in Najaf, Iraq, where Ali is buried.]]

Shia Islam (, Shīʿah, ; ) is the second largest denomination of Islam (approx. %10-20), after Sunni Islam. The followers of Shia Islam are called Shi'ites or Shias. "Shia" is the short form of the historic phrase Shīʻatu ʻAlī (), meaning "followers of Ali", "faction of Ali", or "party of Ali"

Like other schools of thought in Islam, Shia Islam is based on the teachings of the Islamic holy book, the Qurʻān and the message of the final prophet of Islam, Muhammad. In contrast to other schools of thought, Shias believe that only the Almighty has the right to choose his representative to safeguard Islam, Quran and Shariah. This means that God's representatives like Prophets and Imams cannot be elected by common Muslims. That is why, Shias disown the election and selection of Abu-Bakr, Omar and Usman by the people (as in Abu Bakr's case), by the predecessor (as in Umar's case) or by a group elected by the predecessor (as in Usman's case), to represent Islam and Quran. They also do not consider Ali as the fourth Caliph as the process occurred through voting system. Shias believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt ("the People of the House"), and certain individuals among his descendants, who are known as infallible Imams, have special spiritual and political authority over the community and they have got this authority since God gave it to them just the same way God chose Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, David and others. Shia Muslims further believe that Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of twelve Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs.

Shias regard Ali as the second most important figure after Prophet Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise. According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (Ma'sum), and appointed by God by divine decree (Nass) to be the first Imam. Ali is known as "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint. As a result, Shias favor Hadiths attributed to Muhammad and Imāms, and credited to the Prophet's family and close associates, in contrast to the Sunni traditions where the sunnah is largely narrated by companions. Thus hadith interpretation and differences are the main distinction of the Shias.

Doctrine

The position of Ali is supported by numerous Hadith, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards Ali and his family by both Sunni and Shia scholars. Therefore, the Shi'a believe that the Family of the Prophet's hadiths are predominant over the others sources.

Although there were several Shia branches through history, nowadays Shi'a Islam is divided into three main branches. The largest Shia sect in the early 21st century is the Ithnā ʿAshariyyah, Twelvers constitute the majority of the population in Iran, Azerbaijan, and Iraq. Zaidiyyah constitute a considerable portion of Yemen. Other countries with a significant proportion of Shia are Syria, Lebanon, Kuwait, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, south Turkey.

The Shia Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups. Shi'a Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world. The Shi'a identity emerged during the lifetime of Muhammad, and Shia theology was formulated in the 2nd century AH, or after Hijra (8th century CE). The first Shi'a governments and societies were established by the end of the 3rd century AH/9th century CE. The 4th century AH /10th century CE has been referred by Louis Massignon 'the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam'.

Whereas Sunnis believe the Mahdi will appear sometime in the future, Shias believe the Mahdi was already on earth, is currently the "hidden imam" who works through mujtahids to interpret Qur'an; and will return at the end of time.

Beliefs

Succession of Ali

, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)]] Shī'ah Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose 'Alī to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.

Ali was Muhammad's first cousin and closest living male relative, as well as his son-in-law, having married his daughter Fatimah. 'Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph.

Shi'a Muslims believe that after the last pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor.The Hadith of the pond of Khumm () refers to the saying (i.e. Hadith) about a historical event of appointment, crucial to Islamic history. This event took place on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar (March 10, 632 AD) at a place called Ghadir Khumm, which is located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Shi'a Muslims believe it to be an appointment of Ali by Muhammad as his successor, while Sunni Muslims believe it to be a simple defense of Ali in the face of unjust criticism.

When Muhammad died, 'Ali and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and Abu 'Ubayda met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abu Bakr as khalifa ("caliph"). 'Ali and his family were dismayed, but accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community.

'Ali's rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, to the extent that wars were waged against him. As a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who broke away after giving him allegiance, or those who wished to take his position. After Ali's murder in 661 CE, his main rival Mu'awiya claimed the caliphate. While the rebels who accused 'Uthman of nepotism affirmed 'Ali's khilafa, they later turned against him and fought him. while prostrating (sujud) in prayer. Shī'as add "و عليٌ وليُّ الله" "and Ali is the wali (chosen one) of God" (wa-'Aliyun waliyu l-Lāh), to the adhan and shahada but this is not obligatory. Ali is regarded as the foremost authority on the Tafsir and hadith.

Hussein

The Shia regard Hussein as an Imam (which is considered as a divine spiritual leader appointed by God) and a martyr. He is believed to be the third of the Imams from the Ahl al-Bayt which are supposed to succeed Muhammad and that he set out on his path in order to save the religion of Islam and the Islamic nation from annihilation at the hands of Yazid. He is notable for being the only imam following Ali which all Shia branches agree on.

Imamate of the Ahl al-Bayt

Most of the early Shia as well as Zaydis differed only marginally from mainstream Sunnis in their views on political leadership, but it is possible in this sect to see a refinement of Shīa doctrine. Early Sunnis traditionally held that the political leader must come from the tribe of Muhammad—namely, the Quraysh. The Zaydīs narrowed the political claims of the Ali's supporters, claiming that not just any descendant of 'Alī would be eligible to lead the Muslim community (ummah) but only those males directly descended from Muḥammad through the union of 'Alī and Fāṭimah. But during the Abbasid revolts, other Shīa, who came to be known as imāmiyyah (followers of the Imams), followed the theological school of Ja'far al-Sadiq. They asserted a more exalted religious role for Imams and insisted that, at any given time, whether in power or not, a single male descendant of 'Alī and Fāṭimah was the divinely appointed Imam and the sole authority, in his time, on all matters of faith and law. To those Shīʿites, love of the imams and of their persecuted cause became as important as belief in God's oneness and the mission of Muhammad.

According to this view, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. 'Alī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah Zahra. Although the imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. Imamate, or belief in the divine guide is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismaili Shī'ī branches and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.

In Shia Islam, there is a third phrase of the Kalema, 'Ali-un-waliullah,' which depicts the importance of the Imamate.

