A skinhead is a member of a subculture that originated among working class youths in the United Kingdom in the 1960s, and then spread to other parts of the world. Named for their close-cropped or shaven heads, the first skinheads were greatly influenced by West Indian (specifically Jamaican) rude boys and British mods, in terms of fashion, music and lifestyle. Originally, the skinhead subculture was primarily based on those elements, not politics or race. Since then, however, attitudes toward race and politics have become factors by which some skinheads align themselves. The political spectrum within the skinhead scene ranges from the far right to the far left, although many skinheads are apolitical. Fashion-wise, skinheads range from a clean-cut 1960s mod-influenced style to less-strict punk- and hardcore-influenced styles.

History

In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom's entrenched class system limited most working class people's educational, housing, and economic opportunities. Nevertheless, Britain's post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths spent that income on new fashions popularised by American soul groups, British R&B; bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street clothing merchants. These youths became known as mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism and devotion to fashion, music and scooters.

Mods of lesser means made do with practical clothing styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: work boots or army boots, straight-leg jeans or Sta-Prest trousers, button-down shirts, and braces (called suspenders in North America). When possible, these working class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed soul, ska, bluebeat and rocksteady music.

Around 1965, a schism developed between the ''peacock mods'' (also known as ''smooth mods''), who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the ''hard mods'' (also known as ''gang mods'', ''lemonheads'' or ''peanuts'' ), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working class image. These hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968. Their short hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more middle class hippie culture.

In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early reggae (before the tempo slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like black nationalism and the Rastafari movement).

Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look as a marketing strategy. The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, notably ''Skinhead'' and ''Skinhead Escapes''. Due to largescale British migration to Perth, Western Australia, many British youths in that city joined skinhead/sharpies gangs in the late 1960s and developed their own Australian style.

By the early 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the ''suedeheads'' (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), ''smoothies'' (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and ''bootboys'' (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and football hooliganism). Some fashion trends returned to the mod roots, with brogues, loafers, suits, and the slacks-and-sweater look making a comeback.

In the late 1970s, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock. Most of these revivalist skinheads reacted to the commercialism of punk by adopting a look that was in line with the original 1969 skinhead style. This revival included Gary Hodges and Hoxton Tom McCourt (both later of the band the 4-Skins) and Suggs, later of the band Madness. From 1979 onwards, punk-influenced skinheads with shorter hair, higher boots and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly due to football hooliganism. There still remained, however, skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles.

Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond Britain and continental Europe. In the United States, certain segments of the hardcore punk scene embraced skinhead styles and developed their own version of the subculture.

Style

Skinheads are visually identified by their short hair and unique clothing styles. Skinhead fashions have evolved since the formation of the subculture in the 1960s, and certain clothing styles have been more prevalent in specific locations and time periods. There are a few different types of skinheads in terms of style, but many of today's skinheads do not fit into one distinct category. Traditional skinheads, also known as trads or Trojan skinheads, adopt the style of the original 1960s skinhead subculture. Oi! skinheads — influenced by the 1970s punk subculture — often have shorter hair than 1960s-style skinheads, and tend to wear higher boots, tighter jeans, and clothing styles that are less mod-influenced than their traditionalist counterparts. Tattoos have been popular in the skinhead subculture since at least the 1970s revival. In 1980s Britain, some skinheads had tattoos on their faces and/or foreheads, although this practice is not as common today. The hardcore skinhead style that originated in the United States 1980s hardcore punk scene is also less strict than that of the first generation of skinheads.

Hair

Most male skinheads in the 1960s had their hair cropped with a #2 or#3 grade clip guard (short, but not bald). Starting in the late 1970s, male skinheads typically shaved their heads with a #2 grade ship or shorter. During that period, side partings were sometimes shaved into the hair. Since the 1980s, some skinheads have clipped their hair with no guard, or even shaved it with a razor. Some skinheads sport sideburns of various styles, usually neatly trimmed, but most skinheads do not have mustaches or beards.

