Private universities are universities not operated by governments, although many receive public subsidies, especially in the form of tax breaks and public student loans and grants. Depending on their location, private universities may be subject to government regulation. This is in contrast to public universities and national universities. While many prominent private universities are run by charitable or non-profit organizations, a subset are commercial for-profit universities which are run as business organizations.
In Nigeria there are a number of private universities, one of which is Igbinedion University, located in Okada, a town in Benin, Edo state. The university is the first private university providing for the study of medicine, While Madonna University which has the art campus located at Okija and science campus in Elele is the first private university in Nigeria .[1]
A number of private universities sprouted in Bangladesh after the Private University Act, 1992 was instituted.
The biggest private universities of Bangladesh include
- Daffodil International University(DIU),
- BRAC University (BRACU),
- North South University (NSU),
- East West University, (EWU)
- Bangladesh University (BU),
- Independent University, Bangladesh(IUB),
- American International University-Bangladesh(AIUB),
- Asian University of Bangladesh (AUB),
- America Bangladesh University,
- Stamford University Bangladesh(SUB),
- State University of Bangladesh (SUB),
- Northern University Bangladesh (NUB),
- Darul Ihsan University (DIU),
- Southern University Bangladesh,
- University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh(ULAB),
- BGC Trust University Bangladesh(BGCTUB),
- Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST),
- North South University (NSU),
- International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC),
- Presidency University (PU),
- Southeast University (SEU),
- Shanto Mariam University of Creative Technology (SMUCT),
- Queens University (QU),
- United International University (UIU),
- The University of Asia Pacific (UAP),
- World University of Bangladesh (WUB),
- IBAIS university,
- Asian University for Women (AUW),
- Atish Dipankar University of Science & Technology (ADUST),
- University of Information Technology & Sciences (UITS)
All private universities must be approved by University Grants Commission (UGC) before they are given a permit to operate.
See External links for: Private Universities Act 1992
Since 2003, joint-partnership private universities have been established in the People's Republic of China(PRC). English is the only language of instruction in all three institutions.
In Taiwan (ROC), unlike the United States, private universities are typically not as prestigious as some public (national) universities. They aren't as highly ranked as public institutions, and also cost nearly twice as much. This is due to the form of testing in schools in Taiwan, in which students take a national entrance exam to determine their university qualifications. The famous private university is Fu Jen Catholic University, and the earliest is Tunghai University.
In India, privately funded institutions have existed since independence. Many of these universities offer multidisciplinary professional courses similar to state funded universities, however institutions offering single stream specialization programs are also in existence.
As of 12 March 2012 (2012 -03-12)[update], there are 107 private universities in India.[5] The oldest is Sikkim Manipal University of Health Medical & Technological Science, with Gazette Notification date of 11 October 1995.[5] Some of India's prominent private universities include Auro University of Hospitality and Management, Surat, Gujarat,[6] Pacific University, Udaipur, Rajasthan,[7] Jindal Global University,[8] SRM University, and Amity University.[9]
- Muhammadiyah University of Magelang, is one of private university belong to Muhammadiyah organisation. This university is well known as UMMGL standing for Universitas Muhammadiyah Magelang. This University was founded on August 31, 1964.
Al Rafidain University College
American University of Iraq
Al Turath University College
Al Mansour University College
Al Maarif University College
Al Hadbaa University College
Al Rasheed University College
Al Yarmouk University College
Baghdad College of Economic Sciences University
Baghdad College of Pharmacy
Business & Management University
Dijla University College
Humanitarian Studies University College
Islamic University College
Madenat Alelem University College
Mamon University College
Shat Al Arab University College
Sheikh Mohammed Al Kasinzan University College
Sheikh Tusi University College
The British Royal University
As of 2007[update] Japan had 568 private universities, while there are 87 national universities and 89 public universities.[10] Private universities thus account for about 3/4 of all universities in Japan. Many, but not all, junior colleges in Japan are private. Like public and national universities, many private universities use National Center Test for University Admissions as an entrance exam.
City University of Macau
Macau University of Science and Technology
Tunku Abdul Rahman University is one of the well-known private, coeducational comprehensive research university based in Malaysia. Multimedia University (MMU) is the first private university in Malaysia. It is also the only private university in Malaysia that was ranked as among the top 200 Asian universities by QS in 2009. MMU is rated Tier 5 (Excellent) by The Malaysian Quality Agency Rating System for Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia.Binary University College Of Management And Entrepreneurship is one of the top private University in Malaysia.
