes came as the result of successfully pursuing a warm relationship, based on mutual respect, with India's first post-independence prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Through his diplomacy, Zhou managed to persuade India to accept China's occupation of Tibet in 1950 and 1951. India was later persuaded to act as a neutral mediator between China and the United States during the many difficult phases of the negotiations settling the Korean War.[152]
The Korean War[link]
File:China Crosses Yalu.jpg
Chinese forces cross the Yalu River
When the Korean War broke out on June 25, 1950, Zhou was in the process of demobilizing half of the PLA's 5.6 million soldiers, under the direction of the Central Committee. Zhou and Mao discussed the possibility of American intervention with Kim Il-sung in May, and urged Kim to be cautious if he was to invade and conqure South Korea, but Kim refused to take these warnings seriously. On June 28, 1950, after the United States pushed through a UN resolution condemning North Korean aggression and sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the Taiwan Strait, Zhou criticized both the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory."[155]
Although Kim's early success led him to predict that he would win the war by August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. Zhou did not share Kim's confidence that the war would end quickly, and became increasingly apprehensive that the United States would intervene. To counter the possibility of an American invasion into North Korea or China, Zhou secured a Soviet commitment to have the USSR support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 Chinese soldiers along the North Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang, but they were strictly ordered not to move into North Korea or engage UN or USA forces unless they engaged themselves. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military advisor in North Korea, to analyze the military situation there. Lei concluded that Macarthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon.[156]
On September 15, 1950 MacArthur landed at Incheon, met little resistance, and captured Seoul on September 25. Bombing raids destroyed most North Korean tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops, instead of withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated. On September 30, Zhou warned the United States that "the Chinese people will not tolerate foreign aggression, nor will they supinely tolerate seeing their neighbors being savagely invaded by imperialists."[157]
On October 1, on the first anniversary of the PRC, South Korean troops crossed the Thirty-Eighth Parallel into North Korea. Stalin refused to become directly involved in the war, and Kim sent a frantic appeal to Mao to reinforce his army. On October 2, the Chinese leadership continued an emergency meeting at Zhongnanhai to discuss whether China should sent military aid, and these talks continued until October 6. At the meeting, Zhou was one of the few firm supporters of Mao's position that China should send military aid, regardless of the strength of American forces. With the endorsement of Peng Dehuai, the meeting concluded with a resolution to send military forces to Korea.[158]
In order to enlist Stalin's support, Zhou traveled to Stalin's summer resort on the Black Sea on October 10. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the USSR's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations and no ground troops were to be sent. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951.[159]
Immediately on his return to Beijing on October 18, 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered the 200,000 Chinese troops along the border to enter North Korea, which they did on October 25. After consulting with Stalin, on November 13, Mao appointed Zhou the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. Orders given by Zhou were delivered in the name of the Central Military Commission.[160]
By June 1951, the war had reached a stalemate around the Thirty-eighth Parallel, and the two sides agreed to negotiate an armistice. Zhou directed the truce talks, which began on July 10. Zhou chose Li Kenong and Qiao Guanhua to head the Chinese negotiating team. The negotiations proceeded for two years before reaching a ceasefire agreement on July 1953, formally signed at Panmunjom.[161]
The Korean War was Zhou's last military assignment. In 1952, Peng Dehuai succeeded Zhou in managing the Central Military Commission (which Zhou had headed since 1947). In 1956, after the eighth Party Congress, Zhou formally relinquished his post in the Military Commission and focused on his work in the Standing Committee, the State Council, and on foreign affairs.[162]
Diplomacy with China's communist neighbors[link]
After Stalin died in 1953, Zhou left for Moscow and attended Stalin's funeral. Mao, curiously, decided not to travel to Moscow, possibly because no senior Soviet politician had yet travelled to Beijing, or because Stalin had rejected an offer to meet with Mao in 1948. While in Moscow, Zhou was notably received with considerable respect by Soviet officials, being permitted to stand with the USSR's new leaders (Nikita Khrushchev, Georgi Malenkov, and Lavrenti Beria), instead of with the other "foreign" dignitaries who attended. With these three leaders, Zhou walked directly behind the gun carriage bearing Stalin's coffin. Zhou's diplomatic efforts on his travel to Moscow were rewarded shortly after when, in 1954, Khrushchev himself visited Beijing to take part in the fifth anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic.[150][163]
Throughout the 1950s, Zhou worked to tighten economic and political relations between China and other Communist states, coordinating China's foreign policy with Soviet policies promoting solidarity among political allies. In 1952, Zhou signed an economic and cultural agreement with the Mongolian People's Republic, giving de facto recognition of the independence of what had been known as "Outer Mongolia" in Qing times. Zhou also worked to conclude an agreement with Kim Il Sung in order to help the postwar reconstruction of North Korea's economy. Pursuing the goals of peaceful diplomacy with China's neighbors, Zhou held amicable talks with Burma's prime minister, U Nu, and promoted China's efforts to send supplies to Ho Chi Minh's Vietnamese rebels.[152]
The Geneva Conference[link]
Main article: Geneva Conference (1954)
In April 1954, Zhou attended the Geneva Conference, convened to settle the ongoing Franco-Vietnamese War. His patience and shrewdness were credited with assisting the major powers involved (the Soviets, French, Americans, and North Vietnamese) to iron out the agreement ending the conflict. According to the negotiated peace, French Indochina was to be partitioned into Laos, Cambodia, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Elections were agreed to be called within two years to create a coalition government in a united Vietnam, and the Vietminh agreed to end their guerilla activities in South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia[164]
