Pruritus
Classification and external resources
A man trying to reach for an itch
ICD-10	L29
ICD-9	698
DiseasesDB	25363
MedlinePlus	003217
eMedicine	derm/946
MeSH	D011537

Itch (Latin: pruritus) is a sensation that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to classify it as any one type of sensory experience. Modern science has shown that itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasant sensory experiences, their behavioral response patterns are different. Pain creates a withdrawal reflex while itch leads to a scratch reflex.^[1] Unmyelinated nerve fibers for itch and pain both originate in the skin; however, information for them is conveyed centrally in two distinct systems that both use the same nerve bundle and spinothalamic tract.^[2]

Mechanism[link]

Itch can originate in the peripheral nervous system (dermal or neuropathic) or in the central nervous system (neuropathic, neurogenic, or psychogenic).^[3][4]

Dermal/pruritoceptive[link]

A squirrel scratching itself, presumably in a response to an itch

Itch originating in the skin is known as pruritoceptive, and can be induced by a variety of stimuli, including mechanical, chemical, thermal and electrical stimulation. The primary afferent neurons responsible for histamine-induced itch are unmyelinated C-fibres. Two major classes of human C-fibre nociceptors exist: mechano-responsive nociceptors and mechano-insensitive nociceptors. Mechano-responsive nociceptors have been shown in studies to respond to mostly pain and mechano-insensitive receptors respond mostly to itch induced by histamine. However it does not explain mechanically induced itch or when itch is produced without a flare reaction which involves no histamine. Therefore it is possible that pruritoceptive nerve fibres have different classes of fibres, which is unclear in current research.^[1]

Studies have been done to show that itch receptors are found only on the top two skin layers, the epidermis and the epidermal/dermal transition layers.^{[citation needed]} Shelley and Arthur had verified the depth by injecting individual itch powder spicules (Mucuna pruriens) and found that maximal sensitivity was found at the basal cell layer or the innermost layer of the epidermis. Surgical removal of those skin layers removed the ability for a patient to perceive itch.^{[citation needed]} Itch is never felt in muscle, joints, or inner organs,^{[citation needed]} which strongly suggests that deep tissue probably does not contain itch signaling apparatuses.

Sensitivity to pruritic stimuli is evenly distributed across the skin and has a clear spot distribution with similar density to that of pain. The different substances that elicit itch upon intracutaneous injection (injection within the skin) elicit only pain when injected subcutaneously (beneath the skin). Itch is readily abolished in skin areas treated with nociceptor excitotoxin capsaicin but remains unchanged in skin areas which were rendered touch-insensitive by pretreatment with saponins, an anti-inflammatory agent. Although experimentally induced itch can still be perceived under a complete A-fiber conduction block, it is significantly diminished. Overall, itch sensation is mediated by A-delta and C nociceptors located in the uppermost layer of the skin.^[5]

Neuropathic[link]

Neuropathic itch can originate at any point along the afferent pathway as a result of damage of the nervous system. They could include diseases or disorders in the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system.^[4] Examples of neuropathic itch in origin are notalgia paresthetica, brachioradial pruritis, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, peripheral neuropathy, and nerve irritation.^[6]

Neurogenic[link]

Neurogenic itch, which is itch induced centrally but with maximum neural damage, is mostly associated with increased accumulation of exogenous opioids and possibly synthetic opioids.^[4]

Psychogenic[link]

Itch is also associated with some symptoms of psychiatric disorders such as tactile hallucinations, delusions of parasitosis or obsessive-compulsive disorders (as in OCD-related neurotic scratching).^[4]

Interactions between itch and pain[link]

Pain inhibits itch[link]

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The sensation of itch can be reduced by many painful sensations. Numerous studies done in the last decade have shown that itch can be inhibited by many other forms of painful stimuli, such as noxious heat, physical rubbing/scratching, noxious chemicals, and electric shock.^{[citation needed]}

The inhibition of itch by painful stimuli, including heat, physical stimulus, and chemical stimulus, has been shown experimentally. In an article written by Louise Ward and others, the effects of noxious and non-noxious counterstimuli, such as heat, physical vibration, or chemical stimulation on skin, were studied in healthy adults after they had experimentally induced itch (transdermal iontophoresis of histamine) and pain (with topical mustard oil) in their skin. They found that when they induced non-noxious counterstimuli, the reduction of pain and itch only lasted for up to 20 seconds. However when they induced noxious counterstimuli, there was a significant inhibition of itch for an extended period of time but no inhibition of pain. In addition, it was found that brief noxious stimuli created an anti-itch state for more than 30 minutes. These findings show that itch is not a subliminal form of pain and that noxious counterstimulus is likely to act through a central mechanism, instead of a peripheral one.^[7]

