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Amsterdam
Amsterdam (English /ˈæmstərdæm/; Dutch: [ˌɑmstərˈdɑm] (
listen)) is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The city's status as the capital of the nation is governed by the constitution. Amsterdam has a population of 790,654 within city limits, an urban population of 1,209,419 and a metropolitan population of 2,289,762. The city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. It comprises the northern part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe, with a population of approximately 7 million.
Amsterdam's name is derived from Amstelredamme, indicative of the city's origin: a dam in the river Amstel. Settled as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age, a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading center for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were formed. The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam (in Dutch: 'Grachtengordel'), located in the heart of Amsterdam, were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in July 2010.
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Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: 
Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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British Museum
Coordinates: 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.519459°N 0.126931°W / 51.519459; -0.126931
The British Museum, in London, is widely considered to be one of the world's greatest museums of human history and culture. Its permanent collection, numbering some eight million works, is amongst the finest, most comprehensive, and largest in existence and originates from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.
The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. The museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759 in Montagu House in Bloomsbury, on the site of the current museum building. Its expansion over the following two and a half centuries was largely a result of an expanding British colonial footprint and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the British Museum (Natural History) in South Kensington in 1887. Some objects in the collection, most notably the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, are the objects of intense controversy and of calls for restitution to their countries of origin.
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Harvard Law School
Harvard Law School (also known as Harvard Law or HLS) is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University. Located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is home to the largest academic law library in the world.
The current Dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1, 2009. Harvard Law has 246 faculty members. Many are preeminent legal scholars; Harvard Law School faculty were responsible for more downloaded papers on the Social Science Research Network than any other law school, a fact only partially explained by the school's size.
Harvard Law School has produced a large number of luminaries in law and politics including Barack Obama, Mitt Romney, and Rutherford B. Hayes. World leaders counted among its graduates include the current President of the Republic of China, Ma Ying-jeou; former Chief Justice of the Republic of the Philippines, Renato Corona; the current President of the World Bank Group, Robert Zoellick; the current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navanethem Pillay; and the former President of Ireland, Mary Robinson. Some 149 sitting United States federal judges are Harvard Law School graduates; six of the nine sitting justices of the Supreme Court of the United States attended the law school (Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Associate Justices Anthony Kennedy, Stephen Breyer, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Antonin Scalia and Elena Kagan). Seven sitting U.S. Senators graduated from the school.
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Harvard University
Harvard University is an American private Ivy League research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation (officially The President and Fellows of Harvard College) chartered in the country. Harvard's history, influence, and wealth have made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world.
Harvard was named after its first benefactor, John Harvard. Although never formally affiliated with a church, the college primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Harvard's curriculum and students became secular throughout the 18th century and by the 19th century had emerged as the central cultural establishment among Boston elites. Following the American Civil War, President Charles W. Eliot's forty year tenure (1869–1909) transformed the college and affiliated professional schools into a centralized research university, and Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900.James Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College. Drew Gilpin Faust was elected the 28th president in 2007 and is the first woman to lead the university. Harvard has the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world, standing at $32 billion as of September 2011.
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Hoxne Hoard
Coordinates: 52°20′N 1°11′E / 52.333°N 1.183°E / 52.333; 1.183
The Hoxne Hoard ( /ˈhɒksən/ HOK-sən) is the largest hoard of late Roman silver and gold discovered in Britain, and the largest collection of gold and silver coins of the fourth and fifth century found anywhere within the Roman Empire. Found by a metal detectorist in the village of Hoxne in Suffolk, England, on 16 November 1992, the hoard consists of 14,865 Roman gold, silver and bronze coins from the late fourth and early fifth centuries, and approximately 200 items of silver tableware and gold jewellery. The objects are now in the British Museum in London, where the most important pieces and a selection of the rest are on permanent display. In 1993, the Treasure Valuation Committee valued the hoard at £1.75 million (today £2.66 million).
The hoard was buried as an oak box or small chest filled with items in precious metal, sorted mostly by type with some in smaller wooden boxes and others in bags or wrapped in fabric. Remnants of the chest, and of fittings such as hinges and locks, were recovered in the excavation. The coins of the hoard date it after AD 407, which coincides with the end of Britain as a Roman province. The owners and reasons for burial of the hoard are unknown, but it was carefully packed and the contents appear consistent with what a single very wealthy family might have owned. Given the lack of large silver serving vessels and of some of the most common types of jewellery, it is likely that the hoard represents only a part of the wealth of its owner.
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Las Vegas Valley
The Las Vegas Valley is a metropolitan area in the southern part of the US state of Nevada, and is the heart of the Las Vegas–Paradise, NV MSA also known as the Las Vegas–Paradise–Henderson MSA which includes all of Clark County, Nevada. The Valley is defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a 600 sq mi (1,600 km2) basin area that contains the largest concentration of people in the state. The history of the Valley significantly intertwines with the history of the city of Las Vegas and one of the two primary cities (as used by the census bureau) in the MSA, with the other being Paradise. The valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada: Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas.
The names Las Vegas and Vegas are used to indicate the valley, the strip, the city and are used as a brand by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority and used to denominate the entire region. The metropolitan area's population was at 741,459 in 1990. The population was approximately 2 million in 2010 (estimated). The valley is an area generally defined by the Spring Mountains on the west, Sheep Mountains to the north, Muddy Mountains and Lake Mead to the east, and the Black Mountains to the south.[citation needed]
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Mauritius
Coordinates: 20°12′S 57°30′E / 20.2°S 57.5°E / -20.2; 57.5
Mauritiusi/məˈrɪʃəs/ (Mauritian Creole: Moris; French: Maurice, pronounced: [mɔˈʁis]), officially the Republic of Mauritius (Mauritian Creole: Republik Moris; French: République de Maurice) is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about 870 kilometres (540 mi) east of Madagascar. In addition to the island of Mauritius, the Republic includes the islands of Cargados Carajos, Rodrigues, Tromelin and the Agalega Islands. Mauritius Island is part of the Mascarene Islands, with the French island of Réunion 170 km (110 mi) to the southwest and the island of Rodrigues 570 km (350 mi) to the east. The area of Mauritius is 2040 km2; its capital city is Port Louis.
The United Kingdom took control of the islands in 1810, from France during the Napoleonic Wars, and Mauritius became independent from the UK in 1968. It is a parliamentary republic and is a member of the Southern African Development Community, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, the African Union, La Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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Microsoft
Coordinates: 47°38′22.55″N 122°7′42.42″W / 47.6395972°N 122.12845°W / 47.6395972; -122.12845
Microsoft Corporation (NASDAQ: MSFT) is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, United States that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions. Established on April 4, 1975 to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800, Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems. Microsoft is one of the largest software corporations in the world.
Microsoft would also come to dominate the office suite market with Microsoft Office. The company has diversified into the video game industry with the Xbox and Xbox 360 consoles and the consumer electronics and digital services market MSN, the Zune and the Windows Phone OS. The ensuing rise of stock in the company's 1986 initial public offering (IPO) made an estimated three billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees (Forbes 400 list revealed that in March 2011 both Jon Shipley and Nathan Myhrvold lost their billionaire status). In May 2011, Microsoft Corporation acquired Skype Communications for $8.5 billion.
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MyWikiBiz
Coordinates: 39°56′23″N 75°36′42″W / 39.939586°N 75.611783°W / 39.939586; -75.611783 (MyWikiBiz)
MyWikiBiz is a wiki directory that allows people and enterprises to write about themselves. The brand began as a service creating Wikipedia articles for paying corporations; the founder and owner of MyWikiBiz, Gregory Kohs, was soon blocked from Wikipedia. As of August 2011[ref], the MyWikiBiz directory contained over 70,000 pages of content about corporations and individuals. The business is headquartered in West Chester, Pennsylvania.
Professor Jonathan Zittrain of the Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet & Society discussed the case of MyWikiBiz in his book The Future of the Internet – And How to Stop It. Kohs appeared on Attack of the Show! on January 25, 2007, and discussed MyWikiBiz.Heise Online expressed a suspicion that while MyWikiBiz's "attempted corporate infiltration" of Wikipedia was discovered, MyWikiBiz was not an isolated case.
Kohs and his sister started the MyWikiBiz venture in Pennsylvania in July 2006, initially as a paid editing service, writing content for inclusion in Wikipedia and other community-edited sites. The idea came from Wikipedia's "Reward Board", where interested parties would offer cash rewards or gifts to create or improve Wikipedia articles. MyWikiBiz's prices ranged between $49 and $99 for adding entries that conformed to Wikipedia's standards and policies. No official Wikipedia policy prohibited paid-for contributions. Kohs argued that there were tens of thousands of clearly notable companies and nonprofit organizations unrepresented on Wikipedia.
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Parliament of Canada
The Parliament of Canada (French: Parlement du Canada) is the federal legislative branch of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in the national capital, Ottawa. Formally, the body consists of the Canadian monarch—represented by her governor general—the Senate, and the House of Commons, each element having its own officers and organization. The governor general summons and appoints each of the 105 members of the upper house on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada, while the 308 members of the lower house are directly elected by eligible voters in the Canadian populace, with each Member of Parliament representing a single electoral district, commonly referred to as a riding.
By constitutional convention, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament, the Senate and Crown rarely opposing its will. The Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint, and the monarch and viceroy provide the necessary Royal Assent to make bills into law and summon, prorogue, and dissolve parliament in order to call an election, as well as reading the Throne Speech. The current parliament, summoned by Governor General David Johnston on 2 June 2011, is the 41st since Confederation.
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September 11 attacks
The September 11 attacks (also referred to as September 11, September 11th or 9/11) were a series of four suicide attacks that were committed in the United States on September 11, 2001, coordinated to strike the areas of New York City and Washington, D.C. On that Tuesday morning, 19 terrorists from the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda hijacked four passenger jets. The hijackers intentionally piloted two of those planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center complex in New York City; both towers collapsed within two hours. The hijackers also intentionally crashed American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and intended to pilot the fourth hijacked jet, United Airlines Flight 93, into a target in Washington, D.C.; however, the plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after its passengers attempted to take control of the jet from the hijackers. Nearly 3,000 people died in the attacks including the 227 civilians and 19 hijackers aboard the four planes, none of whom survived.
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Stanford University
Coordinates: 37°26′N 122°10′W / 37.43°N 122.17°W / 37.43; -122.17
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is an American private research university located in Stanford, California on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha) campus near Palo Alto, California, United States. It is situated in the northwestern Silicon Valley, approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose and 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco.
Leland Stanford, a Californian railroad tycoon and politician, and his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford founded the university in 1891 in honor of their son, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid two months before his 16th birthday. The university was established as a coeducational and nondenominational institution, but struggled financially after the senior Stanford's 1893 death and after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates' entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would become known as Silicon Valley. By 1970, Stanford was home to a linear accelerator, was one of the original four ARPANET nodes, and had transformed itself into a major research university in computer science, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences.
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Wikimedia Foundation
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. is an American non-profit charitable organization headquartered in San Francisco, California, United States. It is organized under the laws of the state of Florida, where it was initially based. It operates several online collaborative wiki projects including Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikisource, Wikimedia Commons, Wikispecies, Wikinews, Wikiversity, Wikimedia Incubator, Meta-Wiki and owns the now-defunct Nupedia. Its flagship project, Wikipedia, ranks in the top-ten most-visited websites worldwide. The creation of the foundation was officially announced on June 20, 2003, by Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales, who had been operating Wikipedia under the aegis of his company Bomis.
The Wikimedia Foundation falls under section 501(c)(3) of the US Internal Revenue Code as a public charity. Its National Taxonomy of Exempt Entities (NTEE) code is C60 (Adult, Continuing Education).The foundation's by-laws declare a statement of purpose of collecting and developing educational content and to disseminate it effectively and globally.
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Aaron Swartz
Aaron Swartz (born November 8, 1986) is an American programmer, writer, political organizer and Internet activist. He is best known in programming circles for co-authoring the RSS 1.0 specification. He received mainstream media attention after his federal indictment and arrest on 19 July 2011, for allegedly harvesting academic journal articles from JSTOR.
Swartz is the co-founder of Demand Progress and the Progressive Change Campaign Committee. He currently lives in Brooklyn, New York.
Swartz was active in discussions of Internet standards from an early age, and co-authored the specification for RSS by the time he was 14.[citation needed] Since then he has been a member of the W3C's RDF Core Working Group, co-designed the formatting language Markdown with John Gruber, and worked on many other projects.
Swartz attended Stanford University for a year, leaving to start the software company Infogami, a startup that was funded by Y Combinator's first Summer Founders Program. Infogami was built around a wiki backend, a subject of interest for Swartz since his early effort to develop theinfo, a wiki-based encyclopedia, in 2000.
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Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincolni/ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən/ (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led his country through its greatest constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union while ending slavery, and promoting economic and financial modernization. Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, Lincoln was mostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, a Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator in the 1830s, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives in the 1840s. After a series of debates in 1858 that gave national visibility to his opposition to the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost a Senate race to his arch-rival Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln, a moderate from a swing state, secured the Republican Party nomination. With almost no support in the South he swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His election was the signal for seven southern slave states to declare their secession from the Union and form the Confederate States of America. The departure of the Southerners gave Lincoln's party firm control of Congress, but no formula for compromise or reconciliation was found. And the war came.
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Andrew Dalby
Andrew Dalby (b. 1947 in Liverpool) is an English linguist, translator and historian who has written articles and several books on a wide range of topics including food history, language, Classical texts, and Wikipedia.
Dalby studied Latin, French and Greek at the Bristol Grammar School and University of Cambridge. Here he also studied Romance languages and linguistics, earning a bachelor's degree in 1970.
Dalby worked for fifteen years at Cambridge University Library, eventually specializing in Southern Asia. He gained familiarity with some other languages because of his work there, where he had to work with foreign serials and afterwards with South Asia and Southeast Asian materials. He also wrote articles on multilingual topics linked with the library and its collections.
In 1982 and 1983 he collaborated with Sao Saimong in cataloguing the Scott Collection of manuscripts and documents from Burma (especially the Shan States) and Indochina. Dalby later published a short biography of the colonial civil servant and explorer J. G. Scott, who formed the collection. To help him with this task, he took classes in Cambridge again in Sanskrit, Hindi and Pali and in London in Burmese and Thai.
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Andrew Keen
Andrew Keen (born circa 1960) is a British-American entrepreneur and author. He is particularly known for his view that the current Internet culture and the Web 2.0 trend may be debasing culture, an opinion he shares with Jaron Lanier and Nicholas G. Carr among others. Keen is especially concerned about the way that the current Internet culture undermines the authority of learned experts and the work of professionals.
Keen was born in Hampstead, North London. He attended the University of London, studying History under Hugh Seton-Watson, a British historian and political scientist. Keen earned a bachelor's degree in history and then studied at the University of Sarajevo in Yugoslavia. Having been influenced by Josef Škvorecký, Danilo Kiš, Jaroslav Hašek and especially the writings of Franz Kafka; Keen relocated to America, where he earned a master's degree in political science from the University of California, Berkeley, studying under Ken Jowitt. After Berkeley, Keen taught modern history and politics at Tufts University, Northeastern University and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Keen continued academic teaching while he developed a parallel career as a popular cultural critic and began utilizing the Internet in the early nineties. He currently lives in Berkeley, California, with his family.
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Andrew Lih
Andrew Lih (Traditional Chinese: 酈安治, Simplified Chinese: 郦安治, Pinyin: Lì Ānzhì) is a new media researcher, consultant and writer, as well as a noted authority on both Wikipedia and internet censorship in the People's Republic of China. He is currently a visiting professor at the University of Southern California.
Lih, a Chinese American, worked as a software engineer for AT&T Bell Labs from 1990 to 1993. He founded the new-media startup Mediabridge Infosystems in 1994. He also obtained a Masters degree in Computer Science from Columbia University in 1994. From 1995 to 2000 he served as an adjunct professor of journalism at Columbia, and director of technology for their Center for New Media. In 2000 he formed Columbia's Interactive Design Lab, a collaboration with the university's School of the Arts to explore interactive design for both fiction and non-fiction, including advertising, news, documentaries and films. Soon afterward, Lih served as an assistant professor and the Director of Technology at the Journalism and Media Studies Centre of the University of Hong Kong. He then moved to Beijing, China, where he lived until 2009. He currently lives in Los Angeles.
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Andrew Orlowski
Andrew Orlowski (born 1966) is a British columnist and the executive editor for the online IT news and opinion website The Register.