In the 1960s, most female skinheads had mod-style haircuts. During the 1980s skinhead revival, many female skinheads had feathercuts (known as a Chelsea in North America). A feathercut is short on the crown, with fringes at the front, back and sides. Some female skinheads have a shorter punk-style version of the hairstyle; almost entirely shaved, leaving only bangs and fringes at the front.

Clothing and accessories

The following describes many of the clothing items and accessories common among skinheads.

Skinheads have been known to wear long-sleeve or short-sleeve button-up shirts or polo shirts by brands such as Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus, Warrior or Jaytex; Lonsdale or Everlast shirts or sweatshirts; collarless ''grandad'' shirts; V-neck sweaters; sleeveless sweaters; cardigan sweaters or T-shirts (plain or with text or designs related to the skinhead subculture). Some Oi! and hardcore-oriented skinheads wear plain white tank top undershirts, especially in North America. They have also worn fitted blazers; Harrington jackets; MA-1 type flight jackets (especially Alpha brand); denim jackets (usually blue, sometimes splattered with bleach); donkey jackets; Crombie-style overcoats; sheepskin 3/4-length coats; short macs; monkey jackets; parkas. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear suits, often made out of two-tone tonic fabric (shiny mohair-like material that changes colour in different light and angles), or in a Prince of Wales or houndstooth check pattern.

Many skinheads wear Sta-Prest flat-fronted slacks or other dress trousers; jeans (normally Levi's, Lee or Wrangler); or combat trousers (plain or camouflage). Jeans and slacks are worn deliberately short (either hemmed or rolled) to show off boots, or to show off socks when wearing loafers or brogues. Jeans are often blue, with a parallel leg design, hemmed or with clean and thin rolled cuffs (turn-ups), and are sometimes splattered with bleach to resemble camouflage trousers (a style popular among Oi! skinheads).

Female skinheads generally wear the same clothing items as men, with addition of skirts, stockings, or dress suits composed of a ¾-length jacket and matching short skirt. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the punk-influenced skinhead revival.

Many traditionalist skinheads wear braces (known in North America as suspenders), in various colours, usually no more than 1" in width, clipped to the trouser waistband. In some areas, braces much wider than that may identify a skinhead as either unfashionable or as a white power skinhead. Traditionally, braces are worn up in an X shape at the back, but some Oi!-oriented skinheads wear their braces hanging down. Patterned braces — often black and white check, or vertical stripes — are sometimes worn by traditional skinheads. In a few cases, the colour of braces (suspenders) or flight jackets have been used to signify affiliations. The particular colours chosen have varied regionally, and have had totally different meanings in different areas and time periods. Only skinheads from the same area and time period are likely to interpret the colour significations accurately. The practice of using the colour clothing items to indicate affiliations has become less common, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours simply for fashion purposes.

Hats common among skinheads include: Trilby hats; pork pie hats; flat caps (''Scally caps'' or ''driver caps''), winter woollen hats (without a bobble). Less common have been bowler hats (mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film ''A Clockwork Orange'').

Traditionalist skinheads sometimes wear a silk handkerchief in the breast pocket of a Crombie-style overcoat or tonic suit jacket, in some cases fastened with an ornate stud. Some wear pocket flashes instead. These are pieces of silk in contrasting colours, mounted on a piece of cardboard and designed to look like an elaborately folded handkerchief. It was common to choose the colours based on one's favourite football club. Some skinheads wear button badges or sewn-on fabric patches with designs related to affiliations, interests or beliefs. Also popular are woollen or printed rayon scarves in football club colours, worn knotted at the neck, wrist, or hanging from a belt loop at the waist. Silk or faux-silk scarves (especially Tootal brand) with paisley patterns are also sometimes worn.

Some suedeheads carried closed umbrellas with sharpened tips, or a handle with a pull-out blade. This led to the nickname ''brollie boys''.

Footwear

Most skinheads wear boots; originally they wore army surplus or generic workboots, then Dr. Martens boots and shoes. Skinheads have also been known to wear brogues, loafers or Dr. Martens (or similarly styled) low shoes. During the 1960s, steel-toe boots were called ''bovver boots''. In recent years, other brands of boots, such as Solovair and Tredair, have become popular among skinheads, partly because Dr. Martens are no longer made in England. Football-style athletic shoes, by brands such as Adidas or Gola, have become popular with many skinheads. Female or child skinheads generally wear the same footwear as men, with the addition of monkey boots. The traditional brand for monkey boots was Grafters, but nowadays they are also made by Dr. Martens or Solovair.

