For SIPRI, see Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

As Safirah السفيرة Sfireh, Sipri[1]
As Safirah Location in Syria
Coordinates: 36°04′N 37°22′E / 36.067°N 37.367°E / 36.067; 37.367
Country	Syria
Governorate	Aleppo Governorate
District	Al-Safirah District
Elevation	348 m (1,142 ft)
Population (2007 est.)
• Total	106,382
Time zone	EET (UTC+2)
• Summer (DST)	+3 (UTC)

As Safīrah (Arabic: السفيرة‎ As Safīra; North Syrian Arabic: Sfīre) is a Syrian city administratively belonging to the Aleppo Governorate. It is the administrative center for the As Safirah District. As Safīrah has an altitude of 348 meters (1,142 ft), and a population of 106,382 as of 2007, making it the 11th largest city per geographical entity in Syria.

Name[link]

Medieval geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi spells the name Asfīrah (أسفيرة), not As-Safīrah (السفيرة), which indicates that the definite article in the modern spelling is a result of hypercorrection.

As-Safīrah was known in pre-Islamic times as Sipri.^[1] Historians^[2] have suggested that the name Sipri may have come from the Akkadian word siparru meaning "bronze", which might indicate that copper was mined and bronze was worked there.

History[link]

Since ancient times the city has been the distribution point for salt gathered from the nearby Sabkhat al-Jabbul.

Archeological findings[link]

The Sfire I Treaty which may contain 8th C. BCE evidence of a deity called "Most High."

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• Traditional dwellings in As Safirah "Traditional Architecture in Syria: a Mediterranean Dwelling", European Commission Meda-euromed Heritage, page 14, left-hand photo, and page 16, top right-hand photos.

Coordinates: 37°04′N 37°22′E / 37.067°N 37.367°E / 37.067; 37.367

v t e Administrative divisions of Aleppo Governorate Mount Simeon District centre and Nahiyahs Aleppo Zerbeh Hretan Darat Azzah Hader Tall Daman Aleppo Governorate A'zaz District centre and Nahiyahs A'zaz Akhtareen Tall Rif'at Mare' Nubbol Sawran Afrin District centre and Nahiyahs Afrin Bulbul Jindires Rajo Sharran Sheikh al-Hadid Ma'batli Ayn Al-Arab District centre and Nahiyahs Ayn Al-Arab Sheyukh Tahtani Sarrin Atarib District centre and Nahiyahs Atarib Abian Sam'an Urem al-Kubra Al Bab District centre and Nahiyahs Al-Bab Tedef Al-Rayi Arima Dayr Hafir District centre and Nahiyahs Dayr Hafir Rasm Harmel al-Imam Quwaires Sharqi Jarabulus District centre and Nahiyahs Jarabulus Ghandoura Manbij District centre and Nahiyahs Manbij Abu Qelqel Khafsah Maskaneh As Safirah District centre and Nahiyahs As Safirah Khanaser Banan Al-Hajeb

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Dr. Neil Melvin is an expert on contemporary forms of conflict and the current Director of the SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) Armed Conflict and Conflict Management Programme.^[1] Dr Melvin has extensive experience both as a researcher and as a policy practitioner. He has published widely on issues of conflict, with a particular focus on ethno-religious issues in the former Soviet Union and in Asia. In recent years he has broadened his research interests to consider the impact of resources on conflict, notably the issue of energy and conflict.

Professional life[link]

Prior to joining SIPRI, he held Senior Adviser positions in the Energy Charter Secretariat (2008–2010) and for the OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)'s High Commissioner on National Minorities (2001–2005).^[2] He served as a Reader in International Conflict Analysis at the Brussels School of International Studies (2008–2010)^[3] and worked at a variety of leading policy institutes in Europe such as the Center for European Policy Studies.^[4][5]

Education[link]

Melvin received his Ph.D in Politics from St. Antony's College, Oxford University, in 1992, and subsequently served as post-doctoral fellow at the Russian Research Center of Harvard University. He was also the recipient of a British Academy post-doctoral research fellowship at the London School of Economics.

Selected works[link]

Publications[link]

• Engaging Central Asia: The European Union's New Strategy in the Heart of Eurasia (2008)
• Conflict in Southern Thailand: Islamism, Violence and the State in the Patani Insurgency, SIPRI

Policy Paper No. 20 (September 2007).

• Building Stability in the North Caucasus: The way forward for Russia and the European Union, SIPRI Policy Paper No. 16 (April 2007).
• Soviet Power and the Countryside: Policy Innovation and Institutional Decay (Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003).
• Guest Editor of a Special Edition of Helsinki Monitor devoted to Central Asia (November 2003).
• Uzbekistan: Transition to Authoritarianism on the Silk Road (London: Routledge, 2000).
• Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder, Col.: Westview, 1998), editor and chapter contributor "Russians: Diaspora and the End of Empire".
• Regional Foreign Policies in the Russian Federation (London: Chatham House, 1995).
• Russians Beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995).
• Forging the New Russian Nation: Russian Foreign Policy and the Russian-speaking Communities of the Former USSR, Chatham House Discussion Paper, no. 50 (1994).

References[link]

External links[link]

• SIPRI Biography: Dr. Neil Melvin

Dr. Bates Gill (Chinese: 季北慈) is an expert on Chinese foreign policy and the current director of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).^[1][2]

Dr Gill has a long record of research and publication on both international and regional security issues. These include arms control, non-proliferation, peacekeeping and military-technical development—and all mainly with regard to China and Asia. In recent years his work has broadened to encompass other contemporary security-related trends including multilateral security organizations, the impact of domestic politics and development on the foreign policies of states, and the nexus of public health and security.