In 1992, Orlowski started an alternative newspaper in Manchester, England called Badpress. He has also written for Private Eye magazine. In the late 1990s, he worked at Dennis Publishing, on the magazine PC Pro, and at Ziff Davis UK.[citation needed]
Orlowski is the executive editor and a columnist for The Register. In April 2003, he used the term googlewashing to describe the potential for well-linked weblogs to obscure the original meaning of a controversial expression (e.g., "the Second Superpower"). Orlowski later classified this along with "absurd intellectual property claims" as an example of an unwarranted assumption of power or authority to gain sociological advantage on behalf of a particular lobby group.
In December 2004, he was invited to assemble a panel on techno-utopianism at Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet and Society. Orlowski argues that this form of utopianism distracts attention and diverts capital away from solving real infrastructure problems. "Technology can help us," he writes on his FAQ page. "But we venerate the machines we have, which aren't very good, and worse, limit ourselves to seeing the world through this machine metaphor. Technology is useful when it makes something we already like to do easier. Technology can't tell us something we don't know. Technology cannot solve problems that don't exist."[citation needed]
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Boris Tadić
Boris Tadić (Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: [bǒris tǎdiːtɕ], Serbian Cyrillic: Борис Тадић; born 15 January 1958) is a Serbian politician and the leader of the Democratic Party. He was the President of Serbia, from 11 July 2004 until his resignation on 5 April 2012. He was elected to the first five-year term on 27 June 2004, and was sworn into office on 11 July. He was re-elected for a de facto second five-year term on 3 February 2008 and was sworn in on 15 February. He resigned on 5 April 2012. Prior to his Presidency, Tadić served as the last Minister of Telecommunications of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and as the first Minister of Defence of Serbia and Montenegro. He is a psychologist by profession.
Boris Tadić advocates the integration of Serbia into the European Union but he also believes Serbia should join the EU only with his country's sovereignty over Kosovo. He is seen as a pro-Western leader but who favours balanced relations with Russia, the United States, and the EU.
Boris Tadić was born in Sarajevo, the capital of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a republic within the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. His father, Ljubomir, is a philosopher and a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. His mother, Nevenka, is a psychologist. His maternal grandfather and six other relatives were killed by the Croatian Ustaše during World War II at the Jasenovac concentration camp.
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Brian Bergstein
Brian Bergstein is the National Technology Editor for the American Associated Press news agency, based in Boston, Massachusetts. He is a graduate of Northwestern University and lives in Brookline, Massachusetts. From 2004 to 2005, he held one of the Knight Science Journalism Fellowships. He has worked as a journalism instructor at Boston University.
Previously a technology writer for the Associated Press's New York bureau, Bergstein was promoted to Technology Editor in mid-2008 when the AP reorganised to cover stories by topic rather than geographical areas.
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Chuvash Wikipedia
The Chuvash Wikipedia (Chuvash: Чăваш Википедийĕ) is the Chuvash language edition of Wikipedia. It was founded on November 22, 2004. Its 5,000th article was created in January 2007. On August 31, 2011, it passed the 13,000 articles.
Rules in Chuvash Wikipedia are not regarded as flexible in disputes as they are on the English project. Many things can be resolved through an arbitration committee which can resolve content disputes, block users or prohibit certain users from editing articles on certain topics. Misuse of an administrator's privileges can also be easily appealed.
The Chuvash Wikipedia accepts fair use content and is generally quite liberal on what content is allowed. One thing which serves as an exception is categorization or listing of people based on their ethnicity, religion or sexual orientation. Such categories are generally prohibited unless the category is relevant to the main activity of a person.
The Chuvash Wikipedia was created on November 22, 2004.
One of the largest sites of Chuvash scope of the Internet is Wikipedia (Chuvash Wikipedia). Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales on the international conference "Wikimedia Foundation" Wikimania 2009 on Chuvash example, Wikipedia has shown the value of Wikipedia for the languages on the verge of extinction .
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Clay Shirky
Clay Shirky (born 1964) is an American writer, consultant and teacher on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies. He has a joint appointment at New York University (NYU) as a Distinguished Writer in Residence at the Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute and Assistant Arts Professor in the New Media focused graduate Interactive Telecommunications Program (ITP). His courses address, among other things, the interrelated effects of the topology of social networks and technological networks, how our networks shape culture and vice-versa.
He has written and been interviewed extensively about the Internet since 1996. His columns and writings have appeared in Business 2.0, the New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, the Harvard Business Review and Wired.
Shirky divides his time between consulting, teaching, and writing on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies. His consulting practice is focused on the rise of decentralized technologies such as peer-to-peer, web services, and wireless networks that provide alternatives to the wired client–server infrastructure that characterizes the World Wide Web. He is a member of the Wikimedia Foundation's Advisory Board.
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David Weinberger
David Weinberger (born 1950 in New York) is an American technologist, professional speaker, and commentator, probably best known as co-author of the Cluetrain Manifesto (originally a website, and eventually a book, which has been described as "a primer on Internet marketing" ). Weinberger's work focuses on how the Internet is changing human relationships, communication, and society.
A philosopher by training, he holds a Ph.D. from the University of Toronto and taught college from 1980-1986. He was a gag writer for the comic strip "Inside Woody Allen" from 1976-1983. He became a marketing consultant and executive at several high-tech companies, and currently serves as a fellow at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School, where he co-teaches a class on "The Web Difference" with John Palfrey. He had the title Senior Internet Advisor to Howard Dean's 2004 presidential campaign, and provided technology policy advice to John Edwards' 2008 presidential campaign.
He is the author of several books including The Cluetrain Manifesto,Small Pieces Loosely Joined: A Unified Theory of the Web , Everything is Miscellaneous: The Power of the New Digital Disorder and Too Big to Know: Rethinking Knowledge Now That the Facts Aren't the Facts, Experts Are Everywhere, and the Smartest Person in the Room Is the Room
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Douglas Adams
Douglas Noel Adams (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was an English writer and dramatist. He is best known as the author of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, which started life in 1978 as a BBC radio comedy before developing into a "trilogy" of five books that sold over 15 million copies in his lifetime, a television series, several stage plays, comics, a computer game, and in 2005 a feature film. Adams's contribution to UK radio is commemorated in The Radio Academy's Hall of Fame.
Adams also wrote Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency (1987) and The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (1988), and co-wrote The Meaning of Liff (1983), Last Chance to See (1990), and three stories for the television series Doctor Who. A posthumous collection of his work, including an unfinished novel, was published as The Salmon of Doubt in 2002.
Adams became known as an advocate for environmental and conservation causes, and also as a lover of fast cars, cameras, and the Apple Macintosh. He was a staunch atheist, famously imagining a sentient puddle who wakes up one morning and thinks, "This is an interesting world I find myself in—an interesting hole I find myself in—fits me rather neatly, doesn't it? In fact it fits me staggeringly well, must have been made to have me in it!" Biologist Richard Dawkins dedicated his book, The God Delusion (2006), to Adams, writing on his death that, "Science has lost a friend, literature has lost a luminary, the mountain gorilla and the black rhino have lost a gallant defender."
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Eckart Höfling
Eckart Höfling (Born October 28, 1936 in Langenprozelten/Unterfranken, Germany) is a German Catholic priest who works combating poverty in Brazil.
In 1949 Eckart Höflich completed his schooling in Würzburg and passed the legal clerk exams in 1952. He assumed a position in Karlstadt until 1957, when he joined the Franciscan Order. He was sent to Brazil for the first time in 1959/1960. He studied philosophy and theology and was ordained a priest on December 10, 1966 by the Bishop of Würzburg, Josef Stangl. He was sent to Brazil to lead two parishes there. He was awarded the German Federal Cross of Merit (Bundesverdienstkreuz) for his work in 2007, and the Quadriga Award in 2008.
He set up social centers in the favelas Vila Ideal and Prainha and organized regular medical care for the inhabitants of the favelas. The money for this project - over 2 million Euros in the past 30 years- was given by the German Georg Ludwig Rexroth-Stiftung.
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Erik Möller
Erik Möller is a German freelance journalist,software developer,author, and Deputy Director of the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF), based in San Francisco, California. Möller additionally works as a web designer and previously managed his own web hosting service, myoo.de.
Möller is the author of the book Die heimliche Medienrevolution - Wie Weblogs, Wikis und freie Software die Welt verändern ("The secret media revolution: How weblogs, wikis and free software change the world"). In the book, Möller discusses the development of a journalistic equivalent to the open source movement in citizen media and blogging, though pointing out that most blogs do not compete with mainstream media. The book was first published in 2005 by Heinz Heise and a second edition was published in 2006, with updated and revised chapters. A review in Berliner Literaturkritik's saw practical tips but claimed the book focused too much on technical details. Möller's book is cited in the 2006 book Wiki: Web collaboration, in a section discussing "Wikis as an Engine for Social Change", and his term "secret media revolution" is used. The authors comment: "Möller provides a comprehensive look at the problems and possible solutions in dealing with difficult controversies and vandalism in blog and wiki environments."
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Florence Devouard
Florence Jacqueline Sylvie Devouard, née Nibart (born 10 September 1968) was the Chair of the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation between October 2006 and July 2008, succeeding Jimmy Wales.
Devouard was born in Versailles, France. She grew up in Grenoble and studied in Nancy, and later lived in Antwerp in Belgium and in Arizona in the United States. As of 2008[update], she resides in the village of Malintrat, near the city of Clermont-Ferrand in France.
She joined the board of Wikimedia Foundation in June 2004 and was a founder of Wikimedia France in October 2004. She serves on the Advisory Board of the Foundation since July 2008. On 9 March 2008, she was elected member of the municipal council of Malintrat. On 16 May 2008, she was made a knight in the French National Order of Merit, proposed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as "chair of an international foundation".
She is married to Bertrand Devouard and has three children, William (born 1996), Anne-Gaëlle (born 1998) and Thomas (born 2006).
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Franco Grillini
Franco Grillini (born March 14, 1955) is an Italian politician and Italy's most prominent gay rights activist.
He was born in Pianoro, Province of Bologna. During the 1970s, he took part in student political movements. He attended the University of Bologna, graduating in 1979 with a degree in education, and subsequently became a psychologist, psychotherapist, and journalist. He was 27 years old and engaged to a woman when he came out.
Grillini entered politics in the 1970s with the Proletarian Unity Party; in 1985 he ran as a Communist Party candidate in the province of Bologna. From 1991 to 2001 he held continuous membership of the Ministry of Health’s “National Council for the Fight against AIDS”. He was elected for the first time to the Council of the Province of Bologna in 1990, and subsequently re-elected in 1995 and 1999. In 1999 he was named president of the Italian Ministry for Equal Opportunities’ “Commission for the Rights and Equal Opportunities of Homosexual People”. Following the dissolution of the Communist Party, he joined the Democratic Party of the Left, which later became Democrats of the Left. He was first elected to the Italian Parliament in 2001, and re-elected in 2006. In 2007, he left his party, refusing to join the Democratic Party, and joined the Democratic Left movement.
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Henry Blodget
Henry Blodget (born 1966) is an American former equity research analyst, currently banned from the securities industry, who was senior Internet analyst for CIBC Oppenheimer during the dot-com bubble and the head of the global Internet research team at Merrill Lynch. Blodget is now the editor and CEO of The Business Insider, a business news and analysis site, and a host of Yahoo Daily Ticker, a finance show on Yahoo.
Blodget received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Yale University and began his career as a freelance journalist and was a proofreader for Harper's Magazine.
In 1994, Blodget joined the corporate finance training program at Prudential Securities, and, two years later, moved to Oppenheimer & Co. in equity research. In October 1998, he predicted that Amazon.com's stock price would hit a pre-split price of $400 (which it did a month later, gaining 128%).
This call received significant media attention, and, two months later, he accepted a position at Merrill Lynch. In early 2000, days before the dot-com bubble burst, Blodget personally invested $700,000 in tech stocks, only to lose most of it in the years that followed. In 2001, he accepted a buyout offer from Merrill Lynch and left the firm.
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Henryk Batuta hoax
The Henryk Batuta hoax was a hoax perpetrated on the Polish Wikipedia from November 2004 to February 2006.
The perpetrators of the hoax created an article about Henryk Batuta (born Izaak Apfelbaum), a fictional socialist revolutionary and Polish Communist. The fake biography said Batuta was born in Odessa in 1898, and participated in the Russian Civil War. The article was created on 8 November 2004 and exposed as a hoax 15 months later when on 1 February 2006, it was listed for deletion.
The article was ten sentences long while it existed on Wikipedia. It gained some prominence after stories about it appeared in prominent Polish newspapers (Gazeta Wyborcza) and magazines (Przekrój), as well as a British one (The Observer).
The article also falsely claimed a street in Warsaw was named "Henryk Batuta Street", after the fictional communist official. The anonymous hoaxers who created the article, according to the press calling themselves "The Batuta Army" (pl. "Armia Batuty"), allegedly wanted to draw attention to the fact that there are still places in Poland named after former communist officials who do not deserve the honour.
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Janis Joplin
Janis Lyn Joplin (January 19, 1943 – October 4, 1970) was an American singer and songwriter from Port Arthur, Texas. As a youth Joplin was ridiculed by her fellow students due to her unconventional appearance and personal beliefs. She later sang about her experience at school through her song "Ego Rock". Early in her life, Joplin cultivated a rebellious and unconventional lifestyle, becoming a beatnik poet. She began her singing career as a folk and blues singer in San Francisco, playing clubs and bars with her guitar and auto-harp.
Joplin first rose to prominence in the late 1960s as the lead singer of the psychedelic-acid rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company, and later as a solo artist with her more soulful and bluesy backing groups, The Kozmic Blues Band and The Full Tilt Boogie Band. She was one of the more popular acts at the Monterey Pop Festival and later became one of the major attractions to the Woodstock festival and the Festival Express train tour.
Janis Joplin only charted five singles in her life but her hits and other popular songs from throughout her short four year career include "Down On Me", "Bye, Bye Baby", "Coo Coo", "Summertime", "Piece of My Heart", "Turtle Blues", "Ball 'n' Chain", "Try (Just A Little Bit Harder)", "Maybe", "To Love Somebody", "Kozmic Blues", "Work Me, Lord", "Move Over", "Cry Baby", "A Woman Left Lonely" "Get It While You Can", "My Baby", "Trust Me", "Mercedes Benz", "One Night Stand", "Raise Your Hand" and her only number one hit, "Me and Bobby McGee".
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Jimmy Wales
Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales ( /ˈdoʊnəl ˈweɪlz/; born August 7, 1966) is an American Internet entrepreneur best known as a co-founder and promoter of the online non-profit encyclopedia Wikipedia and the Wikia company. Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States, where he attended Randolph School, a university-preparatory school, then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance. While in graduate school, he taught at two universities, but left before completing a PhD in order to take a job in finance and later worked as the research director of a Chicago futures and options firm. In 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis, a male-oriented web portal featuring entertainment and adult content. The company would provide the initial funding for the peer-reviewed free encyclopedia Nupedia (2000–2003) and its successor, Wikipedia.
On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales launched Wikipedia, a free, open content encyclopedia that enjoyed rapid growth and popularity, and as Wikipedia’s public profile grew, he became the project’s promoter and spokesman. He is historically cited as a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has disputed the "co-" designation, declaring himself the sole founder. Wales serves on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit charitable organization he helped establish to operate Wikipedia, holding its board-appointed "community founder" seat. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a for-profit wiki-hosting service. His role in creating Wikipedia, which has become the world’s largest encyclopedia, prompted Time magazine to name him in its 2006 list of the world’s most influential people.
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John Seigenthaler
John Lawrence Seigenthaler ( /ˈsiːɡənθɔːlər/; born July 27, 1927) is an American journalist, writer, and political figure. He is known as a prominent defender of First Amendment rights.
Seigenthaler joined the Nashville newspaper The Tennessean in 1949, resigning in 1960 to act as Robert F. Kennedy's administrative assistant. He rejoined The Tennessean as editor in 1962, publisher in 1973, and chairman in 1982 before retiring as chairman emeritus in 1991. Seigenthaler was also founding editorial director of USA Today from 1982 to 1991. During this period, he served on the board of directors for the American Society of Newspaper Editors, and from 1988 to 1989 was its president.
Born in Nashville, Tennessee, Seigenthaler is the oldest of eight siblings. He attended Father Ryan High School and served in the U.S. Air Force from 1946 to 1949. After leaving the service, Seigenthaler was hired at The Tennessean.
While working at The Tennessean, Seigenthaler took courses in sociology and literature at Peabody College, now part of Vanderbilt University. He also attended the American Press Institute for Reporters at Columbia University.