During one early meeting in Geneva, Zhou found himself in the same room with the staunchly anti-Communist American secretary of state, John Foster Dulles. After Zhou offered his hand, Dulles rudely turned his back and walked out of the room, saying "I cannot". Zhou was interpreted by onlookers as turning this moment of possible humiliation into a small victory by giving only a small, "Gallic-style" shrug to this behaviour. Zhou was equally effective in countering Dulles' insistence that China not be given a seat at the sessions. Furthering the impression of Chinese urbanity and civility, he had lunch with Charlie Chaplin, who had been living in Switzerland since being blacklisted in the United States for his radical politics.[164]
The Asian–African Conference[link]
In 1955, Zhou was a prominent participator in the Asian–African Conference held in Indonesia. The conference in Bandung was a meeting of twenty-nine African and Asian states, organized by Indonesia, Burma, Pakistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and India, and was called largely to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by either the United States or the Soviet Union in the Cold War. At the conference, Zhou skillfully gave the conference a neutral stance that made the United States appear as a serious threat to the peace and stability of the region. Zhou complained that, while China was working towards "world peace and the progress of mankind", "aggressive circles" within the United states were actively aiding the Nationalists in Taiwan and planning to rearm the Japanese. He was widely quoted for his remark that "the population of Asia will never forget that the first atom bomb was exploded on Asian soil." With the support of its most prestigious participants, the conference produced a strong declaration in favour of peace, the abolition of nuclear arms, general arms reduction, and the principle of universal representation at the United Nations.[165]
On his way to the Bandung conference, an assassination attempt was made against Zhou when a bomb was planted on the Air India plane Kashmir Princess, chartered for Zhou's trip from Hong Kong to Jakarta. Zhou avoided the attempt when he changed planes at the last minute, but all 11 of the flight's other passengers were killed. A recent study has blamed the attempt on "one of the intelligence agencies of the KMT."[166] Journalist Joseph Trento has also alleged that there was a second attempt on Zhou's life at the Bandung conference involving "a bowl of rice poisoned with a slow-acting toxin."[167]
According to one account based on recent research, Zhou found out about the bomb on the Kashmir Princess after being warned of the plot by his own intelligence officers and did not attempt to stop it because he viewed those that died as disposable: low-level cadres and international journalists. After the crash, Zhou used the incident to warn the British about the KMT intelligence operatives active in Hong Kong and pressured Great Britain to disable the Nationalist intelligence network operating there (with himself playing a support role). He hoped that the incident would improve Britain's relationship with the PRC, and damage Britain's relationship with the ROC.[168] The official explanation for Zhou's absence on the flight, however, remains that Zhou was forced to change his schedule due to having had surgery for appendicitis.[169]
After the Bandung conference, China's international political situation began to gradually improve. With the help of many of the nonaligned powers who had taken part in the conference, the US-backed position economically and politically boycotting the PRC began to erode, despite continuing American pressure to follow its direction. In 1971, the United States finally gave up its opposition, and the PRC gained China's seat within the United Nations.[170]
Position on the ROC[link]
When the PRC was founded on October 1, 1949, Zhou notified all governments that any countries wishing to have diplomatic contact with the PRC must end their relationship with the ROC, and support the PRC's claim to China's seat in the United Nations. This was the first foreign policy document issued by the new government. By 1950 the PRC was able to gain diplomatic relationships with other communist countries and with thirteen non-communist countries, but talks with most Western governments were unsuccessful.[171]
Zhou emerged from the Bandung conference with a reputation as a flexible and open-minded negotiator. Recognizing that the United States would back the de facto independence of ROC-controlled Taiwan with military force, Zhou persuaded his government to end the shelling of Quemoy and Matsu, and to search for a diplomatic alternative to the confrontation instead. In a formal announcement in May 1955, Zhou declared that the PRC would "strive for the liberation of Taiwan by peaceful means so far as it is possible."[172] Whenever the question of Taiwan was raised with foreign statesmen, Zhou argued that Taiwan was part of China, and that the resolution of the conflict with the ROC was an internal matter.[173]
In 1958 the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs was passed to Chen Yi, a general with little prior diplomatic experience. After Zhou resigned his office in Foreign Affairs, the PRC diplomatic corps was reduced dramatically. Some were transferred to various cultural and educational departments to replace leading cadres who had been labelled "rightists" and sent to work in labour camps.[174]
The Shanghai communique[link]
Main article: 1972 Nixon visit to China
By the early 1970s, Sino-American relations had begun to improve. Mao's workers in the petrolium industry, one of China's few growing economic sectors at the time, advised the Chairman that, in order to consider growth at levels desired by the Party's leadership, large imports of American technology and technical expertise were essential. In January 1970, the Chinese invited the American ping-pong team to tour China, initiating an era of "ping-pong diplomacy".[175]
In 1971, Zhou Enlai met secretly with President Nixon's security advisor, Henry Kissinger, who had flown to China to prepare for a meeting between Richard Nixon and Mao Zedong. During the course of these meetings, the United States agreed to allow the transfer of American money to China (presumably from relatives in the United States), to allow American-owned ships to conduct trade with China (under foreign flags), and to allow Chinese exports into the United States for the first time since the Korean War. At the time, these negotiations were considered so sensitive that they were concealed from the American public, the State Department, the American secretary of state, and all foreign governments.[175]
