Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general. Where relevant, major general has a NATO code of OF-7, and is considered to be a two-star rank.^[1] A major general in most armies commands a division, however in some countries he commands a brigade.

Australia[link]

Austria[link]

In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the major general was called a generalmajor.^[2] Today's Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term.

Canada[link]

In the Canadian Forces, the rank of major-general (MGen) (major-général or Mgén in French) is an Army or Air Force rank equal to a rear-admiral of the Navy. A major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. A major-general is senior to a brigadier-general or commodore, and junior to a lieutenant-general or vice-admiral. Prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal instead.

The rank insignia for a major-general is two gold maple leaves beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. It is worn on the shoulder straps of the service dress tunic, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. The service dress tunic also features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff. On the visor of the service cap are two rows of gold oak leaves.

Major-generals are initially addressed as "general" and name, as are all general officers; thereafter by subordinates as "sir" or "ma'am" as applicable in English or "mon général" in French. Major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars.

Estonia[link]

In the Estonian military, the major general rank is called kindralmajor.

Finland[link]

The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, or generalmajor in Swedish.

France[link]

The French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division.

In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps d'armée rank, acting as head of staff of a branch of service. This should not be confused with the chief of staff, who is usually a général d'armée, and the true commander of each service. The position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of Staff. There are five major generals: the Major General of the Armies, head of the General Staff, the Major General of the Army, the Major General of the Navy, the Major General of the Gendarmerie and the Major General of the Air Force.Major-General(General en Chef d'Armee)the Marquis de la Lafayette, is a prominent example of a Major-General holding the same equivalent rank in both the newly created United States and in Ancien-Regime France.

Historically, the French army had some sergent-majors généraux, also called sergents de bataille, whose task was to prepare the disposition of the army on the field before a battle. These sergents-majors généraux became a new rank, the maréchal de camp (not the same as a field marshal, in the French Army from antiquity called a Maréchal de France), which was the equivalent of the rank of major general. However, the term of major général was not forgotten and used to describe the appointment of armies chiefs of staff. One well-known French major général was Marshal Louis Alexandre Berthier, Major General of Napoléon's Grande armée.

Germany[link]

The German Army and Luftwaffe refer to the rank as generalmajor. Prior to 1955,, the rank of generalleutnant was used to define a division commander, whereas genralmajor was a brigade commander. With the remilitarization of Germany in 1955 with West Germany's admission to NATO, Germany adopted the rank structure of the U.S. with the authority of the three lower ranks being moved up one level and the rank of brigadegeneral (brigadier general) added below them. The rank of generaloberst was no longer used. The change was likely made to avoid confusion over relative rank in NATO forces. The Nationale Volksarmee of East Germany continued the use generalmajor (brigadier general) as the lowest general officer rank until reunification.

Hungary[link]

The Hungarian Defence Force (Hungarian: Magyar Honvédség) refer to the rank as vezérőrnagy.

Iran[link]

In the Imperial Iranian Army and Air Force, the ranks above colonel are respectively sartip (brigadier general), sarlashkar (major general), sepahbod (lieutenant general), and arteshbod (general)

Ireland[link]

In the Irish Defence Forces, there are two major generals. They are Deputy Chiefs of Staff with separate responsibility for operations (DCOS Ops) and support (DCOS Sp).

India[link]

Major general in the Indian Army is equivalent to rear admiral in the Indian Navy and air vice marshal in the Indian Air Force and is the lowest of the general officer ranks, ranking higher than a brigadier and lower than a lieutenant general.

Israel[link]

In the Israel Defence Forces, a major general is called an aluf and is the second highest rank, only outranked by rav aluf (lieutenant general or general), who is also the Chief of Staff.

Italy[link]

In Italy, there exists the army rank of generale di divisione. In the army the generale di divisione is the commander of a division or as other duties in the various national or international staff, in the Carabinieri or Guardia di Finanza. He/she is usually the commander of the units in a zone of the country.

Korea[link]

In South Korea, the rank of major general is known as sojang (Hangul: 소장, Hanja: 少將).

The rank of sojang is also used in North Korea, where it is the lowest general officer and flag officer rank, equivalent to a one-star general. The North Korean equivalent to a two-star General is jungjang, which roughly translates as lieutenant general.

