Written text from the earliest illustrated handscroll (12th century) of The Tale of Genji

The Tale of Genji (源氏物語, Genji Monogatari^?) is a classic work of Japanese literature written by the Japanese noblewoman and lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu in the early years of the 11th century, around the peak of the Heian period. It is sometimes called the world's first novel, the first modern novel, the first psychological novel or the first novel still to be considered a classic. Notably, the novel also illustrates a unique depiction of the livelihoods of high courtiers during the Heian period.^[1] While universally considered a masterpiece, its precise classification and influence in both Western and Eastern canon has been a matter of debate.

The first partial translation of Genji Monogatari into English was by Suematsu Kenchō, published in 1882. Arthur Waley published a six-volume translation of all but one chapter, with the first volume published in 1921 and the last in 1933.^[2] In 1976, Edward Seidensticker published the first complete translation into English, made using a self-consciously "stricter" approach with regards to content if not form.^[3] The most recent English translation was published in 2001 by Royall Tyler and aims at fidelity in content and form to the original text.^[4]

Introduction[link]

The Tale of Genji may have been written chapter by chapter in installments, as Murasaki delivered the tale to aristocratic women, (the yokibito). It has many elements found in a modern novel: a central character and a very large number of major and minor characters, well-developed characterization of all the major players, a sequence of events covering the central character's lifetime and beyond. The work does not make use of a plot; instead, events happen and characters evolve simply by growing older. One remarkable feature of the Genji, and of Murasaki's skill, is its internal consistency, despite a dramatis personæ of some four hundred characters. For instance all characters age in step and the family and feudal relationships maintain general consistency.

One complication for readers and translators of the Genji is that almost none of the characters in the original text are given explicit names. The characters are instead referred to by their function or role (e.g. Minister of the Left), an honorific (e.g. His Excellency), or their relation to other characters (e.g. Heir Apparent), which changes as the novel progresses. This lack of names stems from Heian-era court manners that would have made it unacceptably familiar and blunt to freely mention a person's given name. Modern readers and translators have used various nicknames to keep track of the many characters.

Authorship[link]

Murasaki Shikibu, illustration by Tosa Mitsuoki who did a series on The Tale of Genji (17th century)

The debate over how much of the Genji was actually written by Murasaki Shikibu has gone on for centuries and is unlikely to ever be settled unless some major archival discovery is made. It is generally accepted that the tale was finished in its present form by 1021, when the author of the Sarashina Nikki wrote a diary entry about her joy at acquiring a complete copy of the tale. She writes that there are over 50 chapters and mentions a character introduced at the end of the work, so if other authors besides Murasaki Shikibu did work on the tale, the work was done very near to the time of her writing. Murasaki Shikibu's own diary includes a reference to the tale, and indeed the application to herself of the name 'Murasaki' in an allusion to the main female character. That entry confirms that some if not all of the diary was available in 1008 when internal evidence suggests convincingly that the entry was written.^[5]

Lady Murasaki is said to have written the character of Genji based on the Minister on the Left at the time she was at court. Other translators, such as Tyler believe the character Murasaki no Ue, whom Genji marries, is based on Murasaki Shikibu herself.

Yosano Akiko, the first author to make a modern translation of the Genji, believed that Murasaki Shikibu had only written chapters 1 to 33, and that chapters 35 to 54 were written by her daughter Daini no Sanmi.^[4] Other scholars have also doubted the authorship of chapters 42 to 54 (particularly 44, which contains rare examples of continuity mistakes).^[4] According to Royall Tyler's introduction to his English translation of the work, recent computer analysis has turned up "statistically significant" discrepancies of style between chapters 45–54 and the rest, and also among the early chapters.^[4]

Plot[link]

Ch. 15 – 蓬生 Yomogiu ("Waste of Weeds"). Scene from the 12th century illustrated handscroll Genji Monogatari Emaki kept at the Tokugawa Art Museum.

Ch. 16 – 関屋 Sekiya ("At The Pass"). Tokugawa Art Museum’s Genji Monogatari Emaki.

Ch. 37 – 横笛 Yokobue ("Flute"). Tokugawa Art Museum’s Genji Monogatari Emaki.

Ch. 39 – 夕霧 Yūgiri ("Evening Mist"). 12th century Gotoh Museum handscroll Genji Monogatari Emaki.

Ch. 48 – 早蕨 Sawarabi ("Bracken Shoots"). Tokugawa Art Museum’s handscroll Genji Monogatari Emaki.

Ch. 48 – 宿り木 Yadorigi ("Ivy"). Tokugawa Art Museum’s Genji Monogatari Emaki.

The work recounts the life of a son of the Japanese emperor, known to readers as Hikaru Genji, or "Shining Genji". For political reasons, Genji is relegated to commoner status (by being given the surname Minamoto) and begins a career as an imperial officer. The tale concentrates on Genji's romantic life and describes the customs of the aristocratic society of the time. Much is made of Genji's good looks.

Genji was the second son of a certain ancient emperor ("Emperor Kiritsubo") and a low-ranking but beloved concubine (known to the readers as Lady Kiritsubo). Genji's mother dies when he is three years old, and the Emperor cannot forget her. The Emperor Kiritsubo then hears of a woman ("Lady Fujitsubo"), formerly a princess of the preceding emperor, who resembles his deceased concubine, and later she becomes one of his wives. Genji loves her first as a stepmother, but later as a woman. They fall in love with each other, but it is forbidden. Genji is frustrated because of his forbidden love of the Lady Fujitsubo and is on bad terms with his wife (Aoi no Ue). He also engages in a series of unfulfilling love affairs with other women. In most cases, his advances are rebuffed, his lover dies suddenly during the affair, or he finds his lover to be dull and his feelings change. In one case, he sees a beautiful young woman through an open window, enters her room without permission, and proceeds to seduce her. Recognizing him as a man of unchallengeable power, she makes no resistance.