On the morning of February 21, 1972, Richard Nixon arrived in Beijing, where he was greeted by Zhou, and later met with Mao Zedong. The diplomatic substance of Nixon's visit was resolved on February 28, in the Shanghai Communique, which summarized both sides' positions without attempting to resolve them. The "US side" reaffirmed the American position that America's involvement in the ongoing Vietnam War did not constitute "outside intervention" in Vietnam's affairs, and restated its commitment to "individual freedom", and pledged continued support for South Korea. The "Chinese Side" stated that "wherever there is oppression, there is resistance", that "all foreign troops should be withdrawn to their own countries", and that Korea should be unified according to the demands of North Korea. Both sides agreed to disagree on the status of Taiwan.The closing sections of the Shanghai Communique encouraged further diplomatic, cultural, economic, journalistic, and scientific exchanges, and endorsed both sides' intentions to work towards "the relaxation of tensions in Asia and the world." The resolutions of the Shanghai Communique represented a major policy shift for both the United States and China.[176]
The Great Leap Forward[link]
Main article: Great Leap Forward
In 1958, Mao Zedong began the Great Leap Forward, aimed at increasing China's production levels in industry and agriculture with unrealistic targets. As a popular and practical administrator, Zhou maintained his position through the Leap. Zhou has been described by at least one historian as the "midwife" of the Great Leap Forward,[177] turning Mao's theory into reality and in the process causing a "minimum of 45 million" deaths.[178]
By the early 1960s, Mao's prestige was not as high as it had once been. Mao's economic policies in the 1950s had failed, and he had developed a lifestyle that was increasingly out of touch with many of his oldest colleagues. Among the activities that seemed contrary to his popular image were the swims in his private pool in Zhongnanhai, his many villas around China that he would travel to on a private train, his private, book-lined study, and the companionship of an ever-changing succession of enthusiastic young women whom he met either on weekly dances in Zhongnanhai or on his journeys by train. The combination of his personal eccentricities and public policy failures produced criticism from such veteran revolutionaries as Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Chen Yun, and Zhou Enlai, who seemed less and less to share an enthusiasm for his presence or his vision of continuous revolutionary struggle.[179]
The Cultural Revolution[link]
Main article: Cultural Revolution
Initial efforts of Mao and Lin[link]
To improve his image and power, Mao, with the help of Lin Biao, undertook a number of public propaganda efforts. Among the efforts of Mao and Lin to improve Mao's image in the early 1960s were Lin's publication of the forged Diary of Lei Feng and his compilation of Quotations from Chairman Mao.[180] The last and most successful of these efforts was the Cultural Revolution.
Whatever its other causes, the Cultural Revolution, declared in 1966, was overtly pro-Maoist, and gave Mao the power and influence to purge the Party of his political enemies at the highest levels of government. Along with closing China's schools and universities, its exhortations of young Chinese to destroy old buildings, temples, and art, and to attack their "revisionist" teachers, school administrators, party leaders, and parents.[181] After the Cultural Revolution was announced, many of the most senior members of the CCP who had shared Zhou's hesitation in following Mao's direction, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were removed from their posts almost immediately; and, with their families, subjected to mass criticism and humiliation.[181]
Political survival[link]
Soon after they had been removed, Zhou argued that Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping "should be allowed to come back to work", but this was opposed by Mao, Lin Biao, Kang Sheng and Chen Boda. Chen Boda even suggested that Zhou himself might be "considered counter-revolutionary", if he did not toe the Maoist line.[182] Following the threats that he would share in the fate of his comrades if he did not support Mao, Zhou ceased his criticisms and began to work more closely with the Chairman and his clique.
Zhou gave his backing to the establishment of radical Red Guard organizations in October, 1966, and joined Chen Boda and Jiang Qing against what they considered "leftist" and "rightist" Red Guard factions. This opened the way for attacks on Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, and Tao Zhu in December 1966— January 1967.[183] By September 1968, Zhou candidly described his strategy for political survival to Japanese LDP parliamentarians visiting Beijing: "one’s personal opinions should advance or beat a retreat according to the direction of the majority."[184] When he was accused of being less than enthusiastic in following Mao's leadership, he accused himself of "poor understanding" of Mao's theories, giving the appearance of compromising with forces that he secretly loathed and referred to in private as his "inferno".[185] Following the logic of political survival, Zhou worked to aid Mao, and restricted his criticisms to private conversations.
Although Zhou escaped being directly persecuted, he was not able to save many of those closest to him from having their lives destroyed by the Cultural Revolution. Sun Weishi, Zhou's adopted daughter, died in 1968 after seven months of torture and imprisonment by Maoist Red Guards. After the end of the Cultural Revolution, Sun's plays were re-staged as a way of criticizing the Gang of Four, whom many thought were responsible for her death.[186]
Throughout the next decade, Mao largely developed policies while Zhou carried them out, attempting to moderate some of the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Despite his best efforts, the inability to prevent many of the events of the Cultural Revolution were a great blow to Zhou. Over the last decade of his life, Zhou's ability to implement Mao's policies and keep the nation afloat during periods of adversity was so great that his practical importance alone was sufficient to save him (with Mao's assistance) whenever Zhou became politically threatened.[187] At the latest stages of the Cultural revolution, in 1975, Zhou pushed for the "Four Modernizations" in order to undo the damage caused by the Mao's policies.
