Sources of gluten. Top: High-gluten wheat flour. Right: European spelt. Bottom: Barley. Left: Rolled rye flakes.

Gluten (from Latin gluten, "glue") is a protein composite found in foods processed from wheat and related grain species, including barley and rye. It gives elasticity to dough, helping it to rise and to keep its shape, and often giving the final product a chewy texture.

Gluten is the composite of a gliadin and a glutelin, which is conjoined with starch in the endosperm of various grass-related grains. The prolamin and glutelin from wheat (gliadin, which is alcohol-soluble, and glutenin, which is only soluble in dilute acids or alkalis) constitute about 80% of the protein contained in wheat seed. Being insoluble in water, they can be purified by washing away the associated starch. Worldwide, gluten is a source of protein, both in foods prepared directly from sources containing it, and as an additive to foods otherwise low in protein.

The seeds of most flowering plants have endosperms with stored protein to nourish embryonic plants during germination. True gluten, with gliadin and glutenin, is limited to certain members of the grass family. The stored proteins of maize and rice are sometimes called glutens, but their proteins differ from gluten.

Extraction[link]

Gluten is extracted from flour by kneading the flour, agglomerating the gluten into an elastic network, a dough, and then washing out the starch. Starch granules disperse in cold water, and the dispersed starch will be sedimented and dried. If a saline solution is used instead of water, a purer protein is obtained, with certain harmless impurities going into solution with the starch. Where starch is the prime product, cold water is the favored solvent because the impurities stay with the gluten.

In home or restaurant cooking, a ball of wheat flour dough is kneaded under water until the starch disperses out. In industrial production, a slurry of wheat flour is kneaded vigorously by machinery until the gluten agglomerates into a mass. This mass is collected by centrifugation, then transported through several stages integrated in a continuous process.^[1] Approximately 65% of the water in the wet gluten is removed by means of a screw press; the remainder is sprayed through an atomizer nozzle into a drying chamber, where it remains at an elevated temperature a short time to evaporate the water without denaturing the gluten. The process yields a flour-like powder with a 7% moisture content, which is air cooled and pneumatically transported to a receiving vessel. In the final step, the collected gluten is sifted and milled to produce a uniform product.^[2]

Uses[link]

Wheat, a prime source of gluten

Fried gluten balls

Bread products[link]

Gluten forms when glutenin molecules cross-link to form a sub-microscopic network attached to gliadin, which contributes viscosity (thickness) and extensibility to the mix.^[3] If this dough is leavened with sugar, fermentation produces carbon dioxide bubbles, which, trapped by the gluten network, cause the dough to rise. Baking coagulates the gluten, which, along with starch, stabilizes the shape of the final product. Gluten content has been implicated as a factor in the staling of bread, possibly because it binds water through hydration.^[4]

The development of gluten (i.e., enhancing its elasticity) affects the texture of the baked goods. Gluten's attainable elasticity is proportional to its content of glutenins with low molecular weights as this portion contains the preponderance of the sulfur atoms responsible for the cross-linking in the network.^[5][6] More refining (of the gluten) leads to chewier products such as pizza and bagels, while less refining yields tender baked goods such as pastry products.^[7]

Generally, bread flours are high in gluten (hard wheat); pastry flours have a lower gluten content. Kneading promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, creating baked product that is chewier in proportion to the length of kneading. An increased moisture content in the dough enhances gluten development,^[8] and very wet doughs left to rise for a long time require no kneading (see no-knead bread). Shortening inhibits formation of cross-links and is used, along with diminished water and less kneading, when a tender and flaky product, such as a pie crust, is desired.

The strength and elasticity of gluten in flour is measured in the baking industry using a farinograph. This gives the baker a measurement of quality for different varieties of flours in developing recipes for various baked goods.

Added gluten[link]

Gluten, when dried and milled to a powder and added to ordinary flour dough, improves a dough's ability to rise and increases the bread's structural stability and chewiness.^[9] Gluten-added dough must be worked vigorously to induce it to rise to its full capacity; an automatic bread machine or food processor may be required for kneading.^[10] The added gluten provides supplemental protein to products with low or nonexistent protein levels.

Imitation meats[link]

Gluten, especially wheat gluten, is often the basis for imitation meats resembling chicken, duck (mock duck), fish, pork and beef. When cooked in broth, gluten absorbs some of the surrounding liquid (including the taste) and becomes firm to the bite.

