Divorce (or the dissolution of marriage) is the final termination of a marital union, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties (unlike annulment, which declares the marriage null and void). Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries it requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process. The legal process of divorce may also involve issues of alimony (spousal support), child custody, child support, distribution of property, and division of debt. Where monogamy is law, divorce allows each former partner to marry another; where polygyny is legal but polyandry is not, divorce allows the woman to marry another.

Between 1971 and 2011, several countries legalized divorce, the last one being Malta in 2011. The majority Catholic Philippines is the last officially secular country that does not have civil divorce for the whole population; Muslims, however, are granted divorce rights as per their religion. Vatican City, a ecclesiastical sovereign city-state, also has no procedure for divorce.

"Divorcing one's parents" is a term sometimes used to refer to emancipation of minors.

Western law[link]

In some Western jurisdictions, divorce (legally referred to as 'dissolution of marriage') does not require a party to assert fault on the part of their partner leading to the breakdown of their marriage. Prior to the onset of 'no-fault' statutes, a party would have to prove a ground, typically 'desertion,' 'abandonment,' 'cruelty,' or 'adultery.' The requirement of proving a ground was revised (and withdrawn) by the terms of 'no-fault' statutes, which became popular in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 'no-fault' jurisdictions, a simple, general allegation of 'irreconcilable differences,' or 'irretrievable break-down' with respect to the marriage relationship, sufficed to establish the end of the marriage.

In jurisdictions adopting the 'no-fault' principle in divorce proceedings, some courts may still take into account the behaviour of the parties when dividing property, debts, evaluating custody, and support—facts that almost always have considerable weight in fault proceedings.^{[citation needed]} This is particularly true in custody cases, where the courts might consider many factors that mirror 'fault' grounds, such as drug abuse, alcoholism, violence, cruelty, instability, neglect, and possibly the preference of an intelligent, mature child.

Despite this, in some countries (or states of the United States), the courts will seldom apply principles of fault, but might willingly hold a party liable for a breach of a fiduciary duty to his or her spouse (for example, see Family Code Sections 720 and 1100 of the California Family Code).

In most jurisdictions, a divorce must be certified (or ordered by a Judge) by a court of law to come into effect. The terms of the divorce are usually determined by the courts, though they may take into account prenuptial agreements or post-nuptial agreements, or simply ratify terms that the spouses may have agreed to privately (this is not true in the United States, where agreements related to the marriage typically have to be rendered in writing to be enforceable). In absence of agreement, a contested divorce may be stressful to the spouses. Contested divorces mean that one of several issues are required to be heard by a judge at trial level—this is more expensive, and the parties will have to pay for a lawyer's time and preparation. Less adversarial approaches to divorce settlements have recently emerged, such as mediation and collaborative divorce settlement, which negotiate mutually acceptable resolution to conflicts. This principle in the United States is called 'Alternative Dispute Resolution' and continues to gain popularity.

In some other countries, when the spouses agree to divorce and to the terms of the divorce, it can be certified by a non-judiciary administrative entity. The effect of a divorce is that both parties are free to marry again.

The subject of divorce as a social phenomenon is an important research topic in sociology. In many developed countries, divorce rates increased markedly during the twentieth century. Among the nations in which divorce has become commonplace are the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

Differences[link]

Types of divorce[link]

Though divorce laws vary among jurisdictions, there are two basic approaches to divorce: fault based and no-fault based. However, even in some jurisdictions that do not require a party to claim fault of their partner, a court may still take into account the behaviour of the parties when dividing property, debts, evaluating custody, and support.

Laws vary as to the waiting period before a divorce is effective. Also, residency requirements vary. However, issues of division of property are typically determined by the law of the jurisdiction in which the property is located.^{[citation needed]}

No-fault divorce[link]

Under a no-fault divorce system, divorce requires no allegation or proof of fault of either party. The barest of assertions suffice. For example, in countries that require "irretrievable breakdown", the mere assertion that the marriage has broken down will satisfy the judicial officer. In other jurisdictions requiring irreconcilable differences, the mere allegation that the marriage has been destroyed by these differences is enough for granting a divorce. Courts will not inquire into facts. A "yes" is enough, even if the other party vehemently says "no".

The application can be made by either party or by both parties jointly.

At-fault divorce[link]

Prior to the late 1960s, nearly all countries that permitted divorce also required proof by one party that the other party had committed an act incompatible to the marriage. This was termed "grounds" for divorce (popularly called "fault") and was the only way to terminate a marriage. Most jurisdictions around the world still require such proof of fault. In the United States, no-fault divorce is now available in all 50 states.

Fault-based divorces can be contested; evaluation of offenses may involve allegations of collusion of the parties (working together to get the divorce), or condonation (approving the offense), connivance (tricking someone into committing an offense), or provocation by the other party. Contested fault divorces can be expensive, and not usually practical as eventually most divorces are granted. Comparative rectitude is a doctrine used to determine which spouse is more at fault when both spouses are guilty of breaches.^{[citation needed]}

Summary divorce[link]

A summary (or simple) divorce, available in some jurisdictions, is used when spouses meet certain eligibility requirements, or can agree on key issues beforehand.

Key factors:

• Short marriage (less than 5 years)
• No children (or, in some states, when the spouses have resolved custody and set child support payments for children of the marriage)
• Minimal or no real property (no mortgage)
• Marital property is under a threshold (around $35,000 not including vehicles)
• Each spouse's personal property is under a threshold (typically the same as marital property)

Uncontested divorce[link]

It is estimated that upwards of 95% of divorces in the U.S. are "uncontested", because the two parties are able to come to an agreement (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues. When the parties can agree and present the court with a fair and equitable agreement, approval of the divorce is almost guaranteed. If the two parties cannot come to an agreement, they may ask the court to decide how to split property and deal with the custody of their children. Though this may be necessary, the courts would prefer parties come to an agreement prior to entering court.^{[citation needed]}

Where the issues are not complex and the parties are cooperative, a settlement often can be directly negotiated between them. In the majority of cases, forms are acquired from their respective state websites and a filing fee is paid to the state.^[1] Most U.S. states charge between $175 and $350 for a simple divorce filing.^[2][3][4] Collaborative divorce and mediated divorce are considered uncontested divorces. In the United States, many state court systems are experiencing an increasing proportion of pro se (i.e., litigants represent themselves without a lawyer) in divorce cases.^[5] In San Diego, for example, the number of divorce filings involving at least one self-representing litigant rose from 46% in 1992 to 77% in 2000, and in Florida from 66% in 1999 to 73% in 2001.^[5] Urban courts in California report that approximately 80% of the new divorce filings are filed pro se.^[6]

Collaborative divorce[link]

Collaborative divorce is a method for divorcing couples to come to agreement on divorce issues. In a collaborative divorce, the parties negotiate an agreed resolution with the assistance of attorneys who are trained in the collaborative divorce process and in mediation, and often with the assistance of a neutral financial specialist and/or divorce coach(es). The parties are empowered to make their own decisions based on their own needs and interests, but with complete information and full professional support.

Once the collaborative divorce starts, the lawyers are disqualified from representing the parties in a contested legal proceeding, should the collaborative law process end prematurely. Most attorneys who practice collaborative divorce claim that it can be more cost-effective than other divorce methods, e.g., going to court. Expense, they say, has to be looked at under the headings of financial and emotional. Also, the experience of working collaboratively tends to improve communication between the parties, particularly when collaborative coaches are involved, and the possibility of going back to court post-separation or divorce is minimised. In the course of the collaboration, should the parties not reach any agreements, any documents or information exchanged during the collaborative process cannot be used in court except by agreement between the parties.