Chloroquine has been used in animal studies and in humans as a tool to study the itch mechanisms. In studies in rats, an inverted U-shaped dose response curve to chloroquine pruritogenicity was first described by Onigbogi et al.,^[8] and has been subsequently confirmed by others.^[9] This may suggest the involvement of several receptor types centrally. Indeed, naltrexone and Mu opiate down-regulation with chronic morphine attenuated the frequency of chloroquine pruritus in rats^[8] and in mice.^[9] Further, a kappa-opioid antagonist, nalfurafine further attenuated the chloroquine-induced itching frequency in mice.^[9] These results further suggested that multiple opiate receptors (mu and kappa) interact to modulate itching behavior to chloroquine. Chloroquine exhibits a pharmacogenetic variation in its itch sensitivity, being common in Africans but rare in other races. It also shows an age-related difference in prevalence. Chloroquine itching is uncommon in children but increases in age with a peak in the fourth decade of life and with increased familial concurrence in families and concordance among twins.^[10] Whether the pain sensation exhibits such distribution in Africans is yet to be studied.

Painful electrical stimulation reduced histamine-induced itch for several hours at a maximum distance of 10 cm from the stimulated site, which suggests a central mode of action.^{[citation needed]} A new method has been recently found, by Hans-Jorgen Nilsson and others,^[vague] that is able to relieve itch without damaging the skin: cutaneous field stimulation (CFS). CFS consists of a flexible rubber plate with 16 needle-like electrodes placed regularly at 2-centimeter intervals in a 4 by 4 matrix used to electrically stimulate nerve fibers in the surface of the skin. The electrodes were stimulated continuously at 4 hertz per electrode, with a pulse duration of 1 millisecond, and an intensity of 0.4–0.8 milliampere lasting for 25 minutes. CFS resulted in a pricking and burning sensation that usually faded away very quickly. The burning sensation was still present during a selective block of impulse conduction of A-fibres in myelinated fibers, which indicates that nociceptive C-fibres are activated by CFS. In addition, a flare reaction was noted to develop around the CFS electrodes, suggesting activation of axon reflexes in nociceptive C-fibres. Itch, which was induced by transdermal iontophoresis of histamine, was inhibited within the skin area treated with CFS and was also significantly reduced at 10 cm from the treatment area. CFS proves to offer a new method of combating itch by using painful electrical stimulation as it creates a long-lasting inhibitory effect, does not create any significant skin injuries, and is simple to apply. It is able to activate powerful itch-inhibitory mechanisms possibly routed through central mechanisms, which could normally be activated by scratching the skin.^[11]

A study done by Gil Yosipovitch, Katharine Fast, and Jeffrey Bernhard showed that noxious heat and scratching were able to inhibit or decrease itch induced by transdermal iontophoresis of histamine and, most interestingly, decrease skin blood flow. Twenty-one healthy volunteers participated in the study. Baseline measurements of skin blood flow were obtained on the flexor part of the forearm and then compared with skin blood flow after various stimuli. Then transdermal iontophoresis of histamine was performed and tested with various stimuli. It is well known that skin blood flow is significantly increased during mechanical scratching, warming, and noxious heat. This study is the first to examine the changes of blood flow by stimuli during iontophoresis of histamine and how itch is perceived in those conditions. Its examination provided an unexpected result that noxious heat and scratching have an inhibitory effect.^[12]

A negative correlation was found between pain sensitivity and itch sensitivity. In a study done by Amanda Green and others, they aimed to determine itch-related genetic factors and establish a more useful animal model for itch. They looked at 11 inbred mouse strains and compared their scratching behavior in response to two itch-inducing agents, histamine and chloroquine. Every strain revealed an inverted-U-shaped dose response relationship from chloroquine, indicating that moderate dosages produced more scratching than at higher dosages. An explanation is that higher dosage produces more pain and the presence of pain inhibits itch thereby lowering the amount of overall scratching. Another notable result was that histamine-induced scratching occurred in female mice on average 23% more than in males. Finally, it was found that mice having strains sensitive to pain were resistant to itch and vice versa.^[13]

Peripheral sensitization[link]