New Zealand[link]

In the New Zealand Army, major-general is the rank held by the Chief of Army (formerly the Chief of General Staff). The more senior rank of lieutenant-general is reserved for when an army officer holds the position of Chief of Defence Force, who commands all New Zealand's armed forces. This position is subject to rotation between the heads of the air force, army, and navy.

Norway[link]

In the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Norwegian Home Guard, generalmajor is the lowest general officer, equivalent to kontreadmiral in the Royal Norwegian Navy.

Pakistan[link]

Major general in the Pakistan Army is equivalent to rear admiral in the Pakistan Navy and air vice marshal in the Pakistan Air Force and is the lowest of the general officer ranks, ranking between brigadier and lieutenant general. The Pakistan Army has two female major generals.

Portugal[link]

The rank of major-general was reintroduced in the Portuguese Army, Air Force and National Republican Guard in 1999 in place of the former rank of brigadier. It was previously used in the Army, from 1862-1864. It is equivalent to contra-almirante in the Portuguese Navy.

Sweden[link]

In Sweden, the rank of generalmajor (Genmj) is used in the Army, the Amphibious Corps and the Air Force. It is the equivalent to konteramiral in the navy. It is typically held by the Inspector Generals of the three service branches and the head of the Swedish Military Intelligence and Security Service.

Turkey[link]

The Turkish Army and Turkish Air Force refer to the rank as tümgeneral. The Turkish Navy equivalent is tümamiral. The name is derived from tümen, the Turkish word for a military division (tümen itself is an older Turkish word meaning "10,000"). Thus, linguistically, it is similar to the French equivalent for a major general, général de division.

United Kingdom[link]

In the British Army and Royal Marines, major-general ranks below lieutenant-general and above brigadier, and is thus the lowest of the general officer ranks, although always considered equivalent to major-general in other countries. Divisions are usually commanded by major-generals and they also hold a variety of staff positions. The professional head of the Royal Marines currently holds the rank of major-general.

From 1 April 1918 to 31 July 1919, the Royal Air Force maintained the rank of major-general. It was superseded by the rank of air vice-marshal on the following day.

Major-general is equivalent to rear admiral in the Royal Navy and air vice-marshal in the Royal Air Force.

United States[link]

In the United States Army, a major general commands a division of 10,000-20,000 soldiers and is capable of fully independent field operation.

Vietnam[link]

In Vietnam, the rank of major general is known as thiếu tướng. It is used in the army and the air force. It is the equivalent to chuẩn Đô đốc in the Navy.

The rank of thiếu tướng is the lowest general officer and flag officer rank, equivalent to a one-star general and admiral. In the Vietnamese People's Army, a major general commands a corps of 30,000-40,000 soldiers and is capable of fully independent field operation.

Insignia[link]

Army[link]

• 

  Pakistan Army
  major-general

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  Austrian Armed Forces
  generalmajor

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  Canadian Army
  major general

• 

  Colombian Army
  major general

• 

  Croatian Army
  general bojnik

• 

  Egyptian Army
  major general
  (Arabic: لواء‎)

• ES-Army-OF19.jpg

  Estonian Army
  kindralmajor

• 

  German Bundeswehr

• 

  Greek Army
  Υποστράτηγος

• IE-Army-OF7.png

  Irish Army
  major general

• 

  Indian Army
  major general

• 

  Italian Army
  generale di divisione
  maggiore generale

• 

  Norwegian Army
  generalmajor

• 

  Dutch Army
  generaal-majoor

• 

  Portuguese Army
  major-general

• 

  Romanian Army
  general-maior

• 

  Spanish Army
  general de división

• SL-Army-OF7 Major General.PNG

  Sri Lanka Army
  major general

• 

  Swedish Army
  generalmajor

• 

  U.K. (British) Army
  major-general

• 

  U.S. Army
  major general

Air Force[link]

• 

  Canadian Air Force
  major general

• 

  Denmark

• 

  Germany Luftwaffe

• 

  Greece
  (Υποπτέραρχος)

• 

  Ireland

• RNAF Maj Gen.svg

  Netherlands

• 

  Poland

• 

  Romania

• 

  Ejército del Aire (Spain)
  General de División

• 

  U.S. Air Force
  Major General

Fictional references[link]