- The fundamental first phrase "La- ilaha-ill-al-lah" is the foundation stone of Islam, the belief that "there is no god but Allah". This is the confession of "Tauhid".

- The second phrase, "Mohammad-ur –rasul-al-lah," says "Mohammad is Allah's "Rasul", "Nabi", the Messenger, Apostle". This is the acceptance of the "Nabuwat," or prophethood, of Mohammad.

- According to Shia Islam, Mohammad declared Ali bin Abu Talib as his successor and said that "for whoever I am a 'Moula' of them, Ali is his 'Moula'". Hence, they say the Kalema required further confession of the third phrase "Ali-un- wali-ul-lah," meaning "Ali is his (Mohammad's) "Wali", its care taker, stressing the need that for continuation of faith there is a requirement of Wali, the Imams which are the real care-takers of Islam.

The Kalema-tut-shahadat includes three Islamic teachings, "Tauhid", "Nabuwat" and "Imamate". In this belief, the Nabi, Mohammad and the Imams are so linked together that these cannot be viewed separately. One leads to the other and finally to God, "Allah", the Almighty.

In one of the Qiblah of Imam Mustansir of the Fatemi era, the masjid of Qahira (Mosque of Ahmed-ibn-tulun), was engraved his name and the phrase "kalema‐tut‐sahadat" (see image), giving specific importance to the third phrase Ali –un‐ wali ‐ ul –lah' hence to the Imamate.

Ismah

Ismah is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad and other prophets in Islam possessed 'iṣmah. Twelver and Ismaili Shī'ah Muslims also attribute the quality to Imāms as well as to Fatima Zahra, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaidi, who do not attribute 'ismah to the Imāms.

According to Shī'ah theologians, infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shī'ah interpretation of the verse of purification. Thus they are, the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin, but it is due to the fact that they have an absolute belief in God so that they find themselves in the presence of God. They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets (nabi) and the messengers (Rasul). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. They thus act without fault in religious matters.

Intercession

Tawassul () is an Islamic religious practice in which a Muslim seeks nearness to God. A rough translation would be: "To draw near to what one seeks after and to approach that which one desires." The exact definition and method of tawassul is a matter of some dispute within the Muslim community.

Muslims who practice tawassul point to the Qur'an, Islam's holy book, as the origin of the practice. Many Muslims believe it is a commandment upon them to "draw near" to God. Amongst Sufi and Barelwi Muslims within Sunni Islam, as well as Twelver Shi'a Muslims, it refers to the act of supplicating to God through a prophet, imam or Sufi saint, whether dead or alive.

Clergy

The Occultation

The Occultation in Shi'a Islam refers to a belief that the messianic figure, the Mahdi, is an Imam who has disappeared and will one day return alongside Jesus Christ and fill the world with justice. Some Shi'a, such as the Zaidi and Nizari Ismaili, do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ upon which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.

History

Family Tree of 6 Islamic Nabi and Shia Islam

{|class="wikitable" |- | colspan="4"|Adam - 1 |- | colspan="4"|Nuh (Noah) - 2 |- | colspan="4"|Ibrahim (Abraham) - 3 |- | colspan="2"|Ismail (Ishmael) | colspan="2"|Ishaq (Isaac) |- | colspan="2"|Adnan (born 122 BC) | colspan="2"|Yaqub (Jacob) |- | colspan="2"|Abdul Muttalib ||Isa (Jesus) - 5 ||Musa (Moses) - 4 |- ||Abdullah (died 570 AD) ||Abu Talib (died 620 AD) || || |- ||Muhammad (died 632 AD) - 6 || || || |- ||Fatima (died 11 AH) ||Ali (died 661 AD) || || |- |colspan="2"| Hassan || || |- |colspan="2"| Hussein (died 680AD) || || |- |colspan="2"| Shias |}

Origin of Shias

According to Encyclopædia Britannica and others, Shias are believed to have started as a political party and developed into a religious movement, influencing Sunnis and produced a number of important sects.}}

Hossein Nasr disagrees with this as he writes:

Shi'ism was not brought into existence only by the question of the political succession to Muhammad as so many Western works claim (although this question was of course of great importance). The problem of political succession may be said to be the element that crystallized the Shi'ites into a distinct group, and political suppression in later periods, especially the martyrdom of Imam Husayn-upon whom be peace-only accentuated this tendency of the Shi'ites to see themselves as a separate community within the Islamic world. The principal cause of the coming into being of Shi'ism, however, lies in the fact that this possibility existed within the Islamic revelation itself and so had to be realized. Inasmuch as there were exoteric [Zaheri] and esoteric [Bateni] interpretations from the very beginning, from which developed the schools (madhhab) of the Sharia and Sufism in the Sunni world, there also had to be an interpretation of Islam, which would combine these elements in a single whole. This possibility was realized in Shi'ism, for which the Imam is the person in whom these two aspects of traditional authority are united and in whom the religious life is marked by a sense of tragedy and martyrdom... Hence the question which arose was not so much who should be the successor of Muhammad as what the function and qualifications of such a person would be.

Early

Disagreement broke out over who would succeed Muhammad as leader of the Muslim community. While the Sunnis followed the companions of Muhammad, the Shias followed Ali. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate. The Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against the first Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman Ibn Affan. It lasted for the entirety of Ali's reign, and its end is marked by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate (founding the Umayyad dynasty), and the subsequent recorded peace treaty between him and Hassan ibn Ali.

The Second Fitna was when the first Umayyad Caliph Muawiya I was succeeded upon his death in 680 by his son, Yazid I. Yazid's first opposition came from supporters of Husayn ibn Ali, who was the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and the son of the former Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, who had been assassinated. Husayn and many of his closest supporters were killed by Yazid's troops at the Battle of Karbala. This battle is often cited as the definitive break between the Shi'a and Sunni sects of Islam, and until this day it has been commemorated each year by Shi'a Muslims on the Day of Ashura.

Fatamid rule (909–1171)

One of the earliest nations where the rulers were Shia (Ismaili) Muslims was the Fatamid Caliphate which controlled much of North Africa, the Levant, and parts of Arabia.

Būyid rule

The founders of the Būyid confederation were 'Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad.