In the early days of the skinhead subculture, some skinheads chose boot lace colours based on the football team they supported. Later, some skinheads (particularly highly political ones) began to use lace colour to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colours chosen have varied regionally, and have had totally different meanings in different areas and time periods. Only skinheads from the same area and time period are likely to interpret the colour significations accurately. This practice has become less common, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours simply for fashion purposes. Suedeheads sometimes wore coloured socks.

Music

The skinhead subculture was originally associated with black popular music genres such as soul, ska, rocksteady and early reggae. The link between skinheads and Jamaican music led to the development of the skinhead reggae genre, performed by artists such as: Desmond Dekker, Derrick Morgan, Laurel Aitken, Symarip and The Pioneers.

In the early 1970s, some reggae songs began to feature themes of black nationalism, which many white skinheads could not relate to. This shift in reggae's lyrical themes created some tension between black and white skinheads, who otherwise got along fairly well. Around this time, some suedeheads (an offshoot of the skinhead skinhead subculture) started listening to British glam rock bands such as The Sweet, Slade and Mott the Hoople.

The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was 2 Tone, which was a fusion of ska, rocksteady, reggae, pop and punk rock. The 2 Tone genre was named after 2 Tone Records, a Coventry, England record label that featured bands such as The Specials, Madness and The Selecter. Some late-1970s skinheads also liked certain punk rock bands, such as Sham 69 and Menace.

Also in the late 1970s, after the first wave of punk rock, many skinheads embraced Oi!, a working class punk subgenre. Musically, Oi! combines standard punk with elements of football chants, pub rock and British glam rock. The Oi! scene was partly a response to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were, in the words of The Business guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic ... and losing touch". The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who championed the genre in ''Sounds'' magazine. Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included skins, punks and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts). Notable Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include Angelic Upstarts, Blitz, The Business, Last Resort, The Burial, Combat 84 and The 4-Skins.

American Oi! began in the 1980s, with bands such as The Press, Iron Cross, The Bruisers and Anti-Heros. American skinheads created a link between their subculture and hardcore punk music, with bands such as Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-Mags. The Oi! style has also spread to other parts of the world, and remains popular with many skinheads. Many later Oi! bands have combined influences from early American hardcore and 1970s British streetpunk.

Although many white power skinheads listened to Oi! music, they also developed a separate genre that was more in line with their politics: Rock Against Communism (RAC). The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a neo-Nazi band after the first lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed. RAC started out musically similar to Oi! and punk, but has since adopted elements from other genres. White power music that sounds like hardcore is sometimes called hatecore.

Racism, anti-racism and politics

In the late 1960s, some skinheads in the United Kingdom (including black skinheads) had engaged in violence against South Asian immigrants (an act known as ''Paki bashing'' in common slang). There had, however, also been anti-racist and leftist skinheads since the beginning of the subculture, especially in Scotland and northern England. These early skinheads were not necessarily part of any political movement, but by the early 1970s, some skinheads aligned themselves with the white nationalist National Front. As the 1970s progressed, racially-motivated skinhead violence in the United Kingdom became more political, and far right groups such as the National Front and the British Movement saw a rise in white power skinheads among their ranks. By the late 1970s, the mass media, and subsequently the general public, had largely come to view the skinhead subculture as one that promotes racism and neo-Nazism. The white power and neo-Nazi skinhead subculture eventually spread to North America, Europe and other areas of the world. The mainstream media started using the term ''skinhead'' in reports of racist violence (regardless of whether the perpetrator was actually a skinhead); this has played a large role in skewing public perceptions about the subculture. Three notable groups that formed in the 1980s and became associated with white power skinheads are White Aryan Resistance, Blood and Honour and Hammerskins.