Neither can any of the professional team retained in the course of the collaboration be brought to court. Essentially, they have the same protections as in mediation. There are two exceptions: 1) Any affidavit sworn in the course of the collaboration and vouching documentation attaching to same and 2) any interim agreement made and signed off in the course of the collaboration or correspondence relating thereto. The parties are in control of the time they are prepared to give their collaboration. Some people need a lot of time to complete, whereas others will reach solutions in a few meetings. Collaborative practitioners offer a tightly orchestrated model with meetings scheduled in advance every two weeks, and the range of items to be discussed apportioned in advance of signing up as well as the more open ended process, the clients decide.^{[citation needed]}

Mediated divorce[link]

Divorce mediation is an alternative to traditional divorce litigation. In a divorce mediation session, a mediator facilitates the discussion between the two parties by assisting with communication and providing information and suggestions to help resolve differences. At the end of the mediation process, the separating parties have typically developed a tailored divorce agreement that can be submitted to the court. Mediation sessions can include either party's attorneys, a neutral attorney, or an attorney-mediator who can inform both parties of their legal rights, but does not provide advice to either, or can be conducted with the assistance of a facilitative or transformative mediator without attorneys present at all. Divorce mediators may be attorneys who have experience in divorce cases, or they may be professional mediators who are not attorneys, but who have training specifically in the area of family court matters. Divorce mediation can be significantly less costly, both financially and emotionally, than litigation. The adherence rate to mediated agreements is much higher than that of adherence to court orders.^{[citation needed]}

Polygyny and divorce[link]

Polygyny is a significant structural factor governing divorce in countries where this is permitted. Little-to-no analysis has been completed to explicitly explain the link between marital instability and polygyny which leads to divorce. The frequency of divorce rises in polygynous marriages compared to monogamous relationships. Within polygynous unions, differences in conjugal stability are found to occur by wife order. There are 3 main mechanisms through which polygyny affects divorce: economic restraint, sexual satisfaction, and childlessness. Many women escape economic restraint through divorcing their spouses when they are allowed to initiate a divorce.^[7]

Effects of Divorce[link]

Some of the effects associated with divorce include academic, behavioral, and psychological problems. Although this may not always be true, studies suggest that children from divorced families are more likely to exhibit such behavioral issues than those from non-divorced families.^[8]

Divorce and Relationships[link]

Research done at Northern Illinois University on Family and Child Studies suggests that divorce can have a positive affect on families due to less conflict in the home. There are, however, many instances where the parent-child relationship may suffer due to divorce. Financial support is many times lost when an adult goes through a divorce. The adult may be obligated to obtain additional work to maintain financial stability. In turn, this can lead to a negative relationship between the parent and child. The relationship may suffer due to lack of attention towards the child as well as minimal parental supervision^[8]

Studies have also shown that parental skills decrease after a divorce occurs; however, this affect is only a temporary change. “A number of researchers have shown that a disequilibrium, including diminished parenting skills, occurs in the year following the divorce but that by two years after the divorce re-stabilization has occurred and parenting skills have improved” ^[9]

In a study done by the American Psychological Association on a parents’ relocation after a divorce, found that a move is a long-term affect on children. In the first study done amongst 2,000 college students on the effects of parental relocation relating to the well being if their children after divorce, researchers found major differences. In divorced families where one parent moved, the students received less financial support from their parents compared with divorced families where neither parent moved. These findings also imply other negative outcomes for these students such as more distress related to the divorce and did not feel a sense of emotional support from their parents. Although the data suggests negative outcomes for these students whose parents relocate after divorce, there is not enough research that can alone prove the overall well-being of the child^[10] A newer study in the Journal of Family Psychology found that parents who move more than an hour away from their children after a divorce are much less well off than those parents who stayed in the same location^[11]

Divorce and Academic Achievements[link]

Children who have experienced a divorce frequently have lower academic achievement than children from non-divorced families^[12] In a review done on family and school factors related to adolescents’ academic performance, it noted that it is two times more likely for a child from a divorced family to drop out of high school than a child from a non-divorced family. These children from divorced families may also be less likely to attend college, resulting in the discontinuation of their academic career^[13]

Many times academic problems are associated with those children from single-parent families. Studies have shown that this issue may be directly related to the economical influence of divorce. A divorce may result in the parent and children moving to an area with a higher poverty rate and a poor education system all due to the financial struggles of a single parent.^[14]

Effects of Divorce on Children[link]

Sociologists and psychologists have researched to show that the effects of divorce heavily depend on the child’s age at the time the divorce occurs. The child’s gender, personality, the amount of conflicts with the parents and support of family and friends all contribute to the effects of divorce on a child ^[15]

Infants[link]

Although infants may not understand the exact conflict, they do react to the difference in their parent’s mood and energy change. Some effects an infant may have include a loss of appetite and an increase in spit up ^[15]

Pre-School Children[link]

Children this age range from 3–5 years old and may often mistake the divorce as their own fault. At this age, children may feel as though they are alone and fear the thought of abandonment. Some of the effects for children at this age may include baby-like behavior such as old toys, a baby blanket, or even wetting the bed. They also may become depressed, uncooperative, or angry^[15]

School-aged Children[link]

Children at this age have more of a difficult time adjusting to the parental divorce than younger or older children. At this age, children are able to understand the pain they feel due to the separation of their parents’ but are too young to control how they respond to the pain. Many times children experience feelings of anger, grief, and embarrassment. In order to deal with the situation and cope, it is important that children become involved in activities with other kids. It is very common for children this age to hope that parents will eventually get back together^[15]

Adolescents[link]

Teens experience some of the same feelings as school-aged children. They feel anger, fear, depression, loneliness, and guilt. Some teens feel as though they must take on new responsibilities such as new chores and taking care of siblings. Teens may also doubt his or her ability to get married or stay married^[15]

Divorce amongst the Elderly[link]

According to a New York Times article, “More Americans Rejecting Marriage in 50s and Beyond”, in the past 20 years, the divorce rate has increased over 50% amongst the baby boomers. More and more adults are staying single and according to an analysis of census data conducted at Bowling Green State University in Ohio, they say the divorce numbers will continue to rise. The article also states that baby boomers that remain unmarried are five times more likely to live in poverty compared to those who are married. According to the statistics shown in the New York Times article, it will also be three times as hard to receive food stamps, public assistance or disability payments^[16]

Sociologists believe that the rise in the number of older Americans who are not married is a result of factors such as longevity and economics. Women, especially, are becoming more and more financially independent which allows them to feel more secure with being alone. In previous generations, being divorced or single was seen differently than it is now. This has resulted in less pressure for baby boomers to marry or stay married. Demographers say that several baby boomers that remain unmarried will face more financial struggles than those who are married^[16]

Statistics[link]

United States[link]

On average, first marriages that end in divorce last about eight years.^[17] Of the first marriages for women from 1955 to 1959, about 79% marked their 15th anniversary, compared with only 57% for women who married for the first time from 1985 to 1989.^[17] The median time between divorce and a second marriage was about three and a half years.^[17]

In 2009, the divorce rate declined.^[18]

A 1995 study found a wide range of factors correlating with the divorce rate including frequency of sex, wealth, race, and religious commitment.^{[19][clarification needed]}

In 2001, marriages between people of different faiths were three times more likely to be divorced than those of the same faith. In a 1993 study, members of two mainline Protestant religions had a 1 in 5 chance of being divorced in 5 years; a Catholic and an Evangelical, a one in three chance; a Jew and a Christian, a 40% chance.^[20]

A study^[21] by the Barna Group,^[22] that conducts polls of interest to Christians, reports that a higher divorce rate was associated with infrequent church attendance.

While cohabitation has been shown to be associated with higher divorce rates, a study indicates that divorce-prone couples tend to first cohabit, and not that cohabitation by itself increases the likelihood of divorce.^[23] In Saskatchewan, Canada, cohabitation as spouses is treated identically in Family Court to civil marriage.