Inflammatory mediators—such as bradykinin, serotonin (5-HT) and prostaglandins—released during a painful or pruritic inflammatory condition not only activate pruriceptors but also cause acute sensitization of the nociceptors. In addition, expression of neuro growth factors (NGF) can cause structural changes in nociceptors, such as sprouting. NGF is high in injured or inflamed tissue. Increased NGF is also found in atopic dermatitis, a hereditary and non-contagious skin disease with chronic inflammation.^[14] NGF is known to up-regulate neuropeptides, especially substance P. Substance P has been found to have an important role in inducing pain; however, there is no confirmation that substance P directly causes acute sensitization. Instead, substance P may contribute to itch by increasing neuronal sensitization and may affect release of mast cells, which contain many granules rich in histamine, during long-term interaction.^[1]

Central sensitization[link]

Noxious input to the spinal cord is known to produce central sensitization, which consists of allodynia, exaggeration of pain, and punctuate hyperalgesia, extreme sensitivity to pain. Two types of mechanical hyperalgesia can occur: 1) touch that is normally painless in the uninjured surroundings of a cut or tear can trigger painful sensations (touch-evoked hyperalgesia), and 2) a slightly painful pin prick stimulation is perceived as more painful around a focused area of inflammation (punctuate hyperalgesia). Touch-evoked hyperalgesia requires continuous firing of primary afferent nociceptors, and punctuate hyperalgesia does not require continuous firing which means it can persist for hours after a trauma and can be stronger than normally experienced. In addition, it was found that patients with neuropathic pain, histamine ionophoresis resulted in a sensation of burning pain rather than itch, which would be induced in normal healthy patients. This shows that there is spinal hypersensitivity to C-fiber input in chronic pain.^[1]

Causes[link]

Scabies is one cause of itching.

Swimmer's itch

Athlete's foot

Infections and infestations:

• Allergic reaction to contact with specific chemicals, such as urushiol, derived from poison ivy or poison oak.
• Body louse. Body lice can be seen in substandard living conditions.
• Cutaneous larva migrans.
• Head lice, if limited to the neck and scalp.
• Herpes.
• Insect bites, such as those from mosquitos or chiggers.
• Photodermatitis – (sun)light reacts with chemicals in the skin, leading to the formation of irritant metabolites.
• Pubic lice, if limited to the genital area.
• Scabies especially when several other persons in close contact also itch.
• Shaving, which may irritate the skin.
• Swimmer's itch
• Varicella (Chickenpox) Most common in young children. Highly contagious.

Environmental and allergic:

• Urticaria (also called hives) usually causes itching.

Dermatological disorders:

• Dandruff. (An unusually large amount of flaking is associated with this sensation.)
• Scab healing; scar growth; and the development or emergence of moles, pimples and ingrown hairs from below the epidermis.
• Skin conditions (such as psoriasis, eczema, sunburn, athlete's foot, hidradenitis suppurativa and many others). Most are of an inflammatory nature.
• Punctate palmoplantar keratoderma.
• Xerosis (dry skin). This is the most common cause,^{[citation needed]} frequently seen in the winter and also associated with older age, frequent bathing in hot showers or baths, and high-temperature and low-humidity environments.

Medical disorders:

• Diabetes Mellitus.
• Hyperparathyroidism.^[15]
• Iron deficiency anemia.
• Jaundice and Cholestasis. (Bilirubin is a skin irritant at high concentrations.)
• Malignancy or internal cancer such as lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease.^[16]
• Menopause or changes in hormonal balances associated with aging.
• Polycythemia, which can cause generalized itching due to increased histamine.
• Thyroid illness.
• Uraemia.

Medication:

• Directly (e.g. morphine and other opiates)
• Chloroquine.

Related to pregnancy:

• Gestational pemphigoid
• Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
• Pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy (PUPPP)
• Psychiatric disease.

Treatment[link]

A variety of over-the-counter and prescription anti-itch drugs are available. Some plant products have been found to be effective anti-pruritics, others not. Non-chemical remedies include cooling, warming, soft stimulation.

Topical antipruritics in the form of creams and sprays are often available over-the-counter. Oral anti-itch drugs also exist and are usually prescription drugs. The active ingredients usually belong to the following classes:

• Antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
• Corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone topical cream, see topical steroid
• Counterirritants, such as mint oil, menthol, or camphor^[17]
• Crotamiton (trade name Eurax) is an antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion often used to treat scabies. Its mechanism of action remains unknown.
• Local anesthetics such as benzocaine topical cream (Lanacane)

Phototherapy is helpful for severe itching, especially if caused by renal failure. The common type of light used is UVB.^[16]

Sometimes scratching relieves isolated itches, hence the existence of devices such as the back scratcher. Often, however, scratching can intensify itching and even cause further damage to the skin, dubbed the "itch-scratch-itch cycle"^{[citation needed]}.