Genji visits Kitayama, the northern rural hilly area of Kyoto, where he finds a beautiful ten-year-old girl. He is fascinated by this little girl ("Murasaki"), and discovers that she is a niece of the Lady Fujitsubo. Finally he kidnaps her, brings her to his own palace and educates her to be his ideal lady; that is, like the Lady Fujitsubo. During this time Genji also meets the Lady Fujitsubo secretly, and she bears his son, Reizei. Everyone except the two lovers believes the father of the child is the Emperor Kiritsubo. Later, the boy becomes the Crown Prince and Lady Fujitsubo becomes the Empress, but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep their secret.

Genji and his wife, Lady Aoi, reconcile and she gives birth to a son but dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful, but finds consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries. Genji's father, the Emperor Kiritsubo, dies. He is succeeded by his son Suzaku, whose mother ("Kokiden"), together with Kiritsubo's political enemies (including the "Minister of the Right") takes power in the court. Then another of Genji's secret love affairs is exposed: Genji and a concubine of the Emperor Suzaku, Genji's brother, are discovered when they meet in secret. The Emperor Suzaku confides his personal amusement at Genji's exploits with the woman ("Oborozukiyo"), but is duty-bound to punish his half-brother. Genji is thus exiled to the town of Suma in rural Harima province (now part of Kobe in Hyōgo Prefecture). There, a prosperous man known as the Akashi Novice (because he is from Akashi in Settsu province) entertains Genji, and Genji has a love affair with Akashi's daughter. She gives birth to Genji's only daughter, who will later become the Empress.

In the Capital, the Emperor Suzaku is troubled by dreams of his late father, Kiritsubo, and something begins to affect his eyes. Meanwhile, his mother, Kokiden, grows ill, which weakens her powerful sway over the throne. Thus the Emperor orders Genji pardoned, and he returns to Kyoto. His son by Lady Fujitsubo, Reizei, becomes the emperor, and Genji finishes his imperial career. The new Emperor Reizei knows Genji is his real father, and raises Genji's rank to the highest possible.

However, when Genji turns 40 years old, his life begins to decline. His political status does not change, but his love and emotional life are slowly damaged. He marries another wife, the "Third Princess" (known as Onna san no miya in the Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's). Genji's nephew, Kashiwagi, later forces himself on the "Third Princess" and she bears Kaoru (who, in a similar situation to that of Reizei, is legally known as the son of Genji). Genji's new marriage changes his relationship with Murasaki, who becomes a nun (bikuni).

Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the following chapter, Maboroshi ("Illusion"), Genji contemplates how fleeting life is. Immediately after Maboroshi, there is a chapter entitled Kumogakure ("Vanished into the Clouds") which is left blank, but implies the death of Genji.

The rest of the work is known as the "Uji Chapters". These chapters follow Kaoru and his best friend, Niou. Niou is an imperial prince, the son of Genji's daughter, the current Empress now that Reizei has abdicated the throne, while Kaoru is known to the world as Genji's son but is in fact fathered by Genji's nephew. The chapters involve Kaoru and Niou's rivalry over several daughters of an imperial prince who lives in Uji, a place some distance away from the capital. The tale ends abruptly, with Kaoru wondering if the lady he loves is being hidden away by Niou. Kaoru has sometimes been called the first anti-hero in literature.^[6]

Completion[link]

The tale ends abruptly, in mid-sentence. Opinions vary on whether the ending was the intended ending of the author. Arthur Waley, who made the first English translation of the whole of The Tale of Genji, believed that the work as we have it was finished. Ivan Morris, author of The World of the Shining Prince, believed that it was not complete, with later chapters missing. Edward Seidensticker, who made the second translation of the Genji, believed that it was not finished, and that Murasaki Shikibu would not have had a planned story structure with an "ending", and would simply have gone on writing as long as she could.

Literary context[link]

Because it was written to entertain the Japanese court of the eleventh century, the work presents many difficulties to modern readers. First and foremost, Murasaki's language, Heian Period court Japanese, was highly inflected and had very complex grammar. Another problem is that naming people was considered rude in Heian court society, so none of the characters are named within the work; instead, the narrator refers to men often by their rank or their station in life, and to women often by the color of their clothing, or by the words used at a meeting, or by the rank of a prominent male relative. This results in different appellations for the same character depending on the chapter.

Another aspect of the language is the importance of using poetry in conversations. Modifying or rephrasing a classic poem according to the current situation was expected behavior in Heian court life, and often served to communicate thinly veiled allusions. The poems in the Genji are often in the classic Japanese tanka form. Many of the poems were well known to the intended audience, so usually only the first few lines are given and the reader is supposed to complete the thought themselves, much like today we could say "when in Rome..." and leave the rest of the saying ("...do as the Romans do") unspoken.

As with most Heian literature, the Genji was probably written mostly (or perhaps entirely) in kana (Japanese phonetic script) and not in Chinese characters because it was written by a woman for a female audience. Writing in Chinese characters was at the time a masculine pursuit; women were generally discreet when using Chinese symbols, confining themselves mostly to native Japanese words (yamato kotoba).

Outside of vocabulary related to politics and Buddhism, the Genji contains remarkably few Chinese loan words (kango). This has the effect of giving the story a very even, smooth flow. However, it also introduces confusion: there are a number of homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), and for modern readers, context is not always sufficient to determine which meaning was intended.

Murasaki was neither the first nor the last writer of the Heian period, nor was the Genji the earliest example of a "monogatari". Rather, the Genji stands above other tales of the time in the same way that William Shakespeare's plays outshine other Elizabethan drama.

Structure[link]

The novel is traditionally divided in three parts, the first two dealing with the life of Genji, and the last dealing with the early years of two of Genji's prominent descendants, Niou and Kaoru. There are also several short transitional chapters which are usually grouped separately and whose authorship is sometimes questioned.

1. Genji's rise and fall
   1. Youth, chapters 1–33: Love, romance, and exile
   2. Success and setbacks, chapters 34–41: A taste of power and the death of his beloved wife
2. The transition (chapters 42–44): Very short episodes following Genji's death
3. Uji, chapters 45–54: Genji's official and secret descendants, Niou and Kaoru

The 54th and last chapter "The Floating Bridge of Dreams" is sometimes argued to be a separate part from the Uji part by modern scholars. It seems to continue the story from the previous chapters, but has an unusually abstract chapter title. It is the only chapter whose title has no clear reference within the text, but this may be because the chapter is unfinished. (This question is more difficult because we do not know exactly when the chapters acquired their titles.)