Success in marriage has been associated with higher education and higher age. 81% of college graduates, over 26 years of age, who wed in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later. 65% of college graduates under 26, who married in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later. 49% of high school graduates under 26 years old, who married in the 1980s, were still married 20 years later.^[24] Population studies have found that in 2004 and 2008, liberal-voting states have lower rates of divorce than conservative-voting states, possibly because people in liberal states tend to wait longer before getting married.^[25] In 2009, 2.9% of adults 35–39 without a college degree were divorced, compared with 1.6% with a college education.^[26]

The National Center for Health Statistics reports that from 1975 to 1988 in the U.S., in families with children present, wives file for divorce in approximately two-thirds of cases. In 1975, 71.4% of the cases were filed by women, and in 1988, 65% were filed by women.^[27] It is estimated that upwards of 95% of divorces in the U.S. are "uncontested", because the two parties are able to come to an agreement without a hearing (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues.

A 2008 study by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King conducted on behalf of the Education Resources Information Center examined whether crossing racial boundaries increased the risk of divorce.^[28] Using the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth (Cycle VI), the likelihood of divorce for interracial couples to that of same-race couples was compared. Comparisons across marriage cohorts revealed that, overall, interracial couples have higher rates of divorce, particularly for those who married during the late 1980s.^[28] The authors found that gender plays a significant role in interracial divorce dynamics: According to the adjusted models predicting divorce as of the 10th year of marriage, interracial marriages that are the most vulnerable involve white females and non-white males (with the exception of white females/Hispanic white males) relative to white/white couples.^[28] White wife/black husband marriages are twice as likely to divorce by the 10th year of marriage compared to white/white couples, while white wife/Asian husband marriages are 59% more likely to end in divorce compared to white/white unions.^[28] Conversely, white men/non-white women couples show either very little or no differences in divorce rates.^[28] Asian wife/white husband marriages show only 4% greater likelihood of divorce by the 10th year of marriage than white/white couples.^[28] In the case of black wife/white husband marriages, divorce by the 10th year of marriage is 44% less likely than among white/white unions.^[28] Intermarriages that did not cross a racial barrier, which was the case for white/Hispanic white couples, showed statistically similar likelihoods of divorcing as white/white marriages.^[28]

A 2011 study found a 1% increase in the unemployment rate correlated with a 1% decrease in the divorce rate,^[29] presumably because more people were financially challenged to afford the legal proceedings.

Europe[link]

One study estimated that legal reforms accounted for about 20% of the increase in divorce rates in Europe between 1960 and 2002.^[30]

United Kingdom[link]

One in every three marriages between 1995 and 2010 ended in divorce.^[31] The rate of divorce had been dropping this century. In 2007 the divorce rate in England and Wales was recorded at 11.5 people per every 1000 ( less than 1.2%) of the married population. This was the lowest divorce rate since 1979.^[32][33] In 2010, divorce rates rose 5% over 2009.

Australia[link]

In Australia, nearly every third marriage ends in divorce. After reaching a peak divorce rate of 2.7 per 1000 residents in 2001, the Australian rate declined to 2.3 per 1000 in 2007.^[34]

Japan[link]

In Japan, divorces were on a generally upward trend from the 1960s until 2002 when they hit a peak of 290,000. Since then, both the number of divorces and the divorce rate have declined for six years straight. In 2010, the number of divorces totaled 251,000, and the divorce rate was 1.99 (per 1,000 population).^[35]

Divorce of Same-Sex Married Couples (United States)[link]

Although marriage had been defined as a legal union between one man and one woman, over the past decades, several states began to consider adopting or have adopted legislation which legalizes same-sex marriage. States which have done so, include New York and Massachusetts.

Once legally married, same-sex couples are entitled to the same degree of financial security as their hetero-sexual counterparts including, but not limited to the right to receive their spouse’s death benefits, health insurance, life insurance and other protections.^[36] For same-sex couples, divorce law is in its infancy and is less than clear on how such unions may be legally dissolved. For example, if a same-sex couple is married in a state that recognizes gay marriage but returns to reside in a state that does not, they might find themselves in a situation where their own state, in failing to recognize their union will also fail to enable them to divorce. In addition, splitting up the couples financial resources may prove to be legally difficult and well as determining which spouse is entitled to the custody of their children.^[37]

Legal uncertainties regarding dividing property obtained by the couple prior to entering into marriage[link]

Although same sex-married couples who divorce should be in a position to have their property divided under the same laws that apply to heterosexual couples, legal questions persist as to whether years that same-sex couples were together prior to entering into marriage should be taken into account for purposes of determining what property each spouse is entitled to acquire.^[38] In addition, dividing up marital property is not easy to legally sort out when same-sex married couples wish to divorce in states that do not recognize a legal marriage that the couple entered into in another state.^[36]

Legal uncertainties regarding rights of spouses to custody of children[link]

Upon dissolution of a same-sex marriage, legal questions remain as to the rights of spouses to custody of the biological children of their spouses.^[37] Unresolved legal questions abound in this area.^[39]

The legal issues arising when a same-sex married couple wishes to divorce in a state that does not recognize their legal marriage[link]

Since same-sex marriages are not recognized in a multitude of states, couples who are married in states that do recognize same-sex marriages will find themselves in a position of being precluded from dissolving their marriages in the states in which they live. When this happens, legal questions will remain unanswered as to which state laws will be applicable to determine the rights of each divorcing partner.^[40] In addition, special problems will present themselves when same-sex couples cannot be divorced in states that do recognize same sex marriage because they are not residents of such states.^[41]

History[link]

Greco-Roman culture[link]

The ancient Athenians liberally allowed divorce, but the person requesting divorce had to submit the request to a magistrate, and the magistrate could determine whether the reasons given were sufficient.

Divorce was rare in early Roman culture but as their empire grew in power and authority Roman civil law embraced the maxim, "matrimonia debent esse libera" ("marriages ought to be free"), and either husband or wife could renounce the marriage at will. Though civil authority rarely intervened in divorces, social and familial taboos guaranteed that divorce occurred only after serious circumspection.^{[citation needed]} The Christian emperors Constantine and Theodosius restricted the grounds for divorce to grave cause, but this was relaxed by Justinian in the sixth century.

Medieval Europe[link]

After the fall of the Roman Empire, familial life was regulated more by ecclesiastical authority than civil authority. By the ninth or tenth century, the divorce rate had been greatly reduced under the influence of the Church,^[42] which considered marriage a sacrament instituted by God and Christ indissoluble by mere human action.^[43]

Although divorce, as known today, was generally prohibited after the tenth century, separation of husband and wife and the annulment of marriage were well-known. What is today referred to as "separate maintenance" (or "legal separation") was termed "divorce a mensa et thoro" ("divorce from bed-and-board"). The husband and wife physically separated and were forbidden to live or cohabit together; but their marital relationship did not fully terminate.^[44] Civil courts had no power over marriage or divorce. The grounds for annulment were determined by Church authority and applied in ecclesiastical courts. Annulment was for canonical causes of impediment existing at the time of the marriage. "For in cases of total divorce, the marriage is declared null, as having been absolutely unlawful ab initio."^[45][46][47] The Church held that the sacrament of marriage produced one person from two, inseparable from each other: "By marriage the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being of legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage or at least incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband: under whose wing, protection and cover, she performs everything."^[48] Since husband and wife became one person upon marriage, that oneness could only be annulled if the parties improperly entered into the marriage initially.