• Major-General Stanley is the "modern major general" from Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic operetta, The Pirates of Penzance. Stanley is a satire of the aristocratic, learned officers in the British Army of the day. He sings the immortal "Major-General's Song" ("I am the very model of a modern major-general, I've information vegetable, animal and mineral...")
• In the science fiction television series Stargate SG-1, the commanding officer of Stargate Command from seasons 1 to 7 is Major General George Hammond (played by Don S. Davis). From season 9, the position is taken up by Major General Hank Landry.
• Bartholomew Bandy, the air ace from Donald Jack's Bandy Papers series, ends the First World War as a major general at the age of only 26.
• In the anime movie Robotech II: The Sentinels, the lead character, Rick Hunter, holds the rank of major general.
• Con artist Private Harry Frigg, played by Academy Award-winning actor Paul Newman, is promoted overnight to major general in the 1968 war comedy, The Secret War of Harry Frigg.
• The third Judge Advocate General of the show JAG (1995–2005) is a major general: Major General Gordon "Biff" Cresswell, USMC, portrayed by David Andrews.
• The U.S. Army forces sent to occupy Brooklyn, New York in The Siege are commanded by Major General William Deveraux, portrayed by Bruce Willis.

See also[link]

• Comparative military ranks
• British Army officer rank insignia
• Military unit
• NATO Air Force officers
• NATO Army officers
• Rule of the Major-Generals (1655–1657), a period of direct military government during Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate
• U.S. Army officer rank insignia
• United Kingdom and United States military ranks compared

Footnotes[link]

1. ^ In countries that do not maintain the rank of brigadier general, including much of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth, major general is the lowest of the general-officer ranks. Note, however, if the rank of brigadier is used, although brigadiers are not classed as "generals", they are of equal rank to brigadier generals, and are still considered to be a one-star rank. If neither of the ranks of brigadier or brigadier general (or an equivalent rank) are used, the major general is still considered a two-star rank (independent of how many stars there actually are in the insignia), and that armed force simply has no one-star rank.
2. ^ Bowden & Tarbox, p 24. The authors write that FML (field-marshal-lieutenant) is the same as lieutenant-general and general-feldwachtmeister the same as major-general. But they list no equivalent rank to brigadier-general. Nevertheless, the page cited is an excellent source of Austro-Hungarian ranks.

References[link]

• Boatner, Mark M., III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: David McKay, 1959. ISBN 0-679-50013-8.
• Bowden, Scotty & Tarbox, Charlie. Armies on the Danube 1809. Arlington, TX: Empire Games Press, 1980. OCLC 6649795.
• Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2. New York: Random House, 1986. ISBN 0-394-74621-X.

Robert Moody
Robert Moody (left)
Born	(1941-11-28) November 28, 1941 (age 70)
Nationality	Canadian
Fields	Mathematics
Institutions	University of Saskatchewan University of Alberta
Alma mater	University of Toronto
Doctoral advisor	Maria Josepha Wonenburger
Doctoral students	Arturo Pianzola
Notable awards	CRM-Fields-PIMS prize, 1998

Robert Vaughan Moody, OC FRSC (born November 28, 1941) is a Canadian mathematician. He is the co-discover of Kac-Moody algebra, a Lie algebra, usually infinite-dimensional, that can be defined through a generalized root system.

Born in Great Britain, he received a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics in 1962 from the University of Saskatchewan, a Master of Arts in Mathematics in 1964 from the University of Toronto, and a Ph.D. in Mathematics in 1966 from the University of Toronto.

In 1966, he joined the Department of Mathematics as an Assistant Professor in the University of Saskatchewan. In 1970, he was appointed an Associate Professor and a Professor in 1976. In 1989, he joined the University of Alberta as a Professor in the Department of Mathematics.

In 1999, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1980, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

References[link]

• Robert Moody at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
• "Robert Vaughan Moody's Home Page". http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~rvmoody/rvm/. 
• "Robert Vaughan Moody Curriculum Vitae". http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~rvmoody/rvm/rvmcv.html. Retrieved March 7, 2006. 