The mainstay of therapy for dry skin is maintaining adequate skin moisture and topical emollients.

Sensations associated with scratching[link]

Pain and itch have very different behavioral response patterns. Pain evokes a withdrawal reflex which leads to retraction and therefore a reaction trying to protect an endangered part of the body. Itch creates a scratch reflex which draws one to the affected skin site. For example, responding to a local itch sensation is an effective way to remove insects on the skin. Scratching has traditionally been regarded as a way to relieve oneself by reducing the annoying itch sensation. However there are hedonic aspects of scratching as one would find noxious scratching highly pleasurable.^[1] This can be problematic with chronic itch patients, such as ones with atopic dermatitis, who may scratch affected spots until it no longer produces a pleasant or painful sensation instead of when the itch sensation disappears.^[18] It has been hypothesized that motivational aspects of scratching include the frontal brain areas of reward and decision making. These aspects might therefore contribute to the compulsive nature of itch and scratching.^[1]

Contagious itch[link]

Events of "contagious itch" are very common occurrences. Even a discussion on the topic of itch can give one the desire to scratch. Itch is likely to be more than a localized phenomenon in the place we scratch. Results from a recent study showed that itching and scratching were induced purely by visual stimuli in a public lecture on itching. There is currently little detailed data on central activation for contagious itching but it is hypothesized that a human mirror neuron system exists in which we imitate certain motor actions when we view others performing the same action. A similar phenomenon in which mirror neurons are used to explain the cause is contagious yawning.^[1]

See also[link]

• Formication
• Personal grooming
• Pruritus ani
• Referred itch

References[link]

• Andrew D, Craig AD (2001). "Spinothalamic lamina I neurons selectively sensitive to histamine: a central neural pathway for itch". Nat. Neurosci. 4 (1): 72–7. DOI:10.1038/82924. PMID 11135647. http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v4/n1/full/nn0101_72.html. 
• National Cancer Institute (2003) "Pruritus" Retrieved Aug. 22, 2005.

Footnotes[link]

External links[link]

• 168165389 at GPnotebook

Trent Reznor
Background information
Birth name	Michael Trent Reznor
Born	(1965-05-17) May 17, 1965 (age 47) Mercer, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Genres	Industrial rock, industrial metal, post-industrial, dark ambient, alternative rock, experimental rock
Occupations	Musician, songwriter, sound designer, record producer, film score composer
Instruments	Vocals, guitar, piano, synthesizer, mellotron, keyboards, bass guitar, saxophone, cello, double bass, drums, tuba, sousaphone, harmonium, marimba, pan flute, harpsichord, vibraphone, swarmatron
Years active	1982–present
Labels	The Null Corporation, Nothing, Interscope, Universal, TVT
Associated acts	Option 30, The Innocent, Exotic Birds, Nine Inch Nails, How to Destroy Angels, Tapeworm, Atticus Ross, Marilyn Manson, David Fincher
Website	www.nin.com

Michael Trent Reznor (born May 17, 1965) is an American singer–songwriter, composer, and record producer. As both a vocalist and a multi-instrumentalist, Reznor has led the industrial rock project Nine Inch Nails beginning in 1988, and as of 2010 he and his wife, Mariqueen Maandig, are also members of the post-industrial^[1][2] band How to Destroy Angels alongside fellow composer Atticus Ross,^[1][3] with whom Reznor has scored two films. Reznor was previously associated with the bands Option 30, Exotic Birds, and Tapeworm, among others. Reznor left Interscope Records in 2007, and is now an independent recording artist.

Reznor began creating music early in his life, and cites his Western Pennsylvania childhood as an early influence. After being involved with a number of synthesizer-based bands in the mid-80s, Reznor gained employment at Right Track Studios in Cleveland, Ohio and began creating his own music during the studio's closing hours under the moniker Nine Inch Nails. Reznor's first release as Nine Inch Nails, Pretty Hate Machine (1989), was a commercial and critical success, and he has since released seven major studio releases. Outside of Reznor's chief project Nine Inch Nails, he has contributed to many other artists' albums, including Marilyn Manson and Saul Williams. In 1997, Reznor appeared in Time magazine's list of the year's most influential people, and in Spin magazine he was described as "the most vital artist in music."^[4]

Reznor, in collaboration with Atticus Ross, composed the score for the soundtrack to The Social Network, a 2010 theatrical film about the founding of Facebook. The duo won the 2010 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score for their collaboration. Reznor and Ross also composed the score to the US film adaptation of the novel The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, which was released in late 2011. Both soundtrack albums were released by The Null Corporation, Reznor's own independent record label.