There are 19 private universities in Lebanon.[11] Among these universities, two are internationally acknowledged, namely, the American University of Beirut and the Lebanese American University.[12] The languages of teaching in private universities are mainly French and English, while Arabic is widely used in religious universities and Armenian in the Armenian university. The first university opened in Lebanon was the Syrian Protestant College in 1866 (Became the American University of Beirut in 1921). It was founded by Daniel Bliss a Protestant missionary. The second university opened in Lebanon was the, Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875.
The Higher Education Commission (HEC), formerly the University Grant Commission, is the primary regulator of higher education in Pakistan. It also facilitates the development of higher educational system in Pakistan. Its main purpose is to upgrade the to be world-class centres of education, research and development.
The HEC is also playing a leading role towards building a knowledge-based economy in Pakistan by giving out hundreds of doctoral scholarships for education abroad every year. In spite of the criticism of HEC, its creation has also had a positive impact on higher education in Pakistan. In their two year report for 2004 to 2006 it is mentioned that according to the Institute of Scientific Information, the total number of publications appearing in the 8,000 leading journals indexed in the web of Science arising out of Pakistan in 2005 was 1,259 articles, representing a 41% increase over the past two years and a 60% increase since the establishment of HEC in 2002. In addition the HEC digital library now provides access to over 20,000 leading research journals, covering about 75% of the world's peer reviewed scientific journals.
Until 1991, there were only two recognized private universities in Pakistan: Aga Khan University established in 1983; and Lahore University of Management Sciences established in 1985. By 1997, however, there were 10 private universities and in 2001-2002, this number had doubled to 20; among the first to gain degree awarding status was Hajvery University, Lahore(HU), established in 1990. In 2003-2004 Pakistan had a total of 83 private degree granting institutions.
The HEC website also points to a 40% increase in enrollment in universities in Pakistan over the last two years, which it attributes to efforts on its part to encourage higher education in the country.
See External links for : Higher Education Commission
Private colleges and universities may either be "sectarian" or "non-sectarian" entities. Institutions may be not-for-profit, or profit-oriented. Most private schools are not-for-profit Catholic like Adamson University (Vincentian), Ateneo de Manila University (Jesuit), Colegio de San Juan de Letran (Dominican), De La Salle University (Christian Brothers), Don Bosco Technical College (Salesian), Saint Louis University, Baguio City (CICM), San Beda College (Benedictine), University of San Carlos (SVD), and the University of Santo Tomas (Dominican). However, there are also non-Catholic not-for-profit sectarian institutions such as Silliman University (Presbyterian), Trinity University of Asia (Anglican), Philippine Christian University (Methodist), Adventist University of the Philippines (Seventh-day Adventists), and New Era University (Iglesia ni Cristo). Non-sectarian private schools, on the other hand, are corporations licensed by the Securities and Exchange Commission. Two are registered on the Philippine Stock Exchange like Far Eastern University, and Centro Escolar University.
SIM University (UniSIM) is the first and only full-fledged private university in Singapore. It is established in 2005 with the approval of Singapore's Ministry of Education (MOE) to award recognised Singapore degrees. Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents studying for their first degree in UniSIM are eligible for up to 55% fee subsidy from the Singapore Government. There are four degree-awarding schools in UniSIM, i.e. the School of Arts & Social Sciences, the School of Business, the School of Human Development & Social Services, and the School of Science & Technology. As of early 2012, the student enrollment stood at approximately 12,000.
In Sri Lanka there are no private universities, however there are several independent institutions that are non-government funded. These mostly provide undergraduate degrees with a limited few proving postgraduate degrees. The Informatics Institute of Sri Lanka (IIT) [3] and Sri Lanka Institute for Information Technology (SLIT) [4] are examples. A reasonable number of foreign Universities franchise some parts of their degree courses in Sri Lanka with local institutes. Students are charged for the study (some of these Universities are state funded institutions of their home countries) and these charges are often a fraction of the cost studying in the home countries of these institutions.
Efforts to establish Private Universities have been blocked due to protests from state universities' undergraduates and leftist political parties.