In March 2012, Dr Gill was appointed as the chief executive officer of the United States Studies Centre at the University of Sydney.^[3]

Education[link]

Gill received his Ph.D in Foreign Affairs from the University of Virginia in 1991.^[4] His thesis investigated the role of weapons transfer in forming the foreign policy of China and was entitled "Fire of the Dragon: Arms Transfers in Chinese Security Policy.".^[5] He received his B.A from Albion College, with a double major in Political Science and French. He is fluent in Chinese, English, and French.^[2]

Professional life[link]

Prior to being named the SIPRI director in 2007, Gill held the Freeman Chair in China Studies at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Washington, D.C from 2002.^[3] He served as a Senior Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies and inaugural Director of the Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies^[3][6] at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C., from 1998 to 2002.

Before his work at Brookings, Dr. Gill's previous assignments included directing the East Asia programmes at the Center for Nonproliferation Studies of the Monterey Institute of International Studies,^[6] in Monterey, California. He also held the Fei Yiming Chair in Comparative Politics^[6] at the Johns Hopkins University Center for Chinese and American Studies, at Nanjing University in China. For his work with Johns Hopkins University and his subsequent accomplishments, he was inducted to the Johns Hopkins University Society of Scholars in 2007.

Selected works[link]

Books[link]

Dr. Gill has authored or edited eight books:

• Governing the Bomb: Civilian Control and Democratic Accountability of Nuclear Weapons (Oxford University Press, 2010), co-edited with Hans Born and Heiner Hänggi
• Asia's New Multilateralism: Cooperation, Competition, and the Search for Community (Columbia University Press, 2009), co-edited with Michael J. Green
• Rising Star: China's New Security Diplomacy (Brookings Institution Press, 2007, revised edition in 2010)
• China: The Balance Sheet: What the World Needs to Know Now about the Emerging Superpower (PublicAffairs, 2006), co-authored with C. Fred Bergsten, Nicholas Lardy, and Derk Mitchell
• Weathering the Storm: Taiwan, Its Neighbors and the Asian Financial Crisis (Brookings Institution Press, 2000), co-edited with Peter Chow
• China’s Arms Acquisitions from Abroad: A Quest for ‘Superb and Secret Weapons’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), co-authored with Taeho Kim
• Arms, Transparency and Security in Southeast Asia (Oxford University Press, 1997), co-edited with J. N. Mak
• Chinese Arms Transfers (Praeger Publishers, 1992)

He is also the publisher of the SIPRI Yearbook during his tenure as SIPRI Director. http://www.sipriyearbook.org/

Professional Affiliations[link]

• Feris Foundation of America, Board member
• Geneva Centre for Security Policy, Board member
• Center for Democratic Control of Armed forces, Board member
• ISIS-Europe, Board Member
• China-Merck AIDS Partnership, Board member
• Asia Society Policy Advisory Board member
• Shanghai Institute of International Studies, Advisory Board member
• Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, Board member
• Journal of Contemporary China, China Security, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Security Challenges Editorial Board member
• Council on Foreign Relations, member
• International Institute for Strategic Studies, member

References[link]

External links[link]

• SIPRI Biography: Dr. Bates Gill
• Bates Gill | Foreign Affairs (Author Profile)
• China's Space Odyssey: What the Antisatellite Test Reveals About Decision-Making in Beijing - Foreign Affairs, May/June 2007
• China's HIV Crisis - Foreign Affairs, March/April 2002
• Limited Engagement - Foreign Affairs, July/August 1999

Tilman Brück (born 1970) is a German economist specializing in poverty analysis and the economics of conflict and terrorism. He is professor of development economics at the Humboldt University of Berlin. He also heads the department of Development and Security at the German Institute for Economic Research.^[1]

Tilman is an expert on the economics of developing and middle income countries such as Colombia and Tanzania. In September 2012 it was announced that Tilman was to replace Bates Gill as head of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, a global think-tank dedicated to research into conflict and arms control.^[2]

Education[link]

Tilman studied for masters and doctorate degrees in economics at the University of Oxford between 1996 and 2001. Prior to this he studied economics at the University of Glasgow. During his time at Oxford he was an undergraduate and postgraduate tutor in Development Economics. Before taking up his position as professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, he was a visiting lecturer at the University of Rome, Tor Vergata. His research interests currently lie in the economics of terrorism and post-war reconstruction. Tilman speaks English, German and Portuguese.^[3]

Select Publications[link]

Books[link]

• In the Grip of Transition: Economic and Social Consequences of Restructuring in Russia and Ukraine (Palgrave Macmillan: Houndmills, Basingstoke, 2012), co-edited with H. Lehmann.
• The Economic Analysis of Terrorism (Routledge, 2007).

Articles[link]

• 'The economic costs of the German participation in the Afghanistan war', Journal of Peace Research (vol. 48, 2011), with O. de Groot and F. Schneider.
• 'Terror and human insecurity: editorial introduction', European Journal of Political Economy, (vol. 27, 2011), with F. Schneider.
• 'The economics of security: a European perspective', Defence and Peace Economics, (vol. 22, 2011), with M. Brzoska and K. Drakos.
• 'Response: the time of young scientists', Science, (vol. 329, 2010).
• 'Comparing the determinants of concern about terrorism and crime', Global Crime, (vol. 11, 2010), with C. Müller.
• 'Growth, Employment and Poverty in Mozambique', Issues in Employment and Poverty Discussion, (2006), with K. van den Broeck.