Also during the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, many skinheads and suedeheads in the United Kingdom rejected both the far left and far right. This anti-extremist attitude was musically typified by Oi! bands such as Cockney Rejects, The 4-Skins, Toy Dolls, and The Business. Two notable groups of skinheads who spoke out against neo-Nazism and political extremism—and in support of traditional skinhead culture—were the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase ''Spirit of 69''), and the publishers of the ''Hard As Nails'' zine in England.

In the United States, anti-racist skinheads countered the neo-Nazi stereotype by forming organisations such as The Minneapolis Baldies, which started in 1986; Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP), which was founded in New York City in 1987 and then spread to other countries; and Anti-Racist Action (ARA), which was formed in the late 1980s by members of the Minneapolis Baldies and other activists. On the far left of the skinhead subculture, redskins and anarchist skinheads take a militant anti-fascist and pro-working class stance. In the United Kingdom, two groups with significant numbers of leftist skinhead members were Red Action, which started in 1981, and Anti-Fascist Action, which started in 1985. Internationally, the most notable left-wing skinhead organisation is Red and Anarchist Skinheads, which formed in the New York City area in 1993 and then spread to other countries.

In the United States, conservatism has been common in the skinhead scene, with many non-racist skinheads expressing right-wing and anti-communist views, glorifying American military actions and voicing opposition to modern liberalism.

Notes

Further reading

Davis, John. Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict. Athlone Press, NJ. 1990

Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Fletcher & Son ltd, 1979.

Osgerby, Bill. Youth in Britain since 1945. Blackwell Publishers: Malden, Massachusetts, 1998.

Osgerby, Bill. Youth Media London: Routledge, 2004.

Pearson,Geoff. “’Paki-Bashing’ in a North East Lancashire Cotton Town: A case study and its history” Working Class Youth Culture. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London. 1976. 50.

Neville Staple (2009) ''Original Rude Boy'', Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-480-8

External links

2 Tone Info Information about the 2 Tone scene

A Close Shave - article about Bristol Skinheads

No Whites; No Rudies; No Blacks; No Skins - history of the skinhead subculture

Oi! the Truth History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell (archived)

Ska Party - article about traditional skinheads

Skin of a Different Color article that discusses racist and anti-racist skinheads

Skinhead Family Tree (image) at the Tallahassee SHARP website

Skinhead Nation (archived)

Smiling Smash Chas Smash of Madness discusses skinhead culture

Reggae, Reggae, Reggae Articles about the skinhead subculture and reggae music

Trojan Records Music site with information about ska and skinheads

World of Skinhead 1995 documentary about skinheads

Hard As Nails Interview with Paul Barrett of Hard As Nails

Category:Subcultures

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This is a list of people whose names in English are commonly appended with the phrase "''the Great''", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as ''e Bozorg'' and ''e azam'' in Persian and Urdu respectively.

In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.

The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "''the Great''".

The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.

As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.

Rulers

Abbas I of Persia (1571-1629), Shah of Iran

Akbar (1542-1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India

Alain I of Albret (1440-1522), French aristocrat

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia

Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia

Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias

Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex

Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire

Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty

Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),

Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire

Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand

Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)

Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736-1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)

Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden

Casimir III the Great (1310-1370), King of Poland

Catherine the Great (1729-1796), Empress of Russian

Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India

Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans

Chulalongkorn (1853-1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)

Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks

Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen

Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman Emperor

Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire

Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire

Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent

Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse

Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile

Frederick the Great (1712-1786), King of Prussia

Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594-1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader

Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea

Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC

Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)

Henry IV of France (1553-1610), King of France and King of Navarre

Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea

Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris

Hugh Magnus of France (1007-1025), co-King of France

Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057-1101)

Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat

Ivan III of Russia (1440-1505), Tsar of Russia

John I of Portugal (1358-1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve

John II of Aragon (1398-1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre

Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor

Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i

Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India

Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010-1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia

Kublai Khan (1215-1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty

Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales

Louis I of Hungary (1326-1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland

Mangrai the Great (1238-1317), Lanna, northern Thailand

Emperor Meiji (1852-1912), Emperor of Japan

Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)

Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)

Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom

Mstislav I of Kiev (1076-1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus

Narai (1633-1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)

Naresuan (1555-1605), King of Ayutthaya

Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)

K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque

Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka

Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia

Peter the Great (1672-1725), Tsar of Russia

Peter III of Aragon (1239-1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily

Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar

Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar

Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.

Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014-1044), Tamil King of India

Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt

Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)

Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082-1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties

Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)

Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev

Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent

Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre

Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire

Sejong the Great (1397-1450), Korean king

Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia

Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire

Stephen III of Moldavia (1433-1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)

Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks

Taksin (1734-1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)

Timur (1336-1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty

Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie

Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire

Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor

Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia

Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia

Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire

Valdemar I of Denmark (1131-1182), King of Denmark

Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor

Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus

Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy

William I, Count of Burgundy (1020-1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon

William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou

Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)

Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China

Religious figures

Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East

Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia

Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian

Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt

Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader

Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)

Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint

Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint

Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)

Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine

Pope John Paul II (1920-2005)

Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)

Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit

Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)

Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople

William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites

Other

Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies

Emmy the Great, folk singer

Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III

Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia

See also

Epithet

List of monarchs by nickname

List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I

James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus

Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater

Notes

Category:Monarchs Great, List of people known as The Category:Greatest Nationals Category:Epithets

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Coordinates	33°37′0″N117°53′51″N
name	Laurel Aitken
landscape	yes
background	solo_singer
birth name	Lorenzo Aitken
birth date	April 22, 1927
death date
origin	Cuba
instrument	Vocalist
genre	Ska
notable instruments	}}

Lorenzo Aitken (April 22, 1927 – July 17, 2005), better known as Laurel Aitken, was a singer and one of the originators of Jamaican ska music. He is often referred to as the "Godfather of ska".

Career

Born in Cuba of mixed Cuban and Jamaican descent, Aitken and his family settled in Jamaica in 1938. After an early career working for the Jamaican Tourist Board singing mento songs for visitors arriving at Kingston Harbour, he became a popular nightclub entertainer. His first recordings in the late 1950s were mento tunes such as "Nebuchnezer", "Sweet Chariot" (aka the gospel classic "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot") and "Baba Kill Me Goat". Progressing to a pre-ska shuffle, Aitken's 1958 single "Little Sheila"/"Boogie in My Bones" was one of the first records produced by Chris Blackwell, who founded his Island Records label that year, and the first Jamaican popular music record to be released in the United Kingdom. Other rock and roll singles from this period include "Low Down Dirty Girl", "Drinkin' Whisky" and "More Whisky", produced by Duke Reid.

Aitken moved to Brixton, London in 1960 and recorded for the Blue Beat label, releasing fifteen singles before returning to Jamaica in 1963. He recorded for Duke Reid, with backing from The Skatalites on tracks such as "Zion" and "Weary Wanderer", before returning to the UK, where he began working with Pama Records. He recorded hits such as "Fire in Mi Wire" and "Landlord and Tenants", which led to a wider recognition outside of Jamaica and the UK. This cemented his position as one of ska's leading artists and earned him the nicknames ''The Godfather of Ska'', and later ''Boss Skinhead''. He gained a loyal following not only among the West Indian community, but also among mods, skinheads and other ska fans. He had hit records in the United Kingdom and other countries in the 1950s through to the 1970s on labels such as Blue Beat, Pama, Trojan, Rio, Dr. Bird, Nu-Beat, Ska-Beat,Hot Lead and Dice. Some of his singles featured B-sides credited to his brother, guitarist Bobby Aitken. Aitken also recorded a few talk-over/deejay tracks under the guise of 'King Horror', such as "Loch Ness Monster", "Dracula, Prince of Darkness", and "The Hole". Aitken settled in Leicester with his wife in 1970. His output slowed in the 1970s and during this period he worked as an entertainer in nightclubs and restaurants in the area including the popular 'Costa Brava Restaurant' in Leicester under his real name Lorenzo. In 1980, with ska enjoying a resurgence in the wake of the 2 Tone movement, Aitken had his only success in the UK Singles Chart with "Rudi Got Married" (#60). Aitken's career took in mento/calypso, R&B;, ska, rock steady, and reggae, and in the 1990s he even turned his talents to dancehall. He performed occasional concerts almost until his death from a heart attack in 2005. After a long campaign, a blue plaque in his honour was put up at his Leicester home in 2007.