Added to other foods[link]

The "Codex Alimentarius" international standards for food labeling has a standard relating to the labeling of products as "gluten-free", but this standard does not apply to foods that "...in their normal form do not contain gluten."^[11] Gluten is used as a stabilizing agent in products like ice cream and ketchup, where it might be unexpected.^[12][13]

Foods of this kind present a problem because the hidden gluten constitutes a hazard for people with coeliac disease: In the United States, at least, gluten might not be listed on the labels of such foods because the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has classified gluten as GRAS (generally recognized as safe).^[14] Requirements for proper labeling are being formulated by the USDA. In the United Kingdom, only cereals currently must be labeled, while labeling of other products is voluntary.^[15]

Animal feed[link]

The protein content of some pet foods may also be enhanced by adding gluten.^[16]

Adverse reactions[link]

Between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of people in the United States are sensitive to gluten due to Coeliac disease.^[17][18] Coeliac disease constitutes an abnormal immune reaction to partially digested gliadin. It probably occurs with comparable frequencies among all wheat-eating populations in the world.^[19] Certain allergies and neuropathies are also caused by gluten consumption and inhalation. In some instances what is known as cross contamination can occur without the person even being aware that they are ingesting gluten. Reported examples occur when people share silverware or other eating instruments. ^[20] Wheat allergy and coeliac disease are different disorders.^[21]

References[link]

Sources

Further reading[link]

• Curtis, B.C.; Rajaram, S.; Macpherson, H.G.. "Bread Wheat, Improvement and production — FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. #30.". http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4011E/y4011e05.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-21 
• Pfluger, Laura. "Marker Assisted Selection in Wheat, Quality traits. Gluten Strength, Coordinated Agricultural Project (funded by USDACREES)". http://maswheat.ucdavis.edu/protocols/gluten/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-29 
• Agricultural Databases, Statistics, etc.. USDA Cereal Disease Laboratory. http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=11017. Retrieved 2007-9-2007 
• Wieser, H. (2007). Cereal Chemistry and Dough Properties, KL1-Gluten Chemistry. German Research Centre of Food Chemistry and Cereal Chemistry and Hans-Dieter-Belitz-Institute for Cereal Grain Research, D-85748 Garching, Germany. http://fp.cerealsandeurope.net/events/sourdough/session1.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-27 
• Wrigley, C.W; Bekes, F.; Bushuk, W (2006). The Gluten Composition of Wheat Varieties and Genotypes. AACC International. ISBN 1-891127-51-9. http://aaccnet.org/grainbin/gluten_gliadin.asp. Retrieved 2007-09-21 

• Dr Vikki and Rick Petersen (2009). The Gluten Effect. True Health Publishing. http://www.healthnowmedical.com/book-and-dvds/the-gluten-effect-book/ 

v t e Barley resources History Domestication · Neolithic Revolution · Triticeae Types of barley Genus: Hordeum · Cultivars: Bere Agronomy Barley diseases Trade Australian Barley Board · Canadian Wheat Board · Corn exchange · Production by country · Wheat pool Parts of the plant Bran · Germ · Husk · Kernel · Gluten · Straw Basic preparations Milling: Flour (types) · Groats · Meal · Middlings · Parboiling: As an ingredient Barley bread · Barley honey · Beer · Caffé d'orzo · Irish whiskey · Japanese whisky · Malta · Roasted barley tea · Scotch whisky · Talbina · see also: Category:Barley-based beverages Associated human diseases Gluten sensitivity (Coeliac disease, etc.) Related concepts Bread riot · Cattle feeding · Plant breeding · Refined grains · Staple food · Whole grain Further information

v t e Wheat resources History Domestication · Neolithic Revolution · Tell Abu Hureyra · Tell Aswad · Triticeae Types of wheat Common · Durum · Einkorn · Emmer · Kamut · Norin 10 · Red Fife · Spelt · Winter wheat Agronomy Wheat breeding · Wheat diseases (list) · Wheat mildew Trade Australian Wheat Board · Canadian Wheat Board · Corn exchange · International Wheat Council · Peak wheat · Production statistics · Protein premium · Wheat pool Parts of the plant Bran · Germ · Gluten · Husk · Kernel · Straw Basic preparations None: Wheatberry · Milling: Farina · Flour (types) · Groats · Middlings · Semolina · Parboiling: Bulgur As an ingredient Bread · Couscous · Cracker · Flatbread · Pasta · Wheat beer · Wheat germ oil · Wheat gluten Associated human diseases Exercise-induced anaphylaxis · Gluten sensitivity (Coeliac disease, Wheat allergy, etc.) Related concepts Bread riot · Plant breeding · Refined grains · Staple food · Wheatpaste · Whole grain Further information

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (March 2011)

Junkie XL
Background information
Birth name	Tom Holkenborg
Also known as	Junkie XL, JXL
Born	(1967-12-08) December 8, 1967 (age 44)
Origin	Lichtenvoorde, Netherlands
Genres	Electronica
Instruments	Keyboard instruments, guitar, drums[1]
Years active	1988–present
Labels	Artwerk
Associated acts	A Forest Called Mulu Mambo Jambo Nerve Weekend at Waikiki[1]
Website	www.junkiexl.com

Junkie XL

Tom Holkenborg (born December 8, 1967 in Lichtenvoorde, Gelderland, Netherlands), better known as Junkie XL or JXL, is a Dutch musician. He uses the name JXL in cases where the term "Junkie" might cause offense. XL is for "Xpanding Limits".^[2]

Biography[link]

He discovered music by learning and playing many instruments, including guitar, bass, piano, and drums. Although he was classically trained by his mother (herself an accredited violin teacher), it was not long until he discovered synthesizers and joined the Dutch New Wave group Weekend at Waikiki as a multi-instrumentalist and producer. In 1993, Holkenborg then produced the second metal album Almost a Dance by Dutch band The Gathering. He then expanded his horizon further to form the industrial rock band Nerve with vocalist Phil Mills and released 2 full-length albums in 1994 and 1995. During this period, Holkenborg built his music repertoire by freelance producing and quickly landed projects for bands such as Sepultura, Fear Factory, and Dog Eat Dog, as well as for video games, movies, and TV spots.