Professional Affiliations[link]

• Households in Conflict Network, co-director
• University of Lisbon, associate researcher
• Institute of the Study of Labor, research fellow
• German Institute of Economic Research, department head
• World Institute for Development Economics Research
• Oxford Department of International Development
• Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
• Global Young Academy, founding fellow

References[link]

External links[link]

• SIPRI Website
• SIPRI Biography

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj Цахиагийн Элбэгдорж
President of Mongolia
Incumbent
Assumed office 18 June 2009
Prime Minister	Sanjaagiin Bayar Sükhbaataryn Batbold
Preceded by	Nambaryn Enkhbayar
Prime Minister of Mongolia
In office 20 August 2004 – 13 January 2006
President	Natsagiin Bagabandi Nambaryn Enkhbayar
Preceded by	Nambaryn Enkhbayar
Succeeded by	Miyeegombyn Enkhbold
In office 23 April 1998 – 9 December 1998
President	Natsagiin Bagabandi
Preceded by	Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan
Succeeded by	Janlavyn Narantsatsralt
Personal details
Born	(1963-03-30) 30 March 1963 (age 49) Zereg, Mongolia
Political party	Democratic Party
Spouse(s)	Bolormaa Khajidsuren
Children	1 daughter 4 sons
Alma mater	Lviv Polytechnic National University[1] University of Colorado, Boulder Harvard University
Signature
Website	www.president.mn

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj (Mongolian: Цахиагийн Элбэгдорж, also referred to as Elbegdorj Tsakhia, born March 30, 1963) is the 4th and current President of Mongolia. He won the election on May 24, 2009 and was sworn into office on June 18, 2009. He was the candidate of the Democratic Party, thus he became Mongolia's first president to never have been a member of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party and the first to obtain a Western education. Elbegdorj was one of the key leaders of the peaceful democratic revolution in 1990 that ended 70 years of communist rule.

Elbegdorj has been the Prime Minister of Mongolia twice, the vice speaker of the Parliament of Mongolia once, the majority leader of the parliament once, and a member of parliament four times. He is known as a pro-democracy, libertarian politician.^[2] Elbegdorj is also the founder of the Ardchilal (English: Democracy) newspaper.

Childhood and education[link]

Elbegdorj was born into a nomadic herding family in Zereg sum, Khovd on March 30, 1963. He was the youngest of eight sons. Elbegdorj spent most of his early childhood herding livestock through the high mountains of Zereg sum.^[3] His father, M. Tsakhia, was a veteran of Mongolia's border conflict with the Empire of Japan that resulted in the 1939 Battle of Khalkhyn Gol. Elbegdorj finished the sum's eight-year school in 1979. Afterwards, his family moved to Erdenet, and he graduated from Erdenet's No.1 ten-year school in 1981.^[4]

In 1981/82, he worked in the Erdenet copper combine as a machinist, and in 1982 was drafted into military service. For heading a Revolutionary Youth League group in the army, he was awarded with the possibility to study Journalism and Marxism-Leninism at the Military Political Institute of the USSR in Lviv (Ukraine) from 1983 on.^[5] He graduated in 1988 and then worked for the Mongolian army newspaper Ulaan Od (Red Star).^[4]

After his first term as prime minister, he spent a year at the University of Colorado at Boulder's Economic Institute, earning a Diploma in 2001. Then Elbegdorj studied with a full scholarship to Harvard University and graduated from Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government with a Master of Public Administration (MPA) in 2002.^[6][7]

Marriage and family[link]

Elbegdorj and Bolormaa Khajidsuren got acquainted with each other at an ice breaker students’ party in Lviv, Ukraine. Elbegdorj won the heart of his spouse through the many poems he wrote. Soon after they were married and had their first son in Lviv, Ukraine. Now, they have five children: four sons and an adopted daughter. In addition, Elbegdorj and Bolormaa are foster parents to more than two dozen orphans at Bolormaa's "Bolor Foundation." ^[8]

The "Bolor Foundation" was first established in 2006 to help orphans throughout Mongolia. Through the foundation, Elbegdorj and his wife Bolormaa have helped and assisted over 300 orphans. Later the two, decided to become foster parents for the 20 children of the "Baby Bear" class of the State Foster Care Center in Ulaanbaatar. ^[9] After becoming the foster parents of the children, Elbegdorj and Bolormaa in 2009 changed the name of the foundation to "Bolor Foundation, A Caring Family." Nowadays, the children from the "Bolor Foundation, A Caring Family" are Elbegdorj's family. Elbegdorj and Bolormaa, take care of the children just like their own and fend for them as well. They also focus on teaching the children how to become better people while encouraging them to learn to dance, sing, and play musical instruments.

Elbegdorj's wife Bolormaa Khajidsuren also leads another foundation aimed at tackling cancer in Mongolia called "Hope Cancer-Free Mongolia National Foundation." The "Hope Foundation" was established in 2010 and it works to help control, treat, and educate Mongolians about cancer.