Korean War 한국전쟁(韓國戰爭) 조선전쟁(朝鮮戰爭) Part of the Cold War Clockwise from top: U.S. Marines retreating during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir; U.N. landing at Incheon harbor, starting point of the Battle of Inchon; Korean refugees in front of an American M26 Pershing tank; U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez, landing at Incheon; F-86 Sabre fighter aircraft. Date Full-scale: 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (&100000000000000030000003 years, &1000000000000003200000032 days) Low-level: 27 July 1953 – present (&1000000000000005800000058 years, &10000000000000335000000335 days) Location Korean Peninsula Status Cease-fire armistice North Korean invasion of South Korea repelled U.N. invasion of North Korea repelled Chinese invasion of South Korea repelled Korean Demilitarized Zone established, little territorial change at the 38th parallel border, essentially uti possidetis Territorial changes Korean Demilitarized Zone established; both sides gained little border territory at the 38th parallel Belligerents  Republic of Korea  United Nations  United States of America  United Kingdom (U.N. Resolution 84) Combat support Australia  Belgium Canada  Colombia Ethiopian Empire  France Kingdom of Greece  Luxembourg Netherlands  New Zealand Philippines South Africa  Thailand  Turkey Medical support  Denmark  India  Italy  Norway  Sweden  Democratic People's Republic of Korea  People's Republic of China 22x20px Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Medical support People's Republic of Bulgaria Czechoslovak Socialist Republic[1] People's Republic of Hungary People's Republic of Poland Romanian People's Republic Other support People's Republic of Mongolia Commanders and leaders Rhee Syngman Chung Il-kwon Paik Sun-yup Shin Sung-mo Son Won-il Douglas MacArthur (Commander of the UNC) Matthew Ridgway (Commander of the UNC) Mark Wayne Clark (Commander of the UNC) Current Lee Myung-bak Kim Kwan-jin Jeong Seung-jo Kim Sang-ki Choi Yoon-hee Park Jong-heon James D. Thurman Kim Il-sung Pak Hon-yong Choi Yong-kun Kim Chaek Mao Zedong Peng Dehuai 22x20px Joseph Stalin Current Kim Jong-un Jang Sung-taek Kim Yong-Chun Ri Yong-ho Strength 600,000 302,000[2] 14,200[2] 6,150[2] 5,460[2] 3,972[3] 2,280[2] 1,500[2] 1,390[2] 1,290[2] 1,270[2] 1,260[2] 1,120[2] 1,070[2] 900[2] 300[2] 170[2] 105[2] 100[2] 72[2] 70[2] 44[2] Total: 941,600 Current 653,000 28,500 Total: 681,500 260,000 1,350,000[4] 22x20px 26,000 Total: 1,636,000 Note: The figures vary by source; peak unit strength varied during war. Current 1,106,000 Casualties and losses  Republic of Korea:[2] 137,899 dead 450,742 wounded 24,495 MIA 8,343 POW  United States of America: (US sources):[2] 36,940 dead 92,134 wounded 3,737 MIA 4,439 POW (PRC-DPRK estimates): 397,543 in total[5]  United Kingdom:[2] 1,078 dead 2,674 wounded 179 MIA 977 POW  Turkey:[2] 741 dead 2,068 wounded 163 MIA 244 POW Commonwealth of Australia: [6] 339 dead 1,216 wounded 43 MIA 26 POW Dominion of Canada:[2] 312 dead 1,212 wounded 1 MIA 32 POW  France:[2] 262 dead 1,008 wounded 7 MIA 12 POW Kingdom of Greece[2] 192 dead 543 wounded 3 POW  Colombia:[2] 163 dead 448 wounded 28 POW  Thailand:[2] 129 dead 1,139 wounded 5 MIA Ethiopian Empire[2] 121 dead 536 wounded Netherlands:[2] 120 dead 645 wounded Philippines:[2] 112 dead 229 wounded 16 MIA 41 POW  Belgium:[2] 99 dead 336 Wounded 4 MIA 1 POW Union of South Africa[2] 34 dead 9 POW  New Zealand:[2] 23 dead 79 wounded 1 MIA  Norway:[2] 3 dead  Luxembourg:[2] 2 dead 13 wounded Total: 776,360–1,093,839[5] Democratic People's Republic of Korea: 215,000 dead 303,000 wounded 120,000 MIA or POW[7] People's Republic of China: (Chinese sources):[8] 152,000 dead 383,500 wounded 450,000 hospitalized 4,000 missing 7,110 captured 14,190 defected (U.S. estimate):[7] 400,000+ dead 486,000 wounded 21,000 POW 22x20px Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: 282 dead[9] Total: 1,545,822–1,648,582 Total civilians killed/wounded: 2.5 million (est.)[2] South Korea: 990,968 373,599 killed[2] 229,625 wounded[2] 387,744 abducted/missing[2] North Korea: 1,550,000 (est.)[2]