Secularisation in Europe and United States[link]

After the Reformation, marriage came to be considered a civil contract in the non-Catholic regions, and on that basis civil authorities gradually asserted their power to decree a "divorce a vinculo matrimonii", or "divorce from all the bonds of marriage". Since no precedents existed defining the circumstances under which marriage could be dissolved, civil courts heavily relied on the previous determinations of the ecclesiastic courts and freely adopted the requirements set down by those courts. As the civil courts assumed the power to dissolve marriages, courts still strictly construed the circumstances under which they would grant a divorce,^[49] and now considered divorce to be contrary to public policy. Because divorce was considered to be against the public interest, civil courts refused to grant a divorce if evidence revealed any hint of complicity between the husband and wife to divorce, or if they attempted to manufacture grounds for a divorce. Divorce was granted only because one party to the marriage had violated a sacred vow to the "innocent spouse". If both husband and wife were guilty, "neither would be allowed to escape the bonds of marriage".^[50] Eventually, the idea that a marriage could be dissolved in cases in which one of the parties violated the sacred vow gradually allowed expansion of the grounds upon which divorce could be granted from those grounds which existed at the time of the marriage to grounds which occurred after the marriage, but which exemplified violation of that vow, such as abandonment, adultery, or "extreme cruelty".^[51]

Japan[link]

In the Edo Period (1603–1868), only husbands could divorce their wives by writing letters of divorce. But actually, their relatives or marriage arrangers often kept these letters and tried to restore the marriages. It was not allowed for wives to divorce their husbands. Some wives were able to gain sanctuary in certain Shinto "divorce temples" for several years, and were able to obtain a divorce thereby.^[52][53] In 19th century Japan, at least one in eight marriages ended in divorce.

There are four types of divorce in Japan: Divorce by agreement in which the divorce is mutual, divorce by mediation which happens in family court, divorce by decision of family court that takes place when a couple cannot complete a divorce through mediation, and divorce by judgment of district court.^[54]

India[link]

On an all-India level, the Special Marriage Act was passed in 1954, and the Hindu Marriage Act, in 1955 which legally permitted divorce to Hindus and other communities who chose to marry under these acts. Divorce can be sought by husband or wife on certain grounds, including: adultery, cruelty, desertion for two years, religious conversion, mental abnormality, venereal disease, and leprosy.^[55] Divorce is also legal based on mutual consent of both the spouses, which can be filed after at least one year of separated living. Mutual consent divorce can not be appealed against, and the law mandates a minimum period of six months (from the time divorce is applied for) for divorce to be granted.^[56]

Official figures of divorce rates are not available, but it has been estimated that 1 of 100 or another figure 11 of 1,000 marriages in India end up in divorce.^[57]

Various communities are governed by specific marital legislation, distinct to Hindu Marriage Act, and consequently have their own divorce laws:

• The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936^[58]
• The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage act, 1939^[59]
• The Foreign Marriage Act, 1969^[60]

An amendment to the marriage laws to allow divorce based on "irretrievable breakdown of marriage" (as alleged by one of the spouses) is currently under consideration in India.^[61] In June 2010, the Union Cabinet of India approved the Marriage Laws (Amendment) Bill 2010, which, if cleared by Parliament, would establish "irretrievable breakdown" as a new ground for divorce.^[62]

Islam[link]

In Islamic law and marital jurisprudence, divorce is referred to as talaq.^[63] Khula is the right of a woman in Islam to divorce or separate from her husband. The triple talaq is a mechanism for divorce which exists in Sunni sect of Islam while rejected by the Shia sect. Talaq (conflict) deals with the relationship between religious and secular systems for terminating the marriage in the conflict of laws.

According to Yossef Rapoport, in the 15th century, the rate of divorce was higher than it is today in the modern Middle East, which now has generally low rates of divorce.^[64] In 15th century Egypt, Al-Sakhawi recorded the marital history of 500 women, the largest sample on marriage in the Middle Ages, and found that at least a third of all women in the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria married more than once, with many marrying three or more times. According to Al-Sakhawi, as many as three out of ten marriages in 15th century Cairo ended in divorce.^[65] In the early 20th century, some villages in western Java and the Malay peninsula had divorce rates as high as 70%.^[64]

Causes of divorce[link]

An annual study in the UK by management consultants Grant Thornton, estimates the main proximal causes of divorce based on surveys of matrimonial lawyers.^[66]

The main causes in 2004 were:

• Adultery; Extramarital sex; Infidelity - 27%
• Domestic violence - 17%
• Midlife crisis - 13%
• Addictions, e.g. alcoholism and gambling - 6%
• Workaholism - 6%

According to this survey, husbands engaged in extramarital affairs in 75% of cases; wives in 25%. In cases of family strain, wives' families were the primary source of strain in 78%, compared to 22% of husbands' families. Emotional and physical abuse were more evenly split, with wives affected in 60% and husbands in 40% of cases. In 70% of workaholism-related divorces it was husbands who were the cause, and in 30%, wives. The 2004 survey found that 93% of divorce cases were petitioned by wives, very few of which were contested. 53% of divorces were of marriages that had lasted 10 to 15 years, with 40% ending after 5 to 10 years. The first 5 years are relatively divorce-free, and if a marriage survives more than 20 years it is unlikely to end in divorce.

The age at which a person gets married is also believed to influence the likelihood of divorce; delaying marriage may provide more opportunity or experience in choosing a compatible partner.^[25]

Religion and divorce[link]

In some countries (commonly in Europe and North America), the government defines and administers marriages and divorces. While ceremonies may be performed by religious officials on behalf of the state, a civil marriage and thus civil divorce (without the involvement of a religion) is also possible. Due to differing standards and procedures, a couple can be legally unmarried, married, or divorced by the state's definition, but have a different status as defined by a religious order. Other countries use religious law to administer marriages and divorces, eliminating this distinction. In these cases, religious officials are generally responsible for interpretation and implementation.

Islam allows divorce, and it can be initiated by either the husband or the wife. However, the initiations are subject to certain conditions and waiting periods, which are meant to force the initiating party to reconsider.^[67] Dharmic religions do not allow divorce^{[citation needed]}. Christian views of divorce vary, with Catholic teaching allowing only annulment, but most other denominations discouraging but allowing divorce. Jewish views of divorce differ, with Reform Judaism considering civil divorces adequate. Conservative and Orthodox Judaism require that the husband grant his wife a divorce in the form of a get.

The Millet System, where each religious group regulates its own marriages and divorces is still present in varying degrees in some post−Ottoman countries like Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Egypt, and Greece. Several countries use sharia (Islamic law) to administrate marriages and divorces for Muslims. Thus Marriage in Israel is administered separately by each religious community (Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Druze), and there is no provision for interfaith marriages other than marrying in another country. For Jews, marriage and divorce are administered by Orthodox rabbis. Partners can file for divorce either in rabbinical court or Israeli civil court to have the household divided.^[68]

The Philippines doesn't allow divorce. Roman Catholics, who are in the majority, oppose it.

Gender and divorce[link]

This section requires expansion.

According to a study published in the American Law and Economics Review, women currently file slightly more than two-thirds of divorce cases in the United States.^[69] There is some variation among states, and the numbers have also varied over time, with about 60% of filings by women in most of the 19th century, and over 70% by women in some states just after no-fault divorce was introduced, according to the paper. Evidence is given that among college-educated couples, the percentages of divorces initiated by women is approximately 90%.

A study has found that White female-Black male and White female-Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings.^[28] Conversely, unions between White males and non-White females (and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than White-White marriages.^[28]

Regarding divorce settlements, according to the 2004 Grant Thornton survey in the UK, women obtained a better or considerably better settlement than men in 60% of cases. In 30% of cases the assets were split 50-50, and in only 10% of cases did men achieve better settlements (down from 24% the previous year). The report concluded that the percentage of shared residence orders would need to increase in order for more equitable financial divisions to become the norm.^[66]

Some jurisdictions give unequal rights to men and women when filing for divorce.