Safavid rule (1501–1736)

A major turning point in Shia history was the Safavid dynasty in Persia.

The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnis and Shiis that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.

The beginning of the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from the policies of the state.

The growth in importance of Iranian centers of religious learning and change from Twelver Shiism being a predominantly Arab phenomenon.

The growth of the Akhbari School which preached that only the Qur'an, aḥadīth in deriving verdicts, rejected the use of reasoning.

With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia – including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges (qadis) – became much weaker, This gave the Sharia courts of mujtahids an opportunity to fill in the slack and enabled "the ulama to assert their judicial authority." The Usuli School also increased in strength at this time.

Akhbaris versus Usūlīs

, Ali is credited as the first young male to accept Islam]] The Akhbari movement "crystalized" as a "separate movement" with the writings of Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi (died 1627 AD) It rejected the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts, and believed only the Qur'an, aḥadīth, (prophetic sayings and recorded opinions of the Imāms) and consensus should be used as sources to derive verdicts (fatwas). Unlike Usūlīs, Akhbārīs did and do not follow marja's who practice ijtihad.

It achieved its greatest influence in the late Safavid and early post-Safavid era when it dominated Twelver Shi'a Islam. However, shortly thereafter Muhammad Baqir Behbahani (died 1792), along with other Usuli mujtahids, crushed the Akhbari movement. and it remains now in the Shia Muslim world only as a small minority. One result of the resolution of this conflict was the rise in importance of the concept of ijtihad and the position of the mujtahid (as opposed to other ulema) in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was from this time that the division of the Shia world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and muqallid (those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. According to author Moojan Momen, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century."

Majlisi

"One of the most powerful and influential Shi'i ulama of all time" also preached during this era. Working during the Safavid era, Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, worked diligently to rid Twelver Shi'ism of the influence of Sufiism (which had been closely linked to Shi'ism) and philosophy, and propagate strict adherence to obedience of Islamic law (sharia). Majlisi promoted specifically Shi'i rituals such as mourning for Imam Husayn ibn Ali and visitation (ziyarat) of the tombs of the Imams and Imamzadas; and stressed "the concept of the Imams as mediators and intercessors for man with God."

Community

Demographics

It is variously estimated that 10–20% of the world's Muslims are Shi'a, while the remaining larger percentage follow Sunni Islam.|Vali Nasr|October 18, 2006}} They may number up to 200 million as of 2009. They also constitute 36.3% of entire local population and 38.6% of local Muslim population of Middle East.

Shi'a Muslims constitute over 35% of the population in Lebanon, over 45% of the population in Yemen, 20-40% of the population in Kuwait, over 20% in Turkey, 10–20% of the population in Pakistan,

Nations with populations of more than one million Shi'as include (in descending order): Iran, Pakistan, India, Iraq, Turkey, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Nigeria, Lebanon, and Tanzania.

Significant Shi'a communities exist on the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik). The Shi'a presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shafi'i Sunnis.

A significant syncretic Shi'a minority is present in Nigeria, centered around the state of Kano (see Shia in Nigeria). East Africa holds several populations of Ismaili Shia, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja.

According to Shi'a Muslims, one of the lingering problems in estimating Shi'a population is that unless Shi'a form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the House of Saud in Arabia brought official discrimination against Shi'a.

List of nations with Shia population

Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population. – 57,666,666 |- | India | align=right | 16,000,000 – 24,000,000 | align=right | 10–15 | align=right | 9–14 | align=right | | align=right | 40,000,000 – 50,000,000. |- | Iraq | align=right | 19,000,000 – 22,000,000 | align=right | 65–70 | align=right | 11–12 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Turkey | align=right | 7,000,000 – 11,000,000 | align=right | 10–15 | align=right | 4–6 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Yemen | align=right | 8,000,000 – 10,000,000 | align=right | 35–40 | align=right | 5 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Azerbaijan | align=right | 5,000,000 – 7,000,000 | align=right | 65–75 | align=right | 3–4 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Afghanistan | align=right | 3,000,000 – 4,000,000 | align=right | 10–15 | align=right | <2 | align=right | | align=right | 15–19% of total population |- | Lebanon | align=right | 1,000,000 – 2,000,000 | align=right | 45 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Tanzania | align=right | <2,000,000 | align=right | <10 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Kuwait | align=right | 500,000 – 700,000 | align=right | 20–25 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | 35–40% of total population |- | United Kingdom | align=right | 100,000 – 300,000 | align=right | 10–15 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Bulgaria | align=right | 100,000 | align=right | 10–15 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | |- | Qatar | align=right | 100,000 | align=right | 10 | align=right | <1 | align=right | | align=right | |}

Persecution

The dispute over the right successor to Muhammad resulted in the formation of two main sects, the Sunni and the Shia. The Sunni, or followers of the way, followed the caliphate and maintained the premise that any devout Muslim could potentially become the successor to Muhammad if accepted by his peers. The Shia, however, maintain that only the person selected by God and announced by the Prophet could become his successor, thus Ali became the religious authority for the Shia people. Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunni rulers perceived the Shia as a threat – both to their political and religious authority.

The Sunni rulers under the Umayyads sought to marginalize the Shia minority and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and further imprisoned, persecuted, and killed Shias. The persecution of Shias throughout history by Sunni co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the entire Muslim population, to this day, the Shia remain a marginalized community in many Sunni Arab dominant countries without the rights to practice their religion and organize.

At various times Shi'a groups have faced persecution. In 1514 the Ottoman sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Shias. According to Jalāl Āl Aḥmad, "Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians." In 1801 the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies attacked and sacked Karbala, the Shia shrine in eastern Iraq that commemorates the death of Husayn.

In March 2011, Malaysia government ban Shias a 'deviant' sect to promote their faith to other Muslim, but are free to practise it themselves.

Calendar

hitting their chests during the time of Muharram in remembrance of the hardships Imam Hussein went through.]]

Sunni, and Twelver and Mustaali Shi'a, celebrate the following annual holidays:

Eid ul-Fitr (عيد الفطر), which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan and falls on the first day of Shawwal.