Early life[link]

Reznor was born in Mercer, Pennsylvania, halfway between Pittsburgh and Erie, the son of Nancy Lou (née Clark) and Michael Reznor.^[5] After his parents divorced, he lived with his maternal grandparents, while his sister Tera lived with their mother.^[6] Reznor is a direct descendant of George Reznor, who founded the Reznor Company, a heating and air conditioning company, in 1888. The family sold the business in the 1960s.^[5][7]

Reznor began playing the piano at the age of five and showed an early aptitude for music. In a 1995 interview, his grandfather, Bill Clark, remarked, "Music was his life, from the time he was a wee boy. He was so gifted."^[8] His former piano teacher Rita Beglin said "Reznor always reminded me of Harry Connick, Jr." when he played.^[8]

Reznor has acknowledged that his sheltered life in Pennsylvania left him feeling isolated from the outside world. In a 1994 interview with Rolling Stone, he references his choices in the music industry.

However, Reznor later said, "I don't want to give the impression it was a miserable childhood."^[10]

At Mercer Area Junior/Senior High School, Reznor learned to play the tenor saxophone and tuba. He was a member of both the jazz and marching band. Former Mercer High School band director Dr. Hendley Hoge remembered Reznor as "very upbeat and friendly."^[8] Reznor also became involved in theater while in high school. He was voted "Best in Drama" by classmates for his roles as Judas in Jesus Christ Superstar and Professor Harold Hill in The Music Man. Reznor graduated from this high school in 1983 and enrolled at Allegheny College, where he studied computer engineering.^[11]

Music career[link]

Early musical projects[link]

While he was enrolled in Allegheny College, Reznor joined local band Option 30, playing three shows a week with them. After only a year of college, Reznor dropped out and moved to Cleveland, Ohio to pursue a career in music.^[8] In 1985, he joined The Innocent as a keyboardist. They released one album, Livin' in the Street, but Reznor quit after just three months. In 1986, Reznor joined local band Exotic Birds, during this time, Reznor also contributed on keyboards to the band Slam Bamboo. He also appeared with them as the fictional band "The Problems" in the 1987 film Light of Day.^[12]

Reznor got a job at Cleveland's Right Track Studio as an assistant engineer and janitor.^[13] Studio owner Bart Koster later commented that Reznor was "so focused in everything he [did]. When that guy waxed the floor, it looked great."^[8] Reznor asked Koster for permission to record demos of his own songs for free during unused studio time. Koster agreed, remarking that it cost him "just a little wear on [his] tape heads".^[8] While assembling these, the earliest Nine Inch Nails recordings, Reznor was unable to find a band that could articulate his songs as he wanted. Instead, inspired by Prince, he played all the instruments himself, except drums.^[14] This role remains Reznor's on most of the band's studio recordings, though he has occasionally involved other musicians and assistants. Several labels responded favorably to the demo material, and Reznor signed with TVT Records.^[13] Nine selections from the Right Track demos were unofficially released in 1988 as Purest Feeling; many of these songs had appeared in revised form on his 1989 debut studio album under the stage name Nine Inch Nails.

Formation of Nine Inch Nails[link]

Reznor performing at the Lollapalooza festival, 1991.

Most of Reznor's work as a musician has been as founding and primary member of Nine Inch Nails. Nine Inch Nails' debut album, Pretty Hate Machine was released in 1989. It was a moderate commercial success, and was certified Gold in 1992.^[15] Amid pressure from Reznor's record label to produce a follow-up to Pretty Hate Machine, Reznor secretly began recording under various pseudonyms to avoid record company interference, resulting in the Broken EP, released in 1992.^[16] In the summer of 1991 Nine Inch Nails was included in the Lollapalooza package tour. They later won a Grammy Award in 1993 for the song "Wish" in the Best Heavy Metal Performance category.^[17]

Nine Inch Nails' second full-length album, The Downward Spiral, entered the Billboard 200 chart in 1994 at number two,^[18] and remains the highest-selling Nine Inch Nails release in the United States.^[15] To record the album, Reznor rented and moved into the 10050 Cielo Drive mansion, site of the 1969 Manson Family murders.^[19] Reznor built a studio space in the house, which he renamed Le Pig, after the word that was scrawled on the front door in Sharon Tate's blood by her murderers.^[19] Reznor told Entertainment Weekly that despite the notoriety attached to the house, he chose to record there because, "I looked at a lot of places, and this just happened to be the one I liked most".^[19]

