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Nuclear peace is a theory of International Relations (IR) which argues that under some circumstances nuclear weapons can induce stability and decrease the chances of crisis escalation. In particular, nuclear weapons are said to have induced stability during the Cold War, when both the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. possessed mutual second-strike retaliation capability, eliminating the possibility of nuclear victory for either side. Proponents of the nuclear peace argue that controlled nuclear proliferation may be beneficial for inducing stability. Critics of the nuclear peace argue that nuclear proliferation not only increases the chance of inter-state nuclear conflict, but increases the chances of nuclear material falling into the hands of non-state groups who are free from the threat of nuclear retaliation.

The major debate on this issue has been between Kenneth Waltz, the founder of neorealist theory in international relations, and Scott Sagan, a leading proponent of organizational theories in international politics. Waltz generally argues that "more may be better," contending that new nuclear states will use their acquired nuclear capabilities to deter threats and preserve peace. Sagan argues that "more will be worse", since new nuclear states often lack adequate organizational controls over their new weapons, which makes for a high risk of either deliberate or accidental nuclear war, or nuclear theft by terrorists.

The nuclear peace argument[link]

A nuclear peace results when the costs of war are unacceptably high for both sides. In a two-sided conflict where both sides have mutual second-strike capability, defense becomes impossible. Thus, it is the very prospect of fighting the war rather than the possibility of losing it that induces restraint.

In a condition of mutual assured destruction, there are civilian “hostages” on both sides. This facilitates cooperation by acting as an informal mechanism of contract enforcement between states. There are economic equivalents of such informal mechanisms used to effect credible commitment - for example, corporations use hostages (in the form of initial setup costs that act as collateral) to deter subsidiaries and franchisees from cheating.

Nuclear weapons may also lessen a state's reliance on allies for security, thus preventing allies from dragging each other into wars (a phenomenon known as chainganging, frequently said to be a major cause of World War I).

Since the death of civilians is an essential part of mutually assured destruction, one normative consequence of nuclear weapons is that war loses its historical function as a symbol of glory and measure of national strength.

Criticisms of the nuclear peace argument[link]

Critics argue that war can occur even under conditions of mutually assured destruction, for several reasons:

Actors are not always rational; bureaucratic procedure and internal intrigue may cause sub-rational outcomes. Related to and reinforcing this point is that there is always an element of uncertainty. One can’t always control emotions, subordinates, equipment. One has limited information and is faced with high stakes and fast timetables. There are unintended consequences, unwanted escalation, irrationality, misperception, and the security dilemma.

Another reason is that deterrence has an inherent instability. As Kenneth Boulding said: “If deterrence were really stable…it would cease to deter.” If decisionmakers were perfectly rational, they would never order the large-scale use of nuclear weapons and the credibility of the nuclear threat would be low.

Yet another set of reasons is that there can still be the possibility of the loss of mutual second-strike capability. This can come about from the gain of decisive first strike capability or the creation of a nuclear missile shield.

Moreover, critics argue that nuclear bipolarity is a special artifact of the Cold War, and that the increased uncertainty of nuclear multipolarity, along with the existence of international terrorist networks seeking access to nuclear sources, means that the Cold War-era ideas about the nuclear peace cannot be applied to today's world.

Proponents of the nuclear peace counter that nuclear weapons induce stability in all regimes, and that states have managed to control their nuclear weapons even in times of great instability, such as during China's Cultural Revolution.

Critics have also argued that although nuclear weapons contribute to stability at a strategic level, they can encourage smaller instances of instability that are not believed likely to blossom into full-scale warfare. This process is known as the Stability-instability paradox, and is perhaps best exemplified by the small wars (small relative to the possibility of a nuclear exchange) that sprang up during the Cold War, such as Vietnam and Korea.