However Minister to High Education Mr.S.B.Dissanayaka has emphasized that 15 no's of foreign private Universities and Technical Institutes will be established in SriLanka immediatlely and he further mentioned that private education will bring foreign exchange to the Country. He stated these while he was addressing a gathering at Central Provience.
Since the 1990s a lot of private universities have opened in Vietnam. Hochiminh City Open University was one of the first universities in this category in the higher education system in Vietnam. Typical characteristics of Vietnamese private universities as of 2010[update] are higher (very high in some cases) tuition fees, poor infrastructure, and limited faculty and human resources. The private universities are often named after scholars (Vo Truong Toan University, Nguyen Trai University, Luong The Vinh University, Chu Van A University, Yersin University, Phan Chau Trinh University, etc.), or heroes/legends (Hung Vuong University, Quang Trung University, etc.), although there are exceptions, such as FPT University named after the FPT Group and Tan Tao University in Tan Tao Group. In Vietnam, there exists the "Semi-private university"; universities in this category can partly receive financial support from the government. Almost private universities have to invite professors and lecturers from the state universities. Many retired lecturers from state-owned universities take up positions in private universities after their retirement.
In Austria, educational institutions must be authorised by the country to legally grant academic degrees. All state-run universities are governed by the 2002 Austrian Universities' and University Degree Programmes' Organisation Act (Federal Law Gazette No. 120/2002). In 1999, a federal law (Universitäts-Akkreditierungsgesetz) was passed to allow the accreditation of private universities. The Akkreditierungsrat (Accreditation Council)[note 1] evaluates applicants and issues recommendations to the responsible Austrian accreditation authority (the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science & Research).
Accreditation by the council yields a couple of privileges: Academic grades issued by accredited private universities have the same legal status as those issued by state-run universities. Private universities can appoint or promote professors. Their students enjoy the same privileges pertaining social security, foreigner law and state scholarships as students of the state universities. Private Educational services of private universities are not subject to value added tax, and donations are tax deductible.
Accreditations must be renewed regularly and can be withdrawn, e.g. in the case of repeated academic misconduct as happened in 2003 where the accreditation of International University Vienna, was withdrawn. In 2006, when the accreditation of IMADEC University expired, the Accreditation Council rejected requests for renewal.
Austrian law provides that private universities in Austria must use the term Privatuniversität (literally, "private university") in their German names, although their formal names in other languages, e.g. in English, are not regulated. Thus, there is the possibility of private institutions employing the term "university" as opposed to "private university" in their advertisements in all languages except German while still complying with Austrian law.
While the legal definition of "private university" prohibits funding by the federal government of Austria, funding by other public bodies is not prohibited. Consequently, some of Austria's private universities are funded or partly funded by provincial governments, while others are fully private funded.
Accreditation of private universities started in 2001. As of 2010[update] Austria has 13 private universities. Most of them are small (fewer than 1000 students) and specialise in only one or two fields of study:
Three former private universities are not accredited any more:
- International University Vienna: Accreditation was withdrawn in 2003 due to academic misconduct.
- IMADEC University: First accreditation period ended in January 2006 and was not renewed.
- TCM Privatuniversität Li Shi Zhen in Vienna: Accreditation period ended 2009; TCM did not call for renewal. All students could finish their studies.
Bulgaria has a number of private universities among which most renown are New Bulgarian University, located in capital sity Sofia, and Burgas Free University, Varna Free University and American University in Bulgaria.
France has a dual system with Universities and Grandes Ecoles.
Universities are usually public such as Université Paris La Sorbonne and Université Paris-Dauphine and are in all academic fields (engineering, law, medical, economics, arts, business administration, sociology...). You can join University after High school degree and study there for a Bachelor, Master or Doctoral Program (3, 5, 8 years).
Grandes Ecoles can be public or private. They operate mainly in engineering studies and business administration. Universities and Grandes Ecoles compete in these two fields. For engineering Grandes Ecoles, some of them report to the Ministry of Defense such as Ecole Polytechnique or to the Ministry of Higher Education such as Ecole Centrale Paris and Ecole Centrale Lyon and are public. The most prestigious ones are public. You join a Grande Ecole after two additional specific years in high school (called Classes préparatoires), following the high school degree. A selective examination after the two additional years is taken to enter one Grande Ecole. Within European Union standardisation, this full 5 year cursus, (two year preparatory classes plus 3 years in engineering or business school) is equivalent to a Master degree for international exchange programs.