List of chapters[link]

The English translations here are taken from the Edward Seidensticker and the Royall Tyler translations. The first version refers to Seidensticker's edition, the second, to Tyler's. It is not known for certain when the chapters acquired their titles. Early mentions of the Tale refer to chapter numbers, or contain alternate titles for some of the chapters. This may suggest that the titles were added later. The titles are largely derived from poetry that is quoted within the text, or allusions to various characters.

Ch. 5 — 若紫 Wakamurasaki ("Young Murasaki"). Tosa Mitsuoki, 1617–91.

Ch. 20 – 朝顔 Asagao ("The Bluebell"). Tosa Mitsuoki.

Ch. 42 – 匂宮 Niō no Miya ("The Perfumed Prince"). Tosa Mitsuoki.

Ch. 50 – 東屋 Azumaya ("Eastern Cottage"). 12th century Tokugawa Art Museum handscroll.

The additional chapter between 41 and 42 in some manuscripts is called 雲隠 (Kumogakure) which means "Vanished into the Clouds" — the chapter is a title only, and is probably intended to evoke Genji's death. Some scholars have posited the existence of a chapter between 1 and 2 which is now lost, which would have introduced some characters that (as it stands now) appear very abruptly.

Later authors have composed additional chapters, most often either between 41 and 42, or after the end.

Manuscripts[link]

The original manuscript written by Murasaki Shikibu no longer exists. Numerous copies, totaling around 300 according to Ikeda Kikan, exist with differences between each. It is thought that Shikibu often went back and edited early manuscripts introducing discrepancies with earlier copies.^[7]

The various manuscripts are classified into three categories^[8][9]:

• Kawachibon (河内本^?)
• Aobyōshibon (青表紙本^?)
• Beppon (別本^?)

In the 13th century, two major attempts by Minamoto no Chikayuki and Fujiwara Teika were made to edit and revise the differing manuscripts. The Chikayuki manuscript is known as the Kawachibon; edits were many beginning in 1236 and completing in 1255. The Teika manuscript is known as the Aobyōshibon; its edits are more conservative and thought to better represent the original. These two manuscripts were used as the basis for many future copies.

The Beppon category represents all other manuscripts not belonging to either Kawachibon or Aobyōshibon. This includes older but incomplete manuscripts, mixed manuscripts derived from both Kawachibon and Aobyōshibon, and commentaries.

On March 10, 2008, it was announced that a late Kamakura period manuscript was found in Kyōto.^[10][11] It is the sixth chapter "Suetsumuhana" and is 65 pages in length. Most remaining manuscripts are based on copies of the Teika manuscript which introduced revisions in the original. This newly discovered manuscript belongs to a different lineage and was not influenced by Teika. Professor Yamamoto Tokurō, who examined the manuscript said, "This is a precious discovery as Kamakura manuscripts are so rare." Professor Katō Yōsuke said, "This is an important discovery as it asserts that non-Teika manuscripts were being read during the Kamakura period."

On October 29, 2008, Konan Women's University announced that a mid-Kamakura period manuscript was found.^[12][13][14] It is the 32nd chapter, Umegae, and is recognized as the oldest extant copy of this chapter dating between 1240–80. This beppon manuscript is 74 pages in length and differs from Aobyōshi manuscripts in at least four places, raising the "possibility that the contents may be closer to the undiscovered Murasaki Shikibu original manuscript".^[12]

Illustrated scroll[link]

Late 16th or early 17th century hanging scroll in ink and gold leaf illustrating a scene from Genji.

A twelfth century scroll, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, contains illustrated scenes from the Genji together with handwritten sōgana text. This scroll is the earliest extant example of a Japanese "picture scroll": collected illustrations and calligraphy of a single work. The original scroll is believed to have comprised 10-20 rolls and covered all 54 chapters. The extant pieces include only 19 illustrations and 65 pages of text, plus nine pages of fragments. This is estimated at roughly 15% of the envisioned original. The Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya has three of the scrolls handed down in the Owari branch of the Tokugawa clan and one scroll held by the Hachisuka family is now in the Gotoh Museum in Tokyo. The scrolls are designated National Treasures of Japan. The scrolls are so fragile that they normally are not shown in public. The original scrolls in the Tokugawa Museum were shown from November 21 to November 29 in 2009. Since Heisei 13, they have been displayed in the Tokugawa Museum always for around one week in November. An oversize English photoreproduction and translation was printed in limited edition by Kodansha International (Tale of Genji Scroll, ISBN 0-87011-131-0).

Other notable versions are by Tosa Mitsuoki, who lived from 1617 to 1691. His paintings are closely based on Heian style from the existing scrolls from the 12th century and are fully complete. The tale was also a popular theme in Ukiyo-e prints from the Edo period.

Modern readership[link]

Japanese[link]

Pages from the illustrated handscroll from the 12th century

The complexities of the style mentioned in the previous section make it unreadable by the average Japanese person without dedicated study of the language of the tale. Therefore translations into modern Japanese and other languages solve these problems by modernizing the language, unfortunately losing some of the meaning, and by giving names to the characters, usually the traditional names used by academics. This gives rise to anachronisms; for instance Genji's first wife is named Aoi because she is known as the lady of the Aoi chapter, in which she dies.

Both scholars and writers have tried translating it. The first translation into modern Japanese was made by the poet Yosano Akiko. Other known translations were done by the novelists Jun'ichirō Tanizaki and Fumiko Enchi.

Because of the cultural difference, reading an annotated version of the Genji is quite common, even among Japanese. There are several annotated versions by novelists, including Seiko Tanabe, Osamu Hashimoto and Jakucho Setouchi.^[15] Many works, including a manga series and different television dramas, are derived from The Tale of Genji. There have been at least five manga adaptations of the Genji.^[16] A manga version by Waki Yamato, Asakiyumemishi (The Tale of Genji in English), is widely read among Japanese youth, and another version, by Miyako Maki, won the Shogakukan Manga Award in 1989.^[17]

Most Japanese high-school students read selections of the Genji (the original, not a translation) in their Japanese classes.