See also[link]

• Deterrence theory
• Mutual assured destruction
• Nuclear weapons debate
• Peace through strength
• Balance of terror

References[link]

• Robert Jervis, "The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution: Statecraft and the Prospect of Armageddon", Cornell University Press: 1990
• Scott D. Sagan and Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed", Second Edition, W.W. Norton and Company: 2002

Lena Park
Background information
Birth name	Park Jung-hyun
Also known as	Lena Park
Born	(1976-03-23) March 23, 1976 (age 36) Los Angeles, California, United States
Genres	R&B, Korean pop, Japanese pop, Gospel
Occupations	Singer, Song-writer, Musician, Arranger, Record producer
Instruments	Vocals, Piano, Saxophone
Years active	1993–present
Labels	less than zero (2006–), Hip Land Music Corp. (2004–2006) (Japan) DMR (1998–2002),T Entertainment/CJ Entertainment (2002–)(Korea) Avex Taiwan (2000–) (Taiwan)
Associated acts	Dohzi-T, Brown Eyes, CHEMISTRY, Sowelu, Crown J

Lena Park, also known as Park Jung-hyun, (born March 23, 1976 in Los Angeles), is a Korean-American R&B singer. Early in her life, Park showed talent for singing, mainly in the choir of her father's church in Downey with her siblings Brian and Uriah. She also learned to play saxophone and piano. As of June 2007, Park has released 8 Korean albums, 2 Korean singles, 3 Japanese albums and 7 Japanese singles. Park is often referred to as the R&B Queen, considered one of the best female singers in Korea.

Professional career[link]

Park won several singing contests in the United States before recording a Gospel album in 1993. She continued her studies while doing many performances. She attended UCLA for a year before she began a career as a singer beginning with her first Korean album, Piece, in 1998. Park's first album sold more than 500,000 copies despite her not being comfortable enough to do promotions on talk shows. She did not learn to speak Korean very well until she released her first album.^{[citation needed]}

In 1999, A Second Helping was released. It also was well received by both fans and the critics. Park's third album, "Naturally", was mixed in both South Korea and the USA.

After a year break from singing because of her studies in the USA, she came back in 2002 with her album called Op.4. More comfortable with the media, she became much more accessible for talk shows and performances.

In 2002, her song "꿈에" (In a Dream) was a big success and enabled her to enter foreign markets, such as Singapore. The Korean government selected Park to represent Korea in the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. At the end of 2002, a "best of" album was released and she played a series of concerts. Live recordings from these concerts were made into her first special live album in CDs and DVD.

Park, along with Brown Eyes, CHEMISTRY and Sowelu formed the special unit conveniently called "Voices of Korea/Japan" and made the title song for the 2002 FIFA World Cup Official Album – Songs of Korea/Japan. She later debuted in the Japanese music industry where she received moderate success.

She is especially proud of her fifth Korean album, On & On, because she felt that she was finally comfortable and confident singing and composing in Korean. It took her about a year to make the album and during that time she became very involved with the production and creative work behind the album; she helped with a lot of the song arrangements, played the piano for some of the tracks and composed four of the songs on the album.

In 2007, she performed the opening theme, Inori~You Raise Me Up～ (祈り～You Raise Me Up～^?), of the Japanese anime TV series, Romeo x Juliet, which is a Japanese cover of Rolf Lovland and Brendan Graham's song, You Raise Me Up. The single also includes a cover of the English version.

Her 6th Korean album, Come To Where I Am, was released on December 11, 2007. All songs were written and produced by Lena herself.

In 2010, she has graduated magna cum laude from New York’s Columbia University School of General Studies with a degree in English and Comparative Literature.^[1]

Lena's fan base has recently grown in Korea through the television broadcast I am a Singer.

Discography[link]

Korean Albums

• [1998.08.09] 1st Album: Piece
• [1999.04.19] 2nd Album: A Second Helping
• [2000.11.09] 3rd Album: Naturally
• [2001.05.06] Special Album: Forever
• [2002.06.15] 4th Album: Op.4
• [2002.10.24] Best Album: The Romantic Story of Park Jung Hyun
• [2003.07.05] Live Album: Live Op.4 Concert Project 4th Movement
• [2003.07.05] Live Album: Live Op.4 Concert Project 4th Movement (DVD)
• [2005.02.05] 5th Album: On & On
• [2007.12.11] 6th Album: Come To Where I Am
• [2009.02.27] 7th Album: 10 Ways To Say I Love You

Korean Singles

• [2006.03.29] "Against All Odds"
• [2006.04.15] 위태로운 이야기 (Witaeroun Iyagi, Precarious Stories)
• [2008.10.22] No Break (with Crown J)
• [2008.12.12] Winter Kiss (feat. Baek Chan of 8eight)
• [2011.05.08] 이젠 그랬으면 좋겠네 (Ijen Geuraesseumyeon Jotgetne, I Hope It Would Be That Way Now)

Japanese Singles

• [2004.11.25] "FALL IN LOVE"
• [2005.05.18] "Sanctuary"
• [2006.02.22] "Subete no Mono ni Anata wo Omou" (すべてのものにあなたを思う ^?)
• [2006.03.24] "Music"
• [2006.05.21] "Gold"
• [2006.10.04] "Ai no Jealousy"
• [2007.06.20] "Inori~You Raise Me Up～" (祈り～You Raise Me Up～^?)