For couples to Conservative or Orthodox Jewish law (which by Israeli civil law includes all Jews in Israel), the husband must grant his wife a divorce through a document called a get. If the man refuses, the woman can appeal to a court or the community to pressure the husband. A woman whose husband refuses to grant the get or who is missing is called an agunah, is still married, and therefore cannot remarry. Under Orthodox law, children of an extramarital affair involving a married Jewish woman are considered mamzerim (illegitimate) and cannot marry non-mamzerim.^[68]

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Alford, William P., "Have You Eaten, Have You Divorced? Debating the Meaning of Freedom in Marriage in China", in Realms of Freedom in Modern China (William C. Kirby ed., Stanford University Press, 2004).
• Berlin, G. (2004). The Effects of Marriage and Divorce on Families and Children Retrieved March 13, 2012
• Davies, P. T. & Cummings E. M. (1994). Marital Conflict and Child Adjustment: An Emotional Security Hypothesis. American Psychological Association Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387-411. Retrieved March 13, 2012
• Foulkes-Jamison, L. (2001). The Effects of Divorce on Children Retrieved March 13, 2012
• Hughes R. (2009). The Effects of Divorce on Children Retrieved March 13, 2012
• Jolivet, K. R. (2011). The Psychosocial Impact of Divorce on Children: What is a Family Lawyer to Do? American Journal of Family Law, 175-181. Retrieved on March 13, 2012
• Phillips, Roderick (1991). Untying the knot: a short history of divorce. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42370-8. 
• Singer, Joseph (2005). "Same Sex Marriage, Full Faith and Credit, and the Evasion of Obligation". Pacific Gamble Robinson 1: 1–51. 
• Strong, B., DeVault C., & Cohen T. F. (2011). The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationships in a Changing Society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
• Thomas, S. G. (2011, October 28). The Good Divorce. The New York Times. Retrieved March 15, 2012

External links[link]

Look up divorce in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Divorce

• Societal aspects of divorce at the Open Directory Project
• Legal aspects of divorce at the Open Directory Project
• Eurostat - Statistics Explained - Marriage and divorce statistics
• Divorce rates across countries by Eurostat
• Divorce: What to Tell Your Children (2000)
• Children and Divorce. (2010)

Virginia Wynette Pugh, known professionally as Tammy Wynette, (May 5, 1942 – April 6, 1998) was an American country music singer-songwriter and one of the genre's best-known artists and biggest-selling woman singers.

Wynette was sometimes called the "First Lady of Country Music", and her best-known song, Stand by Your Man, was one of the best-selling hit singles by a woman in the history of the country music genre. Many of Wynette's hits dealt with classic themes of loneliness, divorce, and the difficulties of man-woman relationships. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Wynette ranked high in the country sales charts with 17 number-one songs. Along with Loretta Lynn, Lynn Anderson, and Dolly Parton, Wynette defined the role of women in country music during the 1970s.

Wynette's marriage to the country singer George Jones in 1969, which end in divorce in 1975, created a country music "couple", following the earlier success of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash. Jones and Wynette recorded a sequence of duet albums and single records that hit the charts throughout the 1970s.

Early years[link]

Childhood & teen years[link]

Tammy Wynette was born Virginia Wynette Pugh^[1] near Tremont, Mississippi, the only child of William Hollice Pugh (died February 13, 1943) and Mildred Faye Russell Pugh (1922–1991).^[2] She was always called Wynette (pronounced Win-net), or Nettie, instead of Virginia.

Wynette's father was a farmer and local musician. He died of a brain tumor when Wynette was nine months of age.^[3] Her mother worked in an office, as a substitute school teacher, as well as on the family farm. After her husband's death, Mildred Pugh left her daughter in the care of her own parents, Thomas Chester and Flora Russell, and moved to Memphis to work in a defense plant during World War II. In 1946, Mildred Pugh remarried, and her husband was Foy Lee, a farmer.^[4]

Wynette was born and raised on a farm in Itawamba County, Mississippi that belonged to her maternal grandparents. This farm was located very close to the border with Alabama. Wynette claimed that the state line ran right through their farm, joking that "my top half came from Alabama and my bottom half came from Mississippi." As a girl, she worked in the fields picking cotton along with the crews of hired hands to harvest the crops. She grew up with her aunt, Carolyn Russell, who was only five years older than she was. As a girl, Wynette taught herself to play a variety of musical instruments that had been left by her deceased father.^[5]

As a girl and then as a [tteenager]], Wynette found in country music an escape from her hard life on the farm,. Wynette grew up idolizing Hank Williams, Skeeter Davis, Patsy Cline, and George Jones. She played their music records over and over on the children's record player, and she dreamed of someday becoming a star herself.

Rise to fame[link]

Wynette attended the Tremont High School, where she was an all-star basketball player. A month before graduation, she married her first husband, Euple Byrd. He was a construction worker, but je had trouble keeping a job, and they moved from place to place several times. Wynette worked as a waitress, as a receptionist, and asa barmaid, and she also worked in a shoe factory. In 1963, she attended beauty school in Tupelo, Mississippi, where she learned to be a hairdresser. She continued to renew her cosmetology license every year for the rest of her life -- just in case she ever had to go back to a daily job. She left her first husband before the birth of their third daughter. He did not support her ambition to become a country singer, and, according to Wynette, told her "Dream on, Baby".^[6]

Wynette's baby developed spinal meningitis, and she tried to earn extra money by performing at night. In 1965, Wynette sang on the Country Boy Eddie Show on WBRC-TV in Birmingham, Alabama, and this led to performances with Porter Wagoner.

In 1966, Wynette moved with her three daughters from Birmingham to Nashville, where she attempted to get a recording contract. After being turned down repeatedly by all of the other record companies, she auditioned for the producer Billy Sherrill. Sherrill, who was originally reluctant to sign her up, but decided to do so after finding himself in need of a singer for Apartment No. 9 When Sherrill heard Wynette sing it, he was impressed and decided to sign her up to Epic Records in 1966.^[7]

Musical career[link]

1966 - 79: Breakthrough[link]

Once she was signed to Epic, Sherrill suggested she change her name to make more of an impression. According to her 1979 memoir, Stand by Your Man, during their meeting, Wynette was wearing her long, blonde hair in a ponytail, and Sherill noted that she reminded him of Debbie Reynolds in the film Tammy and the Bachelor. He suggested "Tammy" as a possible name, so she became Tammy Wynette.

Her first single, Apartment No. 9 (written by Bobby Austin and Johnny Paycheck), was released in December 1966, and just missed the Top 40 on the Country charts, peaking at No. 44. It was followed by "Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad," which became a big hit, peaking at number three. The song launched a string of Top Ten hits that ran through the end of the '70s, interrupted only by three singles that didn't crack the Top Ten. After "Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad" was a success, "My Elusive Dreams", a duet with David Houston, became her first number one in the summer of 1967, followed by "I Don't Wanna Play House" later that year.^[5] "I Don't Wanna Play House" won Wynette a Grammy award in 1967 for Best Female Country Vocal Performance, one of two wins for Wynette in that category.^{[citation needed]}

During 1968 and 1969, Wynette had five number one hits — "Take Me to Your World," "D-I-V-O-R-C-E", "Stand by Your Man" (all 1968), "Singing My Song," and "The Ways to Love a Man" (both 1969).^[5] "Stand by Your Man" was reportedly written in the Epic studio in just 15 minutes by Billy Sherrill and Wynette,^[8] and was released at a time when the women's rights movement was beginning to stir in the U.S. The message in the song stated that a woman should stay with her man, despite his faults and shortcomings. It stirred up controversy and was criticized initially, and it became a lightning rod for feminists. However, the song became very successful, reaching the top spot on the Country charts, and was also a Top 20 pop hit, peaking at No. 19 on the Billboard pop charts in 1968, Wynette's only Top 40 hit as a solo artist on the pop charts. In 1969, Wynette won the Grammy award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for "Stand by Your Man", which is now, according to critics, considered a "classic" or Country music "standard". She earned a Gold record (awarded for albums selling in excess of 500,000 copies) for Tammy's Greatest Hits which was certified in 1970 by the RIAA. The album would later be awarded Platinum record status (awarded for albums selling in excess of 1,000,000 copies) in June 1989. In 1970, director Bob Rafelson used a number of her songs in the soundtrack of his 1970 film Five Easy Pieces.^{[citation needed]}