Eid ul-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca, starts on the 10th day of Dhul Hijja.

The following holidays are observed by Twelver and Mustaali Shi'a only, unless otherwise noted: The Remembrance of Muharram and Ashurah (عاشوراء) for Shia commemorates Imam Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom. Imam Husayn was grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah, Ashurah is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram. Sunnis also commemorate Ashurah, but give it a different meaning (see Ashurah). On January 19, 2008, 2 million Iraqi Shia pilgrims marched through Karbala city, Iraq to commemorateAshura. 20,000 Iraqi troops and police guarded the event amid tensions due to clashes between Iraqi troops and the population which left 263 people dead (in Basra and Nasiriya).

Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Imam Husayn's household. After Husayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arba'een occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashurah.

Milad al-Nabi, Muhammad's birth date, is celebrated by Shia on the 17th of Rabi al-Awwal, which coincides with the birth date of the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.

Mid-Sha'ban is the birth date of the 12th and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shi'a Muslims on the 15th of Shaban. Many Shia fast on this day to show gratitude.

Eid al-Ghadeer celebrates Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's imamate before a multitude of Muslims. Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhil-Hijjah.

Al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the household of Muhammad and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhil-Hijjah. The Quran refers to this event in Surah Aal-E-Imran Verse No. 61.

Holy cities

in Karbalā. Two tall minarets of Al-'Abbās Mosque are also seen in the picture.]] Both Shia and Sunni Muslims share a certain veneration and religious obligations towards certain shrines and holy sites, such as Mecca (Masjid al-Haram) and Medina (Al-Masjid al-Nabawi) but Imam Ali Mosque and Imam Husayn Shrine are also highly revered by Shia.

Branches

The Shi'a faith throughout its history split over the issue of imamate, with each branch supporting different imams. The largest branch are the Twelvers, to which over 85% of Shi'a belong. The only other surviving branches are the Zaidi and Ismaili. All three groups follow a different line of Imamate.

Twelver Shi'a believe in the lineage of the Twelve Imams. The Twelver Shi'a faith is predominantly found in Iran (est. 90%), Azerbaijan (est. 65%), Bahrain (est. 70%), Iraq (est. 60%), Lebanon (est. 24%), Kuwait (est. 33%), Turkey (est. 15%), Albania (est. 10%), Pakistan (est. 10–15%) and Afghanistan (est. 15%). The Zaidi Shi'a are predominantly found in Yemen (est. 40%).

The Zaidi dispute the succession of the fifth Twelver Imam, Muhammad al-Baqir, because he did not stage a revolution against the corrupt government, unlike Zaid ibn Ali. They do not believe in a direct lineage, but rather that any descendant of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali who stages a revolution against a corrupt government is an imam. The Zaidi are mainly found in Yemen.

The Ismaili dispute the succession of the seventh Twelver Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, believing his older brother Isma'il ibn Jafar actually succeeded their father Ja'far al-Sadiq. Ismailis believe that Ja'far al-Ṣādiq thought his son, Ismā'īl ibn Ja'far "al-Mubārak", would be heir to the Imamate. However, Ismā'īl predeceased his father. Some of the Shī'ah claimed Ismā'īl had not died, but rather gone into occultation, but the proto-Ismā'īlī group accepted his death and therefore that his eldest son, Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl, was now Imām. Muḥammad remained in contact with this "Mubārakiyyah" group, most of whom resided in Kūfah. Ismaili form small communities in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, India, Yemen, China and Saudi Arabia and have several subbranches.

Twelver

Twelver Imami Shia Islam or the Ithnā'ashariyyah' () is the largest branch of Shī'ī Islam. An adherent of Twelver Shī'ism is most commonly referred to as a Twelver, which is derived from their belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as The Twelve Imams. Twelvers are representing the largest branch of the Shīa, and the term Shia Muslim usually refers to Twelver Shia Muslims only.

The Twelvers are also known by other names, each connoting some aspect of the faith.

"The Shī'ah" is commonly used as a synonym for "Twelvers" since this branch comprises the majority group of Shī'ī Islam.

Ja'farī refers to Twelvers to the exclusion of the Ismā'īlī and Zaydī ("Fivers"). This term refers to the majority Twelver school of jurisprudence (a minority school, the Akhbarī, also exists). It is attributed to Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq, who the Twelvers consider to be their Sixth Imām. The founders of the Sunni Hanafi and Maliki schools of jurisprudence narrated hadith from Ja'far.

Imāmī is a reference to the Twelver belief in the infallibility of the Imāms. Though the Ismā'īlī also accept the concept of Imāms, this term is used specifically for the Twelvers.

The Twelver faith is predominantly found in Iran (90%), Iraq (65%), Azerbaijan (85%), Lebanon (35%), Kuwait (35%), Turkey (25%), Saudi Arabia (10–15%), Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of Husayn ibn Ali, who was the brother of Hasan ibn Ali. Twelvers have five Principles of the Religion which relates to Aqidah. # Salat (Prayer) # Sawm (Fast) # Hajj (Pilgrimage) # Zakāh (2.5% of savings to the poor) # Khums (20% of savings of which the first half (Sihmu 'l-Imam) must be given to the Imam of Ahlul-Bayt or his representatives) # Jihād (Struggle) # Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf (Enjoining what is good) # Nahi-Anil-Munkar (Forbid what is evil) # Tawallá (To love Muhammad and his Ahl al-Bayt) # Tabarrā' (To hate, curse and disassociate from the enemies of Muhammad and his Ahl al-Bayt)

Ja'fari jurisprudence

Ja'fari jurisprudence or Ja'fari Fiqh is the name of the jurisprudence of the Twelver Muslims, derived from the name of Ja'far al-Sadiq, the 6th Shia Imam.

The Ja'fari Shia consider Sunnah to be the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Imams who were all scholars and descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband, the first Imam, Ali. There are three schools of Ja'fari jurispudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi. The Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow Ja'fari jurisprudence include the Alawi, Alevi, Bektashi, and Ahl-e Haqq.