English translations[link]

In 2008, WorldCat identifies 88 editions of this book. The five major translations into English are each slightly different — mirroring the personal choices of the translator and the period in which the translation was made. Each version has its merits, its detractors and its advocates; and each is distinguished by the name of the translator. For example, the version translated by Arthur Waley would typically be referred to as "the Waley Genji".

The generally recognized "best" translations were created by Suematsu Kenchō, Arthur Waley, Edward G. Seidensticker, Helen McCullough and Royall Tyler.

Major English translations in chronological order[link]

• "The Suematsu Genji" — Suematsu's Genji was the first translation into English, but is considered of poor quality and is not often read today. Significantly, only a few chapters were completed.
• "The Waley Genji—Waley's Genji is considered a great achievement for his time,^[18] although some purists have criticized Waley's changes to the original.^[19] Others have criticized as overly-free the manner in which Waley translated the original text. However, when the Waley Genji was first published, it could not have been more eagerly received. For example, Time explained that "the reviewers' floundering tributes indicate something of its variegated appeal. In limpid prose The Tale combines curiously modern social satire with great charm of narrative. Translator Waley has done service to literature in salvaging to the Occident this masterpiece of the Orient."^[20]
• The Seidensticker Genji — Seidensticker's Genji is an attempt to correct what were perceived to have been Waley's failings without necessarily making his translation obsolete. Seidensticker hews more closely to the original text, but in the interests of readability, he takes some liberties. For example, he identifies the cast of characters by name so that the narrative can be more easily followed by a broad-based audience of Western readers.
• The McCullough Genji
• The Tyler Genji — Tyler's Genji contains more extensive explanatory footnotes and commentary than the previous translations, describing the numerous poetical allusions and cultural aspects of the tale. Tyler consciously attempted to mimic the original style in ways that the previous translations did not. For example, this version does not use names for most characters, identifying them instead by their titles in a manner which was conventional in the context of the 11th century original text. Tyler's version "makes a special virtue of attending to a certain ceremonial indirectness in the way the characters address one another. The great temptation for a translator is to say the unsaid things, and Tyler never gives in to it."^[21]
• In 2008, a 4,400 page Braille version of the Seidensticker Genji was completed. This Braille edition was the product of five Japanese housewives from Setagaya, Tokyo working voluntarily for 5 years and was subsequently donated to the Japan Braille Library (日本点字図書館) and the Library of Congress. It is also available for download.^[22]

Reception and legacy[link]

The Tale of Genji is an important work of Japanese literature, and modern authors have cited it as inspiration, such as Jorge Luis Borges who said of it: The Tale of Genji, as translated by Arthur Waley, is written with an almost miraculous naturalness, and what interests us is not the exoticism—the horrible word—but rather the human passions of the novel. Such interest is just: Murasaki's work is what one would quite precisely call a psychological novel .... I dare to recommend this book to those who read me. The English translation that has inspired this brief insufficient note is called The Tale of Genji. It is noted for its internal consistency, psychological depiction, and characterization. The novelist Yasunari Kawabata said in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech: "The Tale of Genji in particular is the highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even down to our day there has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it."

2000 yen note with The Tale of Genji and Murasaki Shikibu on the right corner

The Genji is also often referred to as "the first novel",^[23] though there is considerable debate over this — some of the debate involving whether Genji can even be considered a "novel". Some consider the psychological insight, complexity and unity of the work to qualify it for "novel" status while simultaneously disqualifying earlier works of prose fiction.^[24] Others see these arguments as subjective and unconvincing. Related claims, perhaps in an attempt to sidestep these debates, are that Genji is the "first psychological novel" or "historical novel",^[25] "the first novel still considered to be a classic" or other more qualified terms. However, critics have almost consistently described The Tale of Genji as the oldest, first, and/or greatest novel in Japanese literature,^[26][27] though enthusiastic proponents may have later neglected the qualifying category of in Japanese literature, leading to the debates over the book's place in world literature. Even in Japan, the Tale of Genji is not universally embraced; the lesser known Ochikubo Monogatari has been proposed as the "world's first full-length novel", even though its author is unknown.^[28] Despite these debates, The Tale of Genji enjoys solid respect among the works of literature, and its influence on Japanese literature has been compared to that of Philip Sidney's Arcadia on English literature.^[26]

The novel and other works by Lady Murasaki are staple reading material in the curricula of Japanese schools. The Bank of Japan issued the 2000 Yen banknote in her honor, featuring a scene from the novel based on the 12th century illustrated handscroll.

Film adaptations and operatic adaptations[link]

The Tale of Genji has been translated into cinematic form several times, first in 1951 by director Kōzaburō Yoshimura, in 1966 by director Kon Ichikawa, and an anime film in 1987 by director Gisaburo Sugii. Sugii's film is not a complete version, and basically covers the first 12 chapters, while adding in some psychological motivation that is not made explicit in the novel. An anime television series was made in 2009 by director Osamu Dezaki.

The Tale of Genji has also been adapted into an opera by Miki Minoru, composed during 1999 and first performed the following year at the Opera Theatre of Saint Louis, with original libretto by Colin Graham (in English), later translated into Japanese by the composer.

See also[link]

Novels portal

• List of The Tale of Genji characters
• The Tale of Genji Museum
• Jūnihitoe
• sudare
• Hagiwara Hiromichi
• Yang Guifei

Notes[link]

• The Tale of Genji Summary Character section was used.