During the early 1970s, Wynette, along with singer Loretta Lynn, ruled the country charts and was one of the most successful female vocalists of the genre. During the early 1970s, number one singles included "He Loves Me All the Way" "Run Woman, Run" and "The Wonders You Perform" (all from 1970), "Good Lovin' (Makes it Right)", "Bedtime Story" (both 1971) "My Man (Understands)", "'Til I Get it Right" (1972), and "Kids Say the Darndest Things" (1973). One of them, "The Wonders You Perform", was a hit in Italy in 1971, thanks to Ornella Vanoni,who recorded the song in an Italian version, "Domani è un altro giorno" ("Tomorrow is another day"). Concurrent to her solo success, a number of her duets with Jones reached the top ten on the U.S. country singles charts during this time, including "The Ceremony" (1972), "We're Gonna Hold On" (1973), and "Golden Ring (1975). In 1968, Wynette became the second female vocalist to win the Country Music Association Awards' "Female Vocalist of the Year" award, later winning an additional two other times (1969, 1970). For nearly two decades, Wynette held the record for most consecutive wins, until 1987 when Reba McEntire won the award for the fourth consecutive time.^{[citation needed]}

Wynette was married to George Jones from 1969-75 (she had divorced her second husband in 1968). Even after their 1975 divorce (due largely to Jones' alcoholism), their professional collaboration continued with regularity through 1980; years later in 1995, they made a reunion album entitled One . It was well received, although it didn't achieve their earlier chart success. Jones and Wynette had one daughter together, Tamala Georgette, born in 1970.^[9]

In 1976, after having her public divorce from Jones the previous year, Wynette recorded, "'Til I Can Make It on My Own". Often said by music critics to be about her break-up from Jones and moving on with her life, the song reached No. 1 on the U.S. country singles charts, and No. 84 on the pop singles charts, becoming her first single in eight years to enter the pop charts. Often considered to be one of her signature songs, it more or less helped Wynette's career after her divorce, showing she could remain popular. It was recorded two years later as a duet by Kenny Rogers and Dottie West, whose version reached No. 3 on the country singles charts in 1979. In 1976, Wynette had another No. 1 as a solo artist, "You and Me", which became her final No. 1 as a solo artist. Her last No. 1 came as a duet with George Jones in early 1977 titled, "Near You".

Following 1976, Wynette's popularity slightly slowed, however, she continued to reach the Top 10 until the end of the decade, with such hits as "Let's Get Together (One Last Time), "One of a Kind" (both 1977), "Womanhood" (1978) "No One Else in this World" and "They Call It Makin' Love" (both 1979). She had a total of 21 number one hits on the U.S. country singles charts (17 solo, three with Jones, and one with Houston). Along with Loretta Lynn, Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell, Dottie West, and Lynn Anderson, she helped redefine the role and place of female country singers.^[10]

1980–1990: Career in the 1980s[link]

In 1981, a TV movie about Wynette's life was aired called Stand by Your Man, which was based on her memoir of the same title. Actress Annette O'Toole portrayed Wynette in the film. Beginning in the early 1980s, however, her chart success began to wane, though, she did continue to have top-20 hits during this period, including "Starting Over" and "He Was There (When I Needed You)" (both 1980), a cover of the Everly Brothers' hit "Crying in the Rain" (1981), "Another Chance", "You Still Get to Me in My Dreams" (both 1982) and "A Good Night's Love" (1983). A 1985 cover of the '70s Dan Hill hit "Sometimes When We Touch", performed with Mark Grey, reached No. 6 in 1985.^{[citation needed]}

In 1982 she recorded a track with The Ray Conniff Singers, a rendition of "Delta Dawn", in order to be included in the Conniff's duets album "The Nashville Connection," but ultimately the track didn't enter. Meanwhile her medical problems continued, including inflammations of her bile duct. In 1986, she acted on the CBS TV soap opera Capitol, playing beautician/singer Darlene Stankowski. In 1988, she filed for bankruptcy as a result of a bad investment in two Florida shopping centers.^[11]

Wynette's 1987 album Higher Ground featured a neotraditional country sound and was both a critical and relative commercial success. The album featured contributions from Vince Gill, Ricky Van Shelton, Rodney Crowell, Ricky Skaggs, Emmylou Harris and The O'Kanes.^[12] Two of the singles released from the album, "Your Love" and "Talkin' to Myself Again", reached the top 20 on the U.S. country singles charts; a third single, "Beneath a Painted Sky" (featuring duet vocals from Emmylou Harris) reached No. 25 in early 1988 (it would ultimately be Tammy Wynette's final top-40 country single).

1990–1998: Final years[link]

She recorded a song with the British electronica group The KLF in late 1991 titled "Justified and Ancient (Stand by the JAMs)", which became a No. 1 hit in eighteen countries the following year,^[13] and reached No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song gave Wynette a new following, and was her highest-charting single on the Billboard Pop charts. In the video, scrolling electronic titles said that "Miss Tammy Wynette is the first lady of country music" and listed a number of her accomplishments in the recording industry. Wynette appeared in the video wearing a crown and seated on a throne.

In 1992, future First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton said during a 60 Minutes interview either “I'm not sitting here as some little woman standing by my man like Tammy Wynette”.^[14] or "I'm not sitting here like some little woman standing by my man like Tammy Wynette".^[15] (The end of this quotation has also appeared as "some little woman, standing by my man and baking cookies, like Tammy Wynette.") However, the reference to cookie baking more likely comes from an unrelated remark by Hillary Clinton: "I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was to fulfill my profession which I entered before my husband was in public life."^[16] Either way, the remark set off a firestorm of controversy. Wynette wrote to Clinton saying, "With all that is in me, I resent your caustic remark. I believe you have offended every true country-music fan and every person who has made it on their own with no one to take them to the White House."^[17] She soon received an apology from Mrs. Clinton. (Wynette was nonetheless a Clinton supporter and later performed at a Clinton fundraiser.)

In 1990, Heart Over Mind was released and showed that Wynette's popularity on radio was declining. The album yielded no Top 40 Country hits, although numerous singles were released between 1990 and 1991, including a duet with Randy Travis titled, "We're Strangers Again".

The 1993 album Honky Tonk Angels gave her a chance to record with Dolly Parton and Loretta Lynn for the first time; though yielding no hit singles (mainstream country radio had long since stopped playing artists approaching or over 50), the album did well on the country charts and even reached number 42 on the Billboard Pop Charts. The one single that was released from the album, a cover of "Silver Threads and Golden Needles" peaked outside the Country Top 40 in 1993. The following year, she released Without Walls, a collection of duets with a number of country, pop and rock and roll performers, including Wynonna Judd, Elton John, Lyle Lovett, Aaron Neville, Smokey Robinson, Sting and a number of others. An album cut titled, "Girl Thang", a duet with Wynonna Judd, reached No. 64 in 1994, but no singles were released from this album. She also appeared as a celebrity contestant on Wheel of Fortune during that same year.

Wynette also designed and sold her own line of jewelry in the 1990s. In 1995, she and George Jones recorded their first new duet album in fifteen years titled, One, which spawned a single of the same name. The single was the duo's first music video together. They last performed together in 1997 at Lanierland Music Park.

She recorded a cover version of The Beach Boys' "In My Room", a duet with Brian Wilson, for the group's 1996 comeback album Stars and Stripes Vol.1. The track was held back for a proposed second volume, which never appeared, but Wynette's performance is included in the TV documentary Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds. Wynette lent her vocals on the UK #1 hit Perfect Day in 1997, which was written by Lou Reed.