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Jonathan Zittrain
Jonathan L. Zittrain (born December 24, 1969) is an American professor of Internet law at Harvard Law School and the Harvard Kennedy School, a professor of computer science at the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and a faculty co-director of Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society. Previously, Zittrain was Professor of Internet Governance and Regulation at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford and visiting professor at the New York University School of Law and Stanford Law School. He is the author of, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It; as well as co-editor of the books, Access Denied (MIT Press, 2008) and Access Controlled (MIT Press, 2010).
Zittrain works in several intersections of the Internet with law and policy including intellectual property, censorship and filtering for content control, and computer security. He founded a project at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society that develops classroom tools. He is a co-founder of Chilling Effects, a collaborative archive created to protect lawful online activity from legal threats that was created by Wendy Seltzer
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János Kertész
János Kertész is a Hungarian physicist. He is one of the pioneers of econophysics, complex networks and application of fractal geometry in physical problems.
He is the director of the Institute of Physics in Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary.
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Larry Sanger
Lawrence Mark "Larry" Sanger (born July 16, 1968) is an American philosopher, co-founder of Wikipedia, and the founder of Citizendium. He grew up in Anchorage, Alaska. From an early age he has been interested in philosophy. Sanger received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy from Reed College in 1991 and a Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy from Ohio State University in 2000. Most of his philosophical work has focused on epistemology, the theory of knowledge.
He has been involved with various online encyclopedia projects. He is the former editor-in-chief of Nupedia, chief organizer (2001–2002) of its successor, Wikipedia, and founding editor-in-chief of Citizendium. From his position at Nupedia, he assembled the process for article development. Sanger proposed implementing a wiki, which led directly to the creation of Wikipedia. Initially Wikipedia was a complementary project for Nupedia. He was Wikipedia's early community leader and established many of its original policies. He spearheaded an alternative wiki-based project, Citizendium.
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Lee Daniel Crocker
Lee Daniel Crocker (born in Valdosta, Georgia on July 3, 1963) is an American computer programmer and poker player. He is best known for rewriting the software upon which Wikipedia runs to address scalability problems. This new software, originally known as "Phase III", went live in July 2002 and became the foundation of what is now called MediaWiki. Today, MediaWiki's Subversion code repository is still named "phase3".
He was involved in the creation of the GIF, JPEG, and PNG image file formats, and appears as a co-author of the PNG specification. He invented the per-scanline variable pre-filtering compression method used by PNG, the sum-of-abs heuristic used by many encoding programs, and proposed an early version of the Adam7 algorithm, using 5 passes rather than 7.
In June 2010, Crocker and others won the USENIX Advanced Computing Technical Association STUG award for contributions to the Wikipedia software.
Crocker gave rise to what became known as "Crocker's Rules".
"Declaring yourself to be operating by "Crocker's Rules" means that other people are allowed to optimize their messages for information, not for being nice to you. Crocker's Rules means that you have accepted full responsibility for the operation of your own mind—if you're offended, it's your fault. Anyone is allowed to call you a moron and claim to be doing you a favor. (...) Two people using Crocker's Rules should be able to communicate all relevant information in the minimum amount of time, without paraphrasing or social formatting. Obviously, don't declare yourself to be operating by Crocker's Rules unless you have that kind of mental discipline.
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Marshall Poe
Marshall Tillbrook Poe (born December 29, 1961) is an American writer and historian. He is a member of the Department of History at the University of Iowa, and a visiting professor at Eastern Michigan University for the 2007-8 academic year.
Poe is the author or editor of a number of books on early modern Russia, and the founder and editor of MemoryArchive, a universal wiki-type archive of contemporary memoirs he began with his students at American University in 2005. There he has contributed numerous personal accounts of his own, from playing basketball with Barack Obama, to stumbling onto a Dennis Rader (the infamous BTK killer) crime scene. He has also become known for his commentary on Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia.
Poe graduated from Wichita High School Southeast in 1980. He earned a B.A. at Grinnell College in 1984 and his Ph.D. in history at the University of California, Berkeley in 1992.
He taught at Harvard University until 1998, and again from 2000 to 2002, during which time he was appointed Allston Burr Senior Tutor at Harvard's Lowell House. He has held fellowships at the Davis Center for Russian Studies at Harvard; the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey; and the Harriman Institute for Russian Studies at Columbia University.
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Nicholson Baker
Nicholson Baker (born January 7, 1957) is a contemporary American writer of fiction and non-fiction. As a novelist, he often focuses on minute inspection of his characters' and narrators' stream of consciousness, and has written about poetry, literature, library systems, history, politics, time manipulation, youth and sex. His fiction generally de-emphasizes narrative in favor of careful description and characterization.
Nicholson Baker was born in 1957 in New York City, and spent much of his youth in the Rochester, New York, area. He studied briefly at the Eastman School of Music and received a B.A. in philosophy from Haverford College. He lives today with his wife and two children in South Berwick, Maine. He received a National Book Critics Circle Award in 2001 for his nonfiction book Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper.
Baker has been a fervent critic of what he perceives as libraries' unnecessary destruction of paper-based media. He wrote several vehement articles in The New Yorker critical of the San Francisco Public Library for sending thousands of books to a landfill, the elimination of card catalogs, and the destruction of old books and newspapers in favor of microfilm. In 1997, Baker received the San Francisco–based James Madison Freedom of Information Award in recognition of these efforts.
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Oscar van Dillen
Oscar Ignatius Joannes van Dillen (born June 25, 1958 in 's-Hertogenbosch) is a Dutch composer, conductor, and instrumentalist.
Van Dillen studied North-Indian classical music (sitar, tabla, vocal) with Jamaluddin Bhartiya at the Tritantri School in Amsterdam and bansuri with Gurbachan Singh Sachdev at the Bansuri School of Music in Berkeley, California from 1977 to 1980, as well as classical and jazz flute at the Sweelinck Conservatory in Amsterdam between 1982 and 1984. Here, he also received composition lessons from Misha Mengelberg.
After studies of medieval and Renaissance music with Paul Van Nevel in Leuven (Belgium), he studied classical composition with, among others, Dick Raaymakers and Gilius van Bergeijk at the Koninklijk Conservatory in The Hague in 1990/1991 and with Klaas de Vries, Peter-Jan Wagemans and René Uijlenhoet at the Rotterdam Conservatory from 1996 to 2002. He also studied composition with Manfred Trojahn at the Robert Schumann College in Düsseldorf in 2001, where he also received lessons in conducting from Lutz Herbig.
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Peter Gabriel
Peter Brian Gabriel (born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, musician, and songwriter who rose to fame as the lead vocalist and flautist of the progressive rock group Genesis. After leaving Genesis, Gabriel went on to a successful solo career. His 1986 album, So, is his most commercially successful, and the album's biggest hit, "Sledgehammer", won a record nine MTV Awards at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards, and the song is the most played music video in the history of the station.
More recently, Gabriel has focused on producing and promoting world music and pioneering digital distribution methods for music. He has also been involved in various humanitarian efforts. Gabriel has won numerous music awards throughout his career, including three Brit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987, six Grammy Awards, thirteen MTV Video Music Awards, and in 2007 he was honoured as a BMI Icon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his “influence on generations of music makers.” Gabriel was also awarded the Polar Music Prize in 2009, and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis in 2010.
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Richard Stallman
Richard Matthew Stallman (born 16 March 1953), often shortened to rms, is an American software freedom activist and computer programmer. In September 1983, he launched the GNU Project to create a free Unix-like operating system, and he has been the project's lead architect and organizer. With the launch of the GNU Project, he initiated the free software movement; in October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation.
Stallman pioneered the concept of copyleft, and he is the main author of several copyleft licenses including the GNU General Public License, the most widely used free software license. Since the mid-1990s, Stallman has spent most of his time advocating for free software, as well as campaigning against software patents, digital rights management, and what he sees as excessive extension of copyright laws. Stallman has also developed a number of pieces of widely used software, including the original Emacs, the GNU Compiler Collection, the GNU Debugger, and various tools in the GNU coreutils. He co-founded the League for Programming Freedom in 1989.
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Robert McHenry
Robert Dale McHenry (born April 30, 1945) is an American editor, encyclopedist, and writer. McHenry worked from 1967 for Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. or associated companies, becoming editor-in-chief of the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1992, a position he held until 1997. McHenry is also author of the book How to Know (2004), and a frequent contributor to journals.
McHenry was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He attended Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1966. He also received a Master's degree from the University of Michigan in 1967. Later in life, McHenry undertook further study at Northwestern University, where he graduated from Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management with a Master of Business Administration in 1987.
McHenry's career at Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. began in 1967. After two years, he transferred to San Francisco Productions to work for Mortimer Adler, where he co-edited (with Charles Van Doren) Webster's Guide to American History, A Documentary History of Conservation in America, and Webster's American Biographies. McHenry transferred in 1975 to G. & C. Merriam Co. (later renamed Merriam-Webster Inc.) where he edited Webster's American Military Biographies, Famous American Women, Liberty's Women, and Webster's New Biographical Dictionary.
wn.com/Robert_McHenry -
Roy Rosenzweig
Roy Alan Rosenzweig (August 6, 1950 – October 11, 2007) was an American historian at George Mason University in Virginia. He was the founder and director of the Center for History and New Media from 1994 until his death in October 2007 from lung cancer, aged 57.
He was the co-author, with Elizabeth Blackmar, of The Park and the People: A History of Central Park, which won several awards including the 1993 Historic Preservation Book Award and the 1993 Urban History Association Prize for Best Book on North American Urban History. He also co-authored (with David Thelen) The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of History in American Life, which won prizes from the Center for Historic Preservation and the American Association for State and Local History. He was co-author, with Steve Brier and Joshua Brown, of the American Social History Project's CD-ROM, Who Built America? , which won James Harvey Robinson Prize of American Historical Association for its “outstanding contribution to the teaching and learning of history.”
wn.com/Roy_Rosenzweig -
Sheizaf Rafaeli
Sheizaf Rafaeli (Hebrew: שיזף רפאלי), is an Israeli researcher, scholar of Computer-mediated communication, computer scientist, and newspaper columnist. He is Professor and Dean at the School of Management (Graduate School of Business Administration) Haifa GSB, University of Haifa Israel and additionally Director of the Sagy Center for Internet Research (Formerly known as the Center for the Study of the Information Society) and the Games for Managers Project. In the 1980s and 1990s he served as head of the Information Systems area at the Graduate School of Business in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Born in Kibbutz Maagan Michael, Israel, June 7, 1955. Served as officer in the Israeli military in combat units, discharged in 1977. He received his B.A. from the University of Haifa, M.A. from Ohio State University, M.A., and Ph.D., Stanford University. Was educational director of the cadet school of the Reali High School in Haifa. Rafaeli has written software and books on graphics, electronic spreadsheets and statistical analysis, and a textbook on information systems for the Open University. He is co-editor, (with Fay Sudweeks and Margaret McLaughlin), of Network and NetPlay: Virtual Groups on the Internet published by MIT Press, 1998. He served as co-coordinator of the international ProjectH. He served as founder and co-editor of The Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, and initiated the SHIL (Citizen's Advice Board) online service. He is a member of several journal editorial boards, including those of JCMC, ITSharenet and IJKL. Rafaeli is a director of NPTech Israel, and of StartUpSeeds.
wn.com/Sheizaf_Rafaeli -
Stephen Colbert
Stephen Tyrone Colbert ( /koʊlˈbɛər/ or /ˈkoʊlbərt/; born May 13, 1964) is an American political satirist, writer, comedian, television host, and actor. He is the host of Comedy Central's The Colbert Report, a satirical news show in which Colbert portrays a caricatured version of conservative political pundits.
Colbert originally studied to be an actor, but became interested in improvisational theatre when he met famed Second City director Del Close while attending Northwestern University. He first performed professionally as an understudy for Steve Carell at Second City Chicago; among his troupe mates were comedians Paul Dinello and Amy Sedaris, with whom he developed the critically acclaimed sketch comedy series Exit 57.
Colbert also wrote and performed on the short-lived Dana Carvey Show before collaborating with Sedaris and Dinello again on the cult television series Strangers with Candy. He gained considerable attention for his role on the latter as closeted gay history teacher Chuck Noblet. It was his work as a correspondent on Comedy Central's news-parody series The Daily Show, however, that first introduced him to a wide audience.
wn.com/Stephen_Colbert -
Sue Gardner
Sue Gardner (born May 11, 1967) is the current executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in San Francisco, and previous director of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's website and online news outlets.
Gardner grew up in Port Hope, Ontario, Canada, the daughter of an Anglican minister and school principal. She received a degree in journalism from Ryerson University. She began her career on Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) radio in 1990 on the program As It Happens, and worked for more than a decade as a producer, reporter and documentary-maker for CBC Radio current-affairs and for Newsworld International, focusing on pop culture and social issues.
In March 2006, she succeeded Claude Galipeau as Senior Director of the division of 150 new media staff developing CBC.ca, the CBC website and Internet platform.
In May 2007, Gardner resigned from CBC, and shortly thereafter began consulting for the Wikimedia Foundation as a special advisor on operations and governance.
In December 2007, she was hired as the Foundation's Executive Director. Over the next two years, she oversaw growth of the staff including the addition of a fundraising team, and an office move from Tampa to San Francisco.
wn.com/Sue_Gardner -
Tyler Cowen
Tyler Cowen ( /ˈkaʊ.ən/; born January 21, 1962) is an American economist, academic, and writer. He occupies the Holbert C. Harris Chair of economics as a professor at George Mason University and is co-author, with Alex Tabarrok, of the popular economics blog Marginal Revolution. He currently writes the "Economic Scene" column for the New York Times, and he also writes for such publications as The New Republic, The Wall Street Journal, Forbes, Newsweek, and The Wilson Quarterly. Cowen is also general director of the Mercatus Center at George Mason University. In February 2011, Cowen received a nomination as one of the most influential economists in the last decade through a survey by the Economist. He was placed #72 as the most influential Thinkers of 2011 by Foreign Policy Magazine.
Cowen was born on January 21, 1962. At the age of 15, Cowen became the youngest ever New Jersey State chess champion. Cowen graduated from George Mason University with a B.S. in economics in 1983 and received his Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 1987. At Harvard, he was mentored by game theorist Thomas Schelling, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics. He is married to Natasha Cowen, a lawyer.
wn.com/Tyler_Cowen
150px The logo of Wikipedia, a globe featuring glyphs from many different writing systems |
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Screenshot
 Screenshot of Wikipedia's multilingual portal. |
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| URL | wikipedia.org |
|---|---|
| Slogan | The Free Encyclopedia |
| Commercial? | No |
| Type of site | Internet encyclopedia |
| Registration | Optional (required only for certain tasks such as editing protected pages, creating pages or uploading files) |
| Available language(s) | 275 active editions (285 in total) |
| Content license | Creative Commons Attribution/ Share-Alike 3.0 (most text also dual-licensed under GFDL) Media licensing varies |
| Owner | Wikimedia Foundation (non-profit) |
| Created by | Jimmy Wales, Larry Sanger[1] |
| Launched | January 15, 2001 (2001-01-15) (11 years ago) |
| Alexa rank |  6 (June 2012[update])[2] |
| Current status | Active |
Wikipedia (i/ˌwɪkɨˈpiːdiə/ or i/ˌwɪkiˈpiːdiə/ WIK-i-PEE-dee-ə) is a free, collaboratively edited and multilingual Internet encyclopedia supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 22 million articles (over 0 million in English alone) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site,[3] and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors.[4][5] As of June 2012, there are editions of Wikipedia in 285 languages. It has become the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet,[6][7][8][9] ranking sixth globally among all websites on Alexa and having an estimated 365 million readers worldwide.[6][10] It is estimated that Wikipedia receives 2.7 billion monthly pageviews from the United States alone.[11]
Wikipedia was launched in January 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger.[12] Sanger coined the name Wikipedia,[13] which is a portmanteau of wiki (a type of collaborative website, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick")[14] and encyclopedia. Wikipedia's departure from the expert-driven style of encyclopedia building and the presence of a large body of unacademic content have received extensive attention in print media. In its 2006 Person of the Year article, Time magazine recognized the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people around the world. It cited Wikipedia as an example, in addition to YouTube, MySpace, and Facebook.[15] Wikipedia has also been praised as a news source because of how quickly articles about recent events appear.[16][17] Students have been assigned to write Wikipedia articles as an exercise in clearly and succinctly explaining difficult concepts to an uninitiated audience.[18]
Although the policies of Wikipedia strongly espouse verifiability and a neutral point of view, criticisms leveled at Wikipedia include allegations about quality of writing,[19] inaccurate or inconsistent information, and explicit content. Various experts (including founder Jimmy Wales and Jonathan Zittrain of Oxford University) have expressed concern over possible (intentional or unintentional) biases.[20][21][22][23] These allegations are addressed by various Wikipedia policies.