Role of religious scholars

Usooli and Akhbari Shia Twelver Muslims believe that the study of Islamic literature is a continual process, and is necessary for identifying all of God's laws. Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the process of finding God's laws from the available Islamic literature will facilitate in dealing with any circumstance. They believe that they can interpret the Qur'an and the Twelver Shi'a traditions with the same authority as their predecessors. This process of ijtihad has provided a means to deal with current issues from an islamic perspective. Generally, the Twelver Shi'a clergy have exerted much more authority in the Twelver Shi'a community than have the Sunni ulema.

Marja (), also appearing as Marja Taqlid () or Marja Dini (), literally means "Source to Imitate/Follow" or "Religious Reference". It is the label provided to Shia authority, a Grand Ayatollah with the authority to make legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law for followers and less-credentialed clerics. After the Qur'an and the Prophets and Imams, marjas are the highest authority on religious laws in Usuli Twelver Shia Islam.

Currently, marjas are accorded the title Grand Ayatollah (), however when referring to one, the use of Ayatollah is acceptable. Previously, the titles of Allamah and Imam have also been used.

Guardianship of the Jurisprudent

Traditionally Twelver Shi'a Muslims consider 'Ali ibn Abi Talib and the subsequent further eleven Imams not only religious guides but political leaders, based on a crucial hadith where Muhammad passes on his power to command Muslims to Ali. Since the last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, went into "occultation" in 939 AD and is not expected back until end times, this left Shi'a without religiously sanctioned governance. In contrast, the Ismaili Imams did successfully gain political power with the shortly lived Fatimid Empire. After the fall of the Fatimid Empire Ismaili Shi'asm started to lean towards secular thought.

The first Shi'a regime, the Safavid dynasty in Iran, propagated the Twelver faith, made Twelver law the law of the land, and patronized Twelver scholarship. For this, Twelver ulama "crafted a new theory of government" which held that while "not truly legitimate", the Safavid monarchy would be "blessed as the most desirable form of government during the period of awaiting" for the twelfth imam.

In general, the Shi'a adhere to one of three approaches towards the state: either full participation in government, i.e. attempting to influence policies by becoming active in politics, or passive cooperation with it, i.e. minimal participation, or else most commonly, mere toleration of it, i.e. remaining aloof from it. Historically, Zaidi and Ismaili Shi'a imams functioned as both religious and political leaders, but later after the fall of the Fatimid Empire the Ismaili imamate became a secular institution. In general, Twelver Shi'a historically remained secular.

This changed with Iranian Revolution where the Twelver Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters established a new theory of governance for the Islamic Republic of Iran. It is based on Khomeini's theory of guardianship of the Islamic jurist as rule of the Islamic jurist, and jurists as "legatees" of Muhammad.

While accept this theory, it is uniquely Twelver and the basis of the constitution of Iran, the largest Shi'a Muslim country, where the Supreme Leader must be an Islamic jurist.

Ismaili

The Ismā'īlī ( al-Ismāʿīliyyūn; Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Esmāʿiliyān) branch of Islam is the second largest part of the Shī'ah community after the Twelvers. The Ismā'īlī get their name from their acceptance of Ismā'īl ibn Ja'far as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imām) to Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who accept Mūsà al-Kāzim, younger brother of Ismā'īl, as the true Imām. The Ismā'īlī and the Twelvers both accept the same initial A'immah from the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fāṭimah az-Zahra and therefore share much of their early history.

After the death or Occultation of Imām Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl in the 8th century, the teachings of Ismailism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning (bāṭin) of the faith. With the eventual development of Twelverism into the more literalistic (zahir) oriented Akhbari and later Uṣūlī schools of thought, Shī'ism developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismā'īlī group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", while the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law (sharī'ah) and the deeds and sayings (sunnah) of Muḥammad and his successors (the Ahlu l-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and a light to God.

Though there are several sub-groupings within the Ismā'īlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Nizārī community who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group among the Ismā'īliyyah. Another famous community which falls under the Isma'il's are the Dawoodi Bohra's whose religious leader in Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, while there are many other the branches have extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imāms. In recent centuries Ismā'īlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community, but they are found in India, Pakistan, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, China, Jordan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, East Africa and South Africa, and have in recent years emigrated to Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and North America.

Ismā'īlī Imāms

After the death of Ismā'īlī ibn Ja'far, many Ismā'īlī believed the line of Imāmate ended and that one day the messianic Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismā'īlīs believed the Imāmate did continue, and that the Imāms were in hiding and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of du'āt "Missionaries".

In 909, 'Ubaydallāh al-Mahdi bil-Lāh, a claimant to the Ismā'īlī Imāmate, established the Fatimid Empire, a political power where Ismā'īlī Imāms would rule for centuries. Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz. Under the Fatimids, Egypt flourished and developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

During this period, three lineages of Imāms formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, occurred with the Imām al-Hākim bi-Amrallāh. Born in 386 AH (985), he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven and was feared for his eccentricity and believed insanity. The typical religiously tolerant Fatimid Empire saw much persecution under his reign. When in 411 AH (1021) his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was even forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismā'īlism and did not acknowledge his successor. Later to be known as the Druze, they believe al-Hākim to be the incarnation of God and the prophecized Mahdi, who would one day return and bring justice to the world. The faith further split from Ismā'īlism as it developed very unusual doctrines which often classes it separately from both Ismā'īliyyah and Islam.

The second split occurred following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 487 AH (1094). His rule was the longest of any Caliph in any Islamic empires. Upon his passing away his sons, the older Nizār and the younger al-Musta'lī fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to Nizāri tradition, his son to escaped to Alamut where the Iranian Ismā'īlī had accepted his claim. From here on, the Nizari Ismaili community has continued with a present, living Imam.

The Musta'lī line split again between the Taiyabi(Dawoodi Bohra is main exist) and the Ḥāfizī, the former claiming that the 21st Imām Tayyib (son of al-Amīr) and the Imāms following him went into a period of anonymity (Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed a Dā'ī al-Muṭlaq to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismā'īlī had lived after the death of Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl. The latter(Hafizi) claimed that the ruling Fatimid Caliph was the Imām, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.