v t e Korean War North Korean Offensive Operation Pokpoong Chuncheon Gorangpo Kaesong-Munsan Korea Strait Ongjin Uijeongbu Suwon Airfield Air Campaign Andong Chumonchin Chan Osan Pyongtaek Chonan Chochiwon Taejon Sangju Yongdong Hwanggan Hadong Notch Pusan Perimeter Masan P'ohang-Dong Taegu 1st Naktong Bulge Bowling Alley Battle Mountain Kyongju Haman Nam River Ka-San Tabu-Dong Yongsan 2nd Naktong Bulge United Nations Counteroffensive Haeju Inchon 2nd Seoul Hill 282 12 October 1950 Sariwon Yongju Kujin Chongju Chinese Intervention Onjong Unsan Pakchon Ch'ongch'on River Wawon Chosin Reservoir 3rd Seoul 1st and 2nd Wonju Operation Thunderbolt Twin Tunnels Hoengsong Chipyong-Ni 3rd Wonju Chuam-Ni Wonsan Operation Killer Operation Ripper Maehwa-San Operation Courageous Operation Tomahawk Operation Rugged Operation Dauntless 5th Seoul Imjin River Yultong Kapyong Soyang River Stalemate Bloody Ridge Heartbreak Ridge Han River Operation Commando 1st Maryang San 2nd Maryang San Sunchon Hill Eerie Sui-Ho Dam Old Baldy Operation Blaze White Horse Triangle Hill Pork Chop Hill Hook Outpost Harry Kumsong Samichon River Post Armistice D.M.Z. Conflict Blue House Raid EC-121 Incident Gangneung Border Incidents Yosu 1st Yeonpyeong 2nd Yeonpyeong Daecheong 3rd Yeonpyeong

The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953^[10][a]) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.^[12]

The failure to hold free elections throughout the Korean Peninsula in 1948 deepened the division between the two sides; the North established a communist government, while the South established a capitalist one. The 38th parallel increasingly became a political border between the two Korean states. Although reunification negotiations continued in the months preceding the war, tension intensified. Cross-border skirmishes and raids at the 38th Parallel persisted. The situation escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950.^[13] It was the first significant armed conflict of the Cold War.^[14] In 1950 the Soviet Union boycotted the United Nations security council, in protest at representation of China by the Kuomintang / Republic of China government, which had taken refuge in Taiwan following defeat in the Chinese Civil War. In the absence of a dissenting voice from the Soviet Union, who could have vetoed it, the United States and other countries passed a security council resolution authorizing military intervention in Korea.

The United States of America provided 88% of the 341,000 international soldiers which aided South Korean forces in repelling the invasion, with twenty other countries of the United Nations offering assistance. Suffering severe casualties, within two months the defenders were pushed back to a small area in the south of the Korean Peninsula, known as the Pusan perimeter. A rapid U.N. counter-offensive then drove the North Koreans past the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River, when the People's Republic of China (PRC) entered the war on the side of North Korea.^[13] Chinese intervention forced the Southern-allied forces to retreat behind the 38th Parallel. While not directly committing forces to the conflict, the Soviet Union provided material aid to both the North Korean and Chinese armies. The active stage of the war ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement was signed. The agreement restored the border between the Koreas near the 38th Parallel and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two Korean nations. Minor outbreaks of fighting continue to the present day.

With both North Korea and South Korea sponsored by external powers, the Korean War was a proxy war. From a military science perspective, it combined strategies and tactics of World War I and World War II: it began with a mobile campaign of swift infantry attacks followed by air bombing raids, but became a static trench war by July 1951.