Bibliography[link]

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• Bargen, Doris G (June 1991). "The Search for Things Past in the Genji monogatari". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 51 (1): 199–232. DOI:10.2307/2719245. JSTOR 2719245. 
• Bargen, Doris G (1997). A Woman's Weapon : Spirit possession in the Tale of Genji. Honolulu, Hi: University of Hawaiʻi Press. 
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• Nihon Koten Bungaku Daijiten: Kan'yakuban. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. 1986. ISBN 4-00-080067-1. 
• Okada, H. Richard (1991). Figures of Resistance : Language, Poetry, and Narrating in the Tale of Genji and Other Mid-Heian Texts. Durham: Duke University Press. 
• Pekarik, Andrew (1982). Ukifune : Love in the tale of genji. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Puette, William J (1983). Guide to the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Rutland, Vt: C.E. Tuttle. 
• Rowley, Gillian Gaye (2000). Yosano Akiko and the Tale of Genji. . Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 
• Seidensticker, Edward G. (1976). The Tale of Genji. 1. Turtle Publishing. ISBN 978-4-8053-0919-3. 
• Seidensticker, Edward G. (1976). The Tale of Genji. 2. Turtle Publishing. ISBN 978-4-8053-0920-9. 
• Sestili Daniele (1996). Musica e danza del principe Genji. Le arti dello spettacolo nell’antico Giappone. Lucca: LIM,
• Shirane, Haruo (December 1985). "The Aesthetics of Power: Politics in the Tale of Genji". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 45 (2): 615–47. DOI:10.2307/2718974. JSTOR 2718974. 
• Shirane, Haruo (1987). The Bridge of Dreams : A Poetics of the Tale of Genji. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. 
• Shirane, Haruo (2008). Envisioning the Tale of Genji: Media, Gender, and Cultural Production. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Stevenson and Ho, Barbara and Cynthia O (New York). Crossing the Bridge : Comparative Essays on Medieval European and Heian Japanese Women Writers. 2000: Palgrave. 
• Tyler, Royall (1999). ""I Am I": Genji and Murasaki". Monumenta Nipponica 54 (4): 435–480. DOI:10.2307/2668318. JSTOR 2668318. 
• Tyler, Royall (2001). The Tale of Genji. New York: Viking. 
• Tyler, Royall (March 2002). "Marriage, Rank and Rape in The Tale of Genji". Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context 7. http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue7/tyler.html. 
• Tyler, Royall and Susan (2002). "The Possession of Ukifune". Asiatica Venetiana 5: 177–209. 
• Tyler, Royall (2003). "Rivalry, Triumph, Folly, Revenge: A Plot Line through the Tale of Genji". Journal of Japanese Studies 29 (2): 251–87. 
• Ury, Marian (1988). "A Heian Note on the Supernatural". The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 22 (2): 189–94. DOI:10.2307/488941. JSTOR 488941. 
• Lwarence, Hollendaisde (1958) (in Japanese). Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 14: Genji Monogatari 1. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-060014-1. 
• Yoda, Tomiko (December 1999). "Fractured Dialogues: Mono no aware and Poetic Communication in the Tale of Genji". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 59 (2): 523–57. DOI:10.2307/2652721. JSTOR 2652721. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: The Tale of Genji

• The Tale of Genji -- Oxford Text Archive A complete English translation of the work, free for non-commercial use.
• The Tale of Genji, Edward G. Seidensticker's translation.
• The Tale of Genji, 1654 Library of Congress, Asian Division. The edition in the Library of Congress is a complete and well-preserved set including the complete main text (54 volumes) of Tale of Genji, also Meyasu (3 volumes, commentary on key words and phrases in the text, Keizu (genealogy), Yamaji no tsuyu (a sequel to the work by a later author), and Hikiuta (index).
• Japanese Literature - Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan Contains the 1882 Suematsu translation of the first 17 chapters of The Tale of Genji, with an introduction and notes.
• The Texts of Genji Monogatari Original text, romanized version, and modern Japanese translation of The Tale of Genji at the University of Virginia Library.
• Tale of the Genji woodcuts Woodcut illustrations and accompanying excerpts at the UNESCO Global Heritage Pavilion.
• Murasaki Shikibu: Genji monogatari (1987) An animated film based on The Tale of Genji.
• The Picture Scroll of The Tale of Genji Some scans of the Genji Monogatari Emaki (Tale of Genji Scroll). Only about half of the images are from the twelfth century scroll; they are the darker colored, more faded images.
• The Tale of Genji A photographic guide to The Tale of Genji.
• The Tale of Genji: Genealogical chart A family tree detailing the various relationships of the characters in The Tale of Genji.
• The Tale of Genji Audiobooks Japanese reading of 7 of 54 chapters from the original text, mp3 files.
• Japan Finance Minister Announces Kyoto Coin Design with The Tale of Genji Theme The Kyoto Prefecture commemorative coin set for release in October 2008 features a scene from The Tale of Genji.
• Carving of Picture Scroll of Genji monogatari Paper carvings by Noda Kazuko reproducing the 18 extant illutrations of the 13th century Genji monogatari emaki.
• Costume Museum: Fūzoku Hakubutsukan Dolls dressed in Heian fashion and placed in Heian-inspired interiors.
• Ohmi Gallery A nice collection of Ukiyo-e and Shin-hanga, including illustrations of The Tale of Genji by such artists as Ebina Masao and Utagawa Kunisada.
• Tale of Genji Scroll 18th century anonymous artist Available at Darmouth College, it covers the first 16 chapters of the tale.
• The Tale of Genji by Miyata Masayuki Paper cuts by renowned artist Miyata Masayuki.
• Kunisada II- Illustrations of The Tale of Genji University of Alberta Art& Artifact Collection. Utagawa Kunisada II Collection.
• World Digital Library presentation of 源氏物語 Genji monogatari: Volume One, Kiritsubo. Library of Congress. Primary source moveable type book. 1596-1615, first printed edition of the world's first great novel.

v t e Murasaki Shikibu Family Fujiwara Clan Fujiwara no Yoshifusa Fujiwara no Kanesuke Fujiwara no Tametoki Fujiwara no Michinaga 11th century Heian court poets Izumi Shikibu Akazome Emon Sei Shōnagon Fujiwara no Kintō Work The Tale of Genji The Diary of Lady Murasaki Poetic Memoirs Styles Monogatari Waka Nikki Bungaku Mono no aware Other Murasaki Shikibu Diary Emaki

Akira Ifukube (伊福部 昭, Ifukube Akira^?, 31 May 1914 – 8 February 2006) was a Japanese composer of classical music and film scores, perhaps best known for his work on the soundtracks of the Godzilla movies by Toho.