Discography

Albums

''Ska With Laurel'' (1965, Rio)

''High Priest of Reggae'' (1969, Nu-Beat)

''Laurel Aitken Meets Floyd Lloyd and the Potato Five '' (1987, Gaz's) (with The Potato 5)

''Early Days of Blue Beat, Ska and Reggae'' (1988, Bold Reprive)

''True Fact'' (1988, Rackit) (with The Potato 5)

''Ringo The Gringo'' (1989, Unicorn)

''It's Too Late'' (1989, Unicorn)

''Rise and Fall'' (1989, Unicorn)

''Sally Brown'' (1989, Unicorn)

''Rasta Man Power'' (1992, ROIR)

''The Blue Beat Years'' (1996, Moon Ska)

''Rocksteady Party'' (1996, Blue Moon) (with The Potato 5)

''The Story So Far'' (1999, Grover)

''Woppi King'' (1997, Trybute)

''The Pama Years'' (1999, Grover)

''The Long Hot Summer'' (1999, Grover) (Laurel Aitken and The Skatalites)

''Clash of The Ska Titans'' (1999, Moon Ska) (Laurel Aitken versus The Skatalites)

''Pioneer of Jamaican Music'' (2000, Reggae Retro)

''Godfather of Ska'' (2000, Grover)

''Jamboree'' (2001, Grover)

''Rudi Got Married'' (2004, Grover)

''En Espanol'' (2004, Liquidator)

''Live at Club Ska'' (2004, Trojan)

''The Pioneer of Jamaican Music'' (2005, Reggae Retro)

''Super Star'' (2005, Liquidator)

''The Very Last Concert'' (2007, Soulove) (CD + DVD)

Singles

"Nebuchnezer/Sweet Chariot" (1958, Kalypso)

Low Down Dirty Girl" (1959, Duke Reid)

"Drinkin' Whiskey" (1959 )

"Boogie Rock" (1960, Blue Beat)

"Jeannie Is Back" (1960, Blue Beat)

"Judgement Day" (1960, Blue Beat)

"Railroad Track" (1960, Blue Beat)

"More Whisky" (1960, Blue Beat)

"Aitken's Boogie" (1960, Kalypso)

"Baba Kill Me Goat" (1960, Kalypso)

"Boogie In My Bones" (1960, Starlite)

"Honey Girl" (1960, Starlite)

"Hey Bar Tender" (1961, Blue Beat)

"Bouncing Woman" (1961, Blue Beat)

"Mighty Redeemer" (1961, Blue Beat)

"Mary Lee" (1961, Melodisc)

"Love Me Baby" (1961, Starlite)

"Brother David" (1962, Blue Beat)

"Lucille" (1962, Blue Beat)

"Sixty Days & Sixty Nights" (1962, Blue Beat)

"Jenny Jenny" (1962, Blue Beat)

"Mabel" (1962, Dice)

"Lion of Judah" (1963, Black Swan)

"The Saint" (1963, Black Swan)

"Zion City" (1963, Blue Beat)

"Little Girl" (1963, Blue Beat)

"Oh Jean" (1963, Dice)

"Sweet Jamaica" (1963, Dice)

"Low Down Dirty Girl" (1963, Duke)

"I Shall Remove" (1963, Island)

"What a Weeping" (1963, Island)

"In My Soul" (1963, Island)

"Adam & Eve" (1963, Rio)

"Mary" (1963, Rio)

"Bad Minded Woman" (1963, Rio)

"Devil or Angel" (1963, Rio)

"Freedom Train" (1963, Rio)

"This Great Day" (1964, Blue Beat)

"West Indian Cricket Test" (1964, JNAC)

"Pick Up Your Bundle" (1964, R&B;)

"Yes Indeed" (1964, R&B;)

"Bachelor Life" (1964, R&B;)

"Leave Me Standing" (1964, Rio)

"John Saw Them Coming" (1964, Rio)

"Rock of Ages" (1964, Rio)

"Jamaica" (1965, Dice)

"We Shall Overcome" (1965, Dice)

"Mary Don't You Weep" (1965, Rio)

"Mary Lou" (1965, Rio)