Nine Inch Nails toured extensively over the next few years, including a performance at Woodstock '94, although he admitted to the audience that he did not like to play large venues.^[20] Around this time, Reznor's studio perfectionism,^[21] struggles with addiction, and bouts of writer's block prolonged the production of a follow-up.^[22]

Collaboration with other artists[link]

One of Reznor's earliest collaborations was a Ministry side project in 1990 under the name of 1000 Homo DJs. Reznor sang vocals on a cover of Black Sabbath's Supernaut. Due to legal issues with Reznor's label, Reznor's vocals had to be distorted enough to make his voice indistinguishable. The band also recorded additional versions with Al Jourgensen doing vocals.^[23] While there is still debate as to which version is Reznor and which is Jourgensen, it has been definitively stated that Reznor's vocals were used in the TVT Record's Black Box Box set.^[24] Reznor sang backing vocals on Tori Amos' 1994 album Under the Pink on a track called "Past The Mission." Reznor produced Marilyn Manson's first album Portrait of an American Family (1994), several tracks on Marilyn Manson's albums Smells Like Children (1995), and Antichrist Superstar (1996), as well as the film soundtracks for Oliver Stone's Natural Born Killers (1994) and David Lynch's Lost Highway (1997). Reznor is credited for "Driver Down" and "Videodrones; Questions" on the soundtrack for Lost Highway, while another track, "The Perfect Drug", is credited to Nine Inch Nails instead. In 1998 Reznor produced a remix of Notorious B.I.G.'s song "Victory" which also featured Busta Rhymes.^[25] He also unofficially worked with Garrett Ahlstrom on "Big Black Bomb" a remix on "Burn" he stated on the spiral, "I never worked on the song but I still consider it an official mix"

Under the band name Tapeworm, Reznor collaborated over the span of nearly 10 years with Danny Lohner, Maynard James Keenan, and Atticus Ross, but the project was eventually terminated before any official material was released.^[26] The only known released Tapeworm material is a reworked version of a track called "Vacant," retitled "Passive", on A Perfect Circle's 2004 album eMOTIVe,^[27] as well as a track called "Potions," on Puscifer's 2009 "C" Is for (Please Insert Sophomoric Genitalia Reference Here).

In 2006, Reznor played his first "solo" show(s) at Neil Young's annual Bridge School Benefit. Backed by a four piece string section, he performed stripped-down versions of many Nine Inch Nails songs.^[28] Reznor featured on El-P's 2007 album I'll Sleep When You're Dead, guesting on the track "Flyentology". The accompanying music video for the song and its artwork was created by Adult Swim, who aired the music video.

Reznor co-produced Saul Williams' 2007 album The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust! after Williams toured with Nine Inch Nails in 2005 and 2006. Reznor convinced Williams to release the album as a free download, while giving fans the option of paying $5 for higher quality files, or downloading all of the songs at a lower quality for free.^[29][30] Reznor was also credited as "Musical Consultant" on the 2004 film Man on Fire.^[31] The movie features six Nine Inch Nails songs.^[32] He has produced a number of songs for Jane's Addiction in his home studio in Beverly Hills. The first recordings, new versions of the early tracks "Chip Away" and "Whores", were released simultaneously on Jane's Addiction's website and the NINJA 2009 Tour Sampler digital EP.

How to Destroy Angels[link]

In April 2010, it was announced that Reznor had formed a new band with his wife, Mariqueen Maandig, and Atticus Ross, called How to Destroy Angels. The group released a self-titled six song EP digitally on June 1, 2010, with the retail edition becoming available on July 6, 2010.^[33]

As an independent artist[link]

Trent Reznor and Robin Finck, Santa Barbara, California 2009.

In May 2008 Reznor founded The Null Corporation and Nine Inch Nails released the studio album The Slip as a free digital download. In his appreciation for his following and fan base, and having no contractual obligation, he made "The Slip" available for free on his website, stating “This one’s on me.”^[34] A month and a half after its online release, The Slip had been downloaded 1.4 million times from the official Nine Inch Nails website.^[35]

In February 2009, Reznor posted his thoughts about the future of Nine Inch Nails on NIN.com, stating that "I've been thinking for some time now it's time to make NIN disappear for a while."^[36] Reznor noted in an interview on the official website that while he has not stopped creating music as Nine Inch Nails, the group will not be touring in the foreseeable future.^[37][38]

Video games[link]

The original music from id Software's video game Quake is credited to "Trent Reznor and Nine Inch Nails";^[39] Reznor helped record sound effects and ambient audio, and the NIN logo appears on the nailgun ammunition boxes in the game.^[40] Reznor's association with id Software began with Reznor being a fan of the original Doom. He reunited with id Software in 2003 as the sound engineer for Doom 3, though due to "time, money and bad management",^[41] he had to abandon the project, and his audio work did not make it into the game's final release.