Background[link]

Terminology[link]

In the United States of America, the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action" as it was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations.^[15] Colloquially, it has been referred to in the United States as The Forgotten War or The Unknown War because the issues concerned were much less clear than in previous and subsequent conflicts, such as World War II and the Vietnam War.^[16][17]

In South Korea the war is usually referred to as "625" or the 6–2–5 Upheaval (yug-i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.^[18] In North Korea the war is officially referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng). Alternatively, it is called the "Chosǒn War" (Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).^[19] In the People's Republic of China the war is officially called the War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea (simplified Chinese: 抗美援朝战争; traditional Chinese: 抗美援朝戰爭; pinyin: Kàngměiyuáncháo zhànzhēng),^[20][21] although the term "Joseon War" (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜战争; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn zhànzhēng) is also used in unofficial capacity.

Japanese rule (1910–1945)[link]

Upon defeating the Qing Dynasty in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–96), the Empire of Japan occupied the Korean Empire – a peninsula strategic to its sphere of influence.^[22] A decade later, defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.^[23]

Korean nationalists and the intelligentsia fled the country, and some founded the Provisional Korean Government in 1919, which was headed by Syngman Rhee in Shanghai. This government-in-exile was recognized by few countries. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led and were the primary agents of internal and external warfare against the Japanese.^[24][25]

Korea under Japanese rule was considered to be part of the Empire of Japan as an industrialized colony along with Taiwan, and both were part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In 1937, the colonial Governor-General, General Jirō Minami, commanded the attempted cultural assimilation of Korea's 23.5 million people by banning the use and study of Korean language, literature, and culture, to be replaced with that of mandatory use and study of their Japanese counterparts. Starting in 1939, the populace was required to use Japanese names under the Sōshi-kaimei policy. In 1938, the Colonial Government established labor conscription.^{[citation needed]}

In the People's Republic of China, the National Revolutionary Army and the Communist People's Liberation Army helped organize refugee Korean patriots and independence fighters against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 – August 1945). The Communists, led by Kim Il-sung, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.^{[citation needed]}

During World War II, the Japanese used Korea's food, livestock, and metals for their war effort. Japanese forces in Korea increased from 46,000 soldiers in 1941 to 300,000 in 1945. Japanese Korea conscripted 2.6 million forced laborers controlled with a collaborationist Korean police force; some 723,000 people were sent to work in the overseas empire and in metropolitan Japan. By 1942, Korean men were being conscripted into the Imperial Japanese Army. By January 1945, Koreans comprised 32% of Japan's labor force. In August 1945, when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, around 25% of those killed were Koreans.^[25] At the end of the war, other world powers did not recognize Japanese rule in Korea and Taiwan.

Meanwhile, at the Cairo Conference (November 1943), Nationalist China, the United Kingdom, and the United States decided "in due course Korea shall become free and independent".^[26] Later, the Yalta Conference (February 1945) granted to the Soviet Union European "buffer zones"—satellite states accountable to Moscow—as well as an expected Soviet pre-eminence in China and Manchuria, in return for joining the Allied Pacific War effort against Japan.^[27]

Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)[link]

Toward the end of World War II, as per a US-Soviet agreement, the Soviet Union declared war against Japan on 9 August 1945.^[25][28] By 10 August, the Red Army occupied the northern part of the Korean peninsula as agreed, and on 26 August halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces in the south.^[29]

On 10 August 1945, with the 15 August Japanese surrender near, the Americans doubted whether the Soviets would honor their part of the Joint Commission, the US-sponsored Korean occupation agreement. A month earlier, Colonel Dean Rusk and Colonel Charles H. Bonesteel III divided the Korean peninsula at the 38th parallel after hurriedly deciding that the US Korean Zone of Occupation had to have a minimum of two ports.^{[30][31][32][33]}

Explaining why the occupation zone demarcation was positioned at the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by US forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops", especially when "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area."^[27] The Soviets agreed to the US occupation zone demarcation to improve their negotiating position regarding the occupation zones in Eastern Europe, and because each would accept Japanese surrender where they stood.^[34]

Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)[link]

After the end of Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Communists and the Chinese Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with materiel and manpower.^[35] According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of material while thousands of Korean "volunteers" served in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war.^[36] North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.^[35]

The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 to 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they would later play a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea.^[35] China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.^[37] The Chinese support created a deep division between the Korean Communists, and Kim Il-Sung's authority within the Communist party was challenged by the Chinese faction led by Pak Il-yu, who was later purged by Kim.^[38]

After the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security.^[39] Basing this judgment on China's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century,^[40] American support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War,^[41] and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries,^[42] the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States' crusade against Communism.^[43] As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.^[44]