The Pillars of the Ismā'īlī

The Ismā'īlī Seven Pillars of Islam, including the Nizārī, Druze and Bohra (Musta'lī) have two doctrines that are not included in the Five Pillars of Islam: Walayah and Jihad. This would raise the total to eight, but the Bohra do not include shahādah, lowering it to six. Including the belief in Tawhīd and witness of Muhammad's status as the last and final Prophet and Messenger of God, the term shahādah also initiates the pillar of Walayah through the concept of Imāmah . The shahādah is a prominent part of the Ismā'īlī traditions, with the added inclusion of 'Alīyun Amīru 'l-Mu'minīna walīyu 'l-Lāhi "'Alī, the Master of the Believers, is the walī of God", at the end of the standard shahādah as recited by the rest of the Shia Muslim Ummah.

Walayah (Guardianship)

Shia Shahadah (Shia's Profession of Faith adding references to Ali to differ from Islam's standard Shahadah as testified by the majority of Muslims)

Salah (Prayer)

Zakah (Charity)

Sawm (Fasting)

Hajj (Pilgrimage)

Jihad (Struggle)

'Aql

In Islam, the term 'aql was heavily elucidated by early Shī'ah thinkers; it came to replace and expand the pre-Islamic concept of ḥilm () "serene justice and self-control, dignity" in opposition to the negative notions of savagery (jahl) and stupidity (safah).

The "possessor of 'aql", or al-'āqīl (plural al-'uqqāl) realises a deep connection with God. Imam Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq described this connection as a realization that God loves some (over others), that God's is the Truth and that only 'ilm "knowledge of the Sacred" and its development can help humanity fulfill its potential.

His son, Imām Mūsá al-Kāżim (died 799), expanded this exegesis by defining 'aql as the "faculty for apprehending the divine, a faculty of metaphysical perception, a light in the heart, through which one can discern and recognize signs from God."

Zaidi Imāms

The Zaidis, Twelvers and Ismailis recognize the same first four Imams, however, the Zaidis recognise Zayd ibn Ali — not his brother Muhammad al-Baqir — as the "Fifth Imām". After Zayd ibn Ali, the Zaidi recognize other descendants of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali to be Imams. Other well known Zaidi imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al Nafs az-Zakiyah and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.

Law

In matters of law or fiqh, the Zaidis follow Zaydi school of Shi'i Islamic jurisprudence.

The Zaydi school of Shi'i Islamic jurisprudence is based on Zaid ibn Ali's teachings, which are documented in his book Majmu Al Fiqh (in Arabic: مجموع الفِقه).

Theology

In matters of theology, the Zaidis are close to the Mu'tazili school, but they are not Mu'tazilite, since there are a few issues between both schools, most notably the Zaidi doctrine of the imamate imamah, that are rejected by Mu'tazilites. Of the Shias, Zaydis are the most similar to Sunnis and Zaydis utilize the jurisprudential tradition of Abu Hanifa. Because Zaydis share similar doctrines and jurisprudential opinions with Sunnis, Zaydis are even described by some analysts as the fifth school of Sunni Islam.

Unique Beliefs

Zaidi beliefs are moderate compared to other Shi'i sects. The Zaidis do not believe in the infallibility of the Imams, nor that the Imams receive divine guidance. Zaidis also do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son, but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali.

Zaidis believe Zayd was the rightful successor to the Imāmate because he led a rebellion against the Umayyads, whom he believed were tyrannical and corrupt. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd believed that a true Imām must fight against corrupt rulers.

Zaidis also reject the notion of Occultation (ghayba) of the "Hidden Imām". Like the Ismā'īlīs, they believe in a living Imām (or Imāms). Great Sunni Imam Abu Hanifa has given fatwa in favor of Imam Zaid in his rebellion against Ummayid ruler of his time.

Zaidi States

The first Zaidi state was established in Daylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 CE by the Alavids; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE After which from the 12th–13th centuries, the Zaidis of Daylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledge the Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran.

The Buyids were Zaidi as well as the Ukhaidhirite rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.

The leader of the Zaidi community took the title of Caliph. As such, the ruler of Yemen was known as the Caliph, al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi Rassids (a descendant of Imam al-Hasan) who, at Sa'da, in 893-7 CE, founded the Zaidi Imamate and this system continued until the middle of the 20th century, until the revolution of 1962 CE that deposed the Zaidi Imam. The founding Zaidism of Yemen was of the Jarudiyya group, however with the increasing interaction with Hanafi and Shafi'i Sunni Islam, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya or Salihiyya groups.

Zaidis form the dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen. Ja'faris and Isma'ilis are 2–5%., In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaidis (primarily in the western provinces).

Currently the most prominent Zaidi movement is Hussein al-Houthi's Shabab Al Mu'mineen who have been the subject of an ongoing campaign against them by the Yemeni Government in which the Army has lost 743 men and thousands of innocent civilians have been killed or displaced by government forces causing a grave humanitarian crisis in north Yemen. Shia Population of the Middle East

See also

Sunni Islam

List of extinct Shia sects

List of Shia books

List of Shia Islamic scholars

Reports from Sunni and Shia sources denoting the number of caliphs succeeding the Prophet

Persecution of Shia Muslims

List of Shi'a Muslims

Shia clergy

Shia Crescent

Shia-Sunni relations

Esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an

Ismah

Nikah Mut'ah

Bada'

Islamic schools and branches

Rafida

Criticism of Twelver Shi'ism

Hosay

Hosay massacre

Notes

References

Further reading

Peter J. Chelkowski (ed.), Eternal Performance: Taziyah and Other Shiite Rituals (Salt lake City (UT), Seagull Books, 2010) (Seagull Books - Enactments).