Other disparagers of Wikipedia simply point out vulnerabilities inherent to any wiki that may be edited by anyone. These critics observe that much weight is given to topics that more editors are likely to know about, like popular culture,[24] and that the site is vulnerable to vandalism,[25][26] though some studies indicate that vandalism is quickly deleted. Critics point out that some articles contain unverified or inconsistent information,[27] though a 2005 investigation in Nature showed that the science articles they compared came close to the level of accuracy of Encyclopædia Britannica and had a similar rate of "serious errors".[28]
Contents
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History[link]
Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, Inc, a web portal company. Its main figures were Jimmy Wales, Bomis CEO, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, switching to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia's founding at the urging of Richard Stallman.[29] Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales founded Wikipedia.[30][31] While Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia,[32][33] Sanger is usually credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal.[34] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia.[35] Wikipedia was formally launched on January 15, 2001, as a single English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com,[36] and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list.[32] Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view"[37] was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier "nonbiased" policy. Otherwise, there were relatively few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia.[32]
Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. It grew to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions by the end of 2001. By late 2002, it had reached 26 language editions, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004.[38] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. English Wikipedia passed the two million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, eclipsing even the 1407 Yongle Encyclopedia, which had held the record for exactly 600 years.[39]
Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in a perceived English-centric[citation needed] Wikipedia, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create the Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002.[40] These moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and change Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org.[41]
Though the English Wikipedia reached three million articles in August 2009, the growth of the edition, in terms of the numbers of articles and of contributors, appears to have peaked around early 2007.[42] Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2010 that average was roughly 1,000.[43] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the project's increasing exclusivity and resistance to change.[44] Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called 'low-hanging fruit' – topics that clearly merit an article – have already been created and built up extensively.[45][46]
In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, the project lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008.[47][48] The Wall Street Journal reported that "unprecedented numbers of the millions of online volunteers who write, edit and police [Wikipedia] are quitting". The array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content are among the reasons for this trend that are cited in the article.[49] Jimmy Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the methodology of the study.[50] Two years later, Wales acknowledged the presence of a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011.[51] Nevertheless, in the same interview he claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable".
In January 2007, Wikipedia entered for the first time the top ten list of the most popular websites in the United States, according to comScore Networks Inc. With 42.9 million unique visitors, Wikipedia was ranked No. 9, surpassing the New York Times (#10) and Apple Inc. (#11). This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when the rank was No. 33, with Wikipedia receiving around 18.3 million unique visitors.[52] As of May 2012, Wikipedia is the sixth-most-popular website worldwide according to Alexa Internet,[53] receiving more than 2.7 billion U.S. pageviews every month,[11] out of a global monthly total of over 12 billion pageviews.[54]
On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress—the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours.[55] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced Wikipedia content.[56][57]
Nature[link]
| “ | As the popular joke goes, ‘The problem with Wikipedia is that it only works in practice. In theory, it can never work.’ | ” |
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—Miikka Ryokas, [58] |
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Editing[link]
In a departure from the style of traditional encyclopedias, Wikipedia employs an open, "wiki" editing model[clarify]. This means that, except for particularly sensitive and/or vandalism-prone pages, which would be "protected" from some degree of editing, the reader of an article can edit the text as he sees fits, anonymously or with a user account. Different language editions modify this policy; for example, only registered users may create a new article in the English edition. No article is owned by its creator or any other editor, nor is any vetted by any recognized authority. Instead, editors agree on the content and structure of articles by consensus.[60]
By default, an edit to an article becomes available immediately, prior to any review. As such, an article may contain inaccuracies, ideological biases, or even patent nonsense, until or unless another editor corrects the problem. Different language editions, each under separate administrative control, are free to modify this policy. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles,[61] which have passed certain reviews. Notably, however, the English Wikipedia does not use the German model. In 2010 the former conducted a two-month trial of a "pending changes" system wherein new users' edits to certain "controversial" or vandalism-prone articles would be "subject to review from an established Wikipedia editor before publication". In a discussion following the trial, the community failed to reach consensus as to whether or not to keep the "pending changes" system. Thus, all remaining pending changes were removed from article pages in May 2011.[62]
Contributors, whether registered or not, can take advantage of features available in the software that powers Wikipedia. The "History" page belonging to each article records every single past revision of the article, though a revision with libelous content, criminal threats or copyright infringements may be removed retroactively.[63][64] Editors can use this page to undo undesirable changes or restore lost content. The "Talk" page associated with each article helps coordinate work among multiple editors.[65] Importantly, editors may use the "Talk" page to reach "consensus"[66], sometimes through the use of polling.
In addition, editors may view the most "recent changes" to the website, which are displayed in reverse chronology. Regular contributors often maintain a "watchlist" of articles of interest to them, in order to easily track recent changes to those articles. In language editions with many articles, editors tend to prefer the "watchlist" because the number of edits has become too large to follow in "recent changes." New page patrol is "a process by which newly created articles are checked for obvious problems."[67] A frequently vandalized article can be semi-protected, allowing only well established users to edit it.[68] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators are able to make changes.[69]
Computer programs called bots have been used widely to correct common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. There are also some bots that are designed to detect attacks and fix them automatically (or semi-automatically), filters that warn users making "undesirable" edits,[70] blocks on the creation of links to particular websites, and blocks on edits from particular accounts, IP addresses or address ranges.
Organization of article pages[link]
Articles in Wikipedia are loosely organized according to their development status and subject matter. Categories help organize each article by its content and properties.[71] A new article often starts as a 'stub', a very short page consisting of definitions and some links. On the other extreme, the most developed articles may be nominated for "featured article" status. One "featured article" per day, as selected by editors, appears on the main page of Wikipedia.[72][73] Researcher Giacomo Poderi found that articles tend to reach featured status via the intensive work of few editors.[74] In 2007, in preparation for producing a print version, the English-language Wikipedia introduced an assessment scale against which the quality of articles is judged.[75]
A group of Wikipedia editors may form a WikiProject to focus their work on a specific topic area, using its associated discussion page to coordinate changes across multiple articles.
Vandalism[link]
The most common and obvious types of vandalism include insertion of false information, advertising language, highly partisan or opinionated language, or other types of spam.[76] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing information or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism can be more difficult to detect. Those committing vandalism can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the underlying code of an article, or utilize images disruptively.
The opportunity for vandalism provides a number of unique challenges to Wikipedia. One particular criticism is that, at any moment, a reader of an article cannot be certain that it has not been compromised by the insertion of false information or the removal of essential information. Former Encyclopædia Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry once described the predicament using simile:[77]
The user who visits Wikipedia to learn about some subject, to confirm some matter of fact, is rather in the position of a visitor to a public restroom. It may be obviously dirty, so that he knows to exercise great care, or it may seem fairly clean, so that he may be lulled into a false sense of security. What he certainly does not know is who has used the facilities before him.[78]
Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from wiki articles; in practice, the median time to detect and fix vandalism is a few minutes[25][26]. However, in one high-profile incident, false information was introduced into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler and remained undetected for four months.[79] John Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University, called Jimmy Wales and asked if Wales had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales replied that he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced.[80][81] This incident led to policy changes on the site, specifically targeted at tightening up the verifiability of all biographical articles of living people.
Rules and laws governing content and editor behavior[link]
Content in Wikipedia is subject to the laws (in particular, the copyright laws) of the United States and of the U.S. state of Florida, where the majority of Wikipedia's servers reside. Beyond legal matters, the editorial principles of Wikipedia are embodied in the "five pillars", and numerous policies and guidelines that are intended to shape the content appropriately. Even these rules are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors as a community write and revise the website's policies and guidelines.[82] Editors can enforce rules by deleting or modifying non-compliant material. Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules on the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent.
English Wikipedia[link]
Content policies[link]
According to the rules on the English Wikipedia, each entry in Wikipedia to be worthy of inclusion must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-like.[83] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability",[84] which usually means that it must have received significant coverage in reliable secondary sources such as mainstream media or major academic journals that are independent of the subject of the topic. Further, Wikipedia intends only to convey knowledge that is already established and recognized.[85] It must not present new information or original research. A claim that is likely to be challenged requires a reference to a reliable source. Among Wikipedia editors, this is often phrased as "verifiability, not truth" to express the idea that the readers, not the encyclopedia, are ultimately responsible for checking the truthfulness of the articles and making their own interpretations.[86] This can lead to the removal of information that is valid, thus hindering inclusion of knowledge and growth of the encyclopedia.[87] Finally, Wikipedia must not take a side.[88] All opinions and viewpoints, if attributable to external sources, must enjoy an appropriate share of coverage within an article.[89] This is known as neutral point of view (NPOV).
Dispute resolution[link]
Wikipedia has many methods of settling disputes. A "BOLD, revert, discuss" cycle sometimes occurs, in which an editor changes something, another editor reverts the change, and then the two editors discuss the issue on a talk page. When editors disregard this process, an edit war may begin, in which a change is repeatedly done by one editor and then undone by another.
In order to gain a broader community consensus, editors can raise issues at the Village Pump, or initiate a Request for Comment. An editor can report impolite, uncivil, or otherwise problematic communications with another editor via the "Wikiquette Assistance" noticeboard. Such postings themselves have no binding or disciplinary power. Specialized forums exist for centralizing discussion on specific decisions, such as whether or not an article should be deleted. Mediation is sometimes used, although it has been deemed by some Wikipedians to be unhelpful for resolving particularly contentious disputes.
Arbitration[link]
The Arbitration Committee is the ultimate dispute resolution method. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how articles should read[citation needed], the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on which view should be adopted. Statistical analyses suggest that the committee ignores the content of disputes and focuses on the way disputes are conducted instead,[90] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is biased). Its remedies include cautions and probations (used in 63.2% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43.3%), subject matters (23.4%) or Wikipedia (15.7%). Complete bans from Wikipedia are largely limited to instances of impersonation and anti-social behavior. When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather anti-consensus or violating editing policies, warnings tend to be issued.[91]
Privacy[link]
One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia is the right of a private citizen to remain private; to remain a "private citizen" rather than a "public figure" in the eyes of the law.[92] It is somewhat of a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life ("meatspace"). Wikipedia Watch argues that "Wikipedia is a potential menace to anyone who values privacy" and that "a greater degree of accountability in the Wikipedia structure" would be "the very first step toward resolving the privacy problem."[93] A particular problem occurs in the case of an individual who is relatively unimportant and for whom there exists a Wikipedia page against their wishes.
In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic, aka "Tron", a deceased hacker who was formerly with the Chaos Computer Club. More specifically, the court ordered that the URL within the German .de domain (http://www.wikipedia.de/) may no longer redirect to the encyclopedia's servers in Florida at http://de.wikipedia.org although German readers were still able to use the US-based URL directly, and there was virtually no loss of access on their part. The court order arose out of a lawsuit filed by Floricic's parents, demanding that their son's surname be removed from Wikipedia.[94] On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents were being violated.[95] The plaintiffs appealed to the Berlin state court, but were refused in May 2006.
Community[link]
Wikipedia's community has been described as "cult-like,"[96] although not always with entirely negative connotations,[97] and criticized for failing to accommodate inexperienced users.[98] The project's preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials, has been referred to as "anti-elitism".[99]
Power structure[link]
The Wikipedia community has established "a bureaucracy of sorts", including "a clear power structure that gives volunteer administrators the authority to exercise editorial control."[100][101][102] Editors in good standing in the community can run for one of many levels of volunteer stewardship; this begins with "administrator,"[103][104] a group of privileged users who have the ability to delete pages, lock articles from being changed in case of vandalism or editorial disputes, and block users from editing. Despite the name, administrators do not enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead they are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to block users making disruptive edits (such as vandalism).[105][106]
Contributors[link]
Wikipedia does not require that its users provide identification.[107] However, as Wikipedia grows with its unconventional model of encyclopedia building, "Who writes Wikipedia?" has become one of the questions frequently asked on the project, often with a reference to other Web 2.0 projects such as Digg.[108] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization." Wales performed a study finding that over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users (at the time: 524 people). This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz, who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts.[109] A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site."[110] Although some contributors are authorities in their field, Wikipedia requires that even their contributions be supported by published and verifiable sources.
In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in wiki software create a catalyst for collaborative development, and that a "creative construction" approach encourages participation.[clarification needed][111] In his 2008 book, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It, Jonathan Zittrain of the Oxford Internet Institute and Harvard Law School’s Berkman Center for Internet & Society cites Wikipedia's success as a case study in how open collaboration has fostered innovation on the web.[112] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others.[113][114] A 2009 study suggested there was "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content."[115]
At OOPSLA 2009, Wikimedia CTO and Senior Software Architect Brion Vibber gave a presentation entitled "Community Performance Optimization: Making Your People Run as Smoothly as Your Site"[116] in which he discussed the challenges of handling the contributions from a large community and compared the process to that of software development.
Interactions[link]
Members of the community predominantly interact with each other via 'talk' pages, which are wiki-edited pages which are associated with articles, as well as via talk pages that are specific to particular contributors, and talk pages that help run the site. These pages help the contributors reach consensus about what the contents of the articles should be, how the site's rules may change, and to take actions with respect to any problems within the community.[117]
The Wikipedia Signpost is the community newspaper on the English Wikipedia,[118] and was founded by Michael Snow, an administrator and the former chair of the Wikimedia Foundation board of trustees.[119] It covers news and events from the site, as well as major events from sister projects, such as Wikimedia Commons.[120]
Positive re-inforcement[link]
Wikipedians sometimes award one another barnstars for good work. These personalized tokens of appreciation reveal a wide range of valued work extending far beyond simple editing to include social support, administrative actions, and types of articulation work. The barnstar phenomenon has been analyzed by researchers seeking to determine what implications it might have for other communities engaged in large-scale collaborations.[121]
New users[link]
60% of registered users never make another edit after their first 24 hours. Possible explanations are that such users only register for a single purpose, or are scared away by their experiences.[122] Goldman writes that editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk pages, implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders will target their contributions as a threat. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs; the contributor is expected to build a user page, learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to an arcane dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references." Non-logged-in users are in some sense second-class citizens on Wikipedia,[123] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation,"[124] but the contribution histories of IP addresses cannot necessarily with any certainty be credited to, or blamed upon, a particular user.
A 2009 study by Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget[125] showed that in a random sample of articles most content in Wikipedia (measured by the amount of contributed text which survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders" (users with low edit counts), while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders" (a select group of established users).
Demographics[link]
One study found that the contributor base to Wikipedia "was barely 13% women; the average age of a contributor was in the mid-20s." Sue Gardner, Executive Director of the Wikimedia Foundation, hopes to see female editing contributions increase to 25% by 2015.[126] Linda Basch, President of the National Council for Research on Women, noted the contrast in these Wikipedia editor statistics with the percentage of women currently completing bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhD programs in the United States (all at rates of 50% or greater).[127]
In a research article published in PLoS ONE in 2012, Yasseri et al. based on the circadian patterns of editorial activities of the community, have estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. For instance, it has been reported that edits from North America are limited to almost 50% in the English Wikipedia and this value decreases to 25% in Simple English Wikipedia. The article also covers some other editions in different languages.[128] The Wikimedia Foundation hopes to increase the number of editors in the Global South to 37% by 2015.[129]
Language editions[link]
There are currently 285 language editions (or language versions) of Wikipedia; of these, 4 have over 1 million articles each (English, German, French and Dutch), 6 more have over 700,000 articles (Italian, Polish, Spanish, Russian, Japanese and Portuguese), 40 more have over 100,000 articles and 109 have over 10,000 articles.[130] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 0 million articles. According to Alexa, the English subdomain (en.wikipedia.org; English Wikipedia) receives approximately 54% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages (Japanese: 10%, German: 8%, Spanish: 5%, Russian: 4%, French: 4%, Italian: 3%).[6] As of January 2012, the five largest language editions are (in order of article count) English, German, French, Dutch, and Italian Wikipedias.[131]
Since Wikipedia is web-based and therefore worldwide, contributors of a same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences, (e.g. color vs. colour)[132] or points of view.[133] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view," they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use.[134][135][136]
Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language."[137] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all of its projects (Wikipedia and others).[138] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia,[139] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have.[140] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, foodstuffs, and mathematics. As for the rest, it is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might only be available in English, even when they meet notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects.
Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because fully automated translation of articles is disallowed.[141] Articles available in more than one language may offer "Interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions.
Analysis of content[link]
Although poorly-written articles are flagged for improvement,[142] critics note that the style and quality of individual articles may vary greatly. Others argue that inherent biases (willful or not) arise in the presentation of facts, especially controversial topics and public or historical figures. Although Wikipedia's stated mission is to provide information, not argue value judgements, yet some draw the censorship line[143] more strictly than do articles focusing on unpleasant, highly specialized, arguably trivial, or arguably objectionable material. In 2006, the Wikipedia Watch criticism website listed dozens of examples of plagiarism by Wikipedia editors on the English version.[144] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has said in this respect: "We need to deal with such activities with absolute harshness, no mercy, because this kind of plagiarism is 100% at odds with all of our core principles."[144]
Accuracy of content[link]
Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are carefully and deliberately written by experts, lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. On the other hand, Wikipedia is often cited for factual inaccuracies and misrepresentations. However, a non-scientific report in the journal Nature in 2005 suggested that for some scientific articles Wikipedia came close to the level of accuracy of Encyclopædia Britannica and had a similar rate of "serious errors."[28] These claims have been disputed by, among others, Encyclopædia Britannica.[145][146] The Nature report also concluded that the structure of Wikipedia's articles was often poor.
As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it.[147] Concerns have been raised regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity,[148] the insertion of spurious information,[149] vandalism, and similar problems.
Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true, after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles and relevant information is omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites, and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them.[150]
Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable.[151] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear.[152] Editors of traditional reference works such as theEncyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia.[153]
Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls, spamming, and those with an agenda to push.[63][154] The addition of political spin to articles by organizations including members of the US House of Representatives and special interest groups[27] has been noted,[155] and organizations such as Microsoft have offered financial incentives to work on certain articles.[156] These issues have been parodied, notably by Stephen Colbert in The Colbert Report.[157] For example, in August 2007, the website WikiScanner began to trace the sources of changes made to Wikipedia by anonymous editors without Wikipedia accounts. The program revealed that many such edits were made by corporations or government agencies changing the content of articles related to them, their personnel or their work.[158]
Quality of writing[link]
Because contributors usually rewrite small portions of an entry rather than making full-length revisions, high- and low-quality content may be intermingled within an entry. Roy Rosenzweig, a history professor, stated that American National Biography Online outperformed Wikipedia in terms of its "clear and engaging prose", which, he said, was an important aspect of good historical writing.[159] Contrasting Wikipedia's treatment of Abraham Lincoln to that of Civil War historian James McPherson in American National Biography Online, he said that both were essentially accurate and covered the major episodes in Lincoln's life, but praised "McPherson's richer contextualization... his artful use of quotations to capture Lincoln's voice ... and ... his ability to convey a profound message in a handful of words." By contrast, he gives an example of Wikipedia's prose that he finds "both verbose and dull". Rosenzweig also criticized the "waffling—encouraged by the npov policy—[which] means that it is hard to discern any overall interpretive stance in Wikipedia history." By example, he quoted the conclusion of Wikipedia's article on William Clarke Quantrill. While generally praising the article, he pointed out its "waffling" conclusion: "Some historians...remember him as an opportunistic, bloodthirsty outlaw, while others continue to view him as a daring soldier and local folk hero."[159]
Other critics have made similar charges that, even if Wikipedia articles are factually accurate, they are often written in a poor, almost unreadable style. Frequent Wikipedia critic Andrew Orlowski commented: "Even when a Wikipedia entry is 100 per cent factually correct, and those facts have been carefully chosen, it all too often reads as if it has been translated from one language to another then into to a third, passing an illiterate translator at each stage."[160] A study of cancer articles by Yaacov Lawrence of the Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson University found that the entries were mostly accurate, but they were written at college reading level, as opposed to the ninth grade level seen in the Physician Data Query. He said that "Wikipedia's lack of readability may reflect its varied origins and haphazard editing."[161] The Economist argued that better-written articles tend to be more reliable: "inelegant or ranting prose usually reflects muddled thoughts and incomplete information."[162]
Coverage of topics and systemic bias[link]
Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic of knowledge covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space, it can have far more topics than can be covered by any conventional printed encyclopedia.[163] It also contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic (cf below). [164] It was made clear that this policy is not up for debate, and the policy has sometimes proved controversial. For instance, in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of Muhammad's depictions in its English edition, citing this policy. The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China,[165] Pakistan[166] and the United Kingdom,[167] among other countries.
A 2008 study conducted by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University and Palo Alto Research Center gave a distribution of topics as well as growth (from July 2006 to January 2008) in each field:[168]
- Culture and the arts: 30% (210%)
- Biographies and persons: 15% (97%)
- Geography and places: 14% (52%)
- Society and social sciences: 12% (83%)
- History and events: 11% (143%)
- Natural and the physical sciences: 9% (213%)
- Technology and the applied science: 4% (−6%)
- Religions and belief systems: 2% (38%)
- Health: 2% (42%)
- Mathematics and logic: 1% (146%)
- Thought and philosophy: 1% (160%)
These numbers refer only to the quantity of articles; it is possible for one topic to contain a large number of short articles and another one contain a small number of large ones. Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles.[169]
Furthermore, the exact coverage of Wikipedia is under constant review by the editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see also deletionism and inclusionism).[170][171]
As of September 2009[update], Wikipedia articles cover about half a million places on Earth. However, research conducted by the Oxford Internet Institute has shown that the geographic distribution of articles is highly uneven. Most articles are written about North America, Europe, and East Asia, with very little coverage of large parts of the developing world, including most of Africa.[172]
When multiple editors contribute to one topic or set of topics, there may arise a systemic bias, such as non-opposite definitions for apparent antonyms. In 2011 Wales noted that the unevenness of the coverage is the reflection of the demography of the editors, which predominantly consists of young male with high educations in the developed world (cf. above)[51]
A "selection bias"[173] may arise when more words per article are devoted to one public figure than a rival public figure. Editors may dispute suspected biases and discuss controversial articles, sometimes at great length. Founder Jimmy Wales has noted the dangers of bias on controversial political topics or polarizing public figures.[20]
Citing Wikipedia[link]
Most university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work, preferring primary sources;[174] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations.[175][176] Co-founder Jimmy Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citeable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative.[177]
In February 2007 an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University include Wikipedia in their syllabi, but that there is a split in their perception of using Wikipedia.[178] In June 2007 former president of the American Library Association Michael Gorman condemned Wikipedia, along with Google,[179] stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything." He also said that "a generation of intellectual sluggards incapable of moving beyond the Internet" was being produced at universities. He complains that the web-based sources are discouraging students from learning from the more rare texts which are found only on paper or subscription-only web sites. In the same article Jenny Fry (a research fellow at the Oxford Internet Institute) commented on academics who cite Wikipedia, saying that: "You cannot say children are intellectually lazy because they are using the Internet when academics are using search engines in their research. The difference is that they have more experience of being critical about what is retrieved and whether it is authoritative. Children need to be told how to use the Internet in a critical and appropriate way."[179]
A Harvard Law textbook, Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources."[180]
Wales once said he receives about ten e-mails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia. According to The Sunday Times of London, Wales told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said.[181]
Explicit content[link]
Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information of graphic content. Articles depicting arguably objectionable content (such as feces, corpses, the human penis or vulva) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with the internet, including children.
The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation as well as photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles.
The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer – a 1976 album from German heavy metal band Scorpions – features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom, after it was reported by a member of the public as child pornography,[182] to the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) which issues a stop list to ISPs. IWF, a nonprofit, nongovernment-affiliated organization, later criticized the inclusion of the picture as "distasteful."[183]
In April 2010, Larry Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of U.S. federal obscenity law.[184] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon, were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003.[185] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law.[185] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools.[186] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation,[187] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it."[187] Following the complaint by Larry Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted."[188]
Operation[link]
Wikimedia Foundation and the Wikimedia chapters[link]
Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks. The Wikimedia chapters, local associations of users and supporters of the Wikimedia projects, also participate in the promotion, development, and funding of the project.
Software and hardware[link]
The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki, a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system.[189] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language, variables, a transclusion system for templates, and URL redirection. MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske. The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker. Several MediaWiki extensions are installed[190] to extend the functionality of MediaWiki software. In April 2005 a Lucene extension[191][192] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. The site currently uses Lucene Search 2.1,[193] which is written in Java and based on Lucene library 2.3.[194]
Wikipedia receives between 25,000 and 60,000 page requests per second, depending on time of day.[195] Page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Squid caching servers.[196] Further statistics are available based on a publicly available 3-months Wikipedia access trace.[197] Requests that cannot be served from the Squid cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass the request to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses.
Wikipedia employed a single server until 2004, when the server setup was expanded into a distributed multitier architecture. In January 2005, the project ran on 39 dedicated servers in Florida. This configuration included a single master database server running MySQL, multiple slave database servers, 21 web servers running the Apache HTTP Server, and seven Squid cache servers. Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers (mainly Ubuntu),[198][199] with a few OpenSolaris machines for ZFS. As of December 2009, there were 300 in Florida and 44 in Amsterdam.[200]
Access to content[link]
Content licensing[link]
When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work,[201] GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs that are licensed under GPL. This made it a poor choice for a general reference work; for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL license text. In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released: it was specifically designed for creative works in general; not just for software manuals. The license gained popularity among bloggers and others distributing creative works on the Web. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons.[202] Because the two licenses, GFDL and Creative Commons, were incompatible, following the request of the project, in November 2008, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. (A new version of GFDL automatically covers Wikipedia contents.) In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009.[203][204][205][206]
The handling of media files (e.g., image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, while the others have opted not to, in part due to the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g., in Japanese copyright law). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g., Creative Commons' CC BY-SA) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation.
The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content, but merely a hosting service for the contributors (and licensors) of the Wikipedia. This position has been successfully defended in court.[207][208]
Methods of access[link]
Because Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse, or re-distribute it at no charge. The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside of the Wikipedia website.
- Web sites – Thousands of "mirror sites" exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones, that also include content from other reference sources, are Reference.com and Answers.com. Another example is Wapedia, which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did.
- Mobile apps – A variety of mobile apps provide access to Wikipedia on hand-held devices, including both Android and Apple iOS devices (see Wikipedia iOS apps). (See also Mobile access).
- Search engines – Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Bing (via technology gained from Powerset)[209] and Duck Duck Go.
- Compact Discs, DVDs – Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs. An English version, 2006 Wikipedia CD Selection, contained about 2,000 articles.[210][211] The Polish-language version contains nearly 240,000 articles.[212] There are German and Spanish-language versions as well.[213][214] Also: "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs/DVDs, produced by Wikipedians and SOS Children, is a free, hand-checked, non-commercial selection from Wikipedia targeted around the UK National Curriculum and intended to be useful for much of the English-speaking world.[215] The project is available online; an equivalent print encyclopedia would require roughly 20 volumes.
- Books – There are efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form.[216][217] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print on demand books which reproduced English, German, Russian and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM.[218]
- Semantic Web – The website DBpedia, begun in 2007, is a project that extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia and makes it available in a queriable semantic format, RDF. The possibility has also been raised to have Wikipedia export its data directly in a semantic format, possibly by using theSemantic MediaWiki extension. Such an export of data could also help Wikipedia reuse its own data, both between articles on the same language Wikipedia and between different language Wikipedias.[219]
Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged.[220] Wikipedia publishes "dumps" of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2007 there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images.[221]
Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation, the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk, with an accuracy of 55%.[222]
[edit] Mobile access
- See also: Help:Mobile access
Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed internet connection. In addition, Wikipedia content is now accessible through the mobile web.
Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. In June 2007 Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009 a newer mobile service was officially released,[223] located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone, Android-based devices, or the Palm Pre. Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged. Many devices and applications optimise or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata (See Wikipedia:Metadata), such as geoinformation.[224][225]
Impact[link]
Sister projects - Wikimedia[link]
Wikipedia has also spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation. The first, "In Memoriam: September 11 Wiki,"[226] created in October 2002,[227] detailed the September 11 attacks; this project was closed in October 2006.[citation needed] Wiktionary, a dictionary project, was launched in December 2002;[228] Wikiquote, a collection of quotations, a week after Wikimedia launched, and Wikibooks, a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts. Wikimedia has since started a number of other projects, including Wikimedia Commons, a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia; Wikinews, for citizen journalism; and Wikiversity, a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities.[229] Of these, only Commons has had success comparable to that of Wikipedia. Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies, is a catalogue of species.
Impact on publishing[link]
Some observers have stated that Wikipedia represents an economic threat to publishers of traditional encyclopedias, who may be unable to compete with a product that is essentially free. Nicholas Carr, wrote a 2005 essay, "The amorality of Web 2.0", that criticized websites with user-generated content, like Wikipedia, for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time." Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening."[230] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. For instance, Chris Anderson, the editor-in-chief of Wired Magazine, wrote in Nature that the "wisdom of crowds" approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals, with their rigorous peer review process.[231]
Cultural significance[link]
In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles,[232] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001.[233] According to Alexa and comScore, Wikipedia is among the ten most visited websites worldwide.[9][234] The growth of Wikipedia has been fueled by its dominant position in Google search results;[235] about 50% of search engine traffic to Wikipedia comes from Google,[236] a good portion of which is related to academic research.[237] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009.[10] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia.[238] In October 2006, the site was estimated to have a hypothetical market value of $580 million if it ran advertisements.[239]
Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases.[240][241][242] The Parliament of Canada's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act.[243] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the U.S. Federal Courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization[244] – though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case.[245] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some U.S. intelligence agency reports.[246] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia.[247]
Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism,[248][249] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia.[250][251][252] In July 2007 Wikipedia was the focus of a 30-minute documentary on BBC Radio 4[253] which argued that, with increased usage and awareness, the number of references to Wikipedia in popular culture is such that the term is one of a select band of 21st-century nouns that are so familiar (Google, Facebook, YouTube) that they no longer need explanation and are on a par with such 20th-century terms as Hoovering or Coca-Cola.
On September 28, 2007 Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the Minister of Cultural Resources and Activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama. He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website" to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues.[254]
On September 16, 2007 The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 U.S. election campaign, saying, "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day."[255] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol," reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability.[256]
Awards[link]
Wikipedia won two major awards in May 2004.[257] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category.[258] Wikipedia was also nominated for a "Best Practices" Webby. On January 26, 2007 Wikipedia was also awarded the fourth highest brand ranking by the readers of brandchannel.com, receiving 15% of the votes in answer to the question "Which brand had the most impact on our lives in 2006?"[259]
In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić, Eckart Höfling, and Peter Gabriel. The award was presented to Jimmy Wales by David Weinberger.[260]
Satire[link]
Many parody Wikipedia's openness and susceptibility to inserted inaccuracies, with characters vandalizing or modifying the online encyclopedia project's articles.
Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality, meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on".[157] Another example can be found in a front-page article in The Onion in July 2006, with the title "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence".[261] Others draw upon Wikipedia's motto, such as in "The Negotiation", an episode of The Office, where character Michael Scott says: "Wikipedia is the best thing ever. Anyone in the world can write anything they want about any subject, so you know you are getting the best possible information." "My Number One Doctor", a 2007 episode of the TV show Scrubs, played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unserious reference tool with a scene in which Dr. Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide.[262] In one episode of 30 Rock, Pete and Frank add nonsensical information to the Janis Joplin Wikipedia page after telling Jenna that she should look it up to learn more about her, as, since Wikipedia could be edited by anybody, it was the most informative research because they find out more every day.
In 2008, the comedic website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements.[263] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia, which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles.[264]
In 2010, comedian Daniel Tosh encouraged viewers of his show, Tosh.0, to visit the show's Wikipedia article and edit it at will. On a later episode, he commented on the edits to the article, most of them offensive, which had been made by the audience and had prompted the article to be locked from editing.[265][266]
Related projects[link]
A number of interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project, which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from over 1 million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008.[267] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2, which was created by Douglas Adams. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively light-hearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. Everything2 was created in 1998. All of these projects had similarities with Wikipedia, but were not wikis and neither gave full editorial privileges to public users.
GNE, an encyclopedia which was not a wiki, also created in January 2001, co-existed with Nupedia and Wikipedia early in its history; however, it has been retired and its creator, free software figure Richard Stallman,[citation needed] has lent his support to Wikipedia.[29]
Other websites centered on collaborative knowledge base development have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Some, such as Susning.nu, Enciclopedia Libre, Hudong, and Baidu Baike likewise employ no formal review process, although some like Conservapedia are not as open. Others use more traditional peer review, such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium. The latter was started by Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia.[268][269] Scholarpedia also focuses on ensuring high quality.