During the later stages of the Cultural Revolution, Zhou became a target of political campaigns orchestrated by Chairman Mao and the Gang of Four. The "Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius" campaign of 1973 and 1974 was directed at Premier Zhou because he was viewed as one of the Gang's primary political opponents. In 1975, Zhou's enemies initiated a campaign named "Criticizing Song Jiang, Evaluating the Water Margin", which encouraged the use of Zhou as an example of a political loser.[188]
Tensions with Mao[link]
By the end of Zhou's life, there were many signs that the long relationship between Zhou and Mao had become very poor. To many observers' surprise, Mao did not visit Zhou in his last months, and did not issue any personal message affirming Zhou's achievements or contributions to the revolution upon his death. Mao did not send any condolences to Zhou's widow, who was herself a significant and lifelong contributor to the revolution and to the CCP. Mao also did not attend any of the imposing funeral services held in the Great Hall of the People the following week.[189]
Mao famously attacked a proposal to have Zhou publicly declared a great Marxist, reflecting the bitterness that he had felt whenever Zhou had gained influence over others. When forty Chinese marshals and generals proposed that Mao make a brief appearance at Zhou's funeral the Chairman refused, instructing his nephew, Mao Yuanxin, to explain to the Chinese Politburo that Mao could not attend because doing so would be seen as a public admission that he was being forced to "rethink the Cultural Revolution", which Zhou had privately opposed. Mao worried that public expressions of mourning would later be directed against him and his policies, and backed the "five nos" campaign to suppress public expressions of mourning for Zhou after the late Premier's death.[190]
Official explanations for Mao's failure to recognize Zhou's achievements have focused on a supposed illness of Mao, although Mao was not too ill to receive the president of Sao Tome and Principe two weeks before Zhou's death, or to receive Richard Nixon several months before.[189] Perhaps reflecting the public perception of the rift between Mao and Zhou, there were rumors that Mao had denied Zhou cancer treatment and had ordered fireworks to be set off in Beijing to celebrate Zhou's death, but these rumors cannot be confirmed.[191]
Death and reactions[link]
Illness and death[link]
After discovering that he had bladder cancer, Zhou began to pass many of his responsibilities on to Deng Xiaoping. Zhou was hospitalized in 1974, but continued to conduct work from the hospital, with Deng Xiaoping, as the First Deputy Premier, handling most of the important State Council matters. Zhou died on the morning of 8 January 1976, aged 77, eight months before Mao Zedong. Zhou's death brought messages of condolences from many non-aligned states that he had affected during his tenure as an effective diplomat and negotiator on the world stage, and many states expressed that his death was a terrible loss. Zhou's body was cremated and the ashes scattered by air over hills and valleys, according to his wishes.
Memorial[link]
Whatever Mao's opinion of Zhou may have been, the rest of the nation was plunged into mourning. Foreign correspondents reported that Beijing, shortly after Zhou's death, looked like a ghost town. Zhou had willed his ashes to be scattered across the hills and rivers of his hometown, rather than stored in a ceremonial mausoleum. With Zhou gone, it became clear how the Chinese people had revered him, and how they had viewed him as a symbol of stability in an otherwise chaotic period of history.[192]
Spence reports that Vice-Premier Deng Xiaoping gave the eulogy at Zhou's state funeral on January 15, 1976. Although much of his speech echoed the wording of an official statement by the Central Committee immediataly following Zhou's death or consisted of a meticulous description of Zhou's remarkable political career, near the end of the eulogy he offered a personal tribute to Zhou's character, speaking from the heart while observing the rhetoric demanded of ceremonial state occasions.[193] Referring to Zhou, Deng stated that:
He was open and aboveboard, paid attention to the interests of the whole, observed Party discipline, was strict in "dissecting" himself and good at uniting the mass of cadres, and upheld the unity and solidarity of the Party. He maintained broad and close ties with the masses and showed boundless warmheartedness towards all comrades and the people.... We should learn from his fine style - being modest and prudent, unassuming and approachable, setting an example by his conduct, and living in a plain and hard-working way. We should follow his example of adhering to the proletarian style and opposing the bourgeois style of life[193]
Spence says this statement was interpreted at the time as a subtle criticism of Mao and the other leaders of the Cultural Revolution, who could not possibly be viewed or praised as being "open and aboveboard", "good at uniting the mass of cadres", for displaying "warmheartedness", or for modesty, prudence, or approachability. Regardless of Deng's intentions, the Gang of Four, and later Hua Guofeng, increased the persecution of Deng shortly after he delivered this eulogy.[193]
Suppression of public mourning[link]