External links

Islamic - Shia Website

Al-Islam.org, A Digital Islamic Library

shiite muslim ashura

Shii Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online

A Shi'i/Sunni debate

Why they became Shi'a

Shi'ite an article in Encyclopædia Britannica online

“The Shia Crescent” Rise of Shias in 21st century

Patheos Library – Shi'a Islam

Shi'ite Doctrine by Mohammed Ali Amir-Moezzi an article in Encyclopedia Iranica

Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project (Twelver)

Shia Source

Rafed Network for Cultural Development (Twelver)

Imam Al-Khoei Foundation (Twelver)

Official Website of Nizari Ismaili (Ismaili)

Official Website of Alavi Bohra (Ismaili)

Dawoodi Bohra (Ismaili)

The Institute of Ismaili Studies (Ismaili)

Institute for Interreligious Dialogue, Tehran

al-shia.org Aalulbayt Global Informations Center

photos of shiite muslims' mourning

Category:Article Feedback Pilot Category:Islam in Iran Category:Islam in Iraq Category:Islam in Lebanon Category:Islam in Yemen

Region	Western Philosophy Islamic Philosophy
Era	21st century Philosophy
Color	#B0C4DE
Name	Abdolkarim Soroush ()
Birth date	1945
Birth place	Tehran, Iran
School tradition	Irfan, Islam, Religious intellectualism, Persian literature
Main interests	Philosophy of ReligionSocial and political philosophy
Influences	Karl Popper, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi
Influenced	}}

Abdolkarim Soroush (), born Hosein Haj Faraj Dabbagh (1945-; ), is an Iranian thinker, reformer, Rumi scholar and a former professor at the University of Tehran. He is arguably the most influential figure in religious intellectual movement in Iran. Professor Soroush is currently a visiting scholar at the University of Maryland in College Park, MD. He was also affiliated with other prestigious institutions, including Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Columbia, the Leiden based International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM) and the Wissenschaftskolleg in Berlin. Soroush idea's, founded on Relativism prompted both supporters and critics to compare his role in reforming Islam to that of Martin Luther in reforming Christianity.

Biography

Abdolkarim Soroush was born in Tehran in 1945. Upon finishing high school, Soroush began studying Pharmacy after passing the National Entrance exams of Iran. After completing his degree, he soon left Iran for London in order to continue his studies and to become familiar with the modern world.

It was after receiving a Masters degree in Analytical Chemistry from University of London that he went to Chelsea College, (clarification needed Chelsea College in London is an arts and fashion school) for studying history and philosophy of science, spending the next five and a half years there. During these years, confrontation between the people and the Shah's regime was gradually becoming more serious, and political gatherings of Iranians in America and Europe, and Britain in particular, were on the increase. Soroush, too, was thus drawn into the field.

After the Revolution, Soroush returned to Iran and there he published his book Knowledge and Value (Danesh va Arzesh), the writing of which he had completed in England. He then went to Tehran's Teacher Training College where he was appointed the Director of the newly established Islamic Culture Group. While in Tehran, Soroush established studies in both history and the philosophy of science.

A year later, all universities were shut down, and a new body was formed by the name of the Cultural Revolution Institute comprising seven members, including Abdulkarim Soroush, all of whom were appointed directly by Ayatollah Khomeini. In the following three-year period of the shut down of the Iranian Universities—also known as Iranian Cultural Revolution (1980–1983)—a total restructuring of the syllabi based on the idea of Islamization of Universities took place. Soroush played an active role in the decisions made by this committee which particularly involved expulsion of a significant number of academics and students from universities that were felt anti-revolutionary or non-religious. Among direct and indirect consequences of the Institute's activities were arrest, imprisonment and execution of many Iranian scholars, force exile of University Professors and "a major blow to Iran's cultural and intellectual life and achievement", continued today.

In 1983, owing to certain differences which emerged between him and the management of the Teacher Training College, he secured a transfer to the Institute for Cultural Research and Studies where he has been serving as a research member of staff until today. He submitted his resignation from membership in the Cultural Revolution Council to Imam Khomeini and has since held no official position within the ruling system of Iran, except occasionally as an advisor to certain government bodies. His principal position has been that of a researcher in the Institute for Cultural Research and Studies.

During the 90s, Soroush gradually became more critical of the political role played by the Iranian clergy. The monthly magazine that he cofounded, Kiyan, soon became the most visible forum ever for religious intellectualism. In this magazine he published his most controversial articles on religious pluralism, hermeneutics, tolerance, clericalism etc. The magazine was clamped down in 1998 among many other magazines and newspapers by the direct order of the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic. About a thousand audio tapes of speeches by Soroush on various social, political, religious and literary subjects delivered all over the world are widely in circulation in Iran and elsewhere. Soon, he not only became subject to harassment and state censorship, but also lost his job and security. His public lectures at Universities in Iran are often disrupted by hardline Ansar-e-Hizbullah vigilante groups.

From the year 2000 onwards Abdulkarim Soroush has been a Visiting Professor in Harvard University teaching Rumi poetry and philosophy, Islam and Democracy, Quranic Studies and Philosophy of Islamic Law. Also a scholar in residence in Yale University, he taught Islamic Political Philosophy at Princeton University in the 2002-3 academic year. From 2003-4 he served as a visiting scholar at the Wissenschaftkolleg in Berlin. He spent the fall semester of 2007 at Columbia University and the spring semester of 2008 at Georgetown University's Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs as a visiting scholar.

Philosophy of Abdolkarim Soroush

Soroush is primarily interested in the philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, the philosophical system of Molana Jalaleddin Balkhi (Rumi) and comparative philosophy. He is a world expert on Rumi and Persian Sufi poetry.

The philosophy of Abdolkarim Soroush can be summarized as follows:

Distinction between "religion" and our "understanding of religion".

Distinction between "essential" and "accidental" aspects of religion.

Distinction between "minimalist" and "maximalist" interpretation of Islam.

Distinction between values and morals that are considered internal in respect to Islam and those that are external.

Distinction between Religious "belief" and Religious "faith".

Distinction between religion as an ideology/identity and religion of truth.

Distinction between "religion" and our "understanding of religion"

Soroush's main contribution to Islamic philosophy is that he maintains that one should distinguish between religious as divinely revealed and the interpretation of religion or religious knowledge which is based on socio-historical factors. In Oxford, professors such as Komeil Sadeghi, Iranian philosopher influenced him so much that Soroush dedicated one of his best books named "Expansion of Prophetic Experience " to his honourable master.

Soroush's main thesis, entitled The Theoretical Contraction and Expansion of Shari'a separates religion per se from religious knowledge. The former, the essence of religion, is perceived as beyond human reach, eternal and divine. The latter, religious knowledge, is a sincere and authentic but finite, limited, and fallible form of human knowledge.

Religious "belief" and religious "faith"

Faith connot be compulsory. As he told one interviewer, "True believers must embrace their faith of their own free will - not because it was imposed, or inherited, or part of the dominant local culture. To become a believer under pressure or coercion isn't true belief.`" This also means that the believer "must ... remain free to leave his faith."

Soroush's political theory

Soroush's political theory is in line with the modern tradition from Locke to the framers of the American constitution. It portrays human beings as weak and susceptible to temptation, even predation. As such, they need a vigilant and transparent form of government. He believes that the assumption of innate goodness of mankind, shared by radical Utopians from anarchists to Islamic fundamentalists underestimates the staying power of social evil and discounts the necessity of a government of checks and balances to compensate for the weaknesses of human nature.

Soroush's political philosophy, as well, remains close to the heart of the liberal tradition, ever championing the basic values of reason, liberty, freedom, and democracy. They are perceived as "primary values," as independent virtues, not handmaidens of political maxims and religious dogma. Soroush entwines these basic values and beliefs in a rich tapestry of Islamic primary sources, literature, and poetry.

Religious democracy

Soroush introduced his own definition of the term Religious democracy which is now a topic in contemporary Iranian philosophy and means that the values of religion play a role in the public arena in a society populated by religious people. Religious democracy falls within the framework of modern rationality and has identifiable elements. It is in this way that we have a plurality of democracies in the international community. "Religious democracy" is a subject of intense research in Iranian intellectual circles.

Democracy where coincides with certain things, it can be secular or religious. Hence, what alters the hue and color of democracy is a society’s specific characteristics and elements. Religious democracy is an example of how democratic values can exist in a different cultural elaboration than what is usually known before. But, in a secular society, some other characteristic is deemed important and focused on, and that becomes the basis for democracy.

In fact relativistic liberalism and democracy are not identical since democracy is not violated when a faith is embraced, it is violated when a particular belief is imposed or disbelief is punished.

We do not have one democracy but many democracies from ancient Greece to today. We have a plurality of democracies in the international community. What emerged was that a democracy prevailed in different eras depending on the conditions of the time.

Reception

Attacks

Soroush's ideas have met with strong opposition from conservative elements in the Islamic Republic. Both he and his audiences were assaulted by Ansar-e Hezbollah vigilantees in the mid 1990s. A law imposing penalties on anyone associating with enemies of the Islamic republic is thought by his allies to have been at least in part provoked by some of Soroush's lectures and foreign affiliations.

According to the journalist Robin Wright:

Over the next year, he lost his three senior academic appointments, including a deanship. Other public appearances, including his Thursday lectures, were banned. He was forbidden to publish new articles. He was summoned for several long `interviews` by Iranian intelligence officials. His travel was restricted, then his passport confiscated.

Research interests

Persian literature

Philosophy of science

Iranian philosophy

Eastern philosophy

Theology

Islamic philosophy

Awards and honors

2004 Erasmus Prize 2005 Time 100 most influential people 2008 Prospect magazine's 7 of 100 most influential intellectuals in the world. 2009 Foreign Policy magazine's 45 of 100 world's elite intellectuals 2010 Foreign Policy magazine's 40 of 100 top global thinkers

Selected works

Dialectical Antagonism (in Persian), Tehran 1978

Philosophy of History (in Persian), Tehran 1978

What is Science, what is Philosophy (in Persian), 11th ed. Tehran 1992

The Restless Nature of the Universe (in Persian and Turkish), reprint Tehran 1980

Satanic Ideology (in Persian), 5th ed. Tehran 1994

Knowledge and Value (in Persian)

Observing the Created: Lectures in Ethics and Human Sciences (in Persian), 3rd ed. Tehran 1994

The Theoretical Contraction and Expansion of Religion: The Theory of Evolution of Religious Knowledge (in Persian), 3rd ed. Tehran 1994

Lectures in the Philosophy of Social Sciences: Hermeneutics in Social Sciences (in Persian), Tehran 1995

Sagaciousness, Intellectualism and Pietism (in Persian), Tehran 1991

The Characteristic of the Pious: A Commentary on Imam Ali's Lecture About the Pious (in Persian), 4th ed. Tehran 1996

The Tale of the Lords of Sagacity (in Persian), 3rd ed. Tehran 1996

Wisdom and Livelihood: A Commentary on Imam Ali's Letter to Imam Hasan (in Persian), 2nd ed. Tehran 1994

Sturdier than Ideology (in Persian), Tehran 1994

The Evolution and Devolution of Religious Knowledge in: Kurzman, Ch. (ed.): Liberal Islam, Oxford 1998

Political Letters (2 volumes), 1999 (Persian).

Reason, Freedom and Democracy in Islam, Essential writings of Adbolkarim Soroush, translated, edited with a critical introduction by M. Sadri and A. Sadri, Oxford 2000.

Intellectualism and Religious Conviction (in Persian)

The World we live (in Persian and Turkish)

The Tale of Love and Servitude (in Persian)

The definitive edition of Rumi's Mathnavi (in Persian), 1996

Tolerance and Governance (in Persian), 1997

Straight Paths, An Essay on religious Pluralism (in Persian), 1998

Expansion of Prophetic Experience (in Persian), 1999

Academic Studies

Ashk P. Dahlén, Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity. Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran, Routledge, 2003. (Several chapters devoted to Soroushs religious thought)

See also

Intellectual Movements in Iran

Religious Intellectualism in Iran

References

External links

Abdolkarim Soroush's Official Site

Abdolkarim Soroush; Iran's Democratic Voice - Time Magazine

Seraj - Dedicated to coverage and analysis of the ideas of Abdolkarim Soroush

Category:Iranian philosophers Abdolkarim Soroush Category:Erasmus Prize winners Category:Harvard University staff Category:Georgetown University faculty Category:Iranian democracy activists Category:Muslim reformers Category:Living people Category:Iranian Muslims Category:1945 births