Democratic movement[link]

During his studies in the USSR, Elbegdorj learned about Glasnost and concepts such as freedom of speech and economic liberties. After returning to Mongolia, he met with other like-minded people and tried to present those ideas to a wider audience, despite attempts of repression from the Politburo and threats by his employer to lose his job. When giving a speech at Young Artists’ Second National Congress on November 28, 1989, in the end of his speech, Elbegdorj said that Mongolia needed democracy and appealed youth to collaborate and organize an organization together for establishing democracy in Mongolia. He told the audience “We consider that Perestroika is a timely and brave step. Youth’s contribution to this revolutionary matter is not by supportive talks but by certain work. Our contribution is our objectives to be fulfilled. Our objectives are: “…following democracy and transparency and contributing to glasnost, … and to support truthful progressive power…for this…These are the objectives of an initiatives’ group. The group should be an organization that works. After the congress I hope we’ll gather and discuss and you’ll participate in this. The organization shall be based on public, voluntary and democratic principles.”^[10]

The chairman of the congress stopped Elbegdorj's speech and warned him that he could not say such things. It was 1989 and Mongolia was already a communist country for 68 years. During that time, it was alleged that one out of two people was an unofficial spy of communist party Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) that would oppress people who express different opinions than socialism and communism. During the break of the congress, two young individuals met Elbegdorj and the three agreed to initiate a democratic movement and to secretly spread the news to other young people. Later the three, including Elbegdorj met and united with ten other individuals and they are known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolia's Democratic Revolution.

At that time, Elbegdorj was a correspondent of army newspaper Ulaan Od. When he came back to work after the youth congress, the news about Elbegdorj's "wrongdoings" at the Young Artists Congress already had reached the newspaper. The director of the newspaper warned Elbegdorj that he would fire Elbegdorj if he participated in any activities outside of work and to do anything out of communist and socialist ideological lines. Despite the warning, Elbegdorj and his friends began to secretly meet with other young people in the circle auditorium of the National University of Mongolia and discussed about democracy, free market economy and what they knew about the prohibited subjects of that time and began to draft a plan to organize a democratic movement. They met many times and brought new friends and new supporters to join them secretly. One night they put ads of their open demonstration in streets.

On the morning of December 10, 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration met in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar. There Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union. Over the next months the activists led by Elbegdorj and others continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teacher's and worker's strikes. These were risky acts for the lives of the activists at that time. They met growing support from the population, both in the capital and the countryside and the union’s activities became a wave all over the country.;^{[11] [12]}

After numerous demonstrations of many thousands of people in the capital city as well as provincial centers, MPRP Politburo - the authority of the government eventually gave way to the pressure and entered negotiations with the leaders of the democratic movement. In February 1990, the chairman of Politburo Jambyn Batmönkh of MPRP’s Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on March 9, 1990. Thus paving the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia. Elbegdorj announced this news to the hunger strikers and the people that gathered on Sukhbaatar square at 10PM on that day after the negotiations between leaders of MPRP and Mongolian Democratic Union. As a result Mongolia became the first country in Central Asia to embrace democracy.^[13]

As a Member of People’s Congress, Elbegdorj co-drafted and co-adopted Mongolia's new Constitution on January 13, 1992. The new Constitution guaranteed human rights, democracy, freedom of religion, and free speech. An international intellectual once referred Elbegdorj as "Mongolia's Thomas Jefferson.^[2]

Journalism career[link]

Elbegdorj worked as a correspondent at army newspaper Ulaan Od and a chief of army literature unit between 1988 and 1990. While in these positions Elbegdorj wrote articles mostly disclosing and criticizing publicly the brutal characteristics of “year difference” among privates in Mongolian army and also wrote articles to better the soldiers’ health and lives. ^[14]

Elbegdorj founded Mongolia’s first independent newspaper “Ardchilal” (Democracy) and worked as its very first Editor-in-Chief in 1990. During his work as the editor-in-chief, Elbegdorj spread information on the core values of democracy to the Mongolian people. ^[15] Furthermore, he announced that every Mongolian should have the all rights and freedom defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Right. Therefore changing the social thinking of many Mongolians. In 1990, Elbegdorj also worked diligently to establish freedom of press in Mongolia. ^[16]

Elbegdorj founded and worked as the head of Mongolia's first Entrepreneurs Association in 1991 as well. The association worked and helped to privatize livestock for free to their herders from the socialist collective farms. As a result, providing the first private property to almost almost half of Mongolia's entire population. ^[17]

Elbegdorj also helped to create Mongolia’s first independent TV station Eagle TV in 1994. It was run by the former Mongolian Broadcasting Company (MBC) (now owned by Eagle Broadcasting Company), a joint-venture between the US Christian missionary organization AMONG Foundation, and the Mongolia Media Corporation (MMC).

Political career[link]

Elbegdorj was elected to the Parliament four times, in 1990, 1992, 1996 and in 2008. He was involved in the drafting and adoption of Mongolia’s new Constitution, which introduced human rights, democracy and a free market economy to the country. He supported the privatization of lifestock, of state-owned assets, and of land.

While as the Chairman of the State Commission on Rehabilitation, Elbegdorj initiated and brought the state to apologize for the victims and families of over 36,000 people that had been persecuted and mass massacred during the years of Mongolian People's Party communist rule. ^[18] He played a key role in the approval of the Rehabilitation Law, which provided rehabilitation, compensation to the survivors and families of political victims, and recovery from the Stalinist purges and prohibited future violation of human rights. In addition the law established a Memorial Day for Political Victims.

Elbegdorj, as the head of the Democratic party, co-led the Democratic Union Coalition to its historic victory in the 1996 parliamentary elections. He served as the Majority Leader of the Parliament from 1996 to 2000 and as the Vice Speaker of the Parliament from 1996 to 1998.

He worked as the Prime Minister of Mongolia twice in 1998 and 2004-2006.