Nine Inch Nails' 2007 major studio recording, Year Zero, was released alongside an accompanying alternate reality game.^[42] With its lyrics written from the perspective of multiple fictitious characters, Reznor described Year Zero as a concept album criticizing the United States government's current policies and how they will affect the world 15 years in the future.^[43]

Film composition[link]

In 2001, Reznor was asked by Mark Romanek to provide the score for One Hour Photo, but the music did not work for the film and was not used. These compositions eventually evolved into Still.^[44]

In 2009, Trent Reznor composed "Theme for Tetsuo" for the Japanese cyberpunk film Tetsuo: The Bullet Man from Shinya Tsukamoto.^[45]

Reznor collaborated with Atticus Ross to compose the score for David Fincher's The Social Network, a 2010 drama film about the founding of Facebook. Says Reznor, "When I actually read the script and realized what he was up to, I said goodbye to that free time I had planned."^[46] The score was noted for portraying "Mark Zuckerberg the genius, developing a brilliant idea over ominous undertones,"^[47] and received nearly unanimous praise across the board. On September 16, 2010, Reznor announced that the film's score would be released in October 2010 in multiple formats, including digital download, compact disc, 5.1 surround on Blu-ray disc, and vinyl record.^[48] A 5-song sampler EP was released for free via digital download.^[49] In 2011 Reznor and Ross won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score^[50] and the Academy Award for Original Score^[51] for this work.

On January 7, 2011, Reznor announced that he would again be working with Fincher, this time to provide the score for the American adaptation of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo.^[52] A cover of "Immigrant Song" by Led Zeppelin produced by Reznor and Ross, with Karen O (of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs) as featured singer, was released by way of a trailer for the film. The cover extended for the entirety of the trailer and was well received by critics.^[53] Reznor and Ross were announced as nominees for the 2012 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score for their score.

Business activity[link]

Suit and counter-suit with John Malm[link]

In 2004, Reznor's former manager John Malm Jr. filed suit in the United States district court of Ohio against Reznor for over $2 million in deferred commissions. The suit alleged that Reznor "reneged on every single contract he and Malm ever entered into", and that Reznor refused to pay Malm payments which he was contractually entitled to.^[54] Weeks later, Reznor filed a counter-suit in the U.S. District Court of New York, charging Malm with fraud and breach of fiduciary duties.^[55] Reznor's suit arose from a five-year management contract signed in the early days of Nine Inch Nails, between Reznor and Malm's management company J. Artist Management. This contract, according to the suit, was unlawful and immoral in that it secured Malm 20% of Reznor's gross earnings, rather than his net earnings, as is the standard practice between artists and their management. The suit also alleged that the contract secured this percentage even if Malm was no longer representing Reznor, and for all Reznor's album advances.^[56] The suit also described how Malm had misappropriated the ownership rights regarding Nine Inch Nails, including the trademark name "NIN".^[57] According to testimony by Malm, Reznor gave him half of the "NIN" trademark "as a gift."^[57]

Reznor stated that he began to fully understand his financial situation after tackling his addiction to drugs and alcohol.^[56] Reznor requested a financial statement from Malm in 2003, only to discover that he had only $400,000 in liquid assets. "It was not pleasant discovering you have a 10th as much as you've been told you have," Reznor told the court.^[58] Malm's lawyers, however, claimed that Malm had worked for years "pro bono", and that Reznor's inability to release an album or tour and his uninhibited spending were the reasons for Reznor's financial situation.^[59]

After a three week trial in 2005, jurors sided with Reznor, awarding him upwards of $2.95 million and returning to him complete control of his trademarks.^[58] After adjustment for inflation, Reznor's award rose to nearly $5 million.^[57]

Independence from major record labels[link]

Following the release of Year Zero, Reznor announced later that Nine Inch Nails had split from its contractual obligations with Interscope Records, and would distribute its next major albums independently. The last Nine Inch Nails release on Interscope was Year Zero Remixed, based on material from Year Zero.^[60]

Criticism of the music industry[link]