Japanese Albums

• [2004.11.25] another piece
• [2005.05.18] Beyond the line
• [2006.06.21] COSMORAMA

Collaborations

• [1998.xx.xx] Player – The New Beginning
• [1999.xx.xx] Yoon Jong Shin – 7th
• [2002.05.xx] Yoon Jong Shin – From The Beginning
• [2002.05.29] 2002 FIFA World Cup Official Album – Songs of Korea/Japan
• [2003.05.xx] Kim Jin Pyo – 4th
• [2003.05.xx] Na Won Ju – 1st
• [2003.12.10] Voice of Love Posse
• [2004.04.xx] Kim Jin Pyo – Remasatering All about JP
• [2005.03.24] JHETT aka YAKKO for AQUARIUS – JHETT (Track 11: Everything Inside Of Me feat. Lena Park)

Trivia[link]

Lena's name transcribed in Tengwar. This is used as the official logo since her 2nd album "A Second Helping".

• In 2010 she graduated with a Bachelor's degree in English and Comparative Literature from Columbia's School of General Studies (undergraduate college for non-traditional students).
• She likes music from U2, Amy Grant, Tori Amos, Radiohead and Joni Mitchell.
• In Japan, Lena Park is often referred to as the "Utada Hikaru of Korea". Park and Utada were both born in the United States, and heavily influenced by American R&B music. They have both attended Columbia University although Utada has since dropped out. They both achieve success since their debut, and are both very influential female singer-songwriters.

See also[link]

• Megan Lee

References[link]

External links[link]

• Lena Park DAUM Fan club Website
• Lena Park Fan club Website
• Lena Park Official Korean Website (Korean)
• Lena Park Official Japanese Website by Hip Land (Japanese)
• Lena Park Official Japanese Website by Universal Music (Japanese)
• Lena Park Official Taiwanese Website (Chinese)

علی اکبر صالحی Ali Akbar Salehi
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iran
Incumbent
Assumed office 13 December 2010
President	Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Deputy	Mansour Borghee
Preceded by	Manouchehr Mottaki
Head of Atomic Energy Organization
In office 16 July 2009 – 13 December 2010
President	Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Deputy	Mohammad Ahmadian
Preceded by	Gholam Reza Aghazadeh
Succeeded by	Mohammad Ahmadian
Personal details
Born	(1949-03-24) March 24, 1949 (age 63) Karbala, Iraq
Nationality	Iranian
Spouse(s)	Zahra Rad
Alma mater	American University of Beirut Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Ali Akbar Salehi (Persian: علی اکبر صالحی‎, born 24 March 1949 in Karbala, Iraq^[1]) is an Iranian politician, diplomat and academic and the current Minister of Foreign Affairs since 13 December 2010. Previous to his appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs, he was Head of Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) from 16 July 2009 to 13 December 2010. As Head of the AEOI when Iran was facing increased scrutiny in light of International Atomic Energy Agency findings, Salehi was designated for financial sanctions and travel restrictions by the European Union and the United Kingdom.^[2][3] He was also the Iranian Representative in the International Atomic Energy Agency from 1997 to 2005.^[4]

Life and career[link]

He was born on 24 March 1949 in Karbala, Iraq^[5] when his family was living in Iraq for business reasons. He has a BSc from the American University of Beirut^[6] and a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which he earned in 1977. He was also Associate Professor and Chancellor of the Sharif University of Technology^[7] and a member of the Academy of Sciences of Iran and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Italy.