Grandes Ecoles for studying business administration are usually part of the Chamber of commerce. HEC and ESCP Europe are part of the Chamber of Commerce of Paris CCIP, and are therefore semi-private.
They are other private engineering and business schools but they are not as prestigious.
Germany has 83 private universities (called Privathochschule) and 45 church-run universities (called kirchliche Hochschule). Similar to the state-run universities, they are subdivided into Universitäten, Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science) and Kunst- und Musikhochschulen (art schools). Private universities in Germany need institutional accreditation by the state.
The first private university in Germany, The Ukrainian Free University was established 16 September 1950 in Munich. More recently Witten/Herdecke University opened in 1982. Though private universities are numerous in Germany, they represent only less than 1% of all students. Some private universities, including Hanseatic University Rostock (2007–2009) and the International University in Germany in Bruchsal have gone out of business.
Most of the church universities are run by the Protestant or Catholic churches, however there is one Jewish university (Hochschule für Jüdische Studien) in Heidelberg.
In Greece private universities are prohibited by the constitution (Article 16). However, laboratories of liberal studies (Εργαστήρια ελευθέρων σπουδών, ergastiria eleftheron spoudon) operate freely in the country and based on a law from the 1930s they are registered as private for-profit businesses and regulated by the Greek Ministry of Commerce. Their academic degrees, which are not recognised in Greece, are directly provided to successful students by foreign universities in the United Kingdom, United States of America, or other countries, usually through franchise or validation agreements (the franchise agreement usually being considered better). This has limited access to the laboratories, which usually teach in English, to high-income Greeks who for various reasons (usually family matters) did not want to go abroad.
In 2008 the Nea Demokratia-led government of Greece voted a law that will force all laboratories of liberal studies to register with the Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs as colleges (κολλέγια, kollegia) by August 2009. It is expected that this will help to widen the participation of Greek students in private colleges, thus allowing the expertise and efficiency of the private educational sector to benefit the Greek students and society.
In the Republic of Ireland, a private university (more commonly known as a private college) is one that is not funded by the state, and therefore not covered by the free-fees initiative. All universities, Institutes of Technology, Colleges of Education, as well as the National College of Ireland and some religious institutions are publicly funded and therefore covered by free-fees initiative. There are few private colleges, and they are highly specialised, such as Griffith College Dublin, Dorset College and Dublin Business School. The major representative body for private colleges in Ireland is the Higher Education Colleges Association. Private colleges in Ireland can seek to have their programmes validated/accredited by the Higher Education and Training Awards Council.
See external links for: free-fees initiative and Higher Education Colleges Association
Nyenrode is the only private university in the Netherlands at the graduate level. The university was founded in 1946. It serves as a graduate school for business and management. Both programs are taught in English.[citation needed] Recently, Nyenrode merged with the Institute for CPA Education and both institutions share their facilities. The Nyenrode Business University also contains a campus and active student body.
Other Dutch private universities are universities of applied science (HBOs) where one can obtain a bachelor's. These include Business School Notenboom (founded in 1958)[14] and IVA Driebergen for the automotive industry with its earliest beginnings in 1930.[15]
The oldest non-state-run university, the Universidade Católica Portuguesa - UCP (Catholic University of Portugal), a catholic private university (concordatory status) with branches in the cities of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Viseu, and Caldas da Rainha, was founded before the others, in 1967, and officially recognized in 1971. UCP offers some well-recognized degrees and is reputed for economics, law and business management degrees it awards at its Lisbon branch. Other degrees awarded by UCP, like biotechnology and dental medicine, amassed increasing success and popularity since the 2000s. After the Carnation Revolution of 1974, in the 1980s and 1990s, a boom of educational private institutions was experienced in Portugal and many private universities started to open. Most private universities had a poor reputation and were known for making it easy for students to enter and also to get high grades. In 2007, several of those private universities or their heirs, were investigated and faced compulsory closing (for example, the infamous Independente University and Internacional University closings, and the Moderna University scandal) or official criticism with recommendations that the state-managed investigation proposed for improving their quality and avoid termination. In the mid-2000s, within the Bologna process, a reorganization of higher education was started which included more stringent regulations for private education and expanded state policies with regard to private education quality assurance and educational accreditation. In general, the private higher education institutions were often considered the schools of last resort for underachieving applicants who didn't score enough points in the admission examinations to enter the main public institutions. Nearly open-admission policies have hurt private universities' reputation and the actual quality of their alumni. Without large endowments like those received, for example, by many US private universities and colleges which are attractive to the best scholars, researchers and students, the private higher education institutions of Portugal, with a few exceptions, do not have neither the financial support nor the academic profile to reach the highest teaching and research standards of the top Portuguese public universities. In addition, most private universities have faced a restrictive lack of collaboration with the major enterprises which, however, have developed fruitful relationships with many public higher education institutions. Most Portuguese private universities specialise in a limited number of fields, most often in the social sciences and humanities.