First term as prime minister[link]

In 1998, a clause in the constitution was removed that prohibited members of parliament to take cabinet responsibility. Thus on April 23, 1998, Parliament elected (61-6) Elbegdorj as the Prime Minister.^[19] During his term, he made crucial steps in solving the nation’s pressing economic, political, structural and social issues, and firmly continued its open foreign policy. Those are as following: Elbegdorj co-initiated Law on Press Freedom and he played a key role to pass the law in 1998. Based on this law, another law passed that changed all daily state newspapers into public newspapers without direct control and censorship from the government.

Elbegdorj's most significant achievement during his first term as Prime Minister was to collect tax and create tax income. The biggest tax payer and only significant income contributor to the government's budget at the time was the copper ore mining and processing Erdenet Mining Corporation (EMC) - a joint stock company owned by the governments of Mongolia and the Russian Federation. EMC hadn't paid due tax, income and royalty to Mongolia's government between 1997-1998 which resulted in the government financial crumbling.

Because of this, the previous Prime Minister Enkhsaikhan stepped down due to pressure from the opposition party, the MPRP. After becoming Prime Minister, Elbegdorj ordered an audit of EMC. The audit results revealed that the state due income did not enter the state account, instead it went to dubious accounts of directors at the EMC. This corruption related case was reported in detail in investigative series “Swindle of the Century” on Eagle television.^[20] Elbegdorj dismissed the EMC's chairman. As a result, the government began to receive due tax, royalty and income from the EMC.

In addition, at the recommendations of international financial institutions such as International Monetary Fund and the World Bank - aid granters to Mongolia, and discount interest rate loan giver Asian Development Bank, Elbegdorj made a decision to sell state owned Reconstruction Bank which became illiquid and was experiencing enormous loss, the biggest financial burden to the economy since its establishment in 1997.^[21] At that time Golomt Bank was one of few private commercial banks in Mongolia and it was the only one that offered to buy Reconstruction Bank.

In response to this and the change of EMC's chairman, the minority group at the Parliament MPRP demanded Elbegdorj to resign and thus resulted Elbegdorj to lose confidence vote at the Parliament. The Parliament had prevented Elbegdorj's government from selling the bank. Elbegdorj's decision to sell the Reconstruction Bank was proven to be correct. The bank bankrupted soon after Elbegdorj's first term as prime minister was over and resulting the bankruptcy led the government to suffer enormous amount of financial loss.

Moreover, Elbegdorj assisted Mongolia's first Wrestling Palace which was half built for a long time. During his first term as Prime Minister he made sure the construction was completed.

He stayed in office until December 9, because of the disagreements of the Parliament and the President for a new Prime Minister, as the President vetoing proposals from the Democratic Party’s majority. Finally, in December the President agreed to the parliament's proposal on Janlavyn Narantsatsralt, former Mayor of Ulaanbaatar as Prime Minister, and Elbegdorj stepped down.

Second term as prime minister[link]

On August 20, 2004, Elbegdorj became a Prime Minister of Mongolia for the second time, despite not being a member of parliament. This time he headed a grand coalition government after the vote in the parliamentary elections had been evenly split between the two major political forces - Democratic Coalition and the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.

In his second term in the government, Elbegdorj proclaimed a fight against corruption and poverty, which he saw as the biggest challenges to Mongolia's economic development. However, despite his long battle against corruption, he never seems completely successful, as the Corruption Index in Mongolia only got worse throughout the years.

Besides Elbegdorj initiated a "Green Wall" environmental project to plant trees in barren areas and desert zones to prevent from dust storm coming from Mongolia to Asia and to reduce air pollution^{[citation needed]}. However, this did not yield any results, as winters in Mongolia are still filled highly damaging to health, and air pollution index of Ulaanbaatar is the worst in the world after Mexico City.

During his term January 27, 2005, the state controlled National State Television and Radio were converted into formally independent organisations with increasingly smaller control by the government.^[22] Also, legal provisions that prohibited demonstrations on Ulaanbaatar's Sükhbaatar Square were abolished.^[23] He subsidized and supported technical schools and specialized professions to reduce unemployment. To promote affordable computers and internet access, he established Information and Communication Agency under the government. He attempted to strengthen domestic businesses by reducing the administrative overhead, by eliminating excessive regulations, many licensing requirements, and import taxes for key product categories. ^[24] By decision of his government English replaced Russian as the first foreign language to be taught in public schools as well.

Elbegdorj initiated the erection of the Genghis Khan memorial complex in front of Mongolia's government house for the 800th Anniversary of the Great Mongol Empire. He also proposed to relocate Mongolia's capital to Harhorin, a small town 400 km west of Ulaanbaatar, at the site of the former (until the 1260s) capital of the Mongol Empire.

In August 2005, Elbegdorj wanted to run for by-elections in Ulaanbaatar's Bayangol düüreg. However, the MPRP threatened to leave the coalition if Elbegdorj ran against MPRP candidate M. Ekhbold, and Elbegdorj withdrew.^[25]

On January 13, 2006, the MPRP left the coalition anyway, and Elbegdorj was forced to resign. The MPRP proceeded to form a new government with the help of DP defectors and independent MPs, the new prime minister became M. Enkhbold. The events triggered protests from some civic groups and their followers.^[26] Also during Elbegdorj's term, Mongolia was accepted into the European Union's GSP+ system,^[27] which allows Mongolian exporters to pay lower customs tariffs when exporting to the EU.