Wynette was also the voice for the character Tilly Hill (Hank Hill's mother) on the animated series King of the Hill until her death. Actress K Callan took over the voice role.

She appeared as herself in The Married With Children episode 1108 (243) 'The Juggs Have Left The Building' Original air date December 1, 1996.

Personal life[link]

Marriages[link]

Wynette was married five times: to Euple Byrd (married 1959–divorced 1966); Don Chapel, born Lloyd Franklin Amburgey, (married 1967–annulled 1968); George Jones (married 1969–divorced 1975); Michael Tomlin (married 1976–annulled 1976); and singer/songwriter George Richey (married 1978–her death 1998). Wynette was linked romantically with actor Burt Reynolds and musician Rudy Gatlin in the mid to late 1970s but said Richey was her "true love" when she met him, and theirs was her longest marriage.^[18] Richey was her manager throughout much of the 1980s.

Her house was severely damaged by fire in 1975, and she was also victimized for some time by a stalker. In Nashville, in 1978, she claimed she had been kidnapped from a shopping center and then beaten but her claim was never substantiated. Georgette Jones, daughter of Wynette and George Jones, claimed that Wynette "and Richey had had a fight and he had beaten her. He threatened to destroy her life and write a tell-all book so she decided to stay with him ... so they had to come up with a cover story why she had all these bruises ... so he concocted the kidnapping story for PR."^[19]

As a result of numerous health ailments and operations, Wynette became dependent on painkillers in the late 1970s. She became critically ill with a liver infection at the end of 1993. Pamela Lansden of People quoted Wynette's personal spin on life's tribulations as "The sad part about happy endings is there's nothing to write about."^[18]

Children[link]

She had three children with Byrd, Gwendolyn Lee ("Gwen") Byrd (born 1961), Jacquelyn Faye ("Jackie") Byrd (born 1962) and Tina Denise Byrd (born 1965, she is featured on one of Jones and Wynette's duet albums, George and Tammy and Tina), She had a daughter with George Jones, Tamala Georgette Jones (born 1970), who is also a country singer.^[20]

Health problems[link]

Wynette had many serious physical ailments beginning in the 1970s, including operations on her gallbladder, kidney and on the nodules on her throat. In 1994, she suffered an abdominal infection that almost killed her. She was in a coma for six days. She developed a chronic inflammation of the bile ducts and was intermittently hospitalized, from 1970 until her death in 1998.^[18] She had 26 major surgeries during her lifetime. Although some of these problems were often very serious, Wynette was still able to pursue her singing career and regularly tour to promote her work.

Wynette also developed a serious addiction to painkiller medication in the 1980s, which became quite a problem in her life during that time.^[21] However, in 1986, she sought help entering the Betty Ford Center for drug treatment that year. In spite of the time away for treatment, she performed in a soap opera, "Capitol," in 1986.^[13]

Death[link]

After years of medical problems,^[22] numerous hospitalizations, approximately 26 major operations and an addiction to large doses of pain medication, Wynette died while sleeping on her couch on April 6, 1998, at age 55. Wynette's doctor from Pennsylvania said she died of a blood clot in her lung. Despite her persistent illnesses, she continued to perform until shortly before her death and had other performances scheduled.

A public memorial service, attended by about 1,500 people, was held at Nashville's historic Ryman Auditorium on April 9, 1998. A private grave-side service had been held earlier with a crypt entombment at Nashville's Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery.^[23] Her death solicited commentary such as that of songwriter Bill Mack, quoted in the Dallas Morning News that she was a "class act" and "irreplaceable" and that "She never knew a flat note." Lee Ann Womack was quoted also; she said of Wynette, whose songs often evoked strength and controlled passion, "You knew she knew what she was singing about. You can put her records on and listen and learn so much." Wynette was survived by her husband George Richey, four daughters and eight grandchildren.^[18]

In April 1999, her body was exhumed from her crypt in an attempt to settle a dispute over how the country music legend died.^[24] A new autopsy was conducted on her a week after three of her daughters filed a wrongful death lawsuit against her doctor and her husband/manager, George Richey, claiming they were responsible for her death 12 months earlier. The coroner declared that she died of a cardiac arrhythmia.^{[citation needed]} In May 1999, George Richey was dropped from the wrongful death lawsuit. Wynette was reinterred in the Woodlawn Cross Mausoleum, at Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery, Nashville, Tenn.^{[citation needed]} She rests in the same Nashville cemetery as other country music luminaries as Webb Pierce, Jerry Reed, Marty Robbins, Bobby Russell, Porter Wagoner, Red Foley and Eddy Arnold, among many others. In January 2001, in a small ceremony at a small church in small College Grove, Tennessee, Wynette's widower, George Richey (then aged 66), married his girlfriend, Sheila Slaughter, a former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader turned television producer.^{[citation needed]}

Legacy[link]

Tammy Wynette is considered by numerous music critics from Allmusic and Rolling Stone to be one of the greatest and most influential female singers in Country Music history. Many other female Country singers have been influenced by Wynette, including Sara Evans, Faith Hill, and Lee Ann Womack. In 1998, following Wynette's death, she was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame, one of the highest honors of her career. A special CD collection titled Tammy Wynette: Collector's Edition was released in 1998, that included Wynette's signature "Stand By Your Man", which even charted outside the Top 40 on the Country charts that year.

Wynette's signature song "Stand by Your Man" has been covered by both men and women alike. Fellow Country singers, including Lynn Anderson, Dottie West, and Loretta Lynn have covered the song, as well as Rock bands, including Me First and the Gimme Gimmes. Martina McBride covered Wynette's 1976, "'Til I Can Make It on My Own" for her 2005, Timeless album, which was a cover album of Country music standards. "Stand by Your Man" placed at No. 48 on RIAA's 1997 list of Songs of the Century, which consisted of the 300 of their considered-to-be greatest and best-known songs of the twentieth century.

The musical Stand By Your Man: The Tammy Wynette Story, which premiered at the Ryman Auditorium in 2001 and later toured, is a biographical treatment of Wynette's life and music, and features several songs recorded by Wynette and/or George Jones.

In 2002, she was ranked No. 2 on CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music. Patsy Cline was ranked No. 1 (one of Wynette's biggest inspirations) and at No. 3 was fellow Country star, Loretta Lynn. Wynette's former husband, George Jones was ranked No. 3 on CMT's special 40 Greatest Men of Country Music in 2003.

In 2003, a survey of country music writers, producers and stars listed "Stand By Your Man" as the top country song of all time. Country Music Television broadcast a special for the top 100 songs, with the No. 1 song performed by Martina McBride.

Judson Baptist Church, which neighbors Wynette's house, purchased the house and land, which belonged to Hank Williams before he died, for a little over a million dollars. The Wynette house is used as a Youth Center as well as a guest .

In April 2008, the CD "Stand By Your Man - The Best of Tammy Wynette," released by Sony BMG to mark the 10th anniversary of her death, entered the UK Official Top 75 Album chart at number 23.

In April 2011, Wynette's 1968 original recording of "Stand By Your Man" was selected by the U.S. Library of Congress to be preserved as one of that year's 25 recordings chosen for their cultural significance.

Awards & honors[link]

Discography[link]

See also[link]

• Academy of Country Music
• Country Music Association
• Country Music Hall of Fame
• List of country music performers
• Starlight Express a musical in which a character, Dinah the Dining Car, sings a number based on her song, "D.I.V.O.R.C.E."

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Bufwack, Mary A. (1998). "Tammy Wynette". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 602–3.
• Tammy Wynette; Joan Dew (1979-10). Stand by your man. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-22884-2. http://books.google.com/?id=qn55kyQO1oUC. 