Further to the public Universities in Switzerland, the country is well known for its high-quality private education system. It starts with Swiss boarding schools which have achieved fame. World-class universities such as the IMD belong to the category of institutions with top rankings.[16] Leman University Geneva, founded in Geneva Switzerland, is the only Private University in Switzerland offering programs in Law (Bachelor, Masters and Ph.D.). For a more complete listing, please consult the List of universities in Switzerland. EDUNIVERSAL Official Selection[17] has four private Business Schools in its rankings:
- the International Institute for Management Development (IMD)
- the Peter Lorange Institute of Business (former GSBA)
- EDUCATIS University
- International University in Geneva (IUG)
In Turkey there are 28 private universities, with 5 more not yet opened(as of 08/08/11).[18] The well known private universities in Turkey are:
The University of Buckingham is currently the only fully-fledged private university in the United Kingdom.[19] In July 2010 it was announced that London-based BPP would be granted permission to become a university college.[20] BPP University College is now the UK's only private university college.[20]
Other private degree awarding bodies in the UK include: Ashridge Business School, ifs School of Finance, The College of Law and Regent's College, all of which are privately funded charitable bodies. In addition the private Richmond University has its degrees are validated by the public Open University.
All other British universities are public.[citation needed][21] They have considerable institutional autonomy, but are currently funded mainly by government teaching and research grants[citation needed] and the government regulates their tuition fees, student funding and student loans and commissions and regulates research assessments and teaching reviews. However, unlike in Continental European countries, the British government does not own universities' assets, and university staff are not civil servants. Government regulation arises as a condition of accepting funding from bodies such as HEFCE and any university can in principle choose to leave the HEFCE regulated system at any time.[22]
From September 2012 government funding for teaching and background funding for research will be substantially reduced, with one study indicating that annual Government funding for teaching and research will make up just 15% of universities’ income by 2015.[23]
In the UK, an institution can only use the title "University" or "University College" if it has been granted by the Privy Council, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.[24] Prior to 1992, these titles were conferred by Royal Charter.
Ambrose University College
Canadian University College
Concordia University College of Alberta
King's University College
St. Mary's University College
Quest University
Trinity Western University
University Canada West
Fairleigh Dickinson University (Vancouver Campus)
Canadian Mennonite University
Atlantic Baptist University
Crandall University
Lansbridge University
St. Stephen's University
University of Fredericton
Yorkville University
Redeemer University College
Tyndale University College and Theological Seminary
Ross University
In Guatemala, the only Public university is Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala. The rest of the degree offering institutions in the country are Private. See the List of universities in Guatemala for a list of the Private Universities in the country.
In the U.S., many universities and colleges are private, operated as educational and research nonprofit organizations. About 20 percent of American college students attend private colleges.[25] Some of the most prestigious universities in the U.S. are private universities. Examples include Harvard University, University of Chicago, Columbia University, and Stanford University.
While most liberal arts colleges are likewise private, there are also some public liberal arts colleges. Some private universities are closely affiliated with religious organizations (for example, the University of Notre Dame) and some are directly operated by religious organizations (such as Brigham Young University).
Legally, private universities may not discriminate, but generally have a somewhat free hand in setting admissions policies. Universities base their selections on many secondary factors other than academic performance.[26] Since the post WW2-era, following in the mold of James Bryant Conant at Harvard, most private universities have made enormous strides in becoming meritocratic.