After Zhou's single official memorial ceremony on January 15, Zhou's political enemies within the Party officially prohibited any further displays of public mourning. The most notorious regulations prohibiting Zhou from being honoured were the poorly observed and poorly enforced "five nos": no wearing black armbands, no mourning wreaths, no mourning halls, no memorial activities, and no handing out photos of Zhou. Years of resentment over the Cultural Revolution, the public persecution of Deng Xiaoping (who was strongly associated with Zhou in public perception), and the prohibition against publicly mourning Zhou became associated with each other shortly after Zhou's death, leading to popular discontent against Mao and his apparent successors (notably Hua Guofeng and the Gang of Four).[194]
Official attempts to enforce the "five nos" included removing public memorials and tearing down posters commemorating his achievements. On March 25, 1976, a leading Shanghai newspaper, Wenhui Bao, published an article stating that Zhou was "the capitalist roader inside the Party [who] wanted to help the unrepentant capitalist roader [Deng] regain his power". This and other propaganda efforts to attack Zhou's image only strengthened the public's attachment to Zhou's memory.[195] Between March and April 1976, a forged document circulated in Nanjing that claimed itself to be Zhou Enlai's last will. It attacked Jiang Qing and praised Deng Xiaoping, and was met with increased propaganda efforts by the government.[196]
The Tiananmen incident[link]
Main article: Tiananmen Incident
Within several months after the death of Zhou, one of the most extraordinary spontaneous events in the history of the PRC occurred. On April 4, 1976, at the eve of China's annual Qingming Festival, in which Chinese traditionally pay homage to their deceased ancestors, thousands of people gathered around the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square to commemorate the life and death of Zhou Enlai. On this occasion, the people of Beijing honoured Zhou by laying wreaths, banners, poems, placards, and flowers at the foot of the Monument.[197] The most obvious purpose of this memorial was to eulogize Zhou, but Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan were also attacked for their alleged evil actions against the Premier. A small number of slogans left at Tiananmen even attacked Mao himself, and his Cultural Revolution.[198]
Up to two million people may have visited Tiananmen Square on April 4.[198] First-hand observations of the events in Tiananmen Square on April 4 report that all levels of society, from the poorest peasants to high-ranking PLA officers and the children of high-ranking cadres, were represented in the activities. Those who participated were motivated by a mixture of anger over the treatment of Zhou, revolt against Mao and his policies, apprehension for China's future, and defiance of those who would seek to punish the public for commemorating Zhou's memory. There is nothing to suggest that events were coordinated from any position of leadership: it was a spontaneous demonstration reflecting widespread public sentiment. Deng Xiaoping was notably absent, and he instructed his children to avoid being seen at the square.[199]
On the morning of April 5, crowds gathering around the memorial arrived to discover that it had been completely removed by the police during the night, angering them. Attempts to suppress the morners led to a violent riot, in which police cars were set on fire and a crowd of over 100,000 people forced its way into several government buildings surrounding the square.[197]
By 6:00 pm, most of the crowd had dispersed, but a small group remained until 10:00 pm, when a security force entered Tiananmen Square and arrested them. (The reported figure of those arrested was 388 people, but was rumored to be far higher.) Many of those arrested were later sentenced to "people's trial" at Peking University, or were sentenced to prison work camps. Incidents similar to those which occurred in Beijing on April 4 and 5 occurred in Zhengzhou, Kunming, Taiyuan, Changchun, Shanghai, Wuhan, and Guangzhou. Possibly because of his close association with Zhou, Deng Xiaoping was formally stripped of all positions "inside and outside the Party" on April 7, following this "Tiananmen Incident".[197]
After ousting Hua Guofeng and assuming control of China in 1980, Deng Xiaoping released those arrested in the Tiananmen Incident as part of a broader effort to reverse the effects of the Cultural Revolution.
Legacy[link]
By the end of his lifetime, Zhou was widely viewed as representing moderation and justice in Chinese popular culture.[194] Since his death, Zhou Enlai has been regarded as a skilled negotiator, a master of policy implementation, a devoted revolutionary, and a pragmatic statesman with an unusual attentiveness to detail and nuance. He was also known for his tireless and dedicated work ethic, and his unusual charm and poise in public. He was reputedly the last Mandarin bureaucrat in the Confucian tradition. Zhou's political behaviour should be viewed in light of his political philosophy as well as his personality. To a large extent, Zhou epitomized the paradox inherent in a Communist politician with traditional Chinese upbringing: at once conservative and radical, pragmatic and ideological, possessed by a belief in order and harmony as well as a faith, which he developed very gradually over time, in the progressive power of rebellion and revolution.
Though a firm believer in the Communist ideal on which the People's Republic was founded, Zhou is widely believed to have moderated the excesses of Mao's radical policies within the limits of his power. It has been assumed that he protected imperial and religious sites of cultural significance (such as the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet) from the Tibetan Red Guards, and shielded many top-level leaders, including Deng Xiaoping, as well as many academics and artists from purges.