A number of published biological databases now use wikis.[270][relevant? – discuss]
Glossary[link]
- Revert - undoing changes
- Wikilawyering - a pejorative term, describing various questionable ways of judging the actions of Wikipedians. It may refer to certain quasi-legal practices.
- Wikipedians - Wikipedia editors
See also[link]
 |
Meta has related information at: |
- Bibliography of Wikipedia
- Democratization of knowledge
- Interpedia, an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia
- List of online encyclopedias
- List of wikis
- Network effect
- QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia
- Paid editing on Wikipedia
- User-generated content
- Wikipedia in culture
- Wikipedia Review
Special searches[link]
References[link]
- ^ Jonathan Sidener. "Everyone's Encyclopedia". The San Diego Union-Tribune. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html. Retrieved October 15, 2006.
- ^ "Wikipedia.org Site Info". Alexa Internet. http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/wikipedia.org. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
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- ^ "Technology can topple tyrants: Jimmy Wales an eternal optimist" (in en). Sydney Morning Herald. 7 November 2011. http://m.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/technology-can-topple-tyrants-jimmy-wales-an-eternal-optimist-20111107-1n387.html. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
- ^ According to internal statistics, there are more than 1.3 million total editors (Wikipedians who edited at least 10 times since they arrived) as of April 2011 "Wikipedia Statistics - Table - Contributor" (in en). 30 April 2012. http://stats.wikimedia.org/EN/TablesWikipediansContributors.htm. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
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- ^ a b "Top 500". Alexa. http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=global&lang=none. Retrieved October 13, 2009.
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- ^ Mike Miliard (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?". Salt Lake City Weekly. http://www.cityweekly.net/utah/article-5129-feature-wikipediots-who-are-these-devoted-even-obsessive-contributors-to-wikipedia.html. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
- ^ How I started Wikipedia, presentation by Larry Sanger
- ^ "wiki" in the Hawaiian Dictionary, Revised and Enlarged Edition, University of Hawaii Press, 1986
- ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You". TIME (Time, Inc). http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1569514,00.html. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
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- ^ Witzleb, Normann (2009). Engaging with the World: Students of Comparative Law Write for Wikipedia. 19. Legal Education Review. pp. 83–98
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- ^ a b Reid Priedhorsky, Jilin Chen, Shyong (Tony) K. Lam, Katherine Panciera, Loren Terveen, and John Riedl (GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota) (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF). Association for Computing Machinery GROUP '07 conference proceedings (Sanibel Island, Florida). http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~reid/papers/group282-priedhorsky.pdf. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
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- "Wikipedia survives research test". BBC News (BBC). December 15, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4530930.stm.
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- ^ Jonathan Sidener (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia". The San Diego Union-Tribune. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html. Retrieved October 15, 2006.
- ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You". New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fC%2fComputer%20Software. Retrieved November 22, 2007. " 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales."
- ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir". Slashdot. http://features.slashdot.org/features/05/04/18/164213.shtml. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Sanger, Larry (January 17, 2001). "Wikipedia Is Up!". Archived from the original on May 6, 2001. http://web.archive.org/web/20010506042824/http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000684.html. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
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- ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. http://web.archive.org/web/20030414014355/http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000676.html. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
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- ^ "Wikipedia:Neutral point of view, Wikipedia (January 21, 2007)
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- ^ Clay Shirky (February 28, 2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations. The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273. ISBN 1-59420-153-6. http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594201536/ref=sib_dp_srch_pop?v=search-inside&keywords=spanish&go.x=0&go.y=0&go=Go%21. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Bobbie Johnson (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/aug/12/wikipedia-deletionist-inclusionist. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ Size of Wikipedia
- ^ "The Singularity is Not Near: Slowing Growth of Wikipedia". the International Symposium on Wikis. Orlando, Florida. 2009. http://www.wikisym.org/ws2009/procfiles/p108-suh.pdf.
- ^ Evgeny Morozov. "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia". Boston Review. http://www.bostonreview.net/BR34.6/morozov.php.
- ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/29/weekinreview/29cohen.html. Retrieved April 19, 2011.
- ^ Jenny Kleeman (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/nov/26/wikipedia-losing-disgruntled-editors. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ (PDF) Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis. http://libresoft.es/publications/thesis-jfelipe.
- ^ Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages, The Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2009.
- ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/wikipedia/6660646/Wikipedias-Jimmy-Wales-denies-site-is-losing-thousands-of-volunteer-editors.html. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ a b Kevin Rawlinson (08 August 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors". Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/wikipedia-seeks-women-to-balance-its-geeky-editors-2333605.html. Retrieved April 5, 2012.
- ^ "Wikipedia Breaks Into U.S. Top 10 Sites". PCWorld. February 17, 2007. http://www.pcworld.com/article/129135/wikipedia_breaks_into_us_top_10_sites.html.
- ^ http://www.alexa.com/topsites Alexa Internet Top Sites.
- ^ http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/squids/SquidReportPageViewsPerCountryOverview.htm Wikimedia Statistics, April 20, 2011. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
- ^ Netburn, Deborah (2012-01-19). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led 8 million to look up reps in Congress". Los Angeles Times. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-congressional-representatives.html. Retrieved 2012-03-06.
- ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves". BBC News. January 18, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585. Retrieved January 19, 2012.
- ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage". Wikimedia Foundation. http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/SOPA/Blackoutpage. Retrieved January 19, 2012.
- ^ Cohen, Noam (April 23, 2007). "The Latest on Virginia Tech, From Wikipedia". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/23/technology/23link.html?ex=1178510400&en=c0eb1b23e5c579f7&ei=5070. Retrieved December 27, 2011.
- ^ "UX and Usability Study". Usability.wikimedia.org. http://usability.wikimedia.org/wiki/UX_and_Usability_Study. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ Ownership of articles
- ^ Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" (in German). Wikide-l mailing list. Wikimedia Foundation. http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikide-l/2008-December/021594.html. Retrieved February 15, 2009.
- ^ Wikipedia:Pending changes/Request for Comment February 2011
- ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (2005-02). "World of Knowledge" (PDF). The Wikipedia Project (Linux Magazine). http://w3.linux-magazine.com/issue/51/Wikipedia_Encyclopedia.pdf. Retrieved July 13, 2007. "The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves."
- ^ The Japanese Wikipedia, for example, is known for deleting every mention of real names of victims of certain high-profile crimes, even when they still appear in other language editions.
- ^ Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, Jesse Kriss, Frank van Ham (January 3, 2007) (PDF). Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia. Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. http://www.research.ibm.com/visual/papers/wikipedia_coordination_final.pdf. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
- ^ Wikipedia:Consensus
- ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol
- ^ English Wikipedia's semi-protection policy
- ^ English Wikipedia's full protection policy
- ^ "Wikipedia signpost: Abuse Filter is enabled". En.wikipedia.org. March 23, 2009. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2009-03-23/Abuse_Filter. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ Wikipedia:Categorization
- ^ "First Monday". First Monday. http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2365/2182. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Matthew M. McKeon (July 22, 2007) (PDF). The Hidden Order of Wikipedia. Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. http://www.research.ibm.com/visual/papers/hidden_order_wikipedia.pdf. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
- ^ Poderi, Giacomo, Wikipedia and the Featured Articles: How a Technological System Can Produce Best Quality Articles, (Master thesis), University of Maastricht, October 2008,
- ^ "Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Version_1.0_Editorial_Team/Assessment. Retrieved October 28, 2007.
- ^ Wikipedia:Vandalism
- ^ "Caslon.com". Caslon.com. http://www.caslon.com.au/wikiprofile1.htm. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ Robert McHenry (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia". TCS Daily. http://www.tcsdaily.com/article.aspx?id=111504A. Retrieved September 10, 2009.
- ^ a b Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography'". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2005-11-29-wikipedia-edit_x.htm. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2.
- ^ "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace By Brian J. Buchanan". Firstamendmentcenter.org. November 30, 2005. http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070212171844/http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/news.aspx?id=17798. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?". PC World. February 6, 2008. http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;1866322157;fp;2;fpid;2. Retrieved February 7, 2008.
- ^ "Wikipedia:ISNOT". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:ISNOT. Retrieved April 1, 2010. "Wikipedia is not a dictionary, usage, or jargon guide."
- ^ "Wikipedia:Notability". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Notability. Retrieved February 13, 2008. "A topic is presumed to be notable if it has received significant coverage in reliable secondary sources that are independent of the subject."
- ^ "Wikipedia:No original research". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research. Retrieved February 13, 2008. "Wikipedia does not publish original thought"
- ^ "Wikipedia:Verifiability". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability. Retrieved February 13, 2008. "Material challenged or likely to be challenged, and all quotations, must be attributed to a reliable, published source."
- ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune: p. 18. "In the case of of dabba kali, a children's game played in the Indian state of Kerala there was a Wikipedia article in the local language, Malayalam, that included photos, a drawing, and a detailed description of the rules. but no sources to back up what was written. Other than, of course the 40 million people who played it as children. There is no doubt...that the article would have been deleted from English Wikipedia if it not had any sources to cite. Those are the rules of the game."
- ^ "Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view. Retrieved February 13, 2008. "All Wikipedia articles and other encyclopedic content must be written from a neutral point of view, representing significant views fairly, proportionately and without bias."
- ^ Eric Haas (October 26, 2007). "Will Unethical Editing Destroy Wikipedia's Credibility?". AlterNet.org. http://www.alternet.org/story/61365/?page=entire. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). Wikitruth through Wikiorder. 59. Emory Law Journal. p. 181. http://www.law.emory.edu/fileadmin/journals/elj/59/59.1/Hoffman_Mehra.pdf.
- ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). Wikitruth through Wikiorder. 59. Emory Law Journal. pp. 151–210. http://www.law.emory.edu/fileadmin/journals/elj/59/59.1/Hoffman_Mehra.pdf
- ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction
- ^ Wikipedia's Hive Mind Administration, November 9, 2005 (copy of original text at Google Blogoscoped)
- ^ "Tron dispute". Wikipedia Signpost. Wikipedia. January 16, 2006. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2006-01-16/Tron_dispute.
- ^ heise online – Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update, by Torsten Kleinz, February 9, 2006.
- ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2005/dec/15/wikipedia.web20. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/internet/08/03/wikipedia/index.html. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ "Wikinfo (March 30, 2005). "Critical views of Wikipedia". http://wikinfo.org/index.php/Critical_views_of_Wikipedia. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ Larry Sanger (31 December 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism". Kuro5hin.org. p. Op-Ed. http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/12/30/142458/25. Retrieved 9 May 2012. "There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups...that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you... demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship," attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem...which explains both of the above... as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist... expertise is not accorded any special respect. This is one of my failures"
- ^ Hafner, Kate (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/17/technology/17wiki.html?scp=8&sq=wikipedia&st=cse. Retrieved July 12, 2009.
- ^ Corner, Stuart (June 18, 2006). "What's all the fuss about Wikipedia?". iT Wire. http://www.itwire.com/content/view/4666/127/. Retrieved March 25, 2007.
- ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2184487. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
- ^ Wikipedia:Administrators
- ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2006/02/13/many_contributors_common_cause/. Retrieved March 25, 2007.
- ^ "Wikipedia:Administrators". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators#Administrator_conduct. Retrieved July 12, 2009.
- ^ "Wikipedia:RfA_Review/Reflect". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:RfA_Review/Reflect. Retrieved September 24, 2009.
- ^ Jean Goodwin (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia". http://www.public.iastate.edu/~goodwin/pubs/goodwinwikipedia.pdf. Retrieved January 31, 2011. "Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers"
- ^ Kittur, Aniket. "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie" (PDF). http://www.viktoria.se/altchi/submissions/submission_edchi_1.pdf. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
- ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?". http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/whowriteswikipedia. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
- ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans Are on the Money". Scientific American. October 19, 2007. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=good-samaritans-are-on-the-money. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Andrea Ciffolilli, "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia," First Monday December 2003.
- ^ Zittrain, Jonathan (2008). The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It – Chapter 6: The Lessons of Wikipedia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12487-3. http://yupnet.org/zittrain/archives/16. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- ^ Yair Amichai–Hamburger, Naama Lamdan, Rinat Madiel, Tsahi Hayat Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members CyberPsychology & Behavior December 1, 2008, 11(6): 679–681. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0225
- ^ "Wikipedians are 'closed' and 'disagreeable'". Newscientist.com. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20126883.900-wikipedians-are-closed-and-disagreeable.html. Retrieved July 13, 2010. (Subscription required)
- ^ Giles, Jim (4 Aug 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?". New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17554-after-the-boom-is-wikipedia-heading-for-bust.html.
- ^ "Infoq.com". Infoq.com. http://www.infoq.com/presentations/vibber-community-perf-opt. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
- ^ Help:Using talk pages – "A talk page (also known as a discussion page) is a page which editors can use to discuss improvements to an article or other Wikipedia page." Retrieved April 18, 2011.
- ^ "The Wikipedia Signpost". Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
- ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/05/technology/05wikipedia.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1. Retrieved October 18, 2008.
- ^ Rubel, Steve (December 19, 2005). "Ten More Wikipedia Hacks". WebProNews. http://www.webpronews.com/blogtalk/2005/12/19/ten-more-wikipedia-hacks. Retrieved October 18, 2008.
- ^ T Kriplean, I Beschastnikh et al. (2008). "Articulations of wikiwork". Articulations of wikiwork: uncovering valued work in Wikipedia through barnstars. Proceedings of the ACM. p. 47. DOI:10.1145/1460563.1460573. ISBN 978-1-60558-007-4. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1460563.1460573
- ^ Panciera, Katherine et al. (2009). Wikipedians Are Born, Not Made. Association for Computing Machinery, Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Supporting Group Work. pp. 51, 59
- ^ Goldman, Eric. Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences. 8. Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law
- ^ Noveck, Beth Simone. Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education. 57. Journal of Legal Education
- ^ Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?". Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/2009/1/who-the-hell-writes-wikipedia-anyway. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
- ^ Chom, Noam (31 Jan 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia’s Contributor List". New York Times: p. B-1. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/31/business/media/31link.html?scp=1&sq=wikipedia%20gender&st=cse. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- ^ Basch, Linda (6 February 2011). "Male-Dominated Web Site Seeking Female Experts" (Letters to the Editor). New York Times: p. WK-7. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/06/opinion/l06wiki.html. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- ^ Taha Yasseri, Robert Sumi, János Kertész (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis". PLoS ONE. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0030091. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
- ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2011-12 Annual Plan". Wikimedia Foundation. p. 8. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/foundation/3/37/2011-12_Wikimedia_Foundation_Plan_FINAL_FOR_WEBSITE_.pdf.
- ^ "Statistics". English Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Statistics. Retrieved June 21, 2008.
- ^ "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias". English Wikipedia. http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias#All_Wikipedias_ordered_by_number_of_articles. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
- ^ "spelling". Manual of Style. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Spelling. Retrieved May 19, 2007.
- ^ "Countering systemic bias". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias. Retrieved May 19, 2007.
- ^ "Fair use". Meta wiki. http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fair_use. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
- ^ "Images on Wikipedia". http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Images_on_Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
- ^ Fernanda B. Viégas (January 3, 2007) (PDF). The Visual Side of Wikipedia. Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. http://www.research.ibm.com/visual/papers/viegas_hicss_visual_wikipedia.pdf. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
- ^ Jimmy Wales, "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia," March 8, 2005, <Wikipedia-l@wikimedia.org>
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Further reading[link]
Academic studies[link]
- Yasseri, Taha; Robert Sumi and János Kertész (2012). Szolnoki, Attila. ed. "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis". PLoS ONE 7 (1): e30091. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0030091. PMC 3260192. PMID 22272279. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0030091.
- Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law 8. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1458162##. (a blog post by the author)
- Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia". First Monday 12 (8). http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue12_8/nielsen/index.html. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
- Pfeil, Ulrike; Panayiotis Zaphiris and Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (1): 88. DOI:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x. http://jcmc.indiana.edu./vol12/issue1/pfeil.html. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- Priedhorsky, Reid, Jilin Chen, Shyong (Tony) K. Lam, Katherine Panciera, Loren Terveen, and John Riedl. "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia". Proc. GROUP 2007, doi: 1316624.131663.