Korea divided (1945–1949)[link]

At the Potsdam Conference (July–August 1945), the Allies unilaterally decided to divide Korea—without consulting the Koreans—in contradiction of the Cairo Conference.^{[45][46][47][48]}

On 8 September 1945, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge of the United States arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel.^[31] Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea via the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48).^[49] He established control by restoring to power the key Japanese colonial administrators and their Korean police collaborators.^[14] The USAMGIK refused to recognise the provisional government of the short-lived People's Republic of Korea (PRK) because he suspected it was communist. These policies, voiding popular Korean sovereignty, provoked civil insurrections and guerrilla warfare.^[23] On 3 September 1945, Lieutenant General Yoshio Kozuki, Commander, Japanese Seventeenth Area Army, contacted Hodge, telling him that the Soviets were south of the 38th parallel at Kaesong. Hodge trusted the accuracy of the Japanese Army report^[31]

In December 1945, Korea was administered by a United States–Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference (1945). The Koreans were excluded from the talks. The commission decided the country would become independent after a five-year trusteeship action facilitated by each régime sharing its sponsor's ideology.^[50][51] The Korean populace revolted; in the south, some protested, and some rose in arms;^[23] to contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December 1945.

On 23 September 1946 an 8,000-strong railroad worker strike began in Pusan. Civil disorder spread throughout the country in what became known as the Autumn uprising. On 1 October 1946, Korean police killed three students in the Daegu Uprising; protesters counter-attacked, killing 38 policemen. On 3 October, some 10,000 people attacked the Yeongcheon police station, killing three policemen and injuring some 40 more; elsewhere, some 20 landlords and pro-Japanese South Korean officials were killed.^[52] The USAMGIK declared martial law.

The right-wing Representative Democratic Council, led by nationalist Syngman Rhee, opposed the Soviet–American trusteeship of Korea, arguing that after 35 years (1910–45) of Japanese colonial rule most Koreans opposed another foreign occupation. The USAMGIK decided to forego the five year trusteeship agreed upon in Moscow, given the 31 March 1948 United Nations election deadline to achieve an anti-communist civil government in the US Korean Zone of Occupation.

On 3 April what began as a demonstration commemorating Korean resistance to Japanese rule ended with the Jeju massacre of as many as 60,000 citizens by South Korean soldiers.^[53]

On 10 May, South Korea convoked their first national general elections that the Soviets first opposed, then boycotted, insisting that the US honor the trusteeship agreed to at the Moscow Conference.^[54][55]

North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August 1948.^[56]

The resultant anti-communist South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, elected a president, the American-educated strongman Syngman Rhee on 20 July 1948. The elections were marred by terrorism and sabotage resulting in 600 deaths.^[57] The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Russian Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a Communist North Korean government^[54] led by Kim Il-sung.^[58] President Rhee's régime expelled communists and leftists from southern national politics. Disenfranchised, they headed for the hills, to prepare for guerrilla war against the US-sponsored ROK Government.^[58]

As nationalists, both Syngman Rhee and Kim Il-Sung were intent upon reunifying Korea under their own political system.^[59] With Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong fighting over the control of the Korean Peninsula,^[60] the North Koreans gained support from both the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. They escalated the continual border skirmishes and raids and then prepared to invade. South Korea, with limited matériel, could not match them.^[59] During this era, at the beginning of the Cold War, the US government assumed that all communists, regardless of nationality, were controlled or directly influenced by Moscow; thus the US portrayed the civil war in Korea as a Soviet hegemonic maneuver.^[61]

In October 1948, South Korean left-wing soldiers rebelled against the government's harsh clampdown in April on Jeju island in the Yeosu-Suncheon Rebellion.^[62]

The Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948. U.S. troops withdrew from Korea in 1949, leaving the South Korean army relatively ill-equipped. On 24 December 1949, South Korean forces killed 86 to 88 people in the Mungyeong massacre and blamed the crime on communist marauding bands.^[63][64]

Course of the war[link]

The conflict begins (June 1950)[link]

Territory often changed hands early in the war, until the front stabilized.