2008 election and political unrest[link]

After his party's defeat in the June 29th, 2008 parliamentary elections, Elbegdorj in his position of DP chairman was one of the many protesters against alleged irregularities. Most international observers, however, noted that the elections appeared mostly free and fair.^[28][29] The MPRP and several media outlets accused him of inciting the riots of July 1st, 2008, in which the MPRP headquarters was burnt down, and the Central Cultural Palace damaged and looted, a charge which Elbegdorj denied. The court ruled in favor of Elbegdorj in that he was only practicing his right to freedom of speech and he questioned why the results of the 2008 election varied so much from the numerous surveys that were conduced by both local and international organizations prior to the election that had the Democratic Party far in the lead for victory over the MPRP. His actions were not the result of the riots.

In addition, Elbegdorj accused the MPRP of having ordered the death of five people during the riots (in connection with the deaths of four of these five people from gunshot wounds, ten police officers were later charged with murder, and Amnesty International raised concerns over the use of "unnecessary and excessive force" by the police^[30]). In an interview on July 3 and a letter of July 4, Elbegdorj even alleged that the MPRP's inaction had encouraged the rioters and that the MPRP was using dictatorial methods.^[31][32]

On September 2, 2008, Elbegdorj resigned as the head of the Democratic Party in the aftermath of the party's defeat in the 2008 elections. N. Altankhuyag was elected by the Democratic Party's National Consultative Committee as the next chairman, and the Democratic Party entered a coalition government with the MPRP. On September 12, Elbegdorj was the only member of parliament who voted against S. Bayar as Mongolia's new prime minister.^[33]

2009 Mongolian presidential election[link]

Elbegdorj walking down from the Genghis Khan monument to greet Mongolians after victory in the Presidential elections, 25 May 2009.

Election preliminary results. Source: Montsame Agency

At the Democratic Party convention of April 3, 2009, Elbegdorj was elected as the presidential candidate from the Democratic party. He received 63.5% of the vote, defeating Erdeniin Bat-Üül. After Elbegdorj was announced as the candidate, the Civic Will Party and the Mongolian Green Party pledged their support. Elbegdorj won the elections by 51.21 % of votes while incumbent president Enkhbayar got 47.41 % mostly from the countryside.^{[citation needed]}

On 5 June 2009, the parliament decided to swear Elbegdorj in on 18 June 2009.^[34]

[edit] Presidency

As soon as he took the office, he initiated an Amnesty Law, mainly in order to free the 300 prisoners sentenced after the July 1, 2008, uprising. The MPRP-dominated parliament distorted the bill to include corrupt politicians in the amnesty.^[35]

In September 2009, Elbegdorj visited the Independent Authority Against Corruption and expressed his dissatisfaction with the work of this important agency as it investigates petty corruption instead of political corruption. He disbanded the Community council of the IAAC formed by the former President N. Enkhbayar mostly with sport and music stars and supreme clergy.^[36] Then he reorganized the council strengthening it with professional lawyers.^[37]

By the end of 2009, the President vetoed the national budget which allocated a billion tugrik for each MP (76,000,000,000 total) to invest in their respective constituencies. Such allocation of funds was seen as a form of political corruption and distortion of the democratic principle of checks and balances that constitutionally divides power between the legislative and executive branches. (Some observers compared it to "pork" in the United States government budgeting.) It also provides unfair advantage to the current MPs in future election campaigns, say opponents. The parliament over-rode the veto, which supporters of the veto said proved the parliament was "deeply corrupt." ^[38]

On January 14, 2010, Elbegdorj announced that he would, henceforth, systematically use his prerogative to pardon all persons sentenced to death. He stated that most countries in the world had abolished the death penalty, and that Mongolia should follow their example; he suggested that it be replaced with a thirty year prison sentence. The decision was controversial; when Elbegdorj announced it in Parliament, MPRP represesentatives ^[39] chose not to give the applause customarily due after a presidential speech.^[40] (See: Capital punishment in Mongolia)

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj making a speech

Despite the harsh criticism from conservative politicians and the opposition, Elbegdorj's decision to abolish the death penalty was received highly among other nations around the world. As a result, on October 18, 2011 Elbegdorj was awarded the prize for "Abolitionist of the Year 2011" by the international organization "Hands off Cain." They viewed the actions by Elbegdorj to an "example of a country that fosters the human rights to life among Asian countries. ^[41]

As President of Mongolia, Elbegdorj also convened a Judiciary Reform and Justice Forum in Ulan Bator, Mongolia on April, 2011. The judicial reform guaranteed greater voice for the citizens of Mongolia and also made the court trials to be more transparent. Elbegdorj is also the very first Mongolian President to initiate campaigns for greater environmental sustainability and also a campaign against the abuse of alcohol use in Mongolia. Elbegdorj declared that one day of the year will be a National Day to Plant Trees all around Mongolia. ^[42] In addition, Elbegdorj has been working hard to end the abuse of alcoholic beverages in his country. As a result, he has banned the use of all alcoholic beverages at State Dinner and State Ceremonies under his name. ^[43] In September 22, 2011, Elbegdorj was awarded the "Presidential Medal for Leadership in the Cause of Democracy" by the U.S. Foreign Policy Association and the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). The award recognized the vital role Elbegdorj played in peacefully ending the 70 year old communist regime and also his dedication to human rights, freedom, and supportive of market economy. ^[44]

NGO activities[link]

Elbegdorj is a permanent member of the board of directors of the "Young Leader" foundation of Mongolia since 1992 and a member of the director's board of the Mongolian Academy of Political Education since 1993. He founded Mongolia's Liberty Center, a non-governmental organization advocating human rights, freedom of expression and education in 2000.