He was Chancellor of the Sharif University of Technology from 1982 to 1985 and once again in 1989 to 1993. While Chancellor of Sharif University, Salehi was involved in an attempt to obtain dual-use technologies from a European supplier, according to David Albright of the Institute for Science and International Security, citing some 1,600 telex documents from the the 1990s.^[8]

An ISIS report claims the Physics Research Center acted as a front in the late 1980s and early 1990s to obtain illicit nuclear technologies. ISIS claims that, as head of Sharif University, was aware of purchases.^[9]

Diplomatic Missions[link]

Ali Akbar Salehi is an active diplomat in the Foreign Policy of Iran:

Permanent Representative to IAEA[link]

He was appointed as Permanent Representative of Iran to International Atomic Energy Agency by President Mohammad Khatami in 13 March 1997 and was in post until 22 August 2005 for more than eight years. On 18 December 2003, Salehi signed the Additional Protocol to the safeguard agreement, on behalf of Iran. He was replaced by Ali Asghar Soltanieh.

Deputy Secretary-General of OIC[link]

He was also Deputy Secretary-General of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference under Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu from 2007 to 2009. He resigned in July 2009 when was appointed as Head of AEAI.

Head of Atomic Energy Agency[link]

On 16 July 2009, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad appointed Salehi as the new head of Iran's Atomic Energy Organization, replacing Gholam Reza Aghazadeh who resigned on 10 July 2009. Salehi resigned from post on 23 January 2011 when Ahmadinejad nominated him as Foreign Minister. On 13 February 2011, President Ahmadinejad appointed Fereydoon Abbasi as Head of Atomic Energy Organization to succeed Salehi.

Appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs[link]

On 13 December 2010, Ahmadinejad dismissed Manouchehr Mottaki for unknown reasons and appointed Salehi in an acting capacity.^[10] Mottaki was the Foreign Minister of Iran since 24 August 2005. He was the only Minister who was not replaced in Ahmadinejad's cabinet after Ahmadinejad's reelection. On 23 January 2011, Ahmadinejad designated Salehi to become Foreign Minister to the Parliament. The Iranian Parliament voted him on 30 January and he became the foreign minister of Iran with 146 positive votes.^[11]

References[link]

1. ^ [1] on the official website
2. ^ "Iranian FM, a driving force behind the nuclear program, visits New York", Realite, 20 September 2011
3. ^ [2] "Consolidated List of Financial Sanctions Targets in the UK"], HM Treasury, 24 January 2012
4. ^ http://www.iranatom.ru/media/pers/iri/sal/salehie.htm
5. ^ Boroujerdi, Mehrzhad (31 January 2011). "Iran's New Foreign Minister: Ali Akbar Salehi". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2011/01/irans-new-foreign-minister-ali-akbar-salehi.html. Retrieved 15 May 2012. 
6. ^ http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/16333/04029165.pdf?sequence=1
7. ^ http://www.sharif.ac.ir/en/about/admin/exprs.jsp
8. ^ "US nuclear expert: Iranian FM Salehi linked to past program". The Jerusalem Post. 16 May 2012. http://www.jpost.com/IranianThreat/News/Article.aspx?id=270144. Retrieved 15 May 2012. 
9. ^ Zakaria, Tabassum (15 May 2012). "U.S. nuclear expert: Iran official linked to past program". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/15/us-iran-nuclear-usa-idUSBRE84E1O720120515. Retrieved 15 May 2012. 
10. ^ Manouchehr Mottaki fired from Iran foreign minister job BBC, 13 December 2010, 02:21 P.M. GMT. Retrieved 2010-12-13
11. ^ http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8911100581

External links[link]

• Profile at Sharif University of Technology
• Ali Akbar Salehi collected news and commentary at Bloomberg News
• Dispatch: The Man to Watch in Iran?, Kambiz Tavana and Arash Karami, PBS Frontline, 11 November 2011

v t e Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Iran Abdolvahhab Khan Saeed Khan Ansari Nosrat-ed-Dowleh Ali Soheili Mowzafar Alam Hossein Ala' Mahmoud Salehi Mohsen Raees Bagher Kazemi Hossein Navab Hossein Fatemi Abdol-Hossein Meftah Fazlollah Zahedi Abdollah Entezam Ali-Gholi Ardalan Abbas Aram Jafar Sharif-Emami Hossein Ghods-Nakhai Abbas Aram Ardeshir Zahedi Abbas-Ali Khalatbari Amir Khosro Afshar Ahmad Mirfenderescy Karim Sanjabi Mehdi Bazargan Ebrahim Yazdi Abulhassan Banisadr Sadegh Ghotbzadeh Mohammad Karim Khodapanahi Mohammad-Ali Rajai Mir-Hossein Mousavi Ali Akbar Velayati Kamal Kharazi Manouchehr Mottaki Ali Akbar Salehi