- Reagle, Joseph (2007). "Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia". WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis. Montreal, Canada: ACM. http://reagle.org/joseph/2007/10/Wikipedia-Authorial-Leadership.pdf. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
- Rosenzweig, Roy. Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past. (Originally published in Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–46.)
- Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Bernardo A. Huberman (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia". First Monday 12 (4). http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue12_4/wilkinson/index.html. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
Books[link]
 |
It has been suggested that Bibliography of Wikipedia be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2012. |
- Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (September 2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3.
- Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 0-596-51516-2. (See book rev. by Baker, as listed below.)
- Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide. Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 0-596-52174-X.
- Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality. Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9.
- Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur. Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5. (substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects). Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?". Npr.org. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11131872. Retrieved March 31, 2010. the NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007.
- Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6.
- O'Sullivan, Dan (September 24, 2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=htu8A-m_Y4EC. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
- Rafaeli, Sheizaf & Yaron Ariel (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia." In Barak, A.. Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–267.
- Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. http://reagle.org/joseph/2010/gfc/.
Book reviews and other articles[link]
- Baker, Nicholson. "The Charms of Wikipedia". The New York Review of Books, March 20, 2008. Accessed December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual, by John Broughton, as listed above.)
- Crovitz, L. Gordon. "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009)
Learning resources[link]
- Wikiversity list of learning resources. (Includes related courses, Web-based seminars, slides, lecture notes, text books, quizzes, glossaries, etc.)
Other media coverage[link]
- Balke, Jeff (2008-03). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace". Houston Chronicle (Blog). http://blogs.chron.com/brokenrecord/2008/03/for_music_fans_wikipedia_myspa.html. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out". The New York Times Magazine (The New York Times Company). http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/magazine/01WIKIPEDIA-t.html?_r=1&ref=magazine&oref=slogin. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
- Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust". New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526226.200. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules". The Phoenix. http://thephoenix.com/Boston/Life/52864-Wikipedia-rules/. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
- Poe, Marshall (2006-09). "The Hive". The Atlantic Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200609/wikipedia. Retrieved March 22, 2008.
- Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/22/AR2009102204715.html?hpid=topnews. Retrieved October 22, 2009.
- Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog". London Review of Books. http://www.lrb.co.uk/v31/n10/runc01_.html. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
- Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World". Time (Time, Inc). http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1066904-1,00.html. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
- "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist". The Economist Web and Print. June 5, 2008. http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11484062. Retrieved June 5, 2008. "Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? [leader]."
- Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?, The Independent, February 3, 2009
External links[link]
| Find more about Wikipedia on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Learning resources from Wikiversity |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Wikipedia:Formal organization An outline of Wikipedia administration based upon Wikipedia articles about itself.
- Wikipedia – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions of the project)
- Wikipedia mobile phone portal
- Wikipedia at the Open Directory Project
- Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times
- Video of TED Talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia
- Audio of interview with Jimmy Wales about Wikipedia in general on the EconTalk podcast
- Wikipedia and why it matters – Larry Sanger's 2002 talk at Stanford University. video archive and transcript of the talk
- 10 Wikipedia
- "Intelligence in Wikipedia" Google TechTalk on YouTube, describing an intelligence project utilizing Wikipedia, and how Wikipedia articles could be auto-generated from web content
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| This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. |
| International Phonetic Alphabet |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Type | Alphabet , partially featural |
| Languages | Used for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any language |
| Time period | since 1888 |
| Parent systems |
Romic alphabet
|
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)[note 1] is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.[1] The IPA is used by foreign language students and teachers, linguists, Speech-Language Pathologists, singers, actors, lexicographers, constructed language creators (conlangers), and translators.[2][3]
The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.[1] To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the IPA may be used.[2]
IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two basic types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter, [t], or with a letter plus diacritics, [t̺ʰ], depending on how precise one wishes to be.[4] Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription; thus, /t/ is less specific than, and could refer to, either [t̺ʰ] or [t] depending on the context and language.
Occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of 2008, there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics, and four prosodic marks in the IPA.
Contents |
History[link]
In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’Association phonétique internationale).[5] Their original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.[6] For example, the sound [ʃ] (the sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the letter ⟨x⟩ in French.[5] However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.[5][7]
Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid-central vowels[2] and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives.[8] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap.[9] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces.[2]
Extensions to the alphabet are relatively recent; "Extensions to the IPA" was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.[10]
Description[link]
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound (speech segment).[11] This means that it does not use combinations of letters to represent single sounds, the way English does with ⟨sh⟩ and ⟨ng⟩, or single letters to represent multiple sounds the way ⟨x⟩ represents /ks/ or /ɡz/ in English. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as ⟨c⟩ does in English and other European languages, and finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".[2][note 2]
Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 19 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length, tone, stress, and intonation.[note 3]
Letterforms[link]
The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.[note 4] For this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters that are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a dotless question mark, and derives originally from an apostrophe. A few letters, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, ⟨ʕ⟩, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ﻉ, `ain).[8]
Despite its preference for harmonizing with the Latin script, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted other letters. For example, before 1989, the IPA letters for click consonants were ⟨ʘ⟩, ⟨ʇ⟩, ⟨ʗ⟩, and ⟨ʖ⟩, all of which were derived either from existing IPA letters, or from Latin and Greek letters. However, except for ⟨ʘ⟩, none of these letters was widely used among Khoisanists or Bantuists, and as a result they were replaced by the more widespread symbols ⟨ʘ⟩, ⟨ǀ⟩, ⟨ǃ⟩, ⟨ǂ⟩, and ⟨ǁ⟩ at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989.[12] Although the IPA diacritics are fully featural, there is little systemicity in the letter forms. A retroflex articulation is consistently indicated with a right-swinging tail, as in ⟨ɖ ʂ ɳ⟩, and implosion by a top hook, ⟨ɓ ɗ ɠ⟩, but other pseudo-featural elements are due to haphazard derivation and coincidence. For example, all nasal consonants but uvular ⟨ɴ⟩ are based on the form ⟨n⟩: ⟨m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ⟩. However, the similarity between ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ is a historical accident, ⟨ɲ⟩ and ⟨ŋ⟩ are derived from ligatures of gn and ng, and ⟨ɱ⟩ is an ad hoc imitation of ⟨ŋ⟩. In none of these is the form consistent with other letters that share these places of articulation.[citation needed]
Some of the new letters were ordinary Latin letters turned upside-down, such as ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ᴚ ʇ ʌ ʍ ʎ (turned a c e f h m r ʀ t v w y). This was easily done with mechanical typesetting machines, and had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols.
Symbols and sounds[link]
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible.[5] The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonant letters taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to "international usage".[5] Hence, the letters ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨f⟩, (hard) ⟨ɡ⟩, (non-silent) ⟨h⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨p⟩, (voiceless) ⟨s⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨t⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨z⟩ have the values used in English; and the vowel letters from the Latin alphabet (⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩) correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in machine, [u] is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as ⟨j⟩, ⟨r⟩, and ⟨y⟩.
This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several symbols derived or taken from the Greek alphabet, though the sound values may differ. For example, ⟨ʋ⟩ is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA. Three of these (⟨β⟩, ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨χ⟩) are used unmodified in form; for others (including ⟨ɣ⟩, ⟨ɛ⟩, ⟨ɸ⟩, and ⟨ʋ⟩) subtly different glyph shapes have been devised, which may be encoded in Unicode separately from their "parent" letters.
The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters.[13] For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from its shape (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech).
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed.
Brackets and phonemes[link]
There are two principal types of brackets used to set off IPA transcriptions:
- [square brackets] are used for phonetic details of the pronunciation, possibly including details that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, but which the author nonetheless wishes to document.
- /slashes/ are used to mark off phonemes, all of which are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail.
For example, while the /p/ sounds of pin and spin are pronounced slightly differently in English (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus phonemically the words are /pɪn/ and /spɪn/, with the same /p/ phoneme. However, to capture the difference between them (the allophones of /p/), they can be transcribed phonetically as [pʰɪn] and [spɪn].
Two other conventions are less commonly seen:
- Double slashes //...//, pipes |...|, double pipes ||...||, or braces {...} may be used around a word to denote its underlying structure, more abstract even than that of phonemes. See morphophonology for examples.
- Angle brackets are used to clarify that the letters represent the original orthography of the language, or sometimes an exact transliteration of a non-Latin script, not the IPA; or, within the IPA, that the letters themselves are indicated, not the sound values that they carry. For example, ⟨pin⟩ and ⟨spin⟩ would be seen for those words, which do not contain the ee sound [i] of the IPA letter ⟨i⟩. Italics are perhaps more commonly used for this purpose when full words are being written (as pin, spin above), but this convention may not be considered sufficiently clear for individual letters and digraphs. The true angle brackets ⟨...⟩ (U+27E8, U+27E9) are not supported by many non-mathematical fonts as of 2010. Therefore chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes used in substitution, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E).
Handwritten forms[link]
IPA letters have handwritten forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes; they are occasionally seen in publications when the printer did not have fonts that supported IPA, and the IPA was therefore filled in by hand.
Usage[link]
Although the IPA offers over a hundred and sixty symbols for transcribing speech, only a relatively small subset of these will be used to transcribe any one language. It is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in a great deal of detail, is known as a narrow transcription. A coarser transcription which ignores some of this detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.[1] Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
For example, the English word little may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as [ˈlɪtəl], and this broad (imprecise) transcription is an accurate (approximately correct) description of many pronunciations. A more narrow transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: [ˈɫɪɾɫ] in General American, [ˈlɪʔo] in Cockney, or [ˈɫɪːɫ] in Southern US English.
It is customary to use simpler letters, without many diacritics, in phonemic transcriptions. The choice of IPA letters may reflect the theoretical claims of the author, or merely be a convenience for typesetting. For instance, in English, either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as /i/ (for the pairs /pik, piːk/ or /pɪk, pik/), and neither is identical to the vowel of the French word pique which is also generally transcribed /i/. That is, letters between slashes do not have absolute values, something true of broader phonetic approximations as well. A narrow transcription may, however, be used to distinguish them: [pʰɪk], [pʰiːk], [pik].
Linguists[link]
Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists, it is also common to use Americanist phonetic notation or IPA together with some nonstandard symbols, for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or avoiding perceived awkwardness of IPA in some situations. The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers, so authors are generally encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices.[14]
Language study[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130211044901/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
Some language study programs use the IPA to teach pronunciation. For example, in Russia (and earlier in the Soviet Union), mainland China, and Taiwan[citation needed], textbooks for children[15] and adults[16] for studying English and French consistently use the IPA.
Dictionaries[link]
English[link]
Many British dictionaries, including learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words.[17] However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use ⟨y⟩ for IPA [j] and ⟨sh⟩ for IPA [ʃ], reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English,[18] using only letters of the English Roman alphabet and variations of them. (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French ⟨u⟩ (as in tu), and [sh] represents the pair of sounds in grasshopper.)
Other languages[link]
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with generally phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew script for transcription of foreign words. Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, Even-Shoshan Dictionary respells תָּכְנִית as תּוֹכְנִית because this word uses kamatz katan. Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words; for example, Ozhegov's dictionary adds нэ́ in brackets for the French word пенсне (pince-nez) to indicate that the е doesn't iotate the н.
The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.[19]
Standard orthographies and capital variants[link]
IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably in Sub-Saharan Africa: Hausa, Fula, Akan, Gbe languages, Manding languages, Lingala, etc. This has created the need for capital variants. For example, Kabiyé of northern Togo has Ɔ ɔ, Ɛ ɛ, Ɖ ɖ, Ŋ ŋ, Ɣ ɣ, Ʃ ʃ, Ʊ ʊ (or Ʋ ʋ):
- MBƱ AJƐYA KIGBƐNDƱƱ ŊGBƐYƐ KEDIƔZAƔ SƆSƆƆ TƆM SE.
These, and others, are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.
Classical singing[link]
IPA has widespread use among classical singers for preparation, especially among English-speaking singers who are expected to sing in a variety of foreign languages. Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes[20] and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech.[21] Opera singers' ability to read IPA was recently used by the Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database. ...for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA."[22]
Letters[link]
The International Phonetic Alphabet organizes its letter symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.[23][24] Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as ɵ and θ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.
Consonants[link]
|
IPA pulmonic consonants chartchart image • audio |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Place → | Labial | Coronal | Dorsal | Radical | Glottal | |||||||||||||||||||
| ↓ Manner | Bilabial | Labiodental | Dental | Alveolar | Postalv. | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Epiglottal | Glottal | ||||||||||||
| Nasal | m̥ | m | ɱ | n̪ | n̥ | n | n̠ | ɳ | ɲ̥ | ɲ | ŋ̊ | ŋ | ɴ | |||||||||||
| Stop | p | b | p̪ | b̪ | t̪ | d̪ | t | d | ʈ | ɖ | c | ɟ | k | ɡ | q | ɢ | ʡ | ʔ | ||||||
| Fricative | ɸ | β | f | v | θ | ð | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʐ | ç | ʝ | x | ɣ | χ | ʁ | ħ | ʕ | ʜ | ʢ | h | ɦ |
| Approximant | ʋ | ɹ | ɻ | j | ɰ | |||||||||||||||||||
| Trill | ʙ | r | ɽ͡r | ʀ | я * | |||||||||||||||||||
| Flap or tap | ⱱ̟ | ⱱ | ɾ | ɽ | ɢ̆ | ʡ̯ | ||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral Fric. | ɬ | ɮ | ɭ˔̊ | ʎ̥˔ | ʟ̝̊ | ʟ̝ | ||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral Appr. | l | ɭ | ʎ | ʟ | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral flap | ɺ | ɺ̠ | ʎ̯ | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Clicks | ʘ | ǀ | ǃ | ǂ | ǁ | ||
| ʘ̃ | ʘ̃ˀ | ʘ͡q | ʘ͡qʼ | ||||
| Implosives | ɓ | ɗ | ʄ | ᶑ | ɠ | ʛ | |
| Ejectives | pʼ | tʼ | cʼ | ʈʼ | kʼ | qʼ | |
| fʼ | θʼ | sʼ | ɬʼ | xʼ | χʼ | ||
| tsʼ | tɬʼ | cʎ̝̥ʼ | tʃʼ | ʈʂʼ | kxʼ | kʟ̝̊ʼ | |
| p̪f | b̪v | ts | dz | tʃ | dʒ | tɕ | dʑ | ʈʂ | ɖʐ |
| tɬ | dɮ | cç | ɟʝ | cʎ̥˔ | kʟ̝̊ |
| Fricatives | ɕ | ʑ | ɧ | |
| Approximants | ʍ | w | ɥ | ɫ |
| Stops | k͡p | ɡ͡b | ŋ͡m | |
| These tables contain phonetic symbols, which may not display correctly in some browsers. [Help] |
| Where symbols appear in pairs, left—right represent the voiceless—voiced consonants. |
| Shaded areas denote pulmonic articulations judged to be impossible. |
| * Symbol not defined in IPA. |
- Notes
- Asterisks (*) indicate unofficial IPA symbols for attested sounds. See the respective articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
- In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the obstruents), the letter to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced [ɦ]). However, [ʔ] cannot be voiced, and the voicing of [ʡ] is ambiguous.[25] In the other rows (the sonorants), the single letter represents a voiced consonant.
- Although there is a single letter for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
- Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
- The letters [ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
- In many languages, such as English, [h] and [ɦ] are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation.[26]
- It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ʃ ʒ], [ɕ ʑ], and [ʂ ʐ].
- The labiodental nasal [ɱ] is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.[27]
Pulmonic consonants[link]
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.[28]
The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.
Co-articulated consonants[link]
Co-articulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants.
- Note
- [ɧ] is described as a "simultaneous [ʃ] and [x]".[29] However, this analysis is disputed. (See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion.)
Affricates and double articulated consonants[link]
Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters.[30] The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage,[1] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example tˢ for t͡s, paralleling kˣ ~ k͡x. The letters for the palatal plosives c and ɟ, are often used as a convenience for t͡ʃ and d͡ʒ or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
| View this table as an image. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Tie bar | Ligature | Description |
| t͡s | ʦ | voiceless alveolar affricate |
| d͡z | ʣ | voiced alveolar affricate |
| t͡ʃ | ʧ | voiceless postalveolar affricate |
| d͡ʒ | ʤ | voiced postalveolar affricate |
| t͡ɕ | ʨ | voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate |
| d͡ʑ | ʥ | voiced alveolo-palatal affricate |
| t͡ɬ | – | voiceless alveolar lateral affricate |
| k͡p | – | voiceless labial-velar plosive |
| ɡ͡b | – | voiced labial-velar plosive |
| ŋ͡m | – | labial-velar nasal stop |
- Note
- On browsers that use Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡.