Elbegdorj is a frequent lecturer, both domestically and abroad.^{[citation needed]} For example, he was one of the speakers of the August, 2007, conference called "Re-founding America" in Williamsburg, Virginia, United States, sponsored by the International Society for Individual Liberty.

Political affiliation[link]

• Member of the National Counseling Committee of Democratic Party from 1994 onwards.
• Leader and chairman of the Democratic Party between April 2006- Sept, 2008 and 1996-1999.
• Chairman of the Democratic Union Coalition of the Mongolian National Democratic Party and Mongolian Social Democratic Party in 1996-2000.
• Leader of the Mongolian Democratic Union in 1989-1997.

Publications[link]

• Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj Footstep of the Truth Is White, Ulaanbaatar 2000
• Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj The Years of Bearing Weight, Ulaanbaatar 2000
• Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj Mongolia: Moving Mountains, Washington Post, November 21, 2005.
• Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj What Mongolia Can Teach the Middle East, Foreign Policy, April 6, 2011.

Many other articles, speeches, and interviews by Elbegdorj have been printed in various national and international publications.

References[link]

1. ^ Oliver Corff, Who is Who der Mongolischen Politik: Älbägdorj, Caxiagiïn (in German)
2. ^ ^{a b} Miller, Vincent H. (Spring 2004). "From Communism to Capitalism in the Land of Genghis Khan". International Society for Individual Liberty. http://www.isil.org/resources/fnn/2004spring/mongolian-jefferson.html. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
3. ^ B, Temuulen. "Би өндөр ууланд хөлд орсон жирийн ардын хүүхэд". News Agency. http://ulstur.zaluu.com/index_med.php?id=755. 
4. ^ ^{a b} "Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj’s brief biography". Democratic Party of Mongolia. April 10, 2009. http://www.demparty.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=135:moriinhotolbor&catid=25:2009-03-24-04-19-34&Itemid=53. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
5. ^ New York Times: The Saturday Profile, December 25th, 2004
6. ^ "World leaders educated at Harvard". The President and Fellows of Harvard College. November 5, 2008. http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2008/11.06/99-worldleaders.html. Retrieved May 21, 2009. ^{[dead link]}
7. ^ Hough, Lory (January 5, 2005). "Kennedy School Graduate Guides Mongolia into New Era". for The President and Fellows of Harvard College. http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/articles/kennedy-school-graduate-guides-mongolia-into-new-era. Retrieved May 17, 2009. 
8. ^ J.Tsesen (May 2009). "Large Family". Ардчилал (Democracy) newspaper. 
9. ^ "Kh.Bolormaa: One politician only for a family interview". Ардчилал (Democracy) newspaper. May 2009. 
10. ^ Tsakhia, Elbegdorj (1999). The Footstep of Truth is White book “Speech of Ulaan Od newspaper’s correspondent Elbegdorj at Young Artists’ Second National Congress”. Hiimori. pp. 15. ISBN 99929-74-01-X. 
11. ^ "Years of 1989-1990 (in Mongolian language)". Democratic Party of Mongolia. March 24, 2009. http://www.demparty.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=72. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
12. ^ Baabar (December 11, 2007). "Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations". news.mn. Archived from the original on June 1, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080601055448/http://publish.news.mn/show/id=163. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
13. ^ "Mongolia's Former Communist Party MPRP Pulled the Rug Under Elbegdorj's Government". Press Release Newswire. January 13, 2006. http://www.prweb.com/releases/2006/01/prweb331736.htm. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
14. ^ "Main Highlights from the Biography of President Elbegdorj". http://www.president.mn/eng/president/biography.php. 
15. ^ "Main Highlights from the Biography of President Elbegdorj". http://www.president.mn/eng/president/biography.php. 
16. ^ "Main Highlights from the Biography of President Elbegdorj". http://www.president.mn/eng/president/biography.php. 
17. ^ "Main Highlights from the Biography of President Elbegdorj". http://www.president.mn/eng/president/biography.php. 
18. ^ "Around Fourteen Thousand Monks Were Persecuted". Ch.Bolor for gogo.mn. September 9, 2008. http://news.gogo.mn/r/41294. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
19. ^ "April 1998". Rulers.org. April, 1998. http://rulers.org/1998-04.html. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
20. ^ "Mongolian Christian TV Station Shuts Down". Michael Kohn for The Associated Press. June 10, 2003. http://www.asuult.net/nemesis/mongolian_judiciary/newseagle.htm/. Retrieved May 21, 2009. ^{[dead link]}
21. ^ "Baabar says this: Enkhbayar Era". Baabar. December 26, 2008. http://platinum.blog.banjig.net/post.php?post_id=117288. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
22. ^ "Law on Public Radio and Televisions". Parliament of Mongolia. January 27, 2005. http://www.legalinfo.mn/insys/lawmain.php?vlawid=1587. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
23. ^ "Law on Rules of Demonstration and Public Gatherings. Its Article 7.2 that prohibited public demo on Sukhbaatar was voided on November 17, 2005". Parliament of Mongolia. July 7, 1994. http://www.legalinfo.mn/insys/lawmain.php?vlawid=1380. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
24. ^ "Elections and Position of Parties". Өнөөдрийн тойм (Today’s Briefing) newspaper. January 18, 2008. http://www.onair2.tv/www/index.php?action=news.view&newsId=7765. Retrieved May 21, 2009. 
25. ^ www.mongolei.de: Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 1. bis 7. August 2005 (in German)
26. ^ "In Mongolia protest groups collide". Mongolia Web. April 12, 2006. Archived from the original on February 20, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070220093542/http://www.mongolia-web.com/content/view/363/2/. Retrieved April 21, 2006. 
27. ^ "Commission Decision of 21 December 2005". Official Journal of the European Union. 21 December 2005. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2005:337:0050:0050:EN:PDF. Retrieved May 28, 2009. 
28. ^ UBPost: Observers Believe Mongolian Election 'Reflected the Will of the People'
29. ^ The Asia Foundation: Observation of the Mongolian Parliamentary Election June 29, 2008
30. ^ Amnesty International: Are the Mongolian authorities getting away with murder?
31. ^ "They have shown what they will do if citizens stand up, says Elbegdorj". news.mn, cached by google from http://en.news.mn/news/649 as it appeared on 24 Feb 2010 16:40:25 GMT. July 3, 2008. http://209.85.129.132/search?q=cache:_VIZTf-QavAJ:en.news.mn/news/649+http://en.news.mn/news/649&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk. Retrieved March 29, 2010. 
32. ^ mongolia-web.com: Elbegdorj's letter and appeal to the international commnity [sic]
33. ^ Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 25. bis 31. August 2008, Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 8. bis 14. September 2008 (in German)
34. ^ http://www.mongolia-web.com/government/2508-at-1206-pm-on-18th-of-june-2009-the-new-president-swears-in
35. ^ Speaker says it is old woman's blab that the parliament is bribed and influenced by the Chinese
36. ^ The IAAC and the President
37. ^ The new community council established by the President visit the IAAC
38. ^ Veto by the President: right or wrong
39. ^ Tomorrow Mongolia will abolish capital punishment
40. ^ “Le président mongol veut abolir la peine de mort”, Le Monde, January 14, 2009
41. ^ "MONGOLIAN PRESIDENT TSAKHIA ELBEGDORJ WAS AWARDED THE PRIZE FOR “ABOLITIONIST OF THE YEAR 2011”". http://www.president.mn/eng/newsCenter/viewNews.php?newsId=628. 
42. ^ "Мод тарих үндэсний өдөр". http://www.president.mn/mongolian/node/1169. 
43. ^ "Архигүи Монголын Тѳлѳѳ Үндэснии Сүлжээ". http://www.arhiguimongol.mn/. 
44. ^ "U.S. FOREIGN POLICY ASSOCIATION AND NED AWARDS PRESIDENT ELBEGDORJ WITH PRESIDENTIAL MEDAL". http://www.president.mn/eng/newsCenter/viewNews.php?newsId=607. 