The U.S. system of education has also been transplanted to other countries. Private universities such as the American University in Cairo and the American University of Afghanistan typically offer a liberal arts curriculum to their students.
Tuition fees at private universities tend to be higher than at public universities though many private universities offer financial aid as well.[27]
Bond University, Australia's first private university, dates from 1987.[28] It runs three semesters per year (correlating exactly with the Northern and Southern Hemispheres' schedules), which allows a student to complete a six semester degree in two years and an eight semester degree (e.g. Law) in under three years.[29]
Since Bond University's foundation, the University of Notre Dame Australia opened as a private university, in 1989.
Melbourne University, a public university, owned a private university called Melbourne University Private from 1998 to 2005. The private university was not successful, losing A$20,000,000 over its lifetime.
- ^ http://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-27878.0.html
- ^ http://topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2008/indicator-rankings/international-facutly-review
- ^ http://topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2008/indicator-rankings/international-student-review
- ^ CNN. 22 June 2000. http://cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/schools/multi.overall.html.
- ^ a b ":::Private Universities - University Grants Commission :::". 30 June 2011. http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/privateuniversity.html. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
- ^ AUHS web site
- ^ PU web site
- ^ O.P. Jindal University web site
- ^ Amity University web site
- ^ "日本の大学 学校基本調査速報データ" (in Japanese). 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-11-29. http://web.archive.org/web/20071129022852/http://www.gakkou.net/05data/daigaku/h18_soku.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
- ^ Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education Website (in Arabic)
- ^ Education in Lebanon, CSRD report, Lebanese American University, 2004
- ^ Diane Stone, "Market Principles, Philanthropic Ideals and Public Service Values: The Public Policy Program at the Central European University", PS: Political Science and Politics, July 2007: 545—551.
- ^ http://www.notenboom.nl/
- ^ http://www.iva-driebergen.nl/index.php?pageID=30&n=47&s=73
- ^ http://www.enotes.com/topic/Private_university
- ^ [1]
- ^ http://www.allaboutturkey.com/education.htm#higher
- ^ "The University Debate: What the Ivy League can teach Britain". The Independent. 16 February 2011. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/the-university-debate-what-the-ivy-league-can-teach-britain-2215930.html. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ a b "BPP wins university college status as David Willetts acts on pledge to boost private providers". The Independent. 26 July 2010. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=412737. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ "'Fees keep universities public', Vince Cable says". BBC News. 15 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-11762430. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ Dennis, Farrington; David Palfreyman (2011-02-21). "OFFA and £6000-9000 tuition fees" (PDF). OxCHEPS Occasional Paper No. 39. Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies. http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/OxCHEPS_OP39.pdf. Retrieved 2011-03-20. "Note, however, that any university which does not want funding from HEFCE can, as a private corporation, charge whatever tuition fees it likes (exactly as does, say, the University of Buckingham or BPP University College). Under existing legislation and outside of the influence of the HEFCE-funding mechanism upon universities, Government can no more control university tuition fees than it can dictate the price of socks in Marks & Spencer. Universities are not part of the State and they are not part of the public sector; Government has no reserve powers of intervention even in a failing institution."
- ^ Paton, Graeme (2012-01-05). "Taxpayer funding of universities 'to drop to 100 year low'". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8992136/Taxpayer-funding-of-universities-to-drop-to-100-year-low.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ "Higher Education". Privy Council Office. http://www.privy-council.org.uk/output/Page27.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ Luzer, Daniel (April 13, 2012). "Can We Make College Cheaper?". Washington Monthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/college_guide/blog/can_we_make_college_cheaper.php. Retrieved 2012-04-17.
- ^ Gladwell, Malcolm. (2005) "Getting In: the social logic of Ivy League admissions." The New Yorker, October 10, 2005 [2]
- ^ Tottie, Gunnel. (2001) Introduction to American English Blackwell Publishing. p. 65. ISBN 0-631-19792-3.
- ^ Burrows, Toby (1993). Serials Management in Australia and New Zealand. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. pp. 19. ISBN 1-56024-453-4.
- ^ Princeton Review (2004). Guide to Studying Abroad. New York, NY: The Princeton Review. pp. 105. ISBN 978-0-375-76371-7.