While many earlier Chinese leaders today have been subjected to criticism inside China, Zhou's image has remained positive among contemporary Chinese. Many Chinese continue to venerate Zhou as possibly the most humane leader of the 20th century, and the CCP today promotes Zhou as a dedicated and self-sacrificing leader who remains a symbol of the Communist Party.[200] Even historians who list Mao's faults generally attribute the opposite qualities to Zhou: Zhou was cultured where Mao was crude; consistent where Mao was unstable; stoic where Mao was paranoid.[191]
However, recent academic criticism of Zhou has focused on his late relationship with Mao, and his political activities during the Cultural Revolution, arguing that the relationship between Zhou and Mao may have been more complex than is commonly portrayed. Zhou has been depicted as unconditionally submissive and loyal to Mao and his allies, going out of his way to support or permit the persecution of friends and relatives in order to avoid facing political condemnation himself. After the founding of the PRC, Zhou was unable or unwilling to protect the former spies that he had employed in the Chinese Civil War and the Second World War, who were persecuted for their wartime contacts with the enemies of the CCP. Early in the Cultural Revolution, he told Jiang Qing "From now on you make all the decisions, and I'll make sure they're carried out," and publicly declared that his old colleague, Liu Shaoqi, "deserved to die" for opposing Mao. In the effort to avoid being persecuted for opposing Mao, Zhou passively accepted the political persecution of many others, including his own brother.[191][201][202]
Zhou's involvement in the Cultural Revolution is defended on the grounds that he had no other choice, other than political martyrdom. Zhou's influence and political ability was such that, without his cooperation, the entire government, which Zhou had spent his entire life building, may have collapsed. Given the political circumstances of the last decade of Zhou's life, it is unlikely that he could have survived being purged without cultivating the support of Mao through active assistance.[187]
A popular saying within China once compared Zhou to a budaoweng (a tumbler), which can imply that he was a political opportunist. Some observers have criticized him as being too diplomatic: avoiding clear stands in complex political situations and instead becoming ideologically elusive, ambiguous, and enigmatic.[200]
The American statesmen who met Zhou in 1971 later wrote that they were deeply affected by his qualities. In 1979, Henry Kissinger wrote that he had been extremely impressed with Zhou's intelligence and character, describing him as "equally at home in philosophy, reminiscence, historical analysis, tactical probes, humorous repartee... [and] could display an extraordinary personal graciousness." Kissinger called Zhou "one of the two or three most impressive men I have ever met,"[203] stating that "his commands of facts, in particular his knowledge of American events and, for that matter, of my own background, was stunning",[204] despite Kissinger's dislike of the Communist ideology that Zhou represented. Richard Nixon, in his own memoirs, stated that he was impressed with Zhou's exceptional "brilliance and dynamism".[191]
After coming to power, Deng Xiaoping may have overemphasized Zhou Enlai's achievements to distance the Communist Party from Mao's Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, both of which had seriously weakened the Party's prestige. Deng observed that Mao's disastrous policies could no longer represent the Party's finest hour, but that the legacy and character of Zhou Enlai could. By actively associating itself with an already popular Zhou Enlai, Zhou's legacy may have been used (and possibly distorted) as a political tool of the Party after his death.[187]
Zhou remains a widely commemorated figure in China today. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Zhou ordered his hometown of Huai'an not to transform his house into a memorial and not to keep up the Zhou family tombs. These orders were respected within Zhou's lifetime, but today his family home and traditional family school have been restored, and are visited by a large number of tourists every year. In 1998, Huai'an, in order to commemorate Zhou's one hundredth birthday, opened a vast commemorative park with a museum dedicated to his life. The park includes a reproduction of Xihuating, Zhou's living and working quarters in Beijing.[129]
The city of Tianjin has established a museum to Zhou and his wife, and the city of Nanjing has erected a memorial commemorating Communist negotiations in 1946 with the Nationalist government which features a bronze statue of Zhou.[205] Stamps commemorating the first anniversary of Zhou's death were issued in 1977, and in 1998 to commemorate his 100th birthday.
See also[link]
- History of the People's Republic of China
- Republic of China
- Chinese Civil War
- Second Sino-Japanese War
- Chiang Kai-shek
- Kuomintang
- Whampoa Military Academy
- Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary by Gao Wenqian
- Long March
- Mao Zedong
- Xian Incident
- Bandung Conference
- Geneva Conference
- Shanghai Communique
- Great Leap Forward
- Cultural Revolution
- Tiananmen Incident
- The former residence of Prime Minister Zhou
- Kashmir Princess
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Henry Kissinger, On China (2011) online ch 9
- ^ Lee 7
- ^ Lee 6
- ^ Lee (180 n7) cites a recent study that claims Zhou Panlong did not actually serve as county magistrate.
- ^ During the Cultural Revolution, when "red" (poor) family background became essential for everything from college admission to government service, Zhou had to go back to his mother's mother whom he claimed was a farmer's daughter, to find a family member who qualified as "red" (Barnouin and Yu 11).
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 9
- ^ This is the reason for the adoption given in Gao (23). Lee (11) suggests that it was due to the belief that having a son could cure a father's illness.
- ^ Lee 17, 21
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 11
- ^ Lee 16–17
- ^ Zhou's father may have also been in Manchuria at this time, and Zhou may have lived with him for a while. Afterwards Zhou's contacts with his father diminished. He died in 1941. See Lee 19–21 for a discussion of Zhou's relationship with his father.
- ^ Lee 25–26
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 13-14
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 14
- ^ Boorman "Chang Po-ling" (101) calls him "one of the founders of modern education in China".
- ^ Lee 39, 46
- ^ Lee 43
- ^ Lee 55 and 44
- ^ Lee 77 and 152
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 16
- ^ Lee 64–66
- ^ Lee 74
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 18
- ^ Lee 86 103
- ^ Lee 89
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 29-30
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 21
- ^ Boorman (332) makes the claim that Zhou attended Kawakami's lectures
- ^ Lee 104
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 22
- ^ Lee 118–119
- ^ Lee 125
- ^ Lee 127-8
- ^ Lee 133.