External links[link]

• Tammy Wynette Official Website
• Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum — Tammy Wynette
• Tammy Wynette at Rolling Stone
• Tammy Wynette at the Internet Movie Database

Ice-T
Ice-T near the Meat Packing District in Manhattan on set of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit in March 2011
Background information
Birth name	Tracy Marrow
Also known as	Ice T
Born	(1958-02-16) February 16, 1958 (age 54) Newark, New Jersey
Origin	Crenshaw, Los Angeles, California
Genres	Hip hop, heavy metal, punk rock, crossover thrash
Occupations	Musician, actor, CEO, record producer, screenwriter, author
Instruments	Vocals, sampler, turntables
Years active	1982–present (rapping) 1984–present (acting)
Labels	Sire/Warner Bros. Records Rhyme Syndicate/Priority/EMI Records Virgin/EMI Records Atomic Pop Records
Associated acts	Afrika Islam, Body Count, Beastie Boys, Low Profile, Quincy Jones, Eazy-E, 2Pac, Donald D, Six Feet Under (band)
Website	www.icet.com
Notable instruments
Roland TR-808, E-mu SP-1200

Tracy Marrow (born February 16, 1958), better known by his stage name Ice-T, is an American musician and actor. He was born in Newark, New Jersey, and moved to the Crenshaw district of Los Angeles when he was in the 7th grade. After graduating from high school, he served in the United States Army for four years. He began his career as a rapper in the 1980s and was signed to Sire Records in 1987, when he released his debut album Rhyme Pays, the first hip-hop album to carry an explicit content sticker. The next year, he founded the record label Rhyme Syndicate Records (named after his collective of fellow hip-hop artists called the Rhyme Syndicate) and released another album, Power.

He co-founded the heavy metal band Body Count, which he introduced in his 1991 album O.G.: Original Gangster. Body Count released its self-titled debut album in 1992. Ice-T encountered controversy over his track "Cop Killer", which was perceived to glamorize killing police officers. Ice-T asked to be released from his contract with Warner Bros. Records, and his next solo album, Home Invasion, was released later in the fall of 1993 through Priority Records. Body Count's next album was released in 1994, and Ice-T released two more albums in the late 1990s. Since 2000, he has portrayed NYPD Detective Odafin Tutuola on the NBC police drama Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.

Early life[link]

Ice-T was born Tracy Marrow, son of Solomon and Alice Marrow,^[1][2] in Newark, New Jersey. As a child, his family moved to upscale Summit, New Jersey.^[1] Solomon was an African American, and Alice was Creole.^[1] For decades, Solomon worked as a conveyor belt mechanic at the Rapistan Conveyor Company. The first time race played a major part in Tracy's life was at the age of 7, when he became aware of the racism leveled by his white friends toward dark-skinned children, and that he escaped similar treatment because they thought that Marrow was white because of his lighter skin.^[1] Relating this incident to his mother, she told him "Honey, people are stupid"; her advice and this incident taught Marrow to control the way the negativity of others affected him.^[1]

His mother died of a heart attack when Tracy was in third grade. Solomon raised Tracy while he was a single father for four years, with help from a housekeeper.^[1] Tracy's first experience with an illegal activity occurred after a bicycle that Solomon bought him for Christmas was stolen. After Tracy told his father, Solomon shrugged, "Well, then, you ain't got no bike."^[1] Tracy stole parts from bicycles and assembled "three or four weird-looking, brightly painted bikes" from the parts; his father either did not notice, or never acknowledged this.^[1] When Tracy was 12 years old, Solomon died of a heart attack.^[1][3] For many years, AllMusic.com has stated that his parents "died in an auto accident",^[4] but Ice-T has stated that it was actually he who had been in a brutal auto accident and that was decades later.^[1]

Following his father's death, Tracy lived with a nearby aunt briefly, and was sent to live with his other aunt and her husband in View Park-Windsor Hills, a middle-class black neighborhood by South Los Angeles.^[5] While his cousin Earl was preparing to leave for college, Tracy shared a room with him. Earl was a fan of rock music and listened to only the local rock stations; sharing a room with him spurred Tracy's interest in heavy metal music.^[6]

Gang affiliation, criminal life and time in the Army[link]

Tracy attended Palms Junior High, which was predominately made up of white students, and included black students bused in from South Central.^[5] After graduating, he attended Crenshaw High School, which was almost entirely made up of black students.^[5][7] Marrow stood out from most of his friends because he did not drink alcohol, smoke tobacco, or use drugs.^[8] During high school, gangs began to intensify in the Los Angeles school system. Students who belonged to the Bloods and Crips gangs attended Crenshaw, and fought in the school's halls.^[5] Tracy aligned with the Crips,^[5] and began reading the novels of Iceberg Slim, which he memorized and recited to his friends, who enjoyed hearing the excerpts and told him, "Yo, kick some more of that by Ice, T,"^[8] and the handle stuck. Marrow and other Crips wrote and performed "Crip Rhymes", long before the advent of hip hop and recorded rapping.^[9]

At the age of 17, Tracy received the Social Security death-benefit money for the death of his father to rent an apartment for $90 a month.^[8] Marrow sold cannabis and stole car stereos for money, but was not making enough money to support his girlfriend and daughter, leading him to join the United States Army for the financial benefits; he served for four years in the 25th Infantry Division.^[8][10] Marrow was in a group that were jailed for the theft of an infantry rug.^[8] While awaiting trial, he received a $2,500 bonus check, and decided to escape from the jail and desert his Army duties, returning a month later after the rug had been returned.^[8] He received an Article 15 non-judicial punishment, and completed Advanced Infantry Training.^[8]

Marrow became interested in hip hop music while serving in the Army. During this period, he heard Sugar Hill Gang's newly-released single "Rapper's Delight", which inspired him to perform his own raps over the instrumentals of this and other early hip-hop records, but the music did not fit his lyrics or form of delivery, leading Marrow to try to develop his skills as a rapper.^[9]

As a squad leader at Schofield Barracks, Marrow met a real-life pimp named Mac in Hawaii, where prostitution was not heavily prosecuted, due to the high level of visits from soldiers during their weekends, as well as tourists, in order to keep the level of violence low.^[8] Mac admired that Marrow could quote Iceberg Slim, and taught Marrow how to pimp.^[8] Marrow was also able to purchase stereo equipment cheaply in Hawaii, including two Technics turntables, a mixer, and large speakers, and began to learn turntablism and rapping.^[9]

Towards the end of his time in the Army, Marrow learned from his commanding officer that he could receive an honorable discharge and leave the Army early because he was a single father, and left four months ahead of schedule.^[8][10]

Music career[link]

Early career[link]

After leaving the Army, Marrow wanted to stay away from gang life and violence, and decided to make use of the stereo equipment he had purchased in Hawaii, and make a name for himself as a disc jockey.^[9] As a tribute to Iceberg Slim, Marrow adopted the stage name Ice-T.^[9] While performing as a DJ at parties, he received more attention as a rapper, and decided to pursue a career as a rapper.^[9] After breaking up with his girlfriend Caitlin Boyd, he returned to a life of crime, and robbed jewelry stores with his high school friends, pretending to be customers in order to plan the thefts, and later smashing the display glass with baby sledgehammers, events Marrow later described in his raps.^[9][11]

One of Marrow's friends, Sean E. Sean, was arrested for possession of not only cannabis, which Sean sold, but also material stolen by Marrow. Sean took the blame, and served two years in prison. Marrow stated that he owed a gratitude to Sean, because his prison time allowed Marrow to pursue a career as a rapper.^[12] Concurrently, Marrow wound up in a car accident and was hospitalized as a John Doe because he did not carry any form of identification due to his criminal activities.^[13] After being discharged from the hospital, he decided to abandon the criminal lifestyle and pursue a professional career rapping.^[13] Two weeks after being released from the hospital, he won an open mic competition judged by Kurtis Blow.^[14]

Professional career[link]

Ice-T with Body Count performing in 2006.