In April 1950 Kim Il-sung travelled to Moscow and secured Stalin's support for a policy to unify Korea under his authority. Although agreeing with the invasion of South Korea in principle, Stalin refused to become directly involved in Kim's plans, and advised Kim to enlist Chinese support instead. In May 1950 Kim visited Beijing, and succeeded in gaining Mao's endorsement. At the time, Mao's support for Kim was largely political (he was contemplating the invasions of Taiwan and Tibet), and was unaware of Kim's precise intentions or the timing of Kim's attack. When the Korean war broke out, the Chinese were in the process of demobilizing half of the PLA's 5.6 million soldiers.^[65]

On 7 June 1950, Kim Il-sung called for an election in whole Korea on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June 1950. On June 11, the North sent three diplomats to the South, who were later arrested by the South. Fourteen days later on 25 June 1950, the North Korean People's Army (KPA) crossed the 38th parallel border and invaded South Korea.

Under the guise of counter-attacking a South Korean provocation raid, the KPA crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire at dawn on Sunday 25 June 1950.^[66] The KPA said that Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) troops, under command of the régime of the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee", had crossed the border first, and that they would arrest and execute Rhee.^[31] Both Korean armies had continually harassed each other with skirmishes and each continually staged raids across the 38th parallel border.

On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with government officials. Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre, which started on 28 June.^[67][68][69]

On 28 June, South Korea bombed the bridge across the Han River to stop the North Korean army.^[70]

Early on in the fighting, South Korea put its forces under the authority of the United Nations Command (Korea).^[71]

Factors in U.S. intervention[link]

The Truman Administration was caught at a crossroads. Before the invasion, Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Acheson.^[72] Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the Administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved as well.

One facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, "...Japan itself increasingly appeared as the major East Asian prize to be protected". U.S. East Asian experts saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy that dealt with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan pushed South Korea to the fore. "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of US policy toward Japan."^[73] The United States wanted to shore up Japan to make it a viable counterweight against the Soviet Union and China, and Korea was seen as integral to that end.

Hundreds of thousands of South Koreans fled south in mid-1950 after the North Korean army invaded.

The other important part of committing to intervention lay in speculation about Soviet action in the event that the United States intervene. The Truman administration was fretful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the US committed in Korea. At the same time, "[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]".^[74] In Truman's mind, this aggression, if left unchecked, would start a chain reaction that would destroy the United Nations and give the go ahead to further Communist aggression elsewhere. Korea was where a stand had to be made, the difficult part was how. The UN Security council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the US immediately began using air and naval forces in the area to that end. The Administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisors believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.^[75]

Also, it was still uncertain if this was a clever ploy by the Soviet Union to catch the US unawares or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops and to intervene eventually became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June from the Soviet Union that alluded it would not move against US forces in Korea. "This opened the way for the sending of American ground forces, for it now seemed less likely that a general war—with Korea as a preliminary diversion—was imminent".^[76] With the Soviet Union's tacit agreement that this would not cause an escalation, the United States now could intervene with confidence that other commitments would not be jeopardized.

United Nations Security Council Resolutions[link]

On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with United Nations Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Republic of China (Taiwan), not the People's Republic of China, held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.^[77] After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered US air and sea forces to help the South Korean régime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the US of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.^[78]

The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the Korean conflict was beyond UN Charter scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. The Soviet representative boycotted the UN to prevent Security Council action, and to challenge the legitimacy of the UN action; legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of the five permanent members.^[79][80]

Comparison of military forces[link]

In early 1951 USAF recruits arrived by the train load, more than doubling the population of Lackland AFB.

By mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, some 150 Yak fighters, 110 attack bombers, 200 artillery pieces, 78 Yak trainers, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft.^[31] In addition to the invasion force, the North Korean KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea.^[31] Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North Korean and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea-borne artillery for their in-country armies.

In contrast, the ROK Army defenders were vastly unprepared, and the political establishment in the south, while well aware of the threat to the north, were unable to convince American administrators of the reality of the threat. In South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), R.E. Appleman reports the ROK forces' low combat readiness as of 25 June 1950. The ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the US military, but requests were denied), and a 22–piece air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT6 advanced-trainer airplanes. There were no large foreign military garrisons in Korea at invasion time, but there were large US garrisons and air forces in Japan.^[31]

Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee régime—were either retreating southwards or were defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.^[24]

United Nations response (July – August 1950)[link]