Biography[link]

Akira Ifukube was born on May 31, 1914 in Kushiro on the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, the third son of a Shinto priest. Much of his childhood was spent in areas with a mixed Japanese and Ainu population, and his father, unusually for the time, socialised with Ainu. Ifukube was strongly influenced by the traditional music of both peoples, and studied the violin and the shamisen. His first encounter with classical music occurred when attending secondary school in Hokkaidō's capital, Sapporo. Legend has it that Ifukube decided to become a composer at the age of 14 after hearing a radio performance of Igor Stravinsky's ballet, The Rite of Spring. He also cited the music of Manuel de Falla as a major influence.

Ifukube went on to study forestry at Hokkaido University and composing in his spare time, which prefigured a line of self-taught Japanese composers such as Tōru Takemitsu and Takashi Yoshimatsu. His first piece was the piano solo, Piano Suite (later the title was changed to Japan Suite, arranged for orchestra). This piece was dedicated to the pianist George Copeland who was then living in Spain. Atsushi Miura, musicologist and Ifukube's friend in university, sent a fan letter to Copeland. Copeland replied, "It is wonderful that you listen my disc in spite of you living in Japan, the opposite side of the earth. I imagine you may compose music. Send me some piano pieces." Then Miura, who was not a composer, presented Ifukube and this piece to Copeland. Copeland promised to interpret it, but the correspondence was unfortunately stopped because of the Spanish Civil War. Ifukube's big break came in 1935, when his first orchestral piece, Japanese Rhapsody, won the first prize in an international contest for young composers promoted by Alexander Tcherepnin. The judges of that contest—Albert Roussel, Jacques Ibert, Arthur Honegger, Alexandre Tansman, Tibor Harsányi, Pierre-Octave Ferroud, and Henri Gil-Marchex—were unanimous in their selection of Ifukube as the winner.^[1] The next year, Ifukube studied modern Western composition while Tcherepnin was visiting Japan, and in 1938 his Piano Suite obtained an honourable mention at the I.C.S.M. festival in Venice. In the late 1930s his music, especially Japanese Rhapsody, was performed in Europe on a number of occasions.

On completing University, he worked as a forestry officer and lumber processor, and towards the end of the Second World War was appointed by the Japanese Imperial Army to study the elasticity and vibratory strength of wood. He suffered radiation exposure after carrying out x-rays without protection, a consequence of the wartime lead shortage. Thus, he had to abandon forestry work and became a professional composer and teacher. Ifukube spent some time in hospital due to the radiation exposure, and was startled one day to hear one of his own marches being played over the radio when General Douglas MacArthur arrived to formalize the Japanese surrender.

From 1946 to 1953, he taught at the Nihon University College of Art, during which period he composed his first film score for The End of the Silver Mountains, released in 1947. Over the next fifty years, he would compose more than 250 film scores, the high point of which was his 1954 music for Ishirō Honda's Toho movie, Godzilla. Ifukube also created Godzilla's trademark roar – produced by rubbing a resin-covered leather glove along the loosened strings of a double bass – and its footsteps, created by striking an amplifier box (in which he discovered stepping it on accident while composing another music).

Despite his financial success as a film composer, Ifukube's first love had always been his general classical work as a composer. In 1974, he returned to teaching at the Tokyo College of Music, becoming president of the college the following year, and in 1987 retired to become president of the College's ethnomusicology department. He trained the younger generation composer such as Toshiro Mayuzumi, Yasushi Akutagawa and Kaoru Wada, Yssimal Motoji.Imai Satoshi. He also published Orchestration, a 1,000-page book on theory.

He died in Tokyo at Moguro-ku Hospital of multiple organ dysfunction on February 8, 2006 at the age of 91.

Honors[link]

The Japanese government awarded Ifukube the Order of Culture.

Subsequently, he was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class.^[2]

Selected works[link]

Orchestral[link]

• Japanese Rhapsody (1935)[1][2]
• Triptyque aborigene for chamber orchestra (1937)
• Symphony Concertante for piano and orchestra (1941)
• Ballata sinfonica (1943)[3]
• Overture to the Nation of Philippines (1944)
• Salome (1948) – ballet based on Oscar Wilde's play of the same name. Ifukube revised and expanded the score in 1987. The piece is written in a conservative, late-romantic style reminiscent of Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky or even Khachaturian.^{[citation needed]}
• Drumming of Japan (1951, revised 1984)
• Symphonic Fantasia No. 1 (1954, revised 1983)
• Sinfonia Tapkaara (1954, revised 1979)[4]
• Ritmica Ostinata for piano and orchestra (1961, revised 1972)
• Ronde in Burlesque for wind orchestra (1972, arranged to orchestra in 1983)
• Violin Concerto No. 2 (1978)
• Lauda concertata for marimba and orchestra (1979)
• Symphonic Fantasia No. 2 (1983)
• Symphonic Fantasia No. 3 (1983)
• Gotama the Buddha for mixed chorus and orchestra (1989)
• Japanese Suite for orchestra (1991)[5]
• Japanese Suite for string orchestra (1998)

Chamber and instrumental[link]

• Piano Suite (1933)
• Toccata for guitar (1970)
• Fantasia for baroque lute (1980)
• Sonata for violin and piano (1985)
• Ballata sinfonica for duo-treble and bass 25-stringed koto (2001)

Vocal[link]

• Ancient Minstrelsies of Gilyak Tribes (1946)
• Three Lullabies among the Native Tribes on the Island of Sakhalin (1949)
• Eclogues after Epos among Aino Races for solo voice and 4 kettle drums (1950)
• A Shanty of the Shiretoko Peninsula (1960)
• The Sea of Okhotsk for soprano, bassoon, piano (or harp) and double bass (1988)
• Lake Kimtaankamuito (Lake Mashū) (摩周湖, Mashū-ko^?) for soprano, viola and harp or piano (1992)
• La Fontaine sacrée for soprano, viola, bassoon and harp (1964, 2000); arrangement by the composer from the 1964 film score Mothra vs. Godzilla

Film scores[link]