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 23
- ^ Lee 137
- ^ Lee 138
- ^ Lee 139
- ^ Lee 152
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 25
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 26
- ^ The date of this has been controversial. Most writers, such as Gao (41), now accept March 1921. Several of these cells were established in late 1920 and early 1921. The cells were organized before the Chinese Communist Party was established in July 1921, so there is some controversy over the membership status of cell members.
- ^ Gao 40, Levine 150
- ^ In addition to noting the uncertain status of cell members versus party members, Levine (151 n47) questions whether Zhou was at this point a "stalwart" Communist in his beliefs.
- ^ Lee 159
- ^ Levine 169–172
- ^ This description is based on Lee 161. Other sources give varying dates, places, and numbers of people.
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 27
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 28
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 31
- ^ Lee cites Zhou's last public activity in Europe as a Nationalist party farewell dinner on 24 July.
- ^ Lee 165
- ^ The conflicting evidence on Zhou's positions at Whampoa is summarized in Wilbur, Missionaries 196 n7. Another point of confusion is that Chou was later head of the Political Training Department. This was technically not part of Whampoa, but was a unit of the central government, responsible directly to the National Government Military Council (Wilbur, Revolution 33).
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 32
- ^ Wilbur, Nationalist 13–14
- ^ Wilbur, Missionaries 238
- ^ "Secretary of provincial committee" is according to Barnouin and Yu, 32. Other works give different dates and positions. His work in the Provincial Military Section probably came a little later, see Barnouin and Yu 35.
- ^ For Chen Yi, see Boorman, "Chen Yi", 255. For the rest, see Weidenbaum 212–213
- ^ a b c Barnouin and Yu 35
- ^ Hsu 47-48
- ^ Wilbur Nationalist 20. As Wilbur notes, Russian advisors played important roles in these early campaigns.
- ^ Boorman "Ch'en Chiung-ming" 179
- ^ Wilbur Missionaries 203 n92
- ^ Wilbur Missionaries 175
- ^ Wilbur Missionaries 222
- ^ Weidenbaum 233–235
- ^ Barnouin and Yu, 33–34
- ^ Wilbur Missionaries 244 has a detailed discussion of the section.
- ^ Hsu 53
- ^ Hsu 55–56
- ^ Hsu 56
- ^ Smith 228
- ^ Smith 226
- ^ Smith 227
- ^ Spence 335
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 37
- ^ Hsu 58
- ^ a b Hsu 61–64
- ^ Barnoun and Yu 38
- ^ Hsu 64
- ^ Wilbur
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 40-41
- ^ Whitson and Huang 39-40
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 42
- ^ Spence 386
- ^ Whitson and Huang 40
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 44
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 44-45
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 45
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 45-46
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 46
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 47
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 47-48
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 48
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 52
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 49
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 49-51
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 51-52
- ^ Whitson and Huang 57-58
- ^ Larry M. Wortzel, Robin D. S. Higham: Dictionary of contemporary Chinese military history, ABC-CLIO, 1999, page 190
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 52-55
- ^ Wilson 51
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 56
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 57
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 57-58
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 58
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 59
- ^ Spence 402
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 49-52
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 59-60
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 62
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 64-65)
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 65
- ^ Spence 407
- ^ a b c Barnouin and Yu 67
- ^ Spence 408
- ^ a b Spence 409
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 68
- ^ a b c Barnouin and Yu 71
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 72
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 72-73
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 73-74
- ^ a b c Lee and Stephanowska 497
- ^ Zhang 3
- ^ Spence 688
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 74
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 74-75
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 75-76
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 124-124
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 76-77
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 77
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 78
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 77, 82-83
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 82-87
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 88
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 89
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 79-80
- ^ a b c Barnouin and Yu 91-95
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 95-97
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 97-100
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 97-101
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 101-104
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 104-105
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 105
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 106
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 106-107
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 107-108
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 108
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 110-116
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 117
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 118
- ^ a b c d Spence 524
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 128-129
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 129
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 140
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 141
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 143
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 144-146
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 146, 149
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 147-148
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 149-150
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 150-151
- ^ Spence 525
- ^ a b Spence 525-526
- ^ Spence 527
- ^ Tsang 766
- ^ Trento 10-11
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 156
- ^ "China marks journalists killed in premier murder plot 50 years ago", Xinhua News Agency, 2005-04-11
- ^ Spence 596
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 134
- ^ Spence 528
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 158
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 127,
- ^ a b Spence 597
- ^ Spence 599-600
- ^ Dikotter 448
- ^ Kingston
- ^ Spence 565
- ^ Spence 566
- ^ a b Spence 575
- ^ Dittmer 130-131
- ^ Dittmer 142-143
- ^ Dittmer 144-145
- ^ Barnouin and Yu 4-5
- ^ Li and Ho 500
- ^ a b c Barnouin and Yu 5
- ^ Bonavia 24
- ^ a b Spence 610
- ^ Tiewes and Sun 217-218
- ^ a b c d Ritter
- ^ Spence 610-611
- ^ a b c Spence 611
- ^ a b Tiewes and Sun 213
- ^ Tiewes and Sun 214
- ^ Teiwes and Sun 222
- ^ a b c Spence 612
- ^ a b Teiwes and Sun 218
- ^ Teiwes and Sun 119-220
- ^ a b Barnouin and Yu 4
- ^ Sun 143-144
- ^ Barnoun and Yu 87
- ^ Kissinger
- ^ "Kissinger Describes Nixon Years". Daily Collegian
- ^ Nanjing Meiyuan New Village Memorial Hall
References[link]
- Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. Zhou Enlai: A Political Life. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. ISBN 962-996-280-2. Retrieved on March 12, 2011.