Holkenborg’s solo efforts include 1998’s Saturday Teenage Kick, 2000’s Big Sounds of the Drags and 2003’s Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin. The latter counted collaborations with Depeche Mode’s Dave Gahan, Gary Numan, Robert Smith from The Cure, and Public Enemy’s Chuck D.. The U.S. release included his breakthrough remix of Elvis Presley's moderately successful 1968 single "A Little Less Conversation" for a 2002 Nike World Cup Commercial. The updated version unexpectedly^{[citation needed]} catapulted Holkenborg into the spotlight. The song became a No. 1 hit in more than twenty countries. Today and Booming Back at You (BB@Y) are his latest solo efforts.^[when?]

Holkenborg is known as a talented remixer, drawing critical acclaim with remixes of tracks by Britney Spears, Bloc Party, Michael Bublé, Coldplay, Avril Lavigne, Sarah McLachlan, Rammstein, Scissor Sisters, Justin Timberlake, and the aforementioned Fear Factory. With an extraordinary^{[peacock term]} work ethic, which routinely includes fourteen-hour days in his studio,^{[citation needed]} Holkenborg keeps extremely busy creating the music for video games. He has contributed music to Sims theme music for the computer game The Sims 2, the soundtrack for the Xbox racing game Forza Motorsport, and the soundtrack for futuristic Xbox racing game Quantum Redshift. He has also provided music for the films Kingdom of Heaven, Domino, and DOA: Dead or Alive. His song "Today" was featured as one of the tracks on EA's Burnout: Legends, apparently^{[clarification needed]} before the album was released. "Today" is also on EA's Burnout: Revenge. He also produced a remix of the God of War 2 theme. Holkenborg remixed Yonderboi's "People Always Talk About The Weather" in exchange of Yonderboi's remix of Today. His cover of the Siouxsie And The Banshees song "Cities in Dust", which featured Lauren Rocket, is also on EA's Burnout: Paradise.

Holkenborg is responsible for the SSX Blur original soundtrack, along with contributions to many of the other SSX games in the franchise, and EA's Need For Speed: Pro Street.

Currently^[when?] he is signed to Artwerk, the new Los Angeles-based label formed by Electronic Arts and Nettwerk One Music.^[3]

In September 2007, Holkenborg joined the ArtEZ School of Music as its special teacher of Composition & Music Design.^[4] He now lives in Malibu, CA.

Holkenborg's single "More" was released in Fall 2007.^[5] Both Joost van Bellen and Gerald van der Kaap^[6] have been shooting the video for the clip in New York together with female singer Lauren Rocket. "More" is also featured on the soundtrack of Need for Speed: ProStreet.

Tom Holkenborg remixed the Eagles of Death Metal's "Don't Speak" for the 2008 Nike advert "Take it to the Next Level".^[7] On August 17,^{[year needed]} his manager confirmed to a Dutch magazine that Junkie XL has written and produced 3 tracks for Britney Spears' upcoming album. He also added that it is still unknown whether the tracks will be on the record.

His song "Dark Territory" is included on newer Zune models.

Discography[link]

• Saturday Teenage Kick (1997)
• Big Sounds of the Drags (2000)
• Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin (2003)
• Today (2006)
• Booming Back at You (2008)

Featured games[link]

• The Need for Speed (1995)
• Test Drive 5 (1998)
• Need for Speed: High Stakes (1999)
• Demolition Racer: No Exit (2000)
• Gran Turismo 3 (2001)
• Quantum Redshift (2002)
• TD Overdrive (2002)
• EVE Online (2003)
• Need for Speed: Underground (2003)
• The Sims 2: Nightlife (2005)
• Forza Motorsport (2005)
• Destroy All Humans! (2005)
• Burnout Revenge (2005)
• Burnout Legends (2005)
• The Matrix: Path of Neo (2005)
• Infected (video game) (2005)
• Need for Speed: Carbon (2006)
• Dance Dance Revolution SuperNova 2 (2007)
• God of War 2 (2007)
• SSX Blur (2007)
• FIFA 08 (2007)
• Need For Speed: ProStreet (2007)
• Burnout Paradise (2008)
• FIFA Street 3 (2008)
• Mirror's Edge (2008)
• The Sims 3: Late Night (2010)
• The Sims 3 (console) (2010)
• FIFA 09 (2008)
• Tap Tap Dance (2008)
• UEFA Euro 2004 (2004)
• Saints Row The Third (2011)

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Junkie XL

• Junkie XL official website
• Junkie XL at the Internet Movie Database
• JunkieXL YouTube Video Page at YouTube
• JunkieXL Interview with Alchemy SBS Radio 2008
• "JunkieXL – Mass Consumption", JIVE Magazine, May 2, 2005
• Interview with Garrett Shatzer for Onbeat, 2006