• Snow Trail (1947)
• The Quiet Duel (1949)
• Anatahan (アナタハン), also known as The Saga of Anatahan (1953)
• Godzilla (1954)
• Ningen gyorai kaiten (1955)
• The Burmese Harp (1956)
• Rodan (1956)
• The Mysterians (1957)
• Varan the Unbelievable (1958)
• The Birth of Japan (1958)
• Battle in Outer Space (1959)
• The Big Boss (Boss of the Underworld) (1959)
• Daredevil in the Castle (1961)
• The Tale of Zatoichi (1962)
• King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962)
• Chushingura (1962)
• Wanpaku Ouji no Orochi Taiji (1963)
• Atragon (1963)
• Mothra vs. Godzilla (1964)
• Dogora (1964)
• Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster (1964)
• Whirlwind (1964)
• Frankenstein Conquers the World (1965)
• Invasion of Astro-Monster (1965)
• War of the Gargantuas (1966)
• Daimajin (1966)
• Wrath of Daimajin (1966)
• Return of Daimajin (1966)
• King Kong Escapes (1967)
• Destroy All Monsters (1968)
• Latitude Zero (1969)
• Space Amoeba (1970)
• Godzilla vs. Gigan (1972)
• Sandakan No. 8 (1974)
• Terror of Mechagodzilla (1975)
• Lady Origin (1978)
• Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah (1991)
• Godzilla vs. Mothra (1992)
• Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II (1993)
• Godzilla vs. Destoroyah (1995)

In addition, his work was used in Godzilla vs. Biollante, Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla, Godzilla 2000, Godzilla vs. Megaguirus, Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack, and Godzilla: Final Wars.

References[link]

1. ^ liner notes: Naxos 8.555071 (Morihide Katayarna)
2. ^ L'Harmattan web site (in French)

External links[link]

• Akira Ifukube at the Internet Movie Database
• A guide to Ifukube's concert music on CD
• Information about his death in Japanese
• AKIRAIFUKUBE.ORG:A virtual museum dedicated to Akira Ifukube
• Larson, Randall D. Voice of Gojira: Remembering Akira Ifukube at musicfromthemovies.com
• Milner, David. Yohihiko Shibata (trans.) December 1992 & December 1993. "The Complete Akira Ifukube Interview", Kaiju Fan Online.

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2011)

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Ron Korb
Ron Korb Asia Tour press conference in Taipei
Background information
Birth name	Ronald Walter Korb
Origin	Toronto, Canada
Genres	World Music/Jazz/Latin/Asian Music/Celtic music
Occupations	Musician/Composer/Flutist/Songwriter/Singer/Record Producer/Music Arranger
Instruments	Flute/Voice/Tin Whistle/Dizi/Shinobue/Ryūteki
Years active	1988-present
Labels	EMI (Hong Kong), Holborne (Australia), Humble Dragon Entertainment/Jingo (Taiwan) Orange Music (Singapore), ROI (China)
Website	www.ronkorb.com

Ron Korb is a Canadian flautist, composer, songwriter, and record producer, from Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He is also known as Dragon Flute (Traditional Chinese: 龍笛) in China, Thunder Blessing (Traditional Chinese: 雷恩寇伯 ; pinyin: lái-en-kò-búo) in Taiwan and Prince of Flutes (Japanese: fluto no kikoshi) in Japan

Musical style[link]

Korb is known for writing culturally diverse music and his mastery of a wide array of world music wind instruments. His work spans a range of genres including Classical, Jazz, Latin, Asian, Celtic music, and Middle Eastern. Many of his songs are program music based on stories themes that form concept albums. The concepts often come from his exploration of his multi-cultural ancestry and extensive travel experience.

Education[link]

Ron Korb started on the recorder in grade school and later joined an Irish fife and drum band in his teens. While attending the Royal Conservatory of Music, he won several local music competitions. He attended York University for a year to broaden his experience of playing jazz but later earned a scholarship to study classical flute at University of Toronto where he graduated with a degree in Music Performance. His primary teacher was Douglas Stewart but he also participated in master classes with Paula Robison, Robert Aitken in Shawnigan, Raymond Guiot in Domaine Forget and Michel Debost in Assisi, Italy. After graduating with honors from University, Korb discovered Chinese flutes (Chinese: 笛子, English:Dizi, [pinyin]: dÍ zÎ). The sound of the Asian bamboo flute intrigued him so much that he moved to Japan in the early ‘90s to study Japanese Gagaku court music, the traditional shinobue and ryūteki bamboo flutes with Akao Michiko. Since then he has travelled around the world collecting and studying indigenous flutes. He has a collection of more than 200 flutes.(Instrument Info)

Career[link]

Ron Korb has released 30 solo albums in 20 countries on various record labels. He has also guested on recordings by many renowned artists such as Olivia Newton John, Liona Boyd, Mychael Danna, Renaissance (band), Jim McCarty, Illusion (UK band), and the World Youth Day recording for Pope John Paul. Ron's talents have been employed in many major film and television scores. He has played on many Gemini, Genie and Cannes Film Festival award winning projects and even Academy Award nominated films by directors such as Ang Lee, Atom Egoyan, John Woo, and Mira Nair (for detailed list see IMDb, Internet Movie Database). In Robert Lepage's film Nô Ron played the nohkan on camera in the opening scene dressed in traditional kimono.

Ron has had many collaborations with longtime friend Donald Quan. In 1990 they released Tear of the Sun which charted No. 1 in the Canadian New Age Music Top 40 and in 2001 they did the musical direction for Peter Gabriel's Tribute and Homage for Harbourfront Centre's "World Leaders". The musical talent they shared the stage with included Peter Gabriel, Jane Siberry, Tia Carrere, Arn Chorn-Pond, Jeff Martin, Andy Stochansky and Lorraine Segato. That same year they penned the song for the Toronto Olympic Bid which was performed by the Toronto Symphony, Samba Squad and Nathaniel Dett Chorale in Roy Thomson Hall.

In 2004 Ron Korb Live was released which was filmed in Victoriaville Quebec, directed by Pierre and François Lamoureux and became the first independent artist in Canada to release a full length DVD.