"One More Time" (1965, Rio)

"Let's Be Lovers" (1965, Rio)

"Clementine" (1966, Blue Beat)

"Don't Break Your Promises" (1966, Rainbow)

"Voodoo Woman" (1966, Rainbow)

"How Can I Forget You" (1966, Rio)

"Baby Don't Do It" (1966, Rio)

"We Shall Overcome" (1966, Rio)

"Clap Your Hands" (1966, Rio)

"Jumbie Jamboree" (1966, Ska-Beat)

"Propaganda" (1966, Ska-Beat)

"Green Banana" (1966, Ska-Beat)

"Rock Steady" (1967, Columbia Blue Beat)

"I'm Still In Love With You Girl" (1967, Columbia Blue Beat)

"Never Hurt You" (1967, Fab)

"Sweet Precious Love" (1967, Rainbow)

"Mr. Lee" (1968, Dr. Bird)

"La La La (Means I Love You)" (1968, Dr. Bird)

"For Sentimental Reasons" (1968, Fab)

"Fire In Your Wire" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"Rice & Peas" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"Reggae Prayer" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"The Rise & Fall Of Laurel Aitken" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"Haile Haile" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"Carolina" (1969, Dr. Bird)

"Think Me No Know" (1969, Junior)

"Woppi King" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Suffering Still" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Haile Selassie" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Lawd Doctor" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Run Powell Run" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Save The Last Dance" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Don't Be Cruel" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Shoo Be Doo" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Landlords & Tenants" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Jesse James" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Pussy Price Gone Up" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Skinhead Train" (1969, Nu-Beat)

"Donkey Man" (1969, Unity)

"Pussy Got Thirteen Life" (1970, Ackee)

"Sin Pon You" (1970, Ackee)

"Moon Rock" (1970, Bamboo)

"Skinhead Invasion" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"I've Got Your Love" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Scandal In Brixton Market" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Nobody But Me" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"I'll Never Love Any Girl" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Reggae Popcorn" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Baby I Need Your Loving" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Sex Machine" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Pachanga" (1970, Nu-Beat)

"Mary's Boy Child" (1970, Pama)

"Why Can't I Touch You" (1970, Pama Supreme)

"Dancing With My Baby" (1971, Big Shot)

"If It's Hell Below" (1971, Black Swan)

"True Love" (1971, Nu-Beat)

"I Can't Stop Loving You" (1971, Nu-Beat)

"It's Too Late" (1971, Trojan)

"Take Me In Your Arms" (1972, Big Shot)

"Africa Arise" (1972, Camel)

"Reggae Popcorn" (1972, Pama)

"Never Be Anyone Else" 1974 (Hot Lead Records)

"Fattie Bum Bum" (1975, Punch)

"Rudi Got Married" (1980, I Spy) UK # 60

"Big Fat Man" (1980, I Spy)

"Mad About You" (1986, Gaz's)

"Everybody Ska" (1989, Unicorn)

"Skinhead" (1999, Grover)

Videos/DVDs

''Live at Gaz's Rockin' Blues'' (1989, Unicorn) (VHS)

''Laurel Aitken And Friends - Live At Club Ska'' (2005, Cherry Red) (DVD)

References

Further reading

Barrow, Steve & Dalton, Peter: ''The Rough Guide To Reggae'' 3rd edn., Rough Guides, 2004

External links

www.grover.de Biography

www.geocities.com Biography

www.laurel-aitken.surf3.net Biography

Laurel Aitken albums Discogs discography

Category:Reachout International Records recording artists Category:1927 births Category:2005 deaths Category:Jamaican people of Cuban descent Category:Deaths from myocardial infarction Category:Jamaican reggae musicians Category:Jamaican ska musicians Category:Trojan Records artists Category:Jamaican expatriates in England Category:Blue plaques

ca:Laurel Aitken de:Laurel Aitken es:Laurel Aitken fr:Laurel Aitken it:Laurel Aitken ht:Laurel Aitken hu:Laurel Aitken pl:Laurel Aitken pt:Laurel Aitken ru:Эйткен, Лорел sv:Laurel Aitken tr:Laurel Aitken uk:Лорел Ейткен