- Bonavia, David. China's Warlords. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995. ISBN 0-19-586179-5
- Boorman, Howard L. ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1967–71.
- Dittmer, Lowell. Liu Shao-ch’i and the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Politics of Mass Criticism, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1974
- Dikotter, Frank (2010). MAO'S GREAT FAMINE: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2010. ISBN 0-7475-9508-9.
- Gao Wenqian. Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary. NY: Public Affairs, 2007.
- Han Suyin. Eldest Son: Zhou Enlai and the Making of Modern China. New York: Hill & Wang, 1994.
- Hsu, Kai-yu. Chou En-Lai: China's Gray Eminence. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968.
- Kingston, Jeff. "Mao's Famine was no Dinner Party". Japan Times Online. 3 October 3, 2010. Retrieved on March 28, 2011.
- "Kissinger Describes Nixon Years". Daily Collegian. Sep 25, 1979.
- Kissinger, Henry. "Special Section: Chou En-lai". TIME Magazine. Monday, Oct. 01, 1979. Retrieved on March 12, 2011.
- Lee, Chae-jin. Zhou Enlai: The Early Years. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.
- Lee, Lily Xiao Hong, and Stephanowska, A.D. Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: The Twentieth Century 1912–2000. Armonk, New York: East Gate Books. 2003. ISBN 0-7656-0798-0. Retrieved on June 12, 2011.
- Li, Tien-min. Chou En-Lai. Taipei: Institute of International Relations, 1970.
- Levine, Marilyn. The Found Generation: Chinese Communists in Europe during the Twenties. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1993.
- Nanjing Meiyuan New Village Memorial Hall. 360 Cities. January 11, 2007. Retrieved on July 7, 2011.
- Ritter, Peter. "Saint and Sinner". TIME Magazine. Thursday, Nov. 01, 2007. Retrieved on March 11, 2011.
- Smith, Steve. "Moscow and the Second and Third Armed Uprisings in Shanghai, 1927." The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. ed. Mechthild Leutner et al. London: Routledge, 2002. 222–243.
- Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-393-97351-4.
- Sun, Warren. "Review: Zhou Enlai Wannian (Zhou Enlai's Later Years) by Gao Wenqian". The China Journal. No. 52, Jul., 2004. 142-144. Retrieved on March 11, 2011.
- Trento, Joseph J. Prelude to Terror: Edwin P. Wilson and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network Carroll and Graf, 2005. 10-11.
- Tsang, Steve. "Target Zhou Enlai: The 'Kashmir Princess' Incident of 1955." China Quarterly 139 (Sep 1994):766-782.
- Teiwes, Frederick C. & Sun, Warren. "The First Tiananmen Incident Revisited: Elite Politics and Crisis Management at the End of the Maoist Era". Pacific Affairs. Vol. 77, No. 2, Summer, 2004. 211-235. Retrieved on March 11, 2011.
- Weidenbaum, Rhoda S. "Chou En-Lai, Creative Revolutionary." Ph.D. diss. University of Connecticut, 1981.
- Whitson, William W. and Huang, Chen-hsia. The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927–71. New York: Praeger, 1973.
- Wilbur, C. Martin. The Nationalist Revolution in China: 1923–1928. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
- Wilbur, C. Martin and Julie Lien-ying How. Missionaries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist China, 1920–1927. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.
- Wilson, Dick. Zhou Enlai: A Biography. New York: Viking, 1984.
- Zhang Langlang. "Sun Weishi's Story". The Collected Works of Zhang Langlang. Boxun News Network. Retrieved on June 9, 2011.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Zhou Enlai |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Zhou Enlai |
- Zhou Enlai at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by or about Zhou Enlai in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Zhou Enlai Biography From Spartacus Educational
- Zhou Enlai, Stephan Landserger's Chinese Propaganda Pages [1]
- The Mystery of Zhou Enlai by Jonathan Spence from The New York Review of Books
- The short film Interview with Zhou En Lai (1965) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| New title | Premier of the People's Republic of China 1949–1976 |
Succeeded by Hua Guofeng |
| Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China 1949–1958 |
Succeeded by Chen Yi |
|
| Preceded by Mao Zedong |
Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference 1954–1976 |
Succeeded by Deng Xiaoping Vacant until 1978 |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Wang Ming |
Head of the CPC Central United Front Department 1947–1948 |
Succeeded by Li Weihan |
| New title | Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China 1956–1966 Served alongside: Chen Yun, Liu Shaoqi, Zhu De, Lin Biao |
Succeeded by Lin Biao |
| Preceded by Lin Biao Vacant since 1971 |
Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China 1973–1976 Served alongside: Kang Sheng, Li Desheng, Wang Hongwen, Ye Jianying, Deng Xiaoping |
Succeeded by Hua Guofeng Wang Hongwen Ye Jianying Deng Xiaoping |
|
||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||
|
|||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Zhou, Enlai |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Chinese Premier |
| Date of birth | 5 March 1898 |
| Place of birth | Huai'an, Jiangsu, Qing Dynasty |
| Date of death | 8 January 1976 |
| Place of death | Beijing, People's Republic of China |
http://wn.com/Zhou_Enlai
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Enlai
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