Composing[link]

Other than writing the instrumental pieces for his albums he has also written songs for major Asian singers. His song for Alan Tam (Traditional Chinese:譚詠麟) achieved Double Platinum sales. Another song recorded by the "Godfather of Cantopop" Roman Tam (Traditional Chinese:羅文) won Best Original Composition at the RTHK awards (Radio Television Hong Kong), Hong Kong's equivalent of the Grammys. In 2008 Ron was asked to put together a book of flute and piano pieces for classical flute exams for the Australian Music Examinations Board Flute for Leisure syllabus. Ron has also composed music for film dance and theatre.

Touring[link]

Ron Korb has performed in five continents including venues and events such as: Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the World Art Stage in Edinburgh, Arnhem Cathedral in Holland, The Glastonbury Festival in England, Teatro Nacional de Panama, Heian Shrine in Kyoto, Zhong Shan Hall in Taiwan, The Shanghai International Music Festival, The Century Theatre in Beijing and Sun Yet Sen Memorial Hall in Guangzhou, China. Also he represented Canada at Expo 2005 in Nagoya, Japan. In addition, he has been an opening act for Cesária Évora and has toured in China and Canada with world music vocalist Dadawa (Chinese: 朱哲琴, pinyin: Zhu Zheqin)

Selected discography[link]

• 2009 Once Upon A Time (龍笛傳說)
• 2009 Dragon Heart(龍の心)
• 2008 Native Earth (聖靈大地)
• 2007 Ron Korb 龙笛-当代第一魔笛
• 2006 East West Road
• 2005 Rainforest Flute
• 2005 Seasons: Christmas Carols – with Donald Quan
• 2004 Ron Korb Live DVD
• 2004 Ron Korb Live CD
• 2004 Celtic Quest (重返祕世界)
• 2003 The World Of Ron Korb
• 2000 Celtic Heartland (心靈祕境)
• 1999 Mada Minu Tomo e
• 1999 Taming The Dragon (龍笛)
• 1995 Behind The Mask(東方戀)
• 1994 Flute Traveller
• 1993 Japanese Mysteries –with Hiroki Sakaguchi
• 1990 Tear Of The Sun – with Donald Quan

Awards and recognitions[link]

• Andrew Kinghorn Scholarship (University of Toronto)
• Best Original Composition, Radio Television Hong Kong (RTHK)
• Grand Prize Winner, Canadian National Exhibition

References[link]

• Ron Korb: straddling two worlds, Performing Arts & Entertainment in Canada, Spring, 1997 by Robert Hoshowsky
• Ron Korb Bibliography. Reference Answers
• Ron Korb. All about Jazz
• Flute Virtuoso, Ron Korb, Launches Tour of Asia. World Music Central.
• Ron Korb. Alcione.
• Ron Korb Flute Traveller Adelaide Fringe Festival 2008
• Ron Korb Bio. Movietome
• CD Review Ron Korb-‘Celtic Heartland’. Taiwan Fun
• Flutist Mr. Ron Korb is Coming to Taipei. Canadian Trade Office in Taipei
• This Week at the Canadian Pavilion. EXPO 2005 AICHI
• Ron Korb Trivia and Quotes. TV.com
• Concerts Celebrates Japan at the ROM. Consulate-General of Japan in Toronto
• Ron Korb IMDb film credits
• Ron Korb Live at the Internet Movie Database

External links[link]

• Ron Korb official website
• Myspace: Ron Korb
• Facebook: Ron Korb
• Youtube: Flutetraveller
• Jingo Record: Ron Korb

v t e Canada–Japan relations Japan People Mickey Curtis Glen Ennis Aaron Keller Ron Korb Herbert Marler R.W. Mayhew Monkey Majik Herbert Norman Maria Ozawa Richard Rochefort Barry Steers Mervin Tran Mel Wakabayashi Jai West Issues Japanese war crimes Places Canadian Academy Embassy of Canada, Tokyo List of Canadian ambassadors to Japan Events Canada WET Canada Japanese Canadians Ken Adachi Nobu and Mio Adilman Dennis Akayama David Akutagawa Severn Cullis-Suzuki Hiromi Goto Arthur S. Hara Kanao Inouye Mary Ito Robert Ito Hiro Kanagawa Martin Kariya Paul Kariya Steve Kariya Sarah Kawahara Andrew Kishino Roy Kiyooka Joy Kogawa (Obasan) Bruce Kuwabara Jon Matsumoto Nina Matsumoto Art Miki Roy Miki Masajiro Miyazaki Kenzo Mori Raymond Moriyama Issey Nakajima-Farran Paris Nakajima-Farran Kazuo Nakamura George Nozuka Justin Nozuka Philip Nozuka Bev Oda Kristy Odamura Midi Onodera John Kimura Parker Michelle Sagara Kerri Sakamoto Devin Setoguchi Tetsuro Shigematsu Aki Shimazaki Rick Shiomi Yellow Fever Thomas Shoyama Jeff Chiba Stearns Jennifer Spence Jamie Storr Vicky Sunohara David Suzuki Mutsumi Takahashi Takao Tanabe Miyuki Tanobe David Tsubouchi Masami Tsuruoka Irene Uchida Juhn Atsushi Wada Terry Watada Michelle Sagara West Ayaka Wilson Naomi Yamamoto Christine Yoshikawa Kimiko Zakreski Japanese in Canada Manzō Nagano Utako Wakamatsu Other people HIMEKA Jillian Michaels John Powles Bruce Ross Issues Japanese Canadian internment Reference re Persons of Japanese Race Events Powell Street Festival Places Embassy of Japan, Ottawa Japanese Canadian Cultural Centre Japantown, Vancouver Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada Kuroki, Saskatchewan Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden Nikkei Internment Memorial Centre Nitobe Memorial Garden Organisations Hitachi Canadian Industries Kokoro Dance National Association of Japanese Canadians Japan Canada Oil Sands Limited Sony Canada Works Minoru: Memory of Exile Obasan Skim Yellow Fever Other Ahadada Books Hiroshima Japanese Canadian Pacific Fleet