Non-pulmonic consonants[link]
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa), implosives (found in languages such as Swahili) and ejectives (found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages).
| View this table as an image | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clicks | Implosives | Ejectives | |||
| ʘ | Bilabial | ɓ | Bilabial | ʼ | For example: |
| ǀ | Laminal alveolar ("dental") | ɗ | Alveolar | pʼ | Bilabial |
| ǃ | Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex") | ʄ | Palatal | tʼ | Alveolar |
| ǂ | Laminal postalveolar ("palatal") | ɠ | Velar | kʼ | Velar |
| ǁ | Lateral coronal ("lateral") | ʛ | Uvular | sʼ | Alveolar fricative |
- Notes
- Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: ⟨k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ⟩ etc., or ⟨ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ⟩. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a [k] may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'.[31] In these approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, with the different letters representing different click 'types', there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner, phonation, or airstream contour of the click: ⟨ǂ, ᶢǂ, ᵑǂ⟩ etc.
- Letters for the voiceless implosives ⟨ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ⟩ are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: ⟨ɓ̥, ʛ̥⟩, etc..
- Although not confirmed as contrastive in any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a letter for the retroflex implosive, ⟨ᶑ⟩, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite ⟨ɗ̢⟩.
- The ejective diacritic often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ]. These may also be transcribed as creaky [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].
Vowels[link]
| IPA vowel chart | |||||||||||||||||||
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IPA help • IPA key • chart • chart with audio • view |
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The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.[32] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, [ɑ] (said as the "a" in "palm") is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. However, [i] (said as the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.
In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as [ɛ], the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as [ʌ], the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.
In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
Diphthongs[link]
Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in ⟨aɪ̯⟩. However, sometimes a tie bar is used, especially if it is difficult to tell if the vowel is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide: ⟨a͡ɪ⟩ or ⟨a͜ɪ⟩.
- Notes
- ⟨a⟩ officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and ⟨a⟩ is frequently used for an open central vowel.[14] However, if disambiguation is required, the retraction diacritic or the centralized diacritic may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in ⟨a̠⟩ or ⟨ä⟩.
[edit] Diacritics
Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation.[33] Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter) may be placed above a letter having a descender (informally called a tail), e.g. ŋ̊, ȷ̈.[33]
The dotless i, ⟨ı⟩, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA letters may appear as diacritic variants to represent phonetic detail: tˢ (fricative release), bʱ (breathy voice), ˀa (glottal onset), ᵊ (epenthetic schwa), oʊ (diphthongization). Additional diacritics were introduced in the Extensions to the IPA, which were designed principally for speech pathology.
| View the diacritic table as an image | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Syllabicity diacritics | |||||
| ◌̩ | ɹ̩ n̩ | Syllabic | ◌̯ | e̯ ʊ̯ | Non-syllabic |
| Consonant-release diacritics | |||||
| ◌ʰ | tʰ | Aspirated[a] | ◌̚ | d̚ | No audible release |
| ◌ʱ | dʱ | ||||
| ◌ⁿ | dⁿ | Nasal release | ◌ˡ | dˡ | Lateral release |
| Phonation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̥ | n̥ d̥ | Voiceless | ◌̬ | s̬ t̬ | Voiced |
| ◌̤ | b̤ a̤ | Breathy voiced[b] | ◌̰ | b̰ a̰ | Creaky voiced |
| Articulation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̪ | t̪ d̪ | Dental | ◌̼ | t̼ d̼ | Linguolabial |
| ◌̺ | t̺ d̺ | Apical | ◌̻ | t̻ d̻ | Laminal |
| ◌̟ | u̟ t̟ | Advanced | ◌̠ | i̠ t̠ | Retracted |
| ◌̈ | ë ä | Centralized | ◌̽ | e̽ ɯ̽ | Mid-centralized |
| ◌̝ | e̝ ɹ̝ | Raised (ɹ̝ = voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative) | |||
| ◌˔ | ˔ | ||||
| ◌̞ | e̞ β̞ | Lowered (β̞ = bilabial approximant) | |||
| ◌˕ | ˕ | ||||
| Co-articulation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̹ | ɔ̹ x̹ | More rounded | ◌̜ | ɔ̜ x̜ʷ | Less rounded |
| ◌ʷ | tʷ dʷ | Labialized or labio-velarized | ◌ʲ | tʲ dʲ | Palatalized |
| ◌ˠ | tˠ dˠ | Velarized | ◌ˤ | tˤ aˤ | Pharyngealized |
| ◌ᶣ | tᶣ dᶣ | Labio-palatalized | ◌̴ | ɫ z̴ | Velarized or pharyngealized |
| ◌̘ | e̘ o̘ | Advanced tongue root | ◌̙ | e̙ o̙ | Retracted tongue root |
| ◌̃ | ẽ z̃ | Nasalized | ◌˞ | ɚ ɝ | Rhotacized |
- Notes
- a^ With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.
- b^ Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as bʱ.
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:
| Open glottis | [t] | voiceless |
|---|---|---|
| [d̤] | breathy voice, also called murmured | |
| [d̥] | slack voice | |
| Sweet spot | [d] | modal voice |
| [d̬] | stiff voice | |
| [d̰] | creaky voice | |
| Closed glottis | [ʔ͡t] | glottal closure |
Suprasegmentals[link]
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, tone, length, and stress, which often operate on syllables, words, or phrases: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech.[34] Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word.[34]
| View this table as an image | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Length, stress, and rhythm | ||||||
| ˈa | Primary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) |
ˌa | Secondary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) |
|||
| aː kː | Long (long vowel or geminate consonant) |
aˑ | Half-long | |||
| ə̆ | Extra-short | a.a | Syllable break | |||
| s‿a | Linking (absence of a break) | |||||
| Intonation | ||||||
| | | Minor (foot) break | ‖ | Major (intonation) break | |||
| ↗ | Global rise | ↘ | Global fall | |||
| Tone diacritics and tone letters | ||||||
| ŋ̋ e̋ | e˥ | Extra high / top | ꜛke | Upstep | ||
| ŋ́ é | e˦ | High | ŋ̌ ě | Rise | ||
| ŋ̄ ē | e˧ | Mid | ||||
| ŋ̀ è | e˨ | Low | ŋ̂ ê | Fall | ||
| ŋ̏ ȅ | e˩ | Extra low / bottom | ꜜke | Downstep | ||
Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and letters shown here, though not many fonts support this. The primary examples are high (mid) rising ɔ᷄, ɔ˧˥; low rising ɔ᷅, ɔ˩˧; high falling ɔ᷇, ɔ˥˧; low (mid) falling ɔ᷆, ɔ˧˩; peaking ɔ᷈, ɔ˧˥˧; and dipping ɔ᷉, ɔ˧˩˧. A work-around for diacritics sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author does not wish to completely abandon the IPA, is to restrict generic rising ɔ̌ and falling ɔ̂ for the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, ɔ˥˧ and ɔ˧˥, and to use the non-standard subscript diacritics ɔ̗ and ɔ̖ for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, ɔ˩˧ and ɔ˧˩. When a language has four level tones, the two mid tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid ɔ̍ (non-standard) and low-mid ɔ̄.
Obsolete and nonstandard symbols[link]
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is ⟨ɷ⟩ which has been standardized to ⟨ʊ⟩. Several letters indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: ⟨ƍ⟩ for ⟨zʷ⟩ is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ⟩ has been dropped; they are now written ⟨ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥⟩ or ⟨pʼ↓ tʼ↓ cʼ↓ kʼ↓ qʼ↓⟩. A rejected competing proposal for transcribing clicks, ⟨ʇ, ʗ, ʖ⟩, is still sometimes seen, as the official letters ⟨ǀ, ǃ, ǁ⟩ may cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets, the letter ⟨l⟩, or the prosodic marks ⟨|, ‖⟩.[35]
There are also unsupported or ad hoc letters from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as the "barred lambda" ⟨ƛ⟩ for [t͜ɬ].
IPA extensions[link]
The "Extensions to the IPA," often abbreviated as "extIPA," and sometimes called "Extended IPA," are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions.[36] The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA.[37] While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The extensions have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing.[2]
The Extensions to the IPA do not include symbols used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering.
Segments without letters[link]
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc letters have appeared in the literature for the retroflex lateral flap, the voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey letters in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones.[38]
Consonants[link]
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, [β̞] and [ð̞] respectively. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, [ⱱ̟].[39]
Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written [ʙ̪] (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops [p̪ b̪] rather than with the ad hoc letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. [ɟ̆ ɢ̆/ʀ̆ ʟ̆], though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [r̠], just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals (ʟ̠ etc.) and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
Vowels[link]
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.[40] For example, the unrounded equivalent of [ʊ] can be transcribed as mid-centered [ɯ̽], and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised [ɶ̝]. True mid vowels are lowered [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞], while centered [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä] are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as [ʏ̫] and [u͍] or [ʏʷ] and [uᵝ].
Symbol names[link]
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as 'mid front rounded vowel' or 'voiced velar stop' unreliable. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.[41] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls ɛ "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.[note 5] Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as [ʕ], may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the letters from the Greek section.
For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, é is acute, based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so d̪ is called bridge.
Pullum and Ladusaw list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in addition to names of many other non-IPA phonetic symbols.[8] Their collection is extensive enough that the Unicode Consortium used it in the development of Unicode.
ASCII and keyboard transliterations[link]
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, Arpabet, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
See also[link]
- Articulatory phonetics
- Index of phonetics articles
- International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration
- ICAO spelling alphabet
- IPA chart for English dialects
- List of international common standards
- Luciano Canepari
- Phonetic transcription
- Semyon Novgorodov – inventor of IPA-based Yakut alphabet
- TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX
- Unicode Phonetic Symbols
- Wikipedia:IPA for English
- English Phonetic Alphabet
Notes[link]
- ^ "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages." (Laver 1994:561)
- ^ For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case, [ɾ]) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially phonemic alphabet, not a purely phonetic one.
- ^ There are five basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which are compounded for contour tones.
- ^ "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949)
- ^ For example, [p] is called "Lower-case P" and [χ] is "Chi." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 171)
References[link]
- ^ a b c d International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook.
- ^ a b c d e f MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). "Phonetic Notation". In P. T. Daniels and W. Bright (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 821–846. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
- ^ Wall, Joan (1989). International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction. Pst. ISBN 1-877761-50-8. http://www.amazon.com/International-Phonetic-Alphabet-Singers-Language/dp/1877761508.
- ^ The inverted bridge under the ⟨t⟩ specifies it as apical (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript h shows that it's aspirated (breathy), both qualities which cause the English [t] to sound different from the French or Spanish [t], which is a laminal (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated [t̻]. ⟨t̺ʰ⟩ and ⟨t̻⟩ are thus two different IPA symbols for two different, though similar, sounds.
- ^ a b c d e International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 194–196
- ^ "Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 195–196)
- ^ Passy, Paul (1888). "Our revised alphabet". The Phonetic Teacher: 57–60.
- ^ a b c Pullum and Ladusaw, Phonetic Symbol Guide, pp. 152, 209
- ^ Nicolaidis, Katerina (September 2005). "Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap". International Phonetic Association. http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 186
- ^ “From its earliest days...the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide ‘a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word’.” (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27)
- ^ Laver, Principles of Phonetics,pp. 174–175
- ^ "The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 196)
- ^ a b Sally Thomason (January 2, 2008). "Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet". Language Log. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html.
- ^ For example, the English school textbooks by I. N. Vereshagina, K. A. Bondarenko and T. A. Pritykina.
- ^ For example, "Le Français à la portée de tous" by K. K. Parchevsky and E. B. Roisenblit (1995) and "English Through Eye and Ear" by L.V. Bankevich (1975).
- ^ "Phonetics". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. 2002. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- ^ "Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols". http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html. Retrieved 2007-06-04.
Agnes, Michael (1999). Webster's New World College Dictionary. New York, NY: Macmillan USA. xxiii. ISBN 0-02-863119-6.
Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons. - ^ (Czech) Fronek, J. (2006) (in Czech). Velký anglicko-český slovník. Praha: Leda. ISBN 80-7335-022-X. "In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed."
- ^ "Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series". Castel Opera Arts. http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
- ^ Cheek, Timothy (2001). Singing in Czech. The Scarecrow Press. p. 392. ISBN 0-8108-4003-0 ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4. http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030.
- ^ Zimmer, Benjamin (2008-05-14). "Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
- ^ "Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3)
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6.
- ^ Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §2.1.
- ^ Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §9.3.
- ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8. p 18
- ^ Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert (1998) [1974]. An Introduction to Language (6th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ISBN 0-03-018682-X.
- ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Ian Maddieson (1996). The sounds of the world's languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 329–330. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- ^ It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in Niesler, Louw, & Roux (2005) [Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287]
- ^ Amanda L. Miller et al., "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops". Submitted to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 10.
- ^ a b International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 13.
- ^ "John Wells's phonetic blog". Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com. 2009-09-09. http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
- ^ "At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186.)
- ^ "Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186–187.
- ^ "Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27)
- ^ Olson, Kenneth S.; & Hajek, John. (1999). The phonetic status of the labial flap. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), pp. 101–114.
- ^ "The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16)
- ^ "...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 31)
Further reading[link]
- Ball, Martin J.; John H. Esling & B. Craig. Dickson (1995). "The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality". Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet 25 (2): 71–80. DOI:10.1017/S0025100300005181.
- Duckworth, M.; G. Allen, M.J. Ball (December 1990). "Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech". Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 4 (4): 273–280. DOI:10.3109/02699209008985489.
- Hill, Kenneth C.; Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William (March 1988). "Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw". Language 64 (1): 143–144. DOI:10.2307/414792. JSTOR 414792.
- International Phonetic Association (1989). "Report on the 1989 Kiel convention". Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet 19 (2): 67–80.
- International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb).
- Jones, Daniel (1988). English pronouncing dictionary (revised 14th ed.). London: Dent. ISBN 0-521-86230-2. OCLC 18415701.
- Ladefoged, Peter (September 1990). "The revised International Phonetic Alphabet". Language 66 (3): 550–552. DOI:10.2307/414611. JSTOR 414611.
- Ladefoged, Peter; Morris Hale (September 1988). "Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet". Language 64 (3): 577–582. DOI:10.2307/414533. JSTOR 414533.
- Laver, John (1994). Principles of Phonetics. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45031-4 (hb); ISBN 0-521-45655-X (pb).
- Pullum, Geoffrey K.; William A. Laduslaw (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
- Skinner, Edith; Timothy Monich, and Lilene Mansell (1990). Speak with Distinction. New York, NY: Applause Theatre Book Publishers. ISBN 1-55783-047-9.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: International Phonetic Alphabet |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: IPA charts |
- The International Phonetic Association web site
- York University IPA Interactive Flash Charts
- Video recordings of the sounds of IPA by The University of Sheffield
- Information on IPA by Omniglot
- IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
- IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org
- Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English)
- Various resources including a glossary by Peter Roach.
- The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005) Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart
- Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide, an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X
- Visual Thesaurus
- IPA – Introduction This site was especially designed to act as an introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet as used for English.
Education[link]
- Interactive Saggital Section
- Phonetics: the Sounds of English and Spanish Note: requires Flash 7 or higher.
- IPA Charts with an interactive chart of all IPA letters with their sounds (Flash)
IPA font downloads[link]
- Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by FreeType on Linux.
- DejaVu fonts Sourceforge.net have full Unicode IPA support. Sourceforge.net
- Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
- Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap. For bold typefaces but only the most basic IPA letters, Gentium Basic may be used.
- TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents.
Keyboard input[link]
- Extended IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows: for Unicode IPA input
- Complete Guide: Beginners’ guide to using IPA on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, covering many office applications and browsers
- Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input
- Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input
- IPA Character Picker Web-based input method
- IPAPalette is the Mac OS X input method on which IPACharMap is based.
- IPACharMap (scroll down to see it) is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a Unicode-aware word processor. Based on IPA Palette.
- IPATotal keyboard – This free UNICODE based keyboard encodes the whole character and diacritics charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), designed to represent all the sounds of speech in any language.
- IPA Writer: The IPA Writer. Online tool to write IPA.
- Microsoft Template – Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (This uses macros)
- Online keyboard[dead link]
- IPAEdit Unicode-compliant Transcription Editor for Linux, Mac OS X and Windows from the University of Marburg
- PhonPad online IPA editor.
- Lenz Windows program that allows typing IPA symbols directly into other programs.
- Online