Sources[link]

• Mongolia names new prime minister BBC News, August 20, 2004

(About Democratic Coalition won 36 out of 76 seats in parliament and the power sharing agreement, Elbegdorj becomes Prime Minister)

• James Brooke For Mongolians, E Is for English, F Is for Future New York Times, February 15, 2005 (Article on Elbegdorj's government changed second language from Russian into English)
• Elbegdorj speaks on Mongolia's transition to capitalism Hoover Institution, May 20, 2003
• Mongolia elects new leader Bellwether Forum, September 6, 2004
• Matthew Davis Voting Mongolia, World View Magazine Online, Volume 17, Number 4, Fall 2004 (Story on Elbegdorj's party campaigning and Mongolians' voting in 2004)
• It is time to act on Burma, Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma, June 13, 2004
• To move or not to move? (Interview about Elbegdorj's initiation of Karakorum development), UB Post, February 14, 2005
• Mongolian daily newspapers, newspapers in Mongolian language, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 1990–2006
• Daily News of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 1993–2006
• Mongolia ready for protests over political crisis Reuters, January 15, 2006

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj

Official site

• [1] official website of the Presidential Office of Mongolia” address (from http://www.president.mn)]

Reports, interviews, and speeches[link]

• James Brooke Mongolian PM evolves from journalist to statesman, (About Elbegdorj) New York Times, Page 5, December 26, 2004, [2]
• Stuart Frohm Mongol Khan-Quest, Mackinac Center for Public Policy, September 15, 2004
• Mongolian Prime Minister's remarks, Bellwether Forum, September 9, 2004
• Peter & Helen Evans One Year Toward Freedom - part 1, part 2, part 3, part 4, (Interview with Elbegdorj), Renew America, March/April, 2004
• Letter from President Bush to Prime Minister Elbegdorj, Mongolia Web, December 2005
• Communism to Democracy: Lessons from Mongolia on the Eve of the Election Campaign (Elbegdorj's talk), Heritage Foundation, May 30, 2003 Webcast of the talk
• Address by H.E. President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj to the General Debate of the 66th session of the United Nations General Assembly, 21 September 2011

Government change in 2006[link]

• Lulu Zhou Mongolian PM Out of Office Harvard's Crimson - Harvard University's daily newspaper, January 20, 2006
• Mongolians gather for large, snowy protest, Reuters, January 24, 2006

• John J. Tkacik, Jr. Stumble on the Steppes, the Heritage Foundation's Press Room, January 21, 2006
• Mongolia thrown into turmoil after PM is forced out AFP, January 15, 2006

• Sumya Bazar Unrest in Mongolia as coalition govt disintegrates Mail and Guardian, January 12, 2006

Organisations[link]

• Liberty Center A Mongolian non-government organization founded by Elbegdorj.
• Henry Jackson Society British think tank of which Elbegdorj is a patron.