In May 2007, Reznor made a post on the official Nine Inch Nails website condemning Universal Music Group—the parent company of the band's record label, Interscope Records—for their pricing and distribution plans for Nine Inch Nails' 2007 album Year Zero.^[61] He labeled the company's retail pricing of Year Zero in Australia as "ABSURD," concluding that "as a reward for being a 'true fan' you get ripped off". Reznor went on to say that as "the climate grows more and more desperate for record labels, their answer to their mostly self-inflicted wounds seems to be to screw the consumer over even more."^[62] Reznor's post, specifically his criticism of the recording industry at large, elicited considerable media attention.^[63] In September 2007, Reznor continued his attack on Universal Music Group at a concert in Australia, urging fans there to "steal" his music online instead of purchasing it legally.^[64] Reznor went on to encourage the crowd to "steal and steal and steal some more and give it to all your friends and keep on stealin'."^[65]

Musical style and influence[link]

Reznor is a fan of David Bowie, and has cited Bowie's 1977 album Low as one of his favorite albums. Reznor has stated that he played the album constantly during the recording of The Downward Spiral for inspiration.^[10] In 1995, Nine Inch Nails and David Bowie toured as a co-headlining act on the Outside Tour. Reznor also appeared in Bowie's video for "I'm Afraid of Americans", cast as Bowie's stalker. Reznor also made several remixes for the single release of the same song, as well as a remix of "The Hearts Filthy Lesson".^[66] Reznor also states in the 2010 documentary Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage that the band Rush had played a major part in his childhood influences. He also stated that he considered Rush to be "one of the best bands ever" and had gained a perspective on how keyboards could be introduced into hard rock after listening to their 1982 album Signals. Reznor also stated "Freddie Mercury's death meant more to me than John Lennon's" and covered Queen's "Get Down Make Love", which was produced by Paul Barker & Al Jourgensen of Ministry and released on the single for "Sin". In many interviews in Musician, Spin, and Alternative Press, Reznor mentioned The Cars, The Jesus and Mary Chain, Soft Cell,^[67] Prince, Gary Numan, and The Cure's 1985 album, The Head on the Door, as important influences. In a radio interview, Reznor stated the first song he ever wrote "Down in It" was a "total rip-off" of the Skinny Puppy song "Dig It."^[68]

Reznor's work as Nine Inch Nails has influenced many newer artists, which according to Reznor range from "generic imitations" dating from the band's initial success to younger bands echoing his style in a "truer, less imitative way".^[69] Following the release of The Downward Spiral, mainstream artists began to take notice of Nine Inch Nails' influence: David Bowie compared NIN's impact to that of The Velvet Underground.^[70] In 1997, Reznor appeared in Time magazine's list of the year's most influential people, and Spin magazine described him as "the most vital artist in music."^[4] Bob Ezrin, producer for Pink Floyd, Kiss, Alice Cooper, and Peter Gabriel, described Reznor in 2007 as a "true visionary" and advised aspiring artists to take note of his no-compromise attitude.^[71] During a rare appearance at the Kerrang! Awards in London that year, Reznor accepted the Kerrang! Icon, honoring Nine Inch Nails' long-standing influence on rock music.^[72] Steven Wilson of progressive rock band Porcupine Tree has stated that he much admires Reznor's production work, in particular The Fragile. Timbaland, one of pop music's most successful producers in recent years, has cited Reznor as his favorite studio producer.^[73]

Personal life[link]

During the five years following the release of The Downward Spiral (1994), Reznor struggled with depression, social anxiety disorder, and the death of his grandmother, who raised him. During this period of intense grief, Reznor began abusing alcohol and other drugs. He eventually became addicted to alcohol and cocaine.^[74] Five years elapsed before Nine Inch Nails' next album, The Fragile, a double CD that debuted in September 1999 at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 228,000 copies in its first week and receiving favorable reviews.^[75]

In 2001, Reznor successfully completed rehab, and eventually moved from New Orleans to Los Angeles. In a 2005 interview with Kerrang!, Reznor reflected on his self-destructive past: "There was a persona that had run its course. I needed to get my priorities straight, my head screwed on. Instead of always working, I took a couple of years off, just to figure out who I was and working out if I wanted to keep doing this or not. I had become a terrible addict; I needed to get my shit together, figure out what had happened".^[22] In contrast with his former suicidal tendencies, Reznor also admitted in another interview that he is "pretty happy".^[76] Nine Inch Nails' next full-length album, With Teeth (2005), reached number one on Billboard 200.^[77][78]

Reznor married Mariqueen Maandig in October 2009.^[79] Their son, Lazarus Echo, was born in October 2010^[80] and they are currently expecting another child.^[81]

Discography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

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• Official website