Atom

Wednesday, 27 February 2013

Atoms For Peace - Judge Jury and Executioner

How an atomic clock works, and its use in the global positioning system (GPS)

Steve Stevens - Atomic Playboys (music video)

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Atom Heart Mother [Entire Album] by Pink Floyd

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CERN
Coordinates: 46°14′03″N 6°03′10″E / 46.23417°N 6.05278°E / 46.23417; 6.05278
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire), known as CERN ( /ˈsɜrn/; French pronunciation: [sɛʁn]; see History), is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world's largest particle physics laboratory, which is situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border (46°14′3″N 6°3′19″E / 46.23417°N 6.05528°E / 46.23417; 6.05528). Established in 1954, the organization has twenty European member states.
The term CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory itself, which employs just under 2400 full-time employees and hosts some 10000 visiting scientists and engineers representing 608 universities and research facilities and 113 nationalities.
CERN's main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics research. Numerous experiments have been constructed at CERN by international collaborations to make use of them. It is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web. The main site at Meyrin also has a large computer centre containing very powerful data-processing facilities primarily for experimental data analysis and, because of the need to make them available to researchers elsewhere, has historically been a major wide area networking hub.

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NASA
Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958. U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc² (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.

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Antoine Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution); 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794; French pronunciation: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje]), the "father of modern chemistry", was one of the French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry and biology. He named both oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and helped construct the metric system, put together the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also the first to establish that sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a compound. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same.
He was an administrator of the "Ferme Générale" and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution he was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling watered-down tobacco, and of other crimes and was eventually guillotined a year after Marat's death. Benjamin Franklin was familiar with Antoine as they were both members of the "Benjamin Franklin inquiries" into Mesmer and animal magnetism.

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Democritus
Democritus (Greek: Δημόκριτος, Dēmokritos, "chosen of the people") (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Abdera, Thrace, Greece. He was an influential pre-Socratic philosopher and pupil of Leucippus, who formulated an atomic theory for the cosmos.
His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Their speculation on atoms, taken from Leucippus, bears a passing and partial resemblance to the nineteenth-century understanding of atomic structure that has led some to regard Democritus as more of a scientist than other Greek philosophers; however their ideas rested on very different bases. Largely ignored in ancient Athens, Democritus was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Plato is said to have disliked him so much that he wished all his books burned. Many consider Democritus to be the "father of modern science".
Democritus was born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, an Ionian colony of Teos, although some called him a Milesian. He was born in the 80th Olympiad (460–457 BC) according to Apollodorus of Athens, and although Thrasyllus placed his birth in 470 BC, the later date is probably more likely.John Burnet has argued that the date of 460 is "too early", since according to Diogenes Laërtius ix.41, Democritus said that he was a "young man (neos)" during Anaxagoras' old age (circa 440–428). It was said that Democritus' father was so wealthy that he received Xerxes on his march through Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance which his father left him on travels into distant countries, to satisfy his thirst for knowledge. He traveled to Asia, and was even said to have reached India and Ethiopia.

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Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (also romanized Mendeleyev or Mendeleef; Russian: Дми́трий Ива́нович Менделе́ев listen (help·info); 8 February [O.S. 27 January] 1834 – 2 February [O.S. 20 January] 1907) was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements. Using the table, he predicted the properties of elements yet to be discovered.
Mendeleev was born in the village of Verkhnie Aremzyani, near Tobolsk in Siberia, to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleev (née Kornilieva). His grandfather was Pavel Maximovich Sokolov, a priest of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Tver region. Ivan, along with his brothers and sisters, obtained new family names while attending the theological seminary.
Mendeleev is thought to be the youngest of either 11, 13, 14 or 17 siblings; the exact number differs among sources. His father was a teacher of fine arts, politics and philosophy. Unfortunately for the family's financial well being, his father became blind and lost his teaching position. His mother was forced to work and she restarted her family's abandoned glass factory. At the age of 13, after the passing of his father and the destruction of his mother's factory by fire, Mendeleev attended the Gymnasium in Tobolsk.

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Ernest Marsden
Sir Ernest Marsden (19 February 1889 – 15 December 1970) was an English-New Zealand physicist. He was born in East Lancashire, living in Rishton and educated at Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Blackburn, where an inter-house trophy rewarding academic excellence ('The Marsden Merit Trophy') bears his name.
He met Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester. While still an undergraduate he conducted the famous Geiger-Marsden experiment called the gold foil experiment in 1909 together with Hans Geiger under Rutherford's supervision. In 1915 he moved to Victoria University College, New Zealand as Professor of Physics; he was recommended by Rutherford.
Marsden served in France during World War I as a Royal Engineer in a special sound-ranging section and earned the Military Cross. Following the war he became New Zealand's leading scientist, founding the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in 1926 and organizing its research particularly in the area of agriculture. During World War II he worked on radar research and in 1947 became scientific liaison officer in London. He died at his home in Lowry Bay, Lower Hutt on the shores of Wellington harbour in 1970.

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Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson OM, FRS (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New Zealand chemist and physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics. In early work he discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, proved that radioactivity involved the transmutation of one chemical element to another, and also differentiated and named alpha and beta radiation, proving that the former was essentially helium ions. This work was done at McGill University in Canada. It is the basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".
Rutherford performed his most famous work after he had moved to the Victoria University of Manchester in the UK in 1907 and was already a Nobel laureate. In 1911, he theorized that atoms have their positive charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil experiment. He is widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917 in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and named) the proton. This led to the first experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner, performed by two students working under his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, in 1932. After his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium (element 104) was named after him in 1997.

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Erwin Schrödinger
Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger ( /ˈʃroʊdɪŋər/; German: [ˈɛʁviːn ˈʃʁøːdɪŋɐ]; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961) was an Austrian born physicist and theoretical biologist who was one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, and is famed for a number of important contributions to physics, especially the Schrödinger equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933. In 1935 he proposed the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.
In 1887 Schrödinger was born in Vienna, Austria to Rudolf Schrödinger (cerecloth producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda (daughter of Alexander Bauer, Professor of Chemistry, Technische Hochschule Vienna).
His mother was half Austrian and half English; His father was Catholic and his mother was Lutheran. Despite having a religious background, he was later said to be an atheist.
In 1898 he attended the Akademisches Gymnasium. Between 1906 and 1910 Schrödinger studied in Vienna under Franz Serafin Exner(1849–1926) and Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1874–1915). He also conducted experimental work with Karl Wilhelm Friedrich "Fritz" Kohlrausch 1884–1953.

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Erwin Wilhelm Müller
Erwin Wilhelm Müller (or Mueller) (June 13, 1911, in Berlin – May 17, 1977, in Washington D.C.) was a German physicist who invented the Field Emission Electron Microscope (FEEM), the Field Ion Microscope (FIM), and the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope. He was the first person to experimentally observe atoms.
Müller studied at the Technical University in Berlin under Gustav Hertz. He received his degree in engineering in 1935 and his doctorate in 1936. Müller worked at the Siemens Research Laboratory, where he invented the field emission microscope in 1936 that allowed resolutions of 2 nanometers.
Müller married Klara Thüssing in 1939, and their only daughter Jutta was born in 1940. Due to the circumstances of war, he also worked at the Stabilovolt Company.
In 1947, he was appointed to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (renamed to Fritz-Haber-Institut on the occasion of its incorporation into the Max Planck Society in 1953) by Iwan N. Stranski. Here he developed the field ion microscope which, due to its resolution of 0.25 nm, was the first instrument used to observe atoms.

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Frederick Soddy
Frederick Soddy (2 September 1877 – 22 September 1956) was an English radiochemist and monetary economist who explained, with Ernest Rutherford, that radioactivity is due to the transmutation of elements, now known to involve nuclear reactions. He also proved the existence of isotopes of certain radioactive elements. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1921, and named after him is small crater on the far side of the Moon and the radioactive Uranium mineral, Soddyite.
Soddy was born at 6 Bolton Road, Eastbourne, England. He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at University College of Wales at Aberystwyth and at Merton College, Oxford. He was a researcher at Oxford from 1898 to 1900.
In 1900 he became a demonstrator in chemistry at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, where he worked with Ernest Rutherford on radioactivity. He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behaviour of radioactive elements was because they decayed into other elements. This decay also produced alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was. It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic transmutation was in fact occurring.

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Hans Geiger
Hans "Gengar" Geiger (September 30, 1882 – September 24, 1945) was a German physicist. He is perhaps best known as the co-inventor of the Geiger counter and for the Geiger-Marsden experiment which discovered the Atomic nucleus. Geiger was born at Neustadt-an-der-Haardt, Germany. He was one of five children born to the Indologist Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger, who was professor at the University of Erlangen.
In 1902, Geiger started studying physics and mathematics in University of Erlangen and was awarded a doctorate in 1906. In 1907 he began work with Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester and in 1909, along with Ernest Marsden, conducted the famous Geiger-Marsden experiment called the 'gold foil experiment'. Together they created the Geiger counter.
In 1911 Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall discovered the Geiger-Nuttall law (or rule) and performed experiments that led to Rutherford's atomic model. In 1928 Geiger and his student Walther Müller created an improved version of the Geiger counter, the Geiger-Müller counter. Geiger also worked with James Chadwick.

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Henry Enfield Roscoe
Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, FRS (7 January 1833 - 18 December 1915) was an English chemist. He is particularly noted for early work on vanadium and for photochemical studies.
Henry Enfield Roscoe was born in London, the son of Henry Roscoe (1800–1836), and grandson of William Roscoe (1753–1831).Stanley Jevons was a cousin.
Roscoe studied at the Liverpool Institute for Boys and University College London. He then went to Heidelberg to work under Robert Bunsen, who became a lifelong friend. In 1857, Roscoe was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, where he remained until 1886 by which time the Victoria University had been established. From 1885 to 1895 he was MP for Manchester South. He served on several royal commissions appointed to consider educational questions, in which he was keenly interested, and from 1896 to 1902 was vice-chancellor of the University of London. He was knighted in 1884.
Roscoe's scientific work includes a memorable series of researches carried out with Bunsen between 1855 and 1862, in which they laid the foundations of comparative photochemistry. In 1864 they carried out what is reputed to be the first flashlight photography, using magnesium as a light source. In 1867, Roscoe began an elaborate investigation of vanadium and its compounds, and devised a process for preparing it pure in the metallic state, at the same time showing that the substance which had previously passed for the metal was contaminated with oxygen. In so doing he corrected Berzelius's value for the atomic mass. Roscoe was awarded the 1868 Bakerian Lecture for this work. He also carried out researches on niobium, tungsten, uranium, perchloric acid, and the solubility of ammonia.

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Henry Moseley
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an English physicist. Moseley's outstanding contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number. This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra. Moseley's Law justified many concepts in chemistry by sorting the chemical elements of the periodic table of the elements in a quite logical order based on their physics.
Moseley's law advanced atomic physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr's theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This remains the accepted model today.
When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications officer. Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August 1915, at the age of 27. Some prominent authors have speculated that Moseley could have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916, had he not died in the service of the British Army.

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Irving Langmuir
Irving Langmuir (31 January 1881 – 16 August 1957) was an American chemist and physicist. His most noted publication was the famous 1919 article "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined his "concentric theory of atomic structure". Langmuir became embroiled in a priority dispute with Lewis over this work; Langmuir's presentation skills were largely responsible for the popularization of the theory, although the credit for the theory itself belongs mostly to Lewis. While at General Electric, from 1909–1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of physics and chemistry, invented the gas-filled incandescent lamp, the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry. He was the first industrial chemist to become a Nobel laureate. The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research near Socorro, New Mexico was named in his honor as was the American Chemical Society journal for Surface Science, called Langmuir.

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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727]) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived." His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.

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James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick CH FRS (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was an English Nobel laureate in physics awarded for his discovery of the neutron.
Chadwick studied at the University of Manchester and the University of Cambridge. He was the primary British scientist who collaborated in the Manhattan Project during World War II. He was knighted in 1945 for achievements in his field.
Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire to John Joseph Chadwick and Anne Mary Knowles. He attended Bollington Cross C of E Primary School and the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, and studied at the Universities of Manchester and Cambridge.
In 1913 Chadwick entered the Technical University of Berlin, working under Hans Geiger and Ernest Rutherford. He was in Germany at the start of World War I and was interned in Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp near Berlin. While he was interned, he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables. With the help of Charles D. Ellis he worked on the ionization of phosphorus and on the photo-chemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine. He spent most of the war years in Ruhleben until Geiger's laboratory interceded for his release.

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John Dalton
John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He is best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory, and his research into colour blindness (sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).
John Dalton was born into a Quaker family at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, Cumberland, England. The son of a weaver, he joined his older brother Jonathan at age 15 in running a Quaker school in nearby Kendal. Around 1790 Dalton seems to have considered taking up law or medicine, but his projects were not met with encouragement from his relatives – Dissenters were barred from attending or teaching at English universities – and he remained at Kendal until, in the spring of 1793, he moved to Manchester. Mainly through John Gough, a blind philosopher and polymath to whose informal instruction he owed much of his scientific knowledge, Dalton was appointed teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at the "New College" in Manchester, a dissenting academy. He remained in that position until 1800, when the college's worsening financial situation led him to resign his post and begin a new career in Manchester as a private tutor for mathematics and natural philosophy.

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Leucippus
Leucippus or Leukippos (Greek: Λεύκιππος, first half of 5th century BCE) was one of the earliest Greeks to develop the theory of atomism — the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms — which was elaborated in greater detail by his pupil and successor, Democritus.
According to this atomism, if you take a piece of wood and then cut it in to two equal parts, then do it continuously, eventually you will find a part that you can't cut. This smallest possible part is the "atom". A possible earlier candidate for atomism is Mochus of Sidon, from the Trojan War era (13th or 12th century BCE).
He was most likely born in Miletus, although Abdera and Elea are also mentioned as possible birth-places.
Leucippus is a shadowy figure, as his dates are not recorded and he is often mentioned in conjunction with his more well-known pupil Democritus, who replaced indeterminism with determinism as the ontological cause of atomic movement. It is therefore difficult to determine which contributions come from Democritus and which come from Leucippus.

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Lise Meitner
Lise Meitner, FRS (7 November 1878 – 27 October 1968) was an Austrian, later Swedish, physicist who worked on radioactivity and nuclear physics. Meitner was part of the team that discovered nuclear fission, an achievement for which her colleague Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize. Meitner is often mentioned as one of the most glaring examples of women's scientific achievement overlooked by the Nobel committee. A 1997 Physics Today study concluded that Meitner's omission was "a rare instance in which personal negative opinions apparently led to the exclusion of a deserving scientist" from the Nobel. Element 109, Meitnerium, is named in her honour.
Meitner was born into a Jewish family as the third of eight children in Vienna, 2nd district (Leopoldstadt). Her father, Philipp Meitner, was one of the first Jewish lawyers in Austria. She was born on 7 November 1878. She shortened her name from Elise to Lise. The birth register of Vienna's Jewish community lists Meitner as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list it as 7 November, which is what she used. As an adult, she converted to Christianity, following Lutheranism, and being baptized in 1908.

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Louis de Broglie
Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond, 7th duc de Broglie, FRS (/dəˈbrɔɪ/; French: [də bʁœj] ( listen); Dieppe, France, 15 August 1892 – Louveciennes, France, 19 March 1987) was a French physicist and a Nobel laureate in 1929. He was the sixteenth member elected to occupy seat 1 of the Académie française in 1944, and served as Perpetual Secretary of the Académie des sciences, France.
Louis de Broglie was born to a noble family in Dieppe, Seine-Maritime, younger son of Victor, 5th duc de Broglie. He became the 7th duc de Broglie upon the death without heir in 1960 of his older brother, Maurice, 6th duc de Broglie, also a physicist. He did not marry. When he died in Louveciennes, he was succeeded as duke by a distant cousin, Victor-François, 8th duc de Broglie.
De Broglie had intended a career in humanities, and received his first degree in history. Afterwards, though, he turned his attention toward mathematics and physics and received a degree in physics. With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, he offered his services to the army in the development of radio communications.

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Niels Bohr
Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish pronunciation: [ˈniːls ˈboɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He was part of the British team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Bohr, grew up to be an important physicist who in 1975 also received the Nobel Prize. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century.
Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, was professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (it is his name which is given to the Bohr shift or Bohr effect), while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles (in 1891, Bohr was baptized a Lutheran, his father's religion).Despite having a religious background, he later became an atheist.His brother was Harald Bohr, a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played on the Danish national team. Niels Bohr was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Niels in goal.

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Otto Hahn
Otto Hahn FRS (8 March 1879 – 28 July 1968) was a German chemist and Nobel laureate, a pioneer in the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. He is regarded as "the father of nuclear chemistry". Hahn was a courageous opposer of Jewish persecution by the Nazis and after World War II he became a passionate campaigner against the use of nuclear energy as a weapon. He served as the last President of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (KWG) in 1946 and as the founding President of the Max Planck Society (MPG) from 1948 to 1960. Considered by many to be a model for scholarly excellence and personal integrity, he became one of the most influential citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Hahn was the youngest son of Heinrich Hahn (1845–1922), a prosperous glazier and entrepreneur ("Glasbau Hahn"), and Charlotte Hahn, née Giese (1845–1905). Together with his brothers Karl, Heiner and Julius, Otto was raised in a sheltered environment. At the age of 15, he began to take a special interest in chemistry and carried out simple experiments in the laundry room of the family home. His father wanted Otto to study architecture, as he had built or acquired several residential and business properties. But Otto persuaded him that his ambition was to become an industrial chemist.

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Richard Feynman
Richard Phillips Feynman ( /ˈfaɪnmən/; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics (he proposed the parton model). For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. He developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic particles, which later became known as Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime, Feynman became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest physicists of all time.
He assisted in the development of the atomic bomb and was a member of the panel that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In addition to his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing, and introducing the concept of nanotechnology. He held the Richard Chace Tolman professorship in theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology.

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Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle, FRS, (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was a 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He has been variously described as Irish, English and Anglo-Irish, his father having come to Ireland from England during the time of the Plantations.
Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law, which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.
Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork and Catherine Fenton. Richard Boyle arrived in Dublin from England in 1588 during the Tudor plantations of Ireland and obtained an appointment as a deputy escheator. He had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born. Catherine Fenton was the daughter of English writer Geoffrey Fenton, who was born in Dublin in 1539, and Alice Weston, the daughter of Robert Weston, who was born in Lismore in 1541.

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Werner Heisenberg
Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 1901 – 1 February 1976) was a German theoretical physicist who made foundational contributions to quantum mechanics and is best known for asserting the uncertainty principle of quantum theory. In addition, he made important contributions to nuclear physics, quantum field theory, and particle physics.
Heisenberg, along with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, set forth the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics in 1925. Heisenberg was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for the creation of quantum mechanics, and its application especially to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen.
Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon thereafter renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was director of the institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958, when it was expanded and renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics.
Heisenberg was also president of the German Research Council, chairman of the Commission for Atomic Physics, chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group, and president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.

wn.com/Werner_Heisenberg

Nari & Milani - Atom (Original Mix) HQ

soundcloud.com Check out Leprechaun's new bootleg (Feed the kangaroo antidote) Check me ou...

published: 16 Feb 2012

author: shweetbeat

Atoms For Peace - Judge Jury and Executioner

Preorder the new Atoms For Peace album, Amok now: smarturl.it Judge Jury and Executioner i...

published: 07 Jan 2013

author: XLRecordings

Atoms For Peace - Default

Buy Default now from iTunes smarturl.it Album coming soon on XL Recordings. atomsforpeace....

published: 06 Sep 2012

author: XLRecordings

Ariel Atom - Jay Leno's Garage

For when you need to go fast! Subscribe NOW to Jay Leno's Garage: full.sc Check out the Of...

published: 19 Feb 2013

author: JayLenosGarage

Aerial view of an atomic bomb explosion

This is an aerial shot from Operation Buster Jangle shot Easy. November 5, 1951 detonated ...

published: 12 Dec 2011

author: atomcentral

Ariel Atom 300 Driven - CAR and DRIVER

Jethro Bovingdon, Car and Driver's European correspondent, thrashes the Ariel Atom 300 out...

published: 26 Jun 2012

author: CARandDRIVER

Elements and Atoms

Learn more: www.khanacademy.org How elements relate to atoms. The basics of how protons, e...

published: 01 Aug 2011

author: khanacademy

How an atomic clock works, and its use in the global positioning system (GPS)

Bill shows the world's smallest atomic clock and then describes how the first one made in ...

published: 12 Jun 2012

author: engineerguyvideo

Steve Stevens - Atomic Playboys (music video)

"Atomic Playboys" (video) by Steve Stevens purchase on iTunes: tinyurl.com Album: Atomic P...

published: 09 Jul 2010

author: 80sClassicMetal

Atom Heart Mother [Entire Album] by Pink Floyd

PinkVintage007 = A GIRL (only because you keep saying thanks dude & man) lol 1. Atom Heart...

published: 13 Jan 2011

author: pinkvintage007

Epic Citadel for Android: Intel Atom Processor Z2580 (Clover Trail+)

As demonstrated at Mobile World Congress 2013, Epic Citadel runs at full frame rate on Int...

published: 25 Feb 2013

author: UnrealDevelopmentKit

Thom Yorke. Atoms for Peace

Music Video...

published: 06 Mar 2007

author: woodywoo69

Borderlands 2 - The Atom Bomb Launcher

man now we got the record for strongest gun in all the lands the guy who made these is nam...

published: 13 Feb 2013

author: OMegAASuPreMMe

Bass Kleph playing "Atom" live on Maschine | Avalon, Hollywood, Dec 2012

A 100% live, no sequencer, all finger-drumming Bass Kleph version of a track called "Atom"...

published: 04 Jan 2013

author: basskleph

Rematch! Ruf R Turbo 650 vs Insanely tuned Mitsu Evo VI 665 RWHP

GTBoard.com: http://www.m5board.com/vbulletin/e60-m5-e61-m5-touring-discussion/118994-supe...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Fastest Ariel Atom in the World.... 650 hp.

Street legal, 650 hp. YES, 650 HORSEPOWER, turbocharged 1375lb. Ariel Atom. Fastest Ariel ...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

The Ariel Atom Vs a Supercar Selection - Top Gear Series 16 Episode 1 - BBC Two

More on this programme: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00y469f James May puts the Ariel...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Ariel Atom 500 V8 speed test - evo Magazine

evo Magazine figures the Ariel Atom V8 in a straight line. How fast can it go?!...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

ariel atom v8 - 500hp

arielatom v8 500hp - 0/100 - 2,4sec ariel atom factory - somerset - uk - atom x celebratio...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Ariel Atom V8 video review

Atom V8 feels fast enough to beat a Veyron...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Atom V8

Blending right in an Atom V8...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Atom V8 500 first time on road / Arnaud VOIRY / www.pilotage-grandprix.com

Atom V8 500 first time on road Ecole de pilotage GRAND PRIX www.pilotage-grandprix.com...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Top Gear - 16x01 - Ariel Atom V8 vs BMW S1000RR

"James May" :D Takes a Ariel Atom V8 vs BMW S1000RR BMW bike - is ridden by British Superb...

published: 09 Jul 2011

author: rhpicayune

Alpha Teens 2x01 A

Part 1 of Deception...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x01 B

Part 2 of Deception...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x01 C

Part 3 of Deception...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x02 A

Part 1 of Revelation...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x02 B

Part 2 of Revelation...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x02 C

Part 3 of Revelation...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x03 A

Part 1 of Movin' On Down. Don't forget to watch the show on the television! Else they migh...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x03 B

Part 2 of Movin' On Down...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x03 C

Part 3 of Movin' On Down...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x04 A

Uploaded early at request, part 1 of From Beneath The Sea....

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x04 C

Part 3 of From Beneath The Sea...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x04 B

Part 2 of From Beneath The Sea...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x05 A

Part 1 of Resurrection...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Alpha Teens 2x05 B

Part 2 of Resurrection...

published: 23 Mar 2010

author: TheAngelgirl1992

Ariel Atom V8 video review

Atom V8 feels fast enough to beat a Veyron...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Will it drift? Ariel Atom Mugen

The 270bhp, 550kg, rear-wheel drive Ariel Atom Mugen sounds like the ideal drifting machin...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

ariel atom v8 - 500hp

http://www.fastdrive.org/2009-ariel-atom-500-v8/...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom replica (part 1)

Ariel Atom replica homemade build from audi 80 cupe, engine 1800 cc (gasoline)...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Watch Ariel build an Atom

TG.com time-lapse footage shows Somerset boffins building the TopGearFaceDestroyer... Ori...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom replica (part 2)

Ariel Atom replica homemade build from audi 80 cupe, engine 1800 cc (gasoline)...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom DMAX

Reportage über den Ariel Atom auf D-Motor...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel atom replica (part 3) front suspension

Ariel Atom replica homemade build from audi 80 cupe, engine 1800 cc (gasoline) front suspe...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Hard tonneau cover design for Ariel Atom 2

Cover modeled from 3D laser scan from a Leica HDS 6200 laser scanner...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom model

Working in Leica Cyclone to model a 3D scan. The piping was quite easy to model as Cyclon...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom Rear Suspension Unit Solidworks 2010

Drawn on Solidworks 2010, the rear suspension unit and chassis of an ariel atom car. As pa...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel atom replica (test 1)

Ariel Atom replica homemade build from audi 80 cupe, engine 1800 cc (gasoline)...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom(ic) Reaction

First time in an Atom Check out the trailer for a new stockbroking movie called Stock Code...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Ariel Atom PL

Replika Ariela z silnikiem Honda Civic typeR 2.0 vtec 200PS...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: Nivaldo Ramos Pissai

Noisia & Foreign Beggars - Shellshock (Official Video)

Included on 'Split the Atom: Special Edition' http://on.fb.me/z2EVrN Noisia: http://www.n...

published: 26 Apr 2011

author: NoisiaTV

Noisia - Split The Atom

Included on 'Split The Atom: Special Edition' released on mau5trap on 27th February 2012, ...

published: 09 Apr 2010

author: NoisiaTV

Noisia - Shellshock ft Foreign Beggars

Included on 'Split the Atom: Special Edition' http://on.fb.me/z2EVrN Noisia: http://www.n...

published: 09 Apr 2010

author: NoisiaTV

Noisia - My World ft. Giovanca

Included on 'Split the Atom: Special Edition' http://on.fb.me/z2EVrN Noisia: http://www.n...

published: 09 Apr 2010

author: NoisiaTV

Noisia - Split The Atom (Bar9 Remix)

Noisia: http://www.noisia.nl Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/noisia Twitter: http://twit...

published: 27 Oct 2010

author: NoisiaTV

<li class="playlistitemli thumbnail border_color bgr_color_content font_color">
        <div class="video_facebook">
            <a href="http://web.archive.org./web/20130228044752/http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http://wn.com/atom&t=<%= title %>" title="Share this video" data-title="Share this video" target="_blank" style="target-name: new; target-new: tab;"></a>
        </div>

photo: AP / Mary Altaffer

The a detail of a world map page of the Wytfliet Atlas is photographed during a news conference, Wednesday, June 27, 2012 in New York.

Scientists Find Lost Continent In the Indian Ocean

Gizmodo

26 Feb 2013

Jesus Diaz - . Scientists have found proof of a sunken continent in the Indian Ocean. According to a study published in Nature Geoscience, the continent “was separated from Madagascar and fragmented into a ribbon-like configuration by a series of mid-ocean ridge jumps during the opening of the Mascarene ocean basin.”. Its name is not Atlantis, though ... [Nature Geoscience via BBC News]. Image by Shutterstock ... Related Posts ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)

photo: Creative Commons / John Harrison

Oscars 2013: Anne Hathaway’s nipples make a bid for stardom

The Daily Telegraph

25 Feb 2013

Just like Angelina Jolie's right leg last year, Oscar-winner Anne Hathaway's apparently 'alert' nipples inspired their own Twitter account and a flurry of cheeky hashtags last night. BY Bibby Sowray . 25 February 2013. Anne Hathaway's seemingly pointy nipples attracted a lot of attention. Photo. Getty. Poor Anne Hathaway, she's not been served well by fashion of late ... Related articles. Oscars 2013 fashion. red carpet hits and misses ... Photo ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)

photo: Russian Presidential Press and Information Office

Russian President Vladimir Putin taking part in an expanded meeting of the Defence Ministry Board that reviewed the ministry's work in 2012 and examined plans for the Armed Forces' continued development, 27 February, 2013.

Putin calls for upgrade of Russian army

Jakarta Post

27 Feb 2013

Russian President Vladimir Putin told the country's top brass on Wednesday to drastically upgrade the armed forces in the next few years as part of response to attempts by the United States and NATO to "tip the strategic balance" in the world. In his address to Russia's defense ministry and top military officials, Putin said Russia is witnessing "insistent attempts" to change that balance and complained about U.S ...   ....(size: 2.3Kb)

photo: USAF / Tech. Sgt. Effrain Lopez

File - A U.S. Air Force MQ-1 Predator unmanned aerial vehicle assigned to the California Air National Guard's 163rd Reconnaissance Wing undergoes a postflight inspection at the Southern California Logistics Airport in Victorville, Calif., Jan. 7, 2012.

Drones and the Dawn of Automated, Automatic Warfare

WorldNews.com

26 Feb 2013

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. During the 19th and early 20th centuries developments in technology vastly transformed warfare. The age of machine guns, steam-powered battle ships, and tanks replaced the era of flintlock muskets, sailing wooden ships, and cannonballs. But these new and more lethal innovations also altered humanity and political systems ... World War I and II ... They will subversively disrupt entire societies....(size: 4.8Kb)

photo: AP / Ibrahim Zayed

Egyptian rescue workers collect remains at the scene of a balloon crash outside al-Dhabaa village, just west of the city of Luxor, 510 kilometers (320 miles) south of Cairo, Egypt, Tuesday, Feb. 26, 2013.

19 tourists die in hot air balloon crash in Egypt

Chicago Sun-Times

26 Feb 2013

Updated. February 26, 2013 8.35AM. LUXOR, Egypt — A hot air balloon flying over Egypt’s ancient city of Luxor caught fire and crashed into a sugar cane field on Tuesday, killing at least 19 foreign tourists in one of the world’s deadliest ballooning accidents and handing a new blow to Egypt’s ailing tourism industry ... The balloon then shot up in the air, the investigator said ... The security official said all 18 bodies have been recovered ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)

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Review of Atoms for Piece's 'AMOK'

The Examiner

28 Feb 2013

Atoms for Peace should be a dream team. Led by Radiohead's Thom Yorke, the band is composed of Red Hot Chili Peppers' bassist Flea, Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich, and versatile percussionists Mauro Refosco and Joey Waronker ... Like I said, Atoms for peace should be a supergroup, but what they seem to be is an average collection of exceptional musicians ... And at its heart, irrelevance is AMOK's greatest weakness ... Tweet. 0 Email ... Comments ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)

Report: Radiation could skyrocket at SRS if door opened to commercial waste

The State

28 Feb 2013

Department of Energy, outlines the potential hazards of making SRS an interim storage site for nuclear waste generated at the country’s commercial atomic power plants ... has 104 reactors that continue to produce high-level atomic waste ... Located near Aiken, the Savannah River Site is a federal nuclear weapons complex that produced material for atomic bombs during the Cold War....(size: 4.4Kb)

Money, help still out there for nuke test site victims

MSNBC

28 Feb 2013

LAS VEGAS (KSNV MyNews3) -- Atomic bombs are gone from the Nevada Test Site, but health concerns continue to this day ... FYI. People can be compensated for 22 different types of cancer and, in some cases, for the loss of loved ones ... More than 900 atomic bombs rocked southern Nevada from the 1950s until 1992 ... While others watched from nearby Las Vegas, a curvaceous Miss Atomic Test Bomb helped sell the concept ... Advertise . AdChoices ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)

Anastacia diagnosed with breast cancer for second time, cancels tour

Digital Spy

28 Feb 2013

Anastacia has been diagnosed with breast cancer for the second time. The 'I'm Outta Love' singer has been forced to cancel her European tour, which was due to start in London on April 6, in order to battle the disease. The 44-year-old said ... It just breaks my heart to disappoint them." ... More ... Atomic KittenTen facts you may not have known about the recently reunited girlband ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 17 ... 01 ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 17 ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)

Perez Hilton announces birth of first child: "I am so humbled"

Digital Spy

28 Feb 2013

Perez Hilton welcomes baby boy. Perez Hilton has announced that he has become a father for the first time. The gossip columnist took to PerezHilton.com to share the happy news with his readers, along with a photo of the baby boy. The 34-year-old wrote ... pathetic" ... > Oscars 2013 ... SVU' episode? ... Atomic KittenTen facts you may not have known about the recently reunited girlband ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 17 ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 17 ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)

The National Archives Presents Noontime Programs in March (NARA - National Archives and Records Administration)

noodls

28 Feb 2013

(Source. NARA - National Archives and Records Administration) Press Release. February 21, 2013 ... . You and Me. These events are free and open to the public. All programs will be held at noon in the William G ... When We Were Free To Be ... ... BOOK TALK. The Girls of Atomic City ... Denise Kiernan discusses her book, The Girls of Atomic City, and the women who unwittingly played a crucial role in one of the most significant moments in U.S. history....(size: 5.3Kb)

Health Canada warns of synthetic marijuana risks

CBC

28 Feb 2013

The incense products are sold in foil packages at prices ranging from $12 to $16 a gram and go under brand names like Happy Shaman, K2 Grape Xtreme, Project 420, Fusion Atomic Green and Kick Ass White Rabbit ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)

Iran Should Win International Community’s Trust - UN Chief

Novosti

28 Feb 2013

Western powers say Iran is attempting to build an atomic weapon, but Tehran insists its program has entirely peaceful purposes and has decried international pressure as unacceptable interference in its sovereign affairs. ....(size: 1.3Kb)

Investment In Nuclear Power Sector

IIFL

28 Feb 2013

There is no proposal to allow Foreign Direct Investment in atomic power sector ...   ....(size: 0.6Kb)

Crude Edges Towards $93 After Bernanke Assurances

CNBC

28 Feb 2013

U.S ... U.S ... U.S ... The U.S ... (Read More ... Pro). Iran was upbeat on Wednesday after talks with world powers about its nuclear work ended with an agreement to meet again, but Western officials said it had yet to take concrete steps to ease their fears about its atomic ambitions. ....(size: 1.5Kb)

Porn lecture stirs up fuss on college campus

WorldNetDaily

28 Feb 2013

That’s what Hugo Schwyzer says he learned when he invited the star of “Atomic Vixens,” “Batman XXX” and some 1,300 other, similar films to deliver a guest lecture Wednesday at Pasadena City College ... Read the full story › ... Note ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)

'GDP linked to climate change'

The Times of India

28 Feb 2013

KOCHI. GDP growth is closely linked to global warming and climate change, and scrapping the GDP-based growth model is the need of the hour, according to Anandi Sharan, historian of climate negotiations ... These companies employ about five million people ... A Gopalakrishnan, former chairman of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, and M K Prasad were among other who participated in a discussion held later. ....(size: 1.9Kb)

Leona Lewis appointed Body Shop's new Brand Activist

Digital Spy

28 Feb 2013

Leona Lewis has been appointed The Body Shop's new Brand Activist and will play an intimate gig to celebrate her new role. The singer will work together with the high street retailer to campaign against animal testing for cosmetics, ahead of the EU ban on March 11. Leona Lewis named Body Shop's new Brand Activist ... The collaboration is a natural fit!" ... Best of the Brits girls ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 15 ... 'Atomic Kitten middle-aged' 15 ... ....(size: 8.3Kb)

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For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation).

Helium atom

An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one angstrom (10⁻¹⁰ m or 100 pm).

Classification

Smallest recognized division of a chemical element

Properties

Mass range:	1.67×10⁻²⁷ to 4.52×10⁻²⁵ kg
Electric charge:	zero (neutral), or ion charge
Diameter range:	62 pm (He) to 520 pm (Cs) (data page)
Components:	Electrons and a compact nucleus of protons and neutrons

The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it has a positive charge if there are fewer electrons (electron deficiency) or negative charge if there are more electrons (electron excess). A positively or negatively charged atom is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.^[1]

The name atom comes from the Greek ἄτομος (atomos, "indivisible") from ἀ- (a-, "not") and τέμνω (temnō, "I cut"),^[2] which means uncuttable, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further.^[3] The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists discovered subatomic components and structure inside the atom, thereby demonstrating that the 'atom' was divisible. The principles of quantum mechanics were used to successfully model the atom.^[4]^[5]

Atoms are minuscule objects with proportionately tiny masses. Atoms can only be observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope. Over 99.94% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus,^{[note 1]} with protons and neutrons having roughly equal mass. Each element has at least one isotope with an unstable nucleus that can undergo radioactive decay. This can result in a transmutation that changes the number of protons or neutrons in a nucleus.^[6] Electrons that are bound to atoms possess a set of stable energy levels, or orbitals, and can undergo transitions between them by absorbing or emitting photons that match the energy differences between the levels. The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence an atom's magnetic properties.

History [link]

Main article: Atomic theory

Atomism [link]

Main article: Atomism

The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny quantities has been around for millennia, but these ideas were founded in abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than experimentation and empirical observation. The nature of atoms in philosophy varied considerably over time and between cultures and schools, and often had spiritual elements. Nevertheless, the basic idea of the atom was adopted by scientists thousands of years later because it elegantly explained new discoveries in the field of chemistry.^[7]

References to the concept of atoms date back to ancient Greece and India. In India, the Ājīvika, Jain, and Cārvāka schools of atomism may date back to the 6th century BCE.^[8] The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools later developed theories on how atoms combined into more complex objects.^[9] In the West, the references to atoms emerged in the 5th century BCE with Leucippus, whose student, Democritus, systematized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term átomos (Greek: ἄτομος), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter". Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.^[7]

Corpuscularianism is the postulate, expounded in the 13th-century by the alchemist Pseudo-Geber (Geber),^[10] sometimes identified with Paul of Taranto, that all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles.^[11] Corpuscularianism is similar to the theory of atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and modify their inner structure.^[12] Corpuscularianism stayed a dominant theory over the next several hundred years.

In 1661, natural philosopher Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist in which he argued that matter was composed of various combinations of different "corpuscules" or atoms, rather than the classical elements of air, earth, fire and water.^[13] During the 1670s corpuscularianism was used by Isaac Newton in his development of the corpuscular theory of light.^[11]^[14]

Origin of scientific theory [link]

Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), one of the earliest scientific works on atomic theory

Further progress in the understanding of atoms did not occur until the science of chemistry began to develop. In 1789, French nobleman and scientific researcher Antoine Lavoisier discovered the law of conservation of mass and defined an element as a basic substance that could not be further broken down by the methods of chemistry.^[15]

In 1805, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions) and why certain gases dissolved better in water than others. He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds.^[16]^[17] Dalton is considered the originator of modern atomic theory.^[18]

Dalton's atomic hypothesis did not specify the size of atoms. Common sense indicated they must be very small, but nobody knew how small. Therefore it was a major landmark when in 1865 Johann Josef Loschmidt measured the size of the molecules that make up air.

An additional line of reasoning in support of particle theory (and by extension atomic theory) began in 1827 when botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically—a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". J. Desaulx suggested in 1877 that the phenomenon was caused by the thermal motion of water molecules, and in 1905 Albert Einstein produced the first mathematical analysis of the motion.^[19]^[20]^[21] French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.^[22]

Mendeleev's first periodic table (1869)

In 1869, building upon earlier discoveries by such scientists as Lavoisier, Dmitri Mendeleev published the first functional periodic table.^[23] The table itself is a visual representation of the periodic law, which states that certain chemical properties of elements repeat periodically when arranged by atomic number.^[24]

Subcomponents and quantum theory [link]

The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered the electron, and concluded that they were a component of every atom. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter.^[25] Thomson postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom, possibly rotating in rings, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive charge. This later became known as the plum pudding model.

In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of physicist Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a sheet of gold foil with alpha rays—by then known to be positively charged helium atoms—and discovered that a small percentage of these particles were deflected through much larger angles than was predicted using Thomson's proposal. Rutherford interpreted the gold foil experiment as suggesting that the positive charge of a heavy gold atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atom—the Rutherford model.^[26]

While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table.^[27] The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.^[28]

A Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, showing an electron jumping between fixed orbits and emitting a photon of energy with a specific frequency

Meanwhile, in 1913, physicist Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons were confined into clearly defined, quantized orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward in intermediate states.^[29] An electron must absorb or emit specific amounts of energy to transition between these fixed orbits. When the light from a heated material was passed through a prism, it produced a multi-colored spectrum. The appearance of fixed lines in this spectrum was successfully explained by these orbital transitions.^[30]

Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.^[31]

Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons.^[32] As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law,^[33] in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.^[34]

The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down.^[35]

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa. This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.^[36]^[37]

Schematic diagram of a simple mass spectrometer

The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the exact mass of atoms to be measured. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule.^[38] The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, a neutral-charged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.^[39]

Fission, high-energy physics and condensed matter [link]

In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product.^[40] A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn's result were the first experimental nuclear fission.^[41]^[42] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized.^[43]

In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies.^[44] Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. Standard models of nuclear physics were developed that successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.^[45]

Components [link]

Subatomic particles [link]

Main article: Subatomic particle

Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and a positive hydrogen ion has no electrons.

The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.11×10⁻³¹ kg, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.^[46] Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726×10⁻²⁷ kg, although this can be reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of electrons,^[47] or 1.6929×10⁻²⁷ kg. Neutrons and protons have comparable dimensions—on the order of 2.5×10⁻¹⁵ m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.^[48]

In the Standard Model of physics, both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks. The quark belongs to the fermion group of particles, and is one of the two basic constituents of matter—the other being the lepton, of which the electron is an example. There are six types of quarks, each having a fractional electric charge of either +²⁄₃ or −¹⁄₃. Protons are composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles. The quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is mediated by gluons. The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.^[49]^[50]

Nucleus [link]

Main article: Atomic nucleus

The binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes

All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle 1.07 \sqrt[3]{A} \text{ fm} , where A is the total number of nucleons.^[51] This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 10⁵ fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.^[52]

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.^[53]

The neutron and the proton are different types of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical effect that prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum physical state at the same time. Thus every proton in the nucleus must occupy a different state, with its own energy level, and the same rule applies to all of the neutrons. This prohibition does not apply to a proton and neutron occupying the same quantum state.^[54]

For atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with roughly matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay. However, with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus, which modifies this trend. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium); and as Z increases toward the heaviest nuclei, the ratio of neutrons per proton required for stability increases to about 1.5.^[54]

Illustration of a nuclear fusion process that forms a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a proton and a neutron, from two protons. A positron (e⁺)—an antimatter electron—is emitted along with an electron neutrino.

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus.^[55] Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.^[56]^[57]

If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, E = mc², where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.^[58]

The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together.^[59] It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.^[54]

Electron cloud [link]

Main articles: Atomic orbital and Electron configuration

A potential well, showing, according to classical mechanics, the minimum energy V(x) needed to reach each position x. Classically, a particle with energy E is constrained to a range of positions between x₁ and x₂.

The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations.

Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured.^[60] Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.^[61] Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and they differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.^[62]

Wave functions of the first five atomic orbitals. The three 2p orbitals each display a single angular node that has an orientation and a minimum at the center.

Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.^[61]

The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom,^[63] compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus.^[64] Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.^[65]

Properties [link]

Nuclear properties [link]

Main articles: Isotope, Stable isotope, List of nuclides, and List of elements by stability of isotopes

By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,^[66] also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element ununoctium.^[67] All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive.^[68]^[69]

About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,^[70] of which 255 (about 75%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in theory. Another 165 (bringing the total to 255) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 33 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years, and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).^[71]^{[note 2]}

For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.^[72]^{[page needed]}

Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 255 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10 and nitrogen-14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.^[72]^{[page needed]}

Mass [link]

Main articles: Atomic mass and mass number

The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. The mass number is a simple whole number, and has units of "nucleons." An example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons).

The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), which is also called a dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately 1.66×10⁻²⁷ kg.^[73] Hydrogen-1, the lightest isotope of hydrogen and the atom with the lowest mass, has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u.^[74] The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the mass of the atomic mass unit. However, this number will not be an exact whole number except in the case of carbon-12 (see below)^[75] The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,^[68] with a mass of 207.9766521 u.^[76]

As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about 6.022×10²³). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.^[73]^{[page needed]}

Shape and size [link]

Main article: Atomic radius

Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin.^[77] On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).^[78] Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.^[79]

When subjected to external fields, like an electrical field, the shape of an atom may deviate from that of a sphere. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites.^[80] Significant ellipsoidal deformations have recently been shown to occur for sulfur ions in pyrite-type compounds.^[81]

Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they can not be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.^[82] A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion (2×10²¹) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.^[83] A single carat diamond with a mass of 2×10⁻⁴ kg contains about 10 sextillion (10²²) atoms of carbon.^{[note 3]} If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.^[84]

Radioactive decay [link]

Main article: Radioactive decay

This diagram shows the half-life (T_½) of various isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.

Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.^[85]

The most common forms of radioactive decay are:^[86]^[87]

Alpha decay is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number.
Beta decay is regulated by the weak force, and results from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The first is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while the second causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one.
Gamma decay results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. This can occur following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle from radioactive decay.

Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle, or result (through internal conversion) in production of high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, and high-energy photons that are not gamma rays.

Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.^[85]

Magnetic moment [link]

Main articles: Electron magnetic dipole moment and Nuclear magnetic moment

Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ, or "spin-½". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.^[88]

The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.^[89]

In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.^[89]^[90]

The nucleus of an atom can also have a net spin. Normally these nuclei are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.^[91]^[92]

Energy levels [link]

Main articles: Energy level and Atomic spectral line

When an electron is bound to an atom, it has a potential energy that is inversely proportional to its distance from the nucleus. This is measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). In the quantum mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level. The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, while an electron at a higher energy level is in an excited state.^[93]

For an electron to transition between two different states, it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels. The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.^[94] Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.^[95]

An example of absorption lines in a spectrum

When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.^[96]

Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin-orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron.^[97] When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.^[98] The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.^[99]

If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.^[100]

Valence and bonding behavior [link]

Main articles: Valence (chemistry) and Chemical bond

The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.^[101] For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.^[102]

The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.^[103]^[104]

States [link]

Main articles: State of matter and Phase (matter)

Snapshots illustrating the formation of a Bose–Einstein condensate

Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. ^[105] Within a state, a material can also exist in different phases. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.^[106]

At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale.^[107]^[108] This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.^[109]

Identification [link]

Scanning tunneling microscope image showing the individual atoms making up this gold (100) surface. Reconstruction causes the surface atoms to deviate from the bulk crystal structure and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them.

The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density of states.^[110]^[111]

An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.^[112]

A more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.^[113]

Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element.^[114] Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.^[115]

Origin and current state [link]

Atoms form about 4% of the total energy density of the observable universe, with an average density of about 0.25 atoms/m³.^[116] Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, atoms have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 10⁵ to 10⁹ atoms/m³.^[117] The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, a region of highly ionized gas, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 10³ atoms/m³.^[118] Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95% of the Milky Way's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10% of the mass of the galaxy.^[119] (The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.)^[120]

Nucleosynthesis [link]

Main article: Nucleosynthesis

Stable protons and electrons appeared one second after the Big Bang. During the following three minutes, Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.^[121]^[122]^[123] The first atoms (complete with bound electrons) were theoretically created 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.^[124]

Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron.^[125]

Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation.^[126] This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected.

Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei.^[127] Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.^[128]

Earth [link]

Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating.^[129]^[130] Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.^[131]

There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.^[132] Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions.^[133]^[134] Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.^[135]^[136] Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth^[137] and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust.^[129] Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.^[138]

The Earth contains approximately 1.33×10⁵⁰ atoms.^[139] In the planet's atmosphere, small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon and neon. The remaining 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals.^[140]^[141] This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.^[142]

Rare and theoretical forms [link]

While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an "island of stability" has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay.^[143] The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom, unbihexium, has 126 protons and 184 neutrons.^[144]

Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. (The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although the baryogenesis theories may offer an explanation.) As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature.^[145]^[146] However, in 1996, antihydrogen, the antimatter counterpart of hydrogen, was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.^[147]^[148]

Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.^[149]^[150]^[151]

Notes [link]

^ In the case of hydrogen-1, with a single electron and nucleon, the proton is Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{smallmatrix}\frac{1836}{1837} \approx 0.9995\end{smallmatrix} , or 99.95% of the total atomic mass. All other nuclides (isotopes of hydrogen and all other elements) have more nucleons than electrons, so the fraction of mass taken by the nucleus is closer to 100% for all of these types of atoms, than for hydrogen-1.
^ For more recent updates see Interactive Chart of Nuclides (Brookhaven National Laboratory).
^ A carat is 200 milligrams. By definition, carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The Avogadro constant defines 6×10²³ atoms per mole.

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^ Koppes, Steve (March 1, 1999). "Fermilab Physicists Find New Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry". University of Chicago. http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
^ Cromie, William J. (August 16, 2001). "A lifetime of trillionths of a second: Scientists explore antimatter". Harvard University Gazette. http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
^ Hijmans, Tom W. (2002). "Particle physics: Cold antihydrogen". Nature 419 (6906): 439–40. DOI:10.1038/419439a. PMID 12368837.
^ Staff (October 30, 2002). "Researchers 'look inside' antimatter". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
^ Barrett, Roger (1990). "The Strange World of the Exotic Atom". New Scientist (1728): 77–115. http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
^ Indelicato, Paul (2004). "Exotic Atoms". Physica Scripta T112 (1): 20–26. arXiv:physics/0409058. Bibcode 2004PhST..112...20I. DOI:10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020.
^ Ripin, Barrett H. (July 1998). "Recent Experiments on Exotic Atoms". American Physical Society. http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html. Retrieved 2008-02-15.

Book references [link]

L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2003). Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-436603-1. OCLC 16212955.
Beyer, H. F.; Shevelko, V. P. (2003). Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions. CRC Press. ISBN 0-7503-0481-2. OCLC 47150433.
Choppin, Gregory R.; Liljenzin, Jan-Olov; Rydberg, Jan (2001). Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-7463-6. OCLC 162592180.
Dalton, J. (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part 1. London and Manchester: S. Russell.
Demtröder, Wolfgang (2002). Atoms, Molecules and Photons: An Introduction to Atomic- Molecular- and Quantum Physics (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 3-540-20631-0. OCLC 181435713.
Feynman, Richard (1995). Six Easy Pieces. The Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-14-027666-4. OCLC 40499574.
Fowles, Grant R. (1989). Introduction to Modern Optics. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65957-7. OCLC 18834711.
Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (1981). Indian Atomism: History and Sources. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-02177-X. OCLC 10916778.
Goodstein, David L. (2002). States of Matter. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-13-843557-X.
Harrison, Edward Robert (2003). Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77351-2. OCLC 50441595.
Iannone, A. Pablo (2001). Dictionary of World Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17995-5. OCLC 44541769.
Jevremovic, Tatjana (2005). Nuclear Principles in Engineering. Springer. ISBN 0-387-23284-2. OCLC 228384008.
King, Richard (1999). Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-0954-7.
Lequeux, James (2005). The Interstellar Medium. Springer. ISBN 3-540-21326-0. OCLC 133157789.
Levere, Trevor, H. (2001). Transforming Matter – A History of Chemistry for Alchemy to the Buckyball. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6610-3.
Liang, Z.-P.; Haacke, E. M. (1999). Webster, J. G.. ed (PDF). Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Magnetic Resonance Imaging. vol. 2. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 412–26. ISBN 0-471-13946-7. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/8734/27658/01233976.pdf?arnumber=1233976. Retrieved 2008-01-09.
McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies. Allworth Press. ISBN 1-58115-203-5.
MacGregor, Malcolm H. (1992). The Enigmatic Electron. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-521833-7. OCLC 223372888.
Manuel, Oliver (2001). Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations. Springer. ISBN 0-306-46562-0. OCLC 228374906.
Mazo, Robert M. (2002). Brownian Motion: Fluctuations, Dynamics, and Applications. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851567-7. OCLC 48753074.
Mills, Ian; Cvitaš, Tomislav; Homann, Klaus; Kallay, Nikola; Kuchitsu, Kozo (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry (2nd ed.). Oxford: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Commission on Physiochemical Symbols Terminology and Units, Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. OCLC 27011505.
Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01495-2.
Myers, Richard (2003). The Basics of Chemistry. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31664-3. OCLC 50164580.
Padilla, Michael J.; Miaoulis, Ioannis; Cyr, Martha (2002). Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. ISBN 0-13-054091-9. OCLC 47925884.
Pais, Abraham (1986). Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851971-0.
Pauling, Linus (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0333-2. OCLC 17518275.
Pfeffer, Jeremy I.; Nir, Shlomo (2000). Modern Physics: An Introductory Text. Imperial College Press. ISBN 1-86094-250-4. OCLC 45900880.
Ponomarev, Leonid Ivanovich (1993). The Quantum Dice. CRC Press. ISBN 0-7503-0251-8. OCLC 26853108.
Roscoe, Henry Enfield (1895). John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry. Century science series. New York: Macmillan. http://books.google.com/books?id=FJMEAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 2011-04-03.
Scerri, Eric R. (2007). The periodic table: its story and its significance. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-530573-6.
Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E. (2002). Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-0834-2. OCLC 123346507.
Siegfried, Robert (2002). From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition. DIANE. ISBN 0-87169-924-9. OCLC 186607849.
Sills, Alan D. (2003). Earth Science the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-7641-2146-4. OCLC 51543743.
Smirnov, Boris M. (2003). Physics of Atoms and Ions. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95550-X.
Teresi, Dick (2003). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science. Simon & Schuster. pp. 213–214. ISBN 0-7432-4379-X. http://books.google.com/?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&dq.
Various (2002). Lide, David R.. ed. Handbook of Chemistry & Physics (88th ed.). CRC. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5. OCLC 179976746. http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
Woan, Graham (2000). The Cambridge Handbook of Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57507-9. OCLC 224032426.
Wurtz, Charles Adolphe (1881). The Atomic Theory. New York: D. Appleton and company. ISBN 0-559-43636-X.
Zaider, Marco; Rossi, Harald H. (2001). Radiation Science for Physicians and Public Health Workers. Springer. ISBN 0-306-46403-9. OCLC 44110319.
Zumdahl, Steven S. (2002). Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-34342-3. OCLC 173081482. http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html. Retrieved 2008-02-05.

External links [link]

Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article Atom.

Francis, Eden (2002). "Atomic Size". Clackamas Community College. http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
Freudenrich, Craig C.. "How Atoms Work". How Stuff Works. http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
"The Atom". Free High School Science Texts: Physics. Wikibooks. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics/Atom. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
Anonymous (2007). "The atom". Science aid+. http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/fundamental/atom.html. Retrieved 2010-07-10. —a guide to the atom for teens.
Anonymous (2006-01-03). "Atoms and Atomic Structure". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963. Retrieved 2007-01-11.
Various (2006-01-03). "Physics 2000, Table of Contents". University of Colorado. http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC. Retrieved 2008-01-11.
Various (2006-02-03). "What does an atom look like?". University of Karlsruhe. http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html. Retrieved 2008-05-12.

Particles in physics

Elementary

Fermions

Quarks	u · u · d · d · c · c · s · s · t · t · b · b

Leptons	e− · e+ · μ− · μ+ · τ− · τ+ · ν e · ν e · ν μ · ν μ · ν τ · ν τ

Bosons

Gauge	γ · g · W± · Z

Others

Ghosts

Hypothetical

Superpartners

Gauginos	Gluino · Gravitino

Others	Axino · Chargino · Higgsino · Neutralino · Sfermion

Others

A⁰ · Dilaton · G · H0
· J · Majorana fermion · m · Tachyon · X · Y · W' · Z' · Sterile neutrino

Composite

Hadrons

Baryons / Hyperons	N (p · n) · Δ · Λ · Σ · Ξ · Ω

Mesons / Quarkonia	π · ρ · η · η′ · φ · ω · J/ψ · ϒ · θ · K · B · D · T

Others

Atomic nuclei · Atoms · Diquarks · Exotic atoms (Positronium · Muonium · Tauonium · Onia) · Superatoms · Molecules

Hypothetical

Exotic hadrons

Exotic baryons	Dibaryon · Pentaquark · Skyrmion

Exotic mesons	Glueball · Tetraquark

Others

Mesonic molecule · Pomeron

Quasiparticles

Davydov soliton · Exciton · Hole · Magnon · Phonon · Plasmaron · Plasmon · Polariton · Polaron · Roton · Trion

Lists

List of particles · List of quasiparticles · List of baryons · List of mesons · Timeline of particle discoveries

Wikipedia books

Book:Hadronic Matter · Book:Particles of the Standard Model · Book:Leptons · Book:Quarks

v t e Into matter

Macroscopic object > Molecule > Atom > Subatomic particle (Composite particle · Elementary particle)

v t e Hierarchy of life

Biosphere > Ecosystem > Community (Biocoenosis) > Population > Organism > Organ system > Organ > Tissue > Cell > Organelle > Molecule (Macromolecule · Biomolecule) > Atom

http://wn.com/Atom

http://de.wn.com/Atom

http://es.wn.com/Átomo

http://ru.wn.com/Атом

http://cs.wn.com/Atom

http://pt.wn.com/Átomo

http://pl.wn.com/Atom

http://hi.wn.com/परमाणु

http://it.wn.com/Atomo

http://id.wn.com/Atom

http://nl.wn.com/Atoom

http://fr.wn.com/Atome

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

"Leno" redirects here. For other uses, see Leno (disambiguation).

Jay Leno
Leno in July 2008
Birth name	James Douglas Muir Leno
Born	(1950-04-28) April 28, 1950 (age 62)^[1] New Rochelle, New York, U.S.^[1]
Medium	Television, Film, Stand up
Nationality	American
Years active	1973–present
Genres	Observational comedy, Political satire
Subject(s)	American culture, Everyday life
Influences	Johnny Carson, Robert Klein, Alan King, George Carlin,^[2] Don Rickles, Bob Newhart, Rodney Dangerfield
Influenced	Dennis Miller^[3]
Spouse	Mavis Leno (1980–present)
Notable works and roles	The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (host, 1992–2009, 2010–) The Jay Leno Show (host, 2009–2010)
Signature
Website	The Tonight Show with Jay Leno

Emmy Awards
Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series 1995 The Tonight Show with Jay Leno

James Douglas Muir "Jay" Leno /ˈlɛnoʊ/ (born April 28, 1950)^[1] is an American stand-up comedian and television host.

From 1992 to 2009, Leno was the host of NBC's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Beginning in September 2009, Leno started a primetime talk show, titled The Jay Leno Show, which aired weeknights at 10:00 p.m. (Eastern Time, UTC-5), also on NBC. After The Jay Leno Show was canceled in January 2010 amid a host controversy, Leno returned to host The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on March 1, 2010.^[4]

1 Early life
2 Career
3 Public image
- 3.1 Criticism of Leno
- 3.2 Support for Leno
4 Personal life
5 References
6 External links

Early life [link]

James "Jay" Leno was born in New Rochelle, New York, in 1950. His mother, Catherine (née Muir; 1911–1993), a homemaker, was born in Greenock, Scotland, and came to the United States at age 11. Leno's father, Angelo (1910–1994), who worked as an insurance salesman, was born in New York to immigrants from Flumeri, Italy.^[5] Leno grew up in Andover, Massachusetts, and although his high school guidance counselor recommended that he drop out of school, he later obtained a Bachelor's degree in speech therapy from Emerson College, where he started a comedy club in 1973.^[6] Leno's siblings include his late older brother, Patrick, who was a Vietnam veteran^[7] and a lawyer.^[6]

Career [link]

During the 1970s, Leno appeared in minor roles in several television series and films, first in the 1976 episode "J.J. in Trouble" of Good Times and the same year in the pilot of Holmes & Yo-Yo. After an uncredited appearance in the 1977 film Fun with Dick and Jane, he played more prominent parts in 1978 in American Hot Wax and Silver Bears. Other films and television series from that period include Almost Heaven (1978), "Going Nowhere" (1979) from One Day at a Time, Americathon (1979), Polyester (1981), "The Wild One" (1981) from Alice, "Feminine Mistake" (1979) and "Do the Carmine" (1983) from Laverne & Shirley.

[edit] The Tonight Show

Leno in 1993, shortly after becoming host of The Tonight Show

Starting in 1987, Leno was a regular substitute host for Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show. In 1992, he replaced Carson as host^[8] amid controversy with David Letterman, who had been hosting Late Night with David Letterman since 1982 (aired after The Tonight Show), who many had expected to be Carson's successor. The story of this turbulent transition was later turned into a book and a movie. Leno continued to perform as a stand-up comedian throughout his tenure on The Tonight Show.

In 2004, Leno signed a contract extension with NBC which would keep him as host of The Tonight Show until 2009.^[9] Later in 2004, Conan O'Brien signed a contract with NBC under which O'Brien would become the host of The Tonight Show in 2009, replacing Leno at that time.^[10]

During the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, Leno was accused of violating WGA guidelines by writing his own monologue for The Tonight Show. While NBC and Leno claim there were private meetings with the WGA where there was a secret agreement allowing this, the WGA denied such a meeting.^[11] Leno answered questions in front of the Writers Guild of America, West trial committee in February 2009 and June 2009, and when the WGAW published its list of strike-breakers on 11 August 2009, Leno was not on the list.^[12]^[13]

In 1998, Leno competed in a tag-team match at the WCW's "Road Wild" pay-per-view . In 2001, he voiced The Crimson Chin, a superhero in the Nickelodeon animated series The Fairly OddParents and continues to do so today.

Leno said in 2008 that he was saving all of his income from The Tonight Show and living solely off his income from stand-up comedy.^[14]

On April 23, 2009, Leno checked himself into a hospital with an undisclosed illness.^[15] He was released the following day and returned to work on Monday, April 27. The two subsequently cancelled Tonight Show episodes for April 23 and April 24 were Leno's first in 17 years as host.^[16]^[17] Initially, the illness that caused the absence was not disclosed, but later Leno told People magazine that the ailment was exhaustion.^[17]^[18]

Michael Jackson trial [link]

In the 2005 trial of Michael Jackson over allegations of child molestation, Leno appeared as a defense witness (many celebrity defense witnesses had been expected, but Leno was one of the few whose testimony was actually needed). In his testimony regarding a call by the accuser, Leno testified that he never called the police, that no money was asked for, and there was no coaching — but that the calls seemed unusual and scripted.^[19]

Leno in 2006.

As a result, Leno was initially not allowed to continue telling jokes about Jackson or the case, which had been a fixture of The Tonight Show's opening monologue in particular. But he and his show's writers used a legal loophole by having Leno briefly step aside while stand-in comedians took the stage and told jokes about the trial. Stand-ins included Roseanne Barr, Drew Carey, Brad Garrett, and Dennis Miller among others.^[20]

[edit] Succession by Conan O'Brien and The Jay Leno Show

Main article: The Jay Leno Show

Because Leno's show continued to lead all late-night programming in the Nielsen ratings, the pending expiration of Leno's contract led to speculation about whether he would become a late-night host for another network after his commitment to NBC expired.^[21] Leno left The Tonight Show on Friday May 29, 2009,^[22]^[23] and Conan O'Brien took over on June 1, 2009.

On December 8, 2008, it was reported that Leno would remain on NBC and move to a new hour-long show at 10 p.m. Eastern Time (9 p.m. Central Time) five nights a week.^[24] This show follows a similar format to The Tonight Show, tapes at the same lot, and retains many of Leno's most popular segments. Late Night host Conan O'Brien was his successor on The Tonight Show.^[25]

Jay Leno's new show, titled The Jay Leno Show, debuted on September 14, 2009. It was announced at the Television Critics Association summer press tour that it would feature one or two celebrities, the occasional musical guest, and keep the popular "Headlines" segments, which would air near the end of the show. First guests included Jerry Seinfeld, Oprah Winfrey (via satellite), and a short sit-down with Kanye West discussing his controversy at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards.^[26]

[edit] Timeslot conflict and return to The Tonight Show

Wikinews has related news: US TV host Conan O'Brien rejects NBC's offer to switch his show's time slot

Main article: 2010 Tonight Show conflict

In their new roles, neither O'Brien nor Leno succeeded in delivering the viewing audiences the network anticipated. On January 7, 2010, multiple media outlets reported that beginning March 1, 2010, Jay Leno would move from his 10pm weeknight time slot to 11:35pm, due to a combination of pressure from local affiliates whose newscasts were suffering, and both Leno's and O'Brien's poor ratings.^[27]^[28] Leno's show would be shortened from an hour to 30 minutes. All NBC late night programming would be preempted by the 2010 Winter Olympics between February 15 and February 26. This would move The Tonight Show to 12:05am, a post-midnight timeslot for the first time in its history. O'Brien's contract stipulated that NBC could move the show back to 12:05 a.m. without penalty (a clause put in primarily to accommodate sports preemptions).^[29]

On January 10, NBC confirmed that they would move Jay Leno out of primetime as of February 12 and intended to move him to late night as soon as possible.^[30]^[31] TMZ reported that O'Brien was given no advance notice of this change, and that NBC offered him two choices: an hour-long 12:05am time slot, or the option to leave the network.^[32] On January 12, O'Brien issued a press release that stated he would not continue with Tonight if it moved to a 12:05am time slot,^[33] saying, "I believe that delaying The Tonight Show into the next day to accommodate another comedy program will seriously damage what I consider to be the greatest franchise in the history of broadcasting. The Tonight Show at 12:05 simply isn’t The Tonight Show."

On January 21, it was announced that NBC had struck a deal with O'Brien. It was decided that O'Brien would leave The Tonight Show. The deal was made that O'Brien would receive a $33 million payout and that his staff of almost 200 would receive $12 million in the departure. O'Brien's final episode aired on Friday, January 22.^[34]^[35]^[36] Leno returned as host of The Tonight Show following the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 1, 2010.

On July 1, 2010, Variety reported that total viewership for Jay Leno's Tonight Show had dropped from 5 million to 4 million for the second quarter of 2010, compared to the same period in 2009. Although this represented the lowest second-quarter ratings for the show since 1992, Tonight was still the most-watched late night program, ahead of ABC's Nightline (3.7 million) and David Letterman's Late Show (3.3 million).^[37] Ratings over the following summer, when compared to the same period in 2009 with O'Brien hosting The Tonight Show (including O'Brien's highly rated debut), showed that while total viewership was 12% higher for Leno, viewership in the important "adults aged 18–49" demographic was 23% lower.^[38] NBC ratings specialist Tom Bierbaum commented that due to the host being out of late night television for a period of time and the subsequent 2010 Tonight Show conflict, Leno's ratings fall was "not a surprise at all".^[39]

Public image [link]

Criticism of Leno [link]

Leno on The Tonight Show in 2005

Leno has faced heated criticism and some negative publicity for his perceived role in the 2010 Tonight Show timeslot conflict.^[40]^[41] Critics have pointed to a 2004 Tonight Show clip, wherein Leno claimed he would allow O'Brien to take over without incident.^[41]^[42] At the time, Leno stated he didn't want O'Brien to leave for a competing network, adding, "I'll be 59 when [the switch occurs], that's five years from now. There's really only one person who could have done this into his 60s, and that was Johnny Carson; I think it's fair to say I'm no Johnny Carson."^[42] Leno also described The Tonight Show as a dynasty, saying "you hold it and hand it off to the next person. And I don't want to see all the fighting..." At the end of the segment, he said, "Conan, it's yours! See you in five years, buddy!"^[43]

Actor and comedian Patton Oswalt was among the first celebrities to openly voice disappointment with Leno, saying, "Comedians who don't like Jay Leno now, and I'm one of them, we're not like, 'Jay Leno sucks;' it's that we're so hurt and disappointed that one of the best comedians of our generation... willfully has shut the switch off."^[44] Rosie O'Donnell has been among O'Brien's most vocal and vehement supporters,^[45]^[46] calling Leno a "bully" and his recent actions "classless and kind of career-defining."^[47]

Bill Zehme, the co-author of Leno's autobiography Leading with My Chin, told the Los Angeles Times: "The thing Leno should do is walk, period. He's got everything to lose in terms of public popularity by going back. People will look at him differently. He'll be viewed as the bad guy."^[48]

Support for Leno [link]

NBC Sports head executive and former Saturday Night Live producer Dick Ebersol spoke out against all who had recently mocked Leno, calling them "chicken-hearted and gutless."^[49]

Jeff Gaspin also defended Leno: "This has definitely crossed the line. Jay Leno is the consummate professional and one of the hardest-working people in television. It's a shame that he's being pulled into this."^[48]

Paul Reiser and Jerry Seinfeld are two of the number of celebrities to have voiced support for Leno.^[50]^[51]

Responding to the mounting criticism, Leno claimed that NBC had assured him that O'Brien was willing to accept the proposed arrangement and then would not let either host out of his contract.^[52] Leno also said that the situation was "all business."^[52] He appeared on the January 28 episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show in an attempt to repair some of the damage done to his public image.^[53]^[54]

Personal life [link]

Leno with President Barack Obama in March 2009

Leno has been married since 1980 to Mavis Leno; they have no children.^[55]

He is known for his prominent jaw, which has been described as mandibular prognathism.^[56] In the book Leading with My Chin he stated that he is aware of surgery that could reset his mandible, but does not wish to endure a prolonged healing period with his jaws wired shut.

Leno is dyslexic.^[6] He claims to sleep only four to five hours each night.^[57] Leno does not drink or smoke, nor does he gamble.^[58] He spends most of his free time visiting car collections or working in his private garage.^[58]

Leno reportedly earns $32 million each year;^[59] his total net worth is unknown, but has been estimated to be at least $150 million.^[60]

Charity [link]

In 2001, along with his wife, he donated $100,000 to the Feminist Majority's campaign to stop gender apartheid in Afghanistan, to educate the public regarding the plight of women in Afghanistan under Taliban rule. Mavis Leno is on the board of the Feminist Majority.^[61]^[62]

In 2009, he donated $100,000 to a scholarship fund at Salem State College in honor of Lennie Sogoloff. Mr. Sogoloff gave Leno his start at his jazz club, Lennie's-on-the-Turnpike.^[63]

Love Ride [link]

Since 1985 Jay Leno has been the grand marshal for the Love Ride, a motorcycle charity event which since its founding in 1984 has raised nearly $14 million dollars for charities benefiting muscular dystrophy research and, in 2011, Autism Speaks.^{[citation needed]}

Leno arriving at the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards in his Hispano-Suiza Aero^[64]

Vehicle collection [link]

Leno owns approximately 100 vehicles, not including about 90 motorcycles.^[65] He also has a website called "Jay Leno's Garage," which contains video clips and photos of his automobiles in detail.^[66]

He has a regular column in Popular Mechanics which showcases his car collection and gives advice about various automotive topics, including restoration and unique models, such as his jet-powered motorcycle and solar-powered hybrid. Leno also writes occasional "Motormouth" articles for The Sunday Times,^[67] reviewing high-end sports cars and giving his humorous take on automotive matters.

References [link]

^ ^a ^b ^c "Jay Leno Biography". The New York Times. http://movies.nytimes.com/person/1548610/Jay-Leno/biography. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
^ Breuer, Howard, and Stephen M, Silverman (2008-06-24). "Carlin Remembered: He Helped Other Comics with Drug Problems". People. Time Inc.. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,20208460,00.html?xid=rss-fullcontentcnn. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
^ James Hirsen, Dennis Miller: Why I 'Ascended' to the Right, NewsMax.com, February 5, 2004.
^ Adalian, Josef (January 21, 2010). "Exclusive: Conan, NBC Officially Splitsville (Updated)". The Wrap. http://www.thewrap.com/ind-column/new-nbc-breaking-story-13241. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
^ "Jay Leno Biography (1950–)". Film Reference. http://www.filmreference.com/film/70/Jay-Leno.html. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c Carter, Bill. "Pushed From Late Night, Leno Is Set for Prime Time" The New York Times, 12 September 2009.
^ Aivaz, Mike (October 18, 2007). "Obama on Leno: Hillary has declared 'mission accomplished' too soon". The Raw Story. http://rawstory.com/news/2007/Obama_takes_jab_at_Clinton_on_1018.html. Retrieved May 11, 2008. ^{[dead link]}
^ "Carson cuts appearances". Rome News-Tribune. Associated Press (Rome, Ga.): p. 14. June 2, 1987. http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NQMIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=SzYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5008,192179&dq=tonight+jay-leno+shandling. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
^ "NBC signs Jay Leno to contract extension". USA Today. Associated Press. March 31, 2004. http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2004-03-30-leno-contract-extended_x.htm. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
^ Carter, Bill (September 27, 2004). "Conan O'Brien to Succeed Jay Leno in 2009, NBC Announces". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/27/business/media/28CND-NBC.html?pagewanted=print&position=. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
^ "LENO/WGA: WHAT'S THE REAL STORY? NBC Claims Jay Asked For & Received WGA Permission To Write Monologue At Secret Monday Meeting With Verrone". Deadline Hollywood Daily. http://www.deadlinehollywooddaily.com/lenowga-whats-the-real-story-nbc-claims-jay-asked-for-received-wga-permission-to-write-monologue-at-monday-meeting-with-verrone-et-al/. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
^ Verrier, Richard (2009-08-11). "WGA: No chin music for Jay Leno". Company Town (Los Angeles Times). http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2009/08/guild-clears-jay-leno-of-violating-strike-rules.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
^ Littleton, Cynthia (2009-08-11). "Jay Leno cleared of strike violations; WGA West issues penalties in three cases". Variety (New York City: Reed Business Information). http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118007189.html?categoryId=2821&cs=1. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
^ della Cava, Marco (July 17, 2008). "Jay Leno Gears up for Life After 'Tonight'". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2008-07-16-leno-cover_N.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ Hannah, Jack (2009-04-23). "Jay Leno hospitalized; 'Tonight Show' tapings canceled". CNN.com (Cable News Network). http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/TV/04/23/leno.hospitalized/index.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
^ Dillon, Nancy (April 24, 2009). "Jay Leno released from the hospital". New York: NYDailyNews. http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv/2009/04/24/2009-04-24_rep_jay_leno_hospital_trip_precautionary_late_night_host_to_be_released_friday.html. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
^ ^a ^b "Jay Leno misses first show in 17 years". Canada.com. Reuters (Winnipeg, Manitoba: Canwest Publishing Inc.). 2009-04-24. http://www.canada.com/News/Leno+misses+first+show+years/1530668/story.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
^ Warrick, Pamela (2009-05-01). "Jay Leno Reveals Mystery Ailment: Exhaustion". People.com (Time Inc.). http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20276256,00.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
^ Sweetingham, Lisa (May 24, 2005). "Comedians Jay Leno and Chris Tucker testify for Michael Jackson". Court TV. http://www.courttv.com/trials/jackson/052405_ctv.html. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
^ Bryant, Karyn (2005-03-08). "Showbiz Tonight". CNN. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0503/08/sbt.01.html. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
^ Moore, Frazier (May 18, 2008). "NBC's Jay Leno-Conan O'Brien swap prompts rumors". Newsday. Associated Press. http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/ny-fftv5685783may18,0,4188633.story?track=rss. Retrieved October 26, 2008. ^{[dead link]}
^ Carter, Bill (July 22, 2008). "Date Is Set for Leno's 'Tonight' Finale". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/arts/television/22late.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/T/Television. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
^ Carter, Bill (2009-05-30). "Jay Leno Takes Final Bow on ‘Tonight Show’". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/arts/television/30leno.html?em. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
^ Carter, Bill (December 9, 2008). "Where Is Leno Going? To Prime Time, on NBC". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/business/media/09leno.html?em. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
^ "Leno's last 'Tonight' announced". CNN.com. Associated Press. July 21, 2008. Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080724101827/http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/TV/07/21/tv.nbc.tonight.ap/index.html. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "Leno's last show was Friday, May 29, and O'Brien started the following Monday, June 1, NBC executives told a Television Critics Association meeting Monday."
^ Jay Leno Reveals What To Expect From His New Primetime Show
^ "Future For NBC's Tonight Show Up In The Air", Los Angeles Times, January 2010.
^ "Jay Leno Heading Back To Late Night, Conan O’Brien Weighing Options".
^ Finke, Nikki (2010-01-07). NBC ON THE HOT SEAT: Will It Be Jay AND Conan In Late Night? What's The Reason For Leno's Anti-NBC Monologue Tonight?. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
^ "NBC confirms move of "Leno Show"^{[dead link]}"
^ "Update: NBC Plans Leno at 11:30, Conan at 12", The New York Times, 7 January 2010.
^ "NBC to Conan O'Brien – The Choice Is Yours", TMZ, 8 January 2010.
^ Conan Won't Do "The Tonight Show" Following Leno, MSNBC.com, 12 January 2010.
^ Robert Seidman , NBC Announces That Jay Leno Will Return To Host “The Tonight Show” Beginning March 1, tvbythenumbers.com, 21 January 2010.
^ NBC Universal Confirms Conan O’Brien Exit Deal Signed from Bloomberg via Business Week
^ Conan O'Brien, NBC reach deal^{[dead link]} from CBC News
^ Levine, Stuart (2010-07-01). "'Kimmel,' 'Nightline' show demo increase". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118021316.html?categoryid=14&cs=1.
^ Pike, Julie (September 7, 2010). "Tonight Show Ratings Plummet – Jay Leno Sinks Beneath Conan O'Brien Numbers". The National Ledger (The National Ledger, LLC). http://www.nationalledger.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=53&num=34570. Retrieved 2010-10-04.
^ Piccalo, Gina (October 24, 2010). "Comedians Laugh as Leno Sinks". The Daily Beast. http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2010-10-24/jay-lenos-sinking-tonight-show-ratings-will-conan-obrien-get-the-last-laugh/. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
^ The Wall Street Journal article: "Why Some Comics Aren’t Laughing at Jay Leno".
^ ^a ^b Kansas City Star article: "Jay Leno is Mr. Nice Guy no more — but was he ever?^{[dead link]}".
^ ^a ^b Digital Journal article: Jay Leno in 2004: "In '09, Conan, it's yours"
^ Funnyordie.com: 2004 Tonight Show Clip: "Conan, It's yours!"
^ The Huffington Post article: "Patton Oswalt: Jay Leno Is Like Nixon, I Don't Like Him".
^ Porter, Rick (2010-01-14). "Rosie O'Donnell is on Team Conan". Zap2it. http://blog.zap2it.com/thedishrag/2010/01/rosie-odonnell-is-on-team-conan.html. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
^ New York Daily News article: "Rosie O'Donnell, Jimmy Kimmel slam Jay Leno over Tonight Show battle."
^ New York Magazine article: "Rosie O’Donnell Has More to Say About Jay Leno."
^ ^a ^b Los Angeles Times article: "Taking on America's 'nice guy'", p. 2.
^ Los Angeles Times article: "Taking on America's 'nice guy'".
^ The Huffington Post article: "Paul Reiser: A Teachable Moment."
^ The Wrap article: "Seinfeld on Jay-Conan Debacle: 'I Can't Blame NBC'."
^ ^a ^b Entertainment Weekly article: "Jay Leno Tries to Make Nice, While Conan Rallies the Troops."
^ Perez Hilton article: "Oprah Shows Some Tonight Show Love".
^ TV.com article: "Confirmed, Jay Leno to Restore Reputation on 'Oprah'^{[dead link]}".
^ "Jay Leno". Who's Who in America. Marquis. http://www.whoswhoinamerica.com/jay_leno/talk_show_host_comedian_writer/occ28/5463136.
^ Chudley, A.E. (October 1998). "Genetic landmarks through philately – The Habsburg jaw". Clinical Genetics 54 (4): 283–284. DOI:10.1034/j.1399-0004.1998.5440404.x. PMID 9831338.
^ Mike McLeod, Jay Leno – The Tonight Show's $1 Billion Man Collects Cars and Motorcycles, go-star.com
^ ^a ^b Nevada Magazine article: "Classic cars and comedy".
^ Forbes article: "Jay Leno – The Top 100 Celebrities".
^ CelebrityNetWorth.com: "Jay Leno's Net Worth."
^ "Hollywood's Latest Cause: Can A Pack Of Celebrities Save Afghanistan's Women?". Newsweek. December 6, 1999. http://www.newsweek.com/id/90455/output/print.
^ Greenberg, Susan H. (February 21, 2000). "So Many Causes, So Little Time Save The Rain Forest! Free Tibet! For Today's Stars, There's No Business Like Fund-Raising Business". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/82834.
^ "Leno says thanks with $100k check". The Boston Herald. April 12, 2009. http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/04/12/leno_says_thanks_with_100k_check. Retrieved November 29, 2009.
^ Update: 1915 Hispano-Suiza Aero Engine Car (video), jaylenosgarage.com
^ The Cars, jaylenosgarage.com
^ "Jay Leno's Garage". Official Website. http://www.jaylenosgarage.com.
^ Moran, Michael (May 9, 2007). "Jay Leno's million dollar garage". London: The Times. http://driving.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/driving/article1746609.ece. Retrieved May 11, 2008.

External links [link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jay Leno

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Media offices
Preceded by Conan O'Brien	Host of The Tonight Show March 1, 2010–present	Succeeded by incumbent
Preceded by Johnny Carson	Host of The Tonight Show May 25, 1992 – May 29, 2009	Succeeded by Conan O'Brien

v t e The Tonight Show

Tonight Starring Steve Allen • Tonight Starring Jack Paar • The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (episodes) • The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (episodes) • The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien (episodes) • The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (episodes)

Hosts	Steve Allen (1954–1957) • Jack Paar (1957–1962) • Johnny Carson (1962–1992) • Jay Leno (1992–2009, 2010–present) • Conan O'Brien (2009–2010)

Announcers/sidekicks	Gene Rayburn • Hugh Downs • Ed McMahon • Edd Hall • John Melendez • Andy Richter • Wally Wingert

Tonight Show Band	Leno era (Eubanks) • O'Brien era (Weinberg) • Leno era (Minor)

Bandleaders	Skitch Henderson • José Melis • Milton DeLugg • Doc Severinsen • Branford Marsalis • Kevin Eubanks • Max Weinberg • Rickey Minor

Taping locations	Hudson Theatre • NBC Studios New York • NBC Studios Burbank • Universal Studios Hollywood

Prime-time spinoffs	The Steve Allen Show • The Jack Paar Program • The Jay Leno Show

Recurring sketches	Carnac the Magnificent • Floyd R. Turbo • Leno era sketches • O'Brien era sketches

Production companies	Carson Productions • Big Dog Productions • Conaco

Related articles	1992 host conflict • 2010 host and timeslot conflict • Carson's Comedy Classics • Late Night • Sylvester L. Weaver, Jr. • The Late Shift (book) • The Late Shift (film) • The War for Late Night

Persondata
Name	Leno, Jay
Alternative names	Leno-Muir, James Douglas; Leno, James Douglas Muir;
Short description	TV personality
Date of birth	April 28, 1950
Place of birth	New Rochelle, New York, United States
Date of death
Place of death

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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (May 2010)

Steve Stevens
Steve Stevens live with Billy Idol in Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2008 Steve Stevens live with Billy Idol in Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2008
Background information
Born	(1959-05-05) May 5, 1959 (age 53) Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Genres	Hard rock, glam metal, new wave, post-punk, electronica, blues rock, progressive rock, instrumental rock, jazz fusion, tribal house, goa trance, flamenco
Occupations	Musician, Songwriter, Producer
Instruments	Guitar, Bass, Keyboards, Synthesizer
Years active	1980–present
Associated acts	Billy Idol, Michael Jackson, Bozzio Levin Stevens, Juno Reactor, Vince Neil
Website	Official website^{[dead link]}

Steve Stevens (born Steven Schneider, May 5, 1959, Brooklyn, New York) is an American guitarist and songwriter. He is best known for playing for other artists (most notably Billy Idol, Michael Jackson, and Vince Neil)^[1] and less so for his solo efforts (Atomic Playboys and Flamenco A Go-Go), collaborations (Bozzio Levin Stevens, a.k.a. Black Light Syndrome), and as an in-demand session guitarist. He is also a television personality on the E! show Married to Rock, alongside his wife, Josie Stevens. He is also known for his diverse collaborations. One notable example is his spanish guitar stylings for the trance group Juno Reactor in the song Pistolero.

1 Discography
2 References
3 External links

Discography [link]

Solo albums [link]

The Guitar World According To Steve Stevens (1986 cassette from the music magazine Guitar World)
Atomic Playboys (1989)
Akai Guitar Sample Collection (1994)
Flamenco A Go-Go (1999)
Memory Crash on Magna Carta Records (2008)

Movie Soundtracks [link]

"Top Gun Anthem" from the movie Top Gun (1986)

Steve Stevens performing with Billy Idol at Bospop festival 2010, Weert, the Netherlands

Albums as a member of Bozzio Levin Stevens [link]

Black Light Syndrome (1997)
Situation Dangerous (2000)

References [link]

^ Prato, Greg. "Biography: Steve Stevens". Allmusic. http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p5529/biography. Retrieved 24 May 2010.

External links [link]

Official Steve Stevens Facebook page

Additional interviews

Persondata
Name	Stevens, Steve
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	1959-05-05
Place of birth	Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Date of death
Place of death

v t e Juno Reactor

Ben Watkins Mike McGuire Stephane Holweck Jens Waldeback Taz Alexander Mabi Thobejane Michael LaDonga Simpiwe Marele Mandala Lande Greg Ellis Paul Jackson Steve Stevens Sugizo Squid Xavier Morell

Studio albums	Transmissions Luciana Beyond the Infinite Bible of Dreams Shango Labyrinth Gods & Monsters

Portal:Biography Portal:Rock music

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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Stevens

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Thom Yorke
Yorke at the Latitude Festival, Suffolk, 2009.
Background information
Birth name	Thomas Edward Yorke
Also known as	Tchock,^[1] Tchocky,^[2]^[3] Dr. Tchock,^[4]^[5] Thom E. Yorke,^[6] Zachariah Wildwood^{[citation needed]}
Born	(1968-10-07) 7 October 1968 (age 43) Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, England
Genres	Alternative rock, electronic music
Occupations	Musician
Instruments	Vocals, guitar, piano, keyboards
Years active	1985—present
Labels	XL
Associated acts	Radiohead, Atoms for Peace

Thomas "Thom" Edward Yorke (born 7 October 1968) is an English musician and singer-songwriter who is the lead vocalist and principal songwriter of the rock band Radiohead. He mainly plays guitar and piano, but has also played drums and bass guitar (notably during the Kid A and Amnesiac sessions). In July 2006, he released his debut solo album, The Eraser.

Yorke has been cited among the most influential figures in the music industry; in 2002, Q Magazine named Yorke the 6th most powerful figure in music,^[7] and Radiohead were ranked #73 in Rolling Stone's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time" in 2005. Yorke has also been cited among the greatest singers in popular music; in 2005, a poll organised by Blender and MTV2 saw Yorke voted the 18th greatest singer of all time,^[8] and in 2008, he was ranked 66th in Rolling Stone's "100 Greatest Singers of All Time" list.^[9]

1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Musical approach
- 4.1 Vocal characteristics
- 4.2 Musicianship
5 Activism
6 Relationship with celebrities and the media
7 Discography
8 References
9 Notes
10 External links

Early life [link]

Yorke was born on 7 October 1968, in Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. At birth, his left eye was fixed shut; the doctors determined that the eye was paralyzed and that the condition was permanent. Yorke's parents took him to an eye specialist, who suggested a muscle graft. Yorke underwent five eye operations before he was six years old.^[10] Yorke's father, a chemical equipment salesman, was hired by a firm in Scotland shortly after his son's birth and the family lived there until Yorke was seven. During this time Yorke had to wear a patch over his eye.^[11] He has stated that the last surgery was "botched", giving him a drooping eyelid.^[12]

Yorke's family moved frequently; Yorke would move from school to school, where classmates teased him because of his eye.^[13] The family finally settled in Oxfordshire in 1978.^[13] Yorke received his first guitar when he was seven, inspired by guitarist Brian May in a live performance with his band Queen.^[12] By 11, he had joined his first band and written his first song.^[14] He attended the all boys public school Abingdon where he met future band members Ed O'Brien, Phil Selway, Colin Greenwood and Colin's younger brother, Jonny Greenwood.^[15] Yorke and his friends formed a band named On A Friday, as Friday was the only day on which the members were allowed to rehearse.^[12] Yorke, in this early line up, played guitar and provided vocals, and was already developing his songwriting and lyrical skills. Yorke, speaking about music's influence on him as a schoolboy, said, "School was bearable for me because the music department was separate from the rest of the school. It had pianos in tiny booths, and I used to spend a lot of time hanging around there after school."^[16]

After leaving school, Yorke postponed going to university for a year. During that time he worked in a few jobs and was involved in a car accident that made him wary of any kind of mechanized transport.^[17] Yorke left Oxford to study at the University of Exeter in late 1988, which as a result put On a Friday on hiatus aside from holiday break rehearsals.^[18] While at Exeter, Yorke worked as a DJ at Guild nights in the Lemon Grove and played briefly with the band Headless Chickens.^[19] Yorke also met Rachel Owen, whom he began dating.^[20]

Career [link]

Radiohead [link]

Main article: Radiohead

On A Friday resumed activity in 1991 as the members were finishing their degree courses. Now relocated to Oxford, they signed to Parlophone and changed their name to Radiohead. Around this time, Yorke said he "hit the self-destruct button pretty quickly"; he would drink heavily, which resulted in him randomly cutting his hair off and being too drunk to perform onstage.^[21]

Radiohead first gained notice with the worldwide hit single "Creep", which later appeared on the band's 1993 debut album Pablo Honey. Yorke admitted later that the success had enlarged his ego; he tried to project himself as a rock star, which included bleaching his hair and wearing extensions. He said, "When I got back to Oxford I was unbearable . . . [A]s soon as you get any success you disappear up your own arse and lost it forever."^[22]

By the time of their second album, The Bends (1995), the band, through frequent touring and greater attention to detail in the recording studio, had picked up a large cult fan base and had begun to receive wider critical acclaim. After the album's release, the American group R.E.M. picked Radiohead as its opening act for the European leg of their tour.^[23] Whilst on tour Yorke and R.E.M. singer Michael Stipe became close friends; in particular, Stipe gave him advice on how to deal with the demands of being in a rock band.^[24] During the production of the band's third album, OK Computer (1997), all five members had differing opinions and equal production roles, with Yorke having "the loudest voice", according to guitarist Ed O'Brien.^[25] After the album was finished, Yorke and Jonny Greenwood contributed to the Velvet Goldmine soundtrack along with other musicians under the moniker Venus in Furs.^[26] Upon release, OK Computer was heralded as a landmark album by nearly every publication that reviewed it, establishing Radiohead as one of the leading alternative rock acts of the 1990s. But Yorke was ambivalent about this success. Some of these concerns were voiced in the documentary film Meeting People Is Easy, which focused on the period. Yorke has explained in various interviews that he dislikes the "mythology" within the rock genre, and hates the media's obsession with celebrities.^[27]

Yorke and the band adopted a more radical approach on 2000's Kid A and 2001's Amnesiac, processing vocals, obscuring lyrics, and departing from rock for a more varied musical landscape including electronic, jazz and avant-garde classical influences. Expanding Radiohead's sales whilst earning acclaim for experimentation, the albums also divided fans and critics. In 2003, Radiohead released their sixth album, Hail to the Thief, a blend of rock and electronica that Yorke described as a reaction to the events of the early 2000s and newfound fears for his children's future, though he denied political intent. The band has continued to tour, and in 2005 they undertook recording sessions for a seventh album, In Rainbows, released as a digital DRM-free download in October 2007. In 2011, The King of Limbs, the 8th studio album by Radiohead, was released.

Solo work [link]

Yorke released his solo album The Eraser in 2006. Produced by Nigel Godrich and featuring cover art by Stanley Donwood, it was released on the independent label XL Recordings. Yorke described the album as "more beats and electronics" and denied that it meant he was leaving Radiohead, saying, "I want no crap about me being a traitor or whatever splitting up blah blah... this was all done with their blessing."^[28] The Eraser reached number 3 in the UK in its first week and number 2 in the United States, Canada and Australia, as well as number 9 on the Irish charts. The album was on the prestigious Mercury Prize shortlist and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album.

Yorke rarely plays as a solo act, having never embarked on a solo tour. He has sometimes played short acoustic sets of Radiohead songs in the band's webcasts and television appearances, and occasionally on his own at rallies. In 2006, he performed stripped-down versions of several songs from The Eraser ("Analyse", "The Clock", "Skip Divided" and "Cymbal Rush") on radio and TV programmes, and since then he has played and sung "Cymbal Rush" as an encore at some Radiohead concerts. In July 2009, Yorke played a rare solo performance at the Latitude Festival in England.^[29]

On September 21, 2009, Yorke released a new double-A side single, "Feeling Pulled Apart by Horses / The Hollow Earth".^[30] It was later announced that he has established an unnamed band with Flea of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Joey Waronker of R.E.M., Mauro Refosco of Forro in the Dark and producer Nigel Godrich.^[31] They played two sold out shows at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles on October 4 and 5, 2009.^[32] Two days before, Yorke also played a "warm-up" show at the Echoplex in Los Angeles.^[33] On February 25, 2010, Yorke officially gave the band the name Atoms for Peace^[34]

Collaborations [link]

Apart from his own solo work, Yorke has collaborated with several artists. He sang backing vocals on PJ Harvey's Mercury Prize-winning 2000 album Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea and duetted with Harvey on one of its songs, "This Mess We're In". In the same year, he also appeared on Björk's soundtrack album Selmasongs, singing "I've Seen It All" with her. The Oscar-nominated song was written for Dancer in the Dark, a film starring Björk, and Yorke's part is sung in the film by an actor; due to time constraints Björk performed it alone at the 2001 Oscars. The two worked together again in 2008 on a charity single named "Náttúra".

Yorke also sang covers of the Roxy Music songs "2HB", "Ladytron" and "Bitter-Sweet" for the 1998 film Velvet Goldmine, as part of Venus in Furs. The band existed solely for the film's soundtrack and also consisted of Radiohead's Jonny Greenwood, Suede's Bernard Butler, and Roxy Music's Andy Mackay. Yorke was duplicating the original vocals of Bryan Ferry. Two other cover songs were performed by Venus in Furs, with vocals by an actor in the film. Yorke never appeared on screen.

Yorke's other collaborations include the 1998 single "Rabbit in Your Headlights", which he sang and co-wrote with DJ Shadow and which closes Psyence Fiction, the debut album by the group UNKLE; "El President", a 1998 duet with Isabel Monteiro of the band Drugstore, which was also released as a single, and vocals on the 2010 track "...And The World Laughs with You" by experimental musician and producer Flying Lotus of Warp Records. Thom paired up with his brother Andy in 2009 to record the track "All for the Best" for inclusion on the 2009 compilation CD Ciao My Shining Star: The Songs of Mark Mulcahy. He has also collaborated on several tracks with the electronic music group Modeselektor, providing vocals on the 2007 track "The White Flash" from the album Happy Birthday, as well as 2011 tracks "Shipwreck" and "This" from the album Monkeytown, in addition to production contributions on the album's b-side "Dull Hull". Yorke has also contributed music and remix/production skills in collaboration with various electronic artists including Burial, Four Tet, as well as hip-hop artists such as MF DOOM.

Yorke has also collaborated with Stanley Donwood on a picture book titled Dead Children Playing.

Atoms for Peace [link]

On February 25, 2010 Yorke revealed the name of his new band: "Atoms for Peace", and announced a series of U.S. tour dates. Yorke first introduced the band late in 2009, with a series of concerts in Los Angeles. It includes Flea of the Red Hot Chili Peppers on bass, Beck, R.E.M., all-round session drummer Joey Waronker, percussionist Mauro Refosco of the musical collective Forro in the Dark and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich on keyboards and treatments. When the band officially debuted in Los Angeles last October, it was billed with question marks due to it being unnamed. In a note on Radiohead's web site, Yorke wrote; "It has been decided that we call ourselves Atoms For Peace. hope you like the name. it seemed bleedin' obvious." Atoms for Peace is a track on Yorke's 2006 solo album, The Eraser, its title taken in turn by the Eisenhower speech of the same name. The band toured briefly, playing eight dates across the USA including the three-day Coachella music festival in Indio, California on April 18, 2010.^[35] Thom Yorke has also confirmed rumours that the band were recording material together, and has announced that an album is nearing completion, tentatively scheduled for release in 2012.

Personal life [link]

Yorke currently lives in Oxford with his girlfriend, Rachel Owen. They have two children, son Noah, born in 2001, and daughter Agnes, born 2004. Owen studied fine art printmaking at Exeter and painting at the Accademia di Belle Arti of Florence. She completed a PhD at the University of London researching the illustrations to Dante's Divine Comedy.^[36]

His only brother, Andy, is ex-vocalist of the band Unbelievable Truth.

Yorke is very active in creating public awareness for cultural and political issues. In 2005, Yorke became a spokesman for Friends of the Earth and their campaign to reduce carbon emissions, The Big Ask. He often pays tribute to his children whilst performing live; during songs at the 2003 Glastonbury Festival, he played with a photo of Noah resting on the top of the piano and at the 2006 Bonnaroo Music Festival, he used guitar picks that were marked with Agnes' fingerprints.

Musical approach [link]

Vocal characteristics [link]

Thom Yorke in 2006

As a singer, Yorke is recognisable by his distinctive tenor voice, vibrato, frequent use of falsetto and ability to reach, and sustain notes over a wide vocal range. In 1994, the band watched Jeff Buckley in concert; Yorke later said the concert had a direct effect on his vocal delivery on "Fake Plastic Trees".^[37] However, Yorke has said, "It annoys me how pretty my voice is... how polite it can sound when perhaps what I'm singing is deeply acidic."^[38] He has often adopted other styles of singing, such as an aggressive shouting style in the middle section of "Paranoid Android" and a semi-spoken style for 2003's "Myxomatosis" and "A Wolf at the Door".

Musicianship [link]

Aside from vocal duties and writing lyrics, Yorke's musical contributions to Radiohead include guitar, both acoustic and electric (usually rhythm parts, with band member Jonny Greenwood handling lead), and piano (including Rhodes piano, especially on Kid A). He also plays bass guitar on occasion (the bass line for "The National Anthem" was recorded by him) as well as drums; during the 2006 and 2008 tours he performed percussion on stage in tandem with drummer Phil Selway on the track "Bangers + Mash".

Yorke, unlike the other members of Radiohead, has never learned how to read music.^[39] He said, "If someone lays the notes on a page in front of me, it's meaningless... because to me you can't express the rhythms properly like that. It's a very ineffective way of doing it, so I've never really bothered picking it up."^[38]

Since Kid A, Radiohead, and in particular Yorke, have incorporated many elements of electronic music into their work. As a result, Yorke has taken an increased role in programming beats and samples and has been credited with playing "laptop" on recent albums. On a radio show in 2003 to publicise the release of Hail to the Thief, Yorke remarked that he would rather make a record just with a computer than with only an acoustic guitar.^[40] His solo effort The Eraser featured piano, bass and guitar, but was built primarily around electronics.

In interviews Yorke has cited a variety of personal musical heroes and influences, including jazz composer and bassist Charles Mingus, Neil Young, Miracle Legion, singer Scott Walker, electronic acts Aphex Twin and Autechre, and Krautrock band Can. Talking Heads, Queen, Joy Division, Magazine, Elvis Costello, The Smiths and Sonic Youth were early influences on Radiohead and Yorke. In 2004, at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Yorke mentioned to the crowd, "When I was in college, the Pixies and R.E.M. changed my life",^[41] and he has often mentioned both bands as influential examples.

Activism [link]

Yorke has been outspoken on various contemporary political and social issues. Radiohead had read No Logo by Naomi Klein during the Kid A sessions ("No Logo" was also briefly considered as the album title) and all the members were reportedly heavily influenced by it, though Yorke said it "didn't teach him anything he didn't already know".^[42] Yorke's activism in support of fair trade practices, with an anti-WTO and anti-globalisation stance, garnered significant attention in the early 2000s.^[43] Yorke had previously referenced maquiladoras in the title of a Radiohead B-side in 1995, and decried the International Monetary Fund in 1997's "Electioneering". Yorke is also a professed fan of Noam Chomsky's political writings,^[44] and is a vegan.^[45]

Yorke is also notable as a political activist on behalf of other causes, including human rights and anti-war movements such as Jubilee 2000, Amnesty International and CND, and Friends of the Earth's Big Ask campaign.^[46] Radiohead played at the Free Tibet concert in both 1998 and 1999, and at an Amnesty International concert in 1998.^[47] In 2005, Yorke performed at an all-night vigil for the Trade Justice Movement.^[48] In 2006, Jonny Greenwood and Yorke performed a special benefit concert for Friends of the Earth. Yorke made headlines the same year for refusing Prime Minister Tony Blair's request to meet with him to discuss climate change, declaring Blair had "no environmental credentials".^[49] Yorke has subsequently been critical of his own energy use. He has said the music industry's use of air transport is dangerous and unsustainable, and that he would consider not touring if new carbon emissions standards do not force the situation to improve.^[50] Radiohead commissioned a study by the group Best Foot Forward which the band claims helped them choose venues and transport methods that will greatly reduce the carbon expended on their 2008 tour. The band also made use of a new low-energy LED lighting system and encouraged festivals to offer reusable plastics.^[51]

In December 2009, Yorke gained access to the COP 15 climate change talks in Copenhagen, posing as a member of the media.^[52] In the same year he lent his support to the 10:10 project, a movement encouraging people to take positive action on climate change by reducing their carbon emissions.^[53]

Relationship with celebrities and the media [link]

Yorke has had an uneasy relationship with other celebrities and the media. Following Radiohead's 1993 Pablo Honey tour of America, Yorke became disenchanted at being "right at the sharp end of the sexy, sassy, MTV eye-candy lifestyle" he felt he was helping to sell to the world.^[54] The 1998 documentary film Meeting People is Easy portrays Yorke's disaffection with the music industry and press during the 1997-8 "Against Demons" world tour.^[55]

A number of celebrities have been upset by Yorke's alleged rudeness. In 2001, Kelly Jones, the lead singer of the Welsh band Stereophonics, referred to Thom Yorke as a "miserable twat"^[56] (a comment he later retracted).^[57] In 2002, Jack Black claimed to have approached Yorke to congratulate him on his solo show at the Bridge School benefit concert in San Francisco, only for Yorke to ignore him and walk away. Referring to the incident, Black stated in an interview: "I heard later that he's famously cold, and it wasn't just me that he despises, but the whole world."^[58] After completing a trek of Kilimanjaro in 2009, Ronan Keating was asked by an interviewer which celebrity he would most like to throw off a mountain. Keating named Yorke, and referred to him as a "muppet", stating that Yorke was once rude to him.^[59] In the same year, Miley Cyrus and Kanye West also complained about Yorke's alleged rudeness.^[60] In 2010, it was reported that Yorke would be covering Peter Gabriel's song "Wallflower", from Gabriel's fourth solo album Peter Gabriel 4 (Security), with Gabriel claiming, "Thom wanted to do a version of Wallflower, which I'm very curious to hear. I think that was an important track for him when he was 14."^[61] However, it was subsequently reported that Yorke had withdrawn from the project and hadn't informed Gabriel why.^[62]

Discography [link]

Main article: Thom Yorke discography

References [link]

Randall, Mac. Exit Music: The Radiohead Story. Delta, 2000. ISBN 0-385-33393-5

Notes [link]

^ "All messed up". guardian.co.uk. 2006-06-18. http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2006/jun/18/9. Retrieved 2009-07-09.
^ "Thom Yorke to exhibit Radiohead artwork?". NME. 2006-11-13. http://www.nme.com/news/thomyorke/25051. Retrieved 2009-07-09.
^ "AllMusic - Tchocky - Overview". allmusic.com. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:f9fwxqq0ldje. Retrieved 2009-07-09.
^ Force, Chris (2007-09-11). "Thom Yorke, Longtime Radiohead Artist Issue Art Collection". alarmpress.com. http://www.alarmpress.com/1099/book-reviews/dead-children-playing. Retrieved 2009-07-09.
^ Jones, Alice (2009-03-25). "The Dark Art of Radiohead". independent.co.uk. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/the-dark-art-of-radiohead-1653241.html. Retrieved 2009-07-09.
^ Pablo Honey credits. Parlophone Records. 1993.
^ "Bono is most powerful music star". Dailymail.co.uk. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-141224/Bono-powerful-music-star.html. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "Blender Magazine's 22 Greatest Voices". Amiannoying.com. http://www.amiannoying.com/(S(wwb0os55dj4oeh45sg3hgt3g))/collection.aspx?collection=534. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "100 Greatest Singers Of All Time". Rolling Stone. http://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/greatestsingers/page/66. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
^ Randall, p. 19
^ Randall, p. 20
^ ^a ^b ^c McLean, Craig (2006-06-18). "All messed up". The Observer. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,,1795948,00.html. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
^ ^a ^b Randall, p. 21
^ Randall, p. 23
^ Randall, p. 26–33
^ Ross, Alex (2001-08-21). "The Searchers: Radiohead's unquiet revolution". The New Yorker. http://www.therestisnoise.com/2004/04/mahler_1.html. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
^ Randall, p. 38–39
^ Randall, p. 43
^ Randall, p. 48
^ Randall, p. 52
^ Randall, p.87
^ Randall, p. 120
^ Randall, p. 177
^ randall, p. 178
^ Randall, p. 195
^ Randall, p. 200
^ "Yorke derides mainstream music". NME. 2006-04-05. http://www.nme.com/news/radiohead/22692. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ "All Messed Up: Blackpool". The Guardian. 2006-05-12. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,,1795948,00.html. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ "Latitude - Latest News - 08.06.09 - Thom Yorke". 2008-06-08. http://www.latitudefestival.co.uk/news/index.aspx. Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Lindsay, Andrew. "Thom Yorke confirms new single". Stereokill.net. http://stereokill.net/2009/09/04/thom-yorke-confirms-new-single/. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "Dead Air Space". Radiohead. http://radiohead.com/deadairspace/index.php?a=505. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "Thom Yorke Has a New Band". 2009-09-28. http://www.greenplastic.com/2009/09/28/thom-yorke-has-a-new-band/. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
^ "Echoplex Show Confirmed!". 2009-10-01. http://www.greenplastic.com/2009/10/01/echoplex-show-confirmed/. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
^ "Thom Yorke Names Solo Band, Lines Up American Spring Tour". 2010-02-25. http://pitchfork.com/news/38018-thom-yorke-names-solo-band-lines-up-american-spring-tour/. Retrieved 2010-02-25.
^ http://www.lastchanceatmusic.com/radiohead.htm
^ "Biography". Rachel-owen.co.uk. http://www.rachel-owen.co.uk/Biography.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "greenplastic". http://www.greenplastic.com/lyrics/fakeplastictrees.php. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ ^a ^b Pareles, Jon (2006-07-02). "With Radiohead, and Alone, the Sweet Malaise of Thom Yorke". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/arts/music/02pare.html. Retrieved 2008-09-27.
^ Happy now?, June 2001, http://www.followmearound.com/presscuttings.php?year=2001&cutting=121, retrieved 2009-02-21
^ Jo Whiley's Radio 1 show, 2003.
^ "Pixies dust Coachella music fest with magic". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/pop/171708_coachella04.html. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ "Q Magazine - October 2000 - By Danny Eccleston". Q magazine. 2000. http://www.followmearound.com/presscuttings.php?year=2000&cutting=89. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ Yorke, Thom (2003-09-08). "Losing the faith". The Guardian (TheGuardian.com). http://www.guardian.co.uk/wto/article/0,2763,1035805,00.html. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
^ "Brian Draper's interview with Thom Yorke for Third Way". The London Institute for Contemporary Christianity. 2005-07-01. http://www.licc.org.uk/culture/thom-yorke-interview. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ "MTV interview: Radiohead: A New Life". MTV.com. 2007. http://www.mtv.com/bands/r/radiohead/news_feature_061903/. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
^ "Thom Yorke and 'The Big Ask'", Friends of the Earth. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
^ "Interview". Shambhala Sun Magazine. http://www.shambhalasun.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1957&Itemid=0. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ "Radiohead decline Live 8 request". BBC. 2005-06-07. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4070550.stm. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ Adam, David (2006-03-22). "Radiohead singer snubs Blair climate talks". The Guardian. http://arts.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,1736527,00.html. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ Adam, David (2006-10-17). "Rock tours damaging environment, says Radiohead singer". The Guardian. http://arts.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,1924075,00.html. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
^ Scholtus, Petz (2008-06-18). "Radiohead Pushes Festivals Like Daydream to Go Green". Treehugger. http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/06/radiohead-daydream-festival-led-lighting.php. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
^ "Radiohead's Yorke sneaks into Copenhagen climate talks". BBC News. 2009-12-17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8419641.stm. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
^ "Who's doing 10:10? | 10:10". 1010global.org. http://www.1010global.org/uk/who. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
^ Reynolds, Simon (June 2001), "Walking on Thin Ice", The Wire
^ Randall, Mac (1998-04-01), "The Golden Age of Radiohead", Guitar World
^ Hodgkinson, Will (2007-10-14), "Soundtrack of my life: Kelly Jones", The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2007/oct/14/popandrock, retrieved 2009-03-22
^ "Stereophonics - Kelly Jones Begs Thom Yorke's Forgiveness - Contactmusic News". Contactmusic.com. 2004-02-02. http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/kelly%20jones%20begs%20thom%20yorke.s%20forgiveness. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ Foley, Jack (2003). "The School of Rock - Jack Black Q&A". indielondon.co.uk. http://www.indielondon.co.uk/film/school_of_rock_blackQ&A.html. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
^ Ronan Keating blasts Radiohead 'muppet' Thom Yorke, 2009-03-22, http://www.monstersandcritics.com/people/news/article_1466069.php/Ronan_Keating_blasts_Yorke, retrieved 2009-03-22
^ Daniel Kreps (2009-03-12). "NME: "Radiohead Respond To Miley Cyrus and Kanye West’s Post-Snub Tantrums"". Rollingstone.com. http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2009/03/12/radiohead-respond-to-miley-cyrus-and-kanye-wests-post-snub-tantrums/. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
^ "Radiohead cover Peter Gabriel/Peter Gabriel covers Radiohead". Music Radar. 26 Jan 2010. http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/radiohead-cover-peter-gabrielpeter-gabriel-covers-radiohead-234418. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
^ "Peter Gabriel: 'Thom Yorke won't respond to my cover of 'Street Spirit'". NME. 12 Feb 2010. http://www.nme.com/news/radiohead/49725. Retrieved 20 April 2012.

External links [link]

Media related to Thom Yorke at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Thom Yorke at Wikiquote
The Eraser: Official website for Yorke's solo album release
Thom Yorke, Going Solo: Interview with Yorke, from NPR's "Fresh Air" radio program—July 2006

v t e Thom Yorke / Atoms for Peace

Thom Yorke Flea Nigel Godrich Mauro Refosco Joey Waronker

Studio album	The Eraser

EP	Spitting Feathers

Remix album	The Eraser Rmxs

Solo singles	"Black Swan" "Harrowdown Hill" "Analyse" "Feeling Pulled Apart by Horses"/"The Hollow Earth"

Other songs	"I Don't Want To Go To Woodstock" "Wish You Were Here" "El President" "Rabbit in Your Headlights" Velvet Goldmine Soundtrack "I've Seen It All" Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea "Do They Know It's Christmas?" The Bridge School Collection, Vol. 1 The Big Ask Live "Us Placers" "The White Flash" "Náttúra" "Ignorant Swan" "All For The Best" "Cortical Songs (Neuron Trigger Mx)" "Hearing Damage" "Gazzillion Ear (Thom Yorke Remix)" "Proud Evolution (Thom Yorke 500qd Remix)" "...And the World Laughs with You" "Jump Up (Thom Yorke Remix)" "2 Minute Silence" "Ego"/"Mirror" "Shipwreck"/"This"

Related articles	Solo discography Radiohead (discography) Dead Children Playing

Radiohead

Colin Greenwood
Jonny Greenwood
Ed O'Brien
Phil Selway
Thom Yorke

Studio albums

EPs

Remix albums

TKOL RMX 1234567

Live albums

I Might Be Wrong: Live Recordings

Compilations

Singles

Pablo Honey	"Creep" "Anyone Can Play Guitar" "Stop Whispering"

The Bends	"High and Dry"/"Planet Telex" "Fake Plastic Trees" "Just" "Street Spirit (Fade Out)"

OK Computer	"Paranoid Android" "Karma Police" "No Surprises"

Amnesiac	"Pyramid Song" "I Might Be Wrong" "Knives Out"

Hail to the Thief	"There There" "Go to Sleep" "2 + 2 = 5"

In Rainbows	"Jigsaw Falling into Place" "Nude" "House of Cards" "Reckoner"

Non-album	"Pop Is Dead" "Harry Patch (In Memory Of)" "These Are My Twisted Words" "Supercollider" / "The Butcher" "The Daily Mail" / "Staircase"

Other songs

DVDs

Persondata
Name	Yorke, Thom
Alternative names
Short description	English musician
Date of birth	7 October 1968
Place of birth	Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, England
Date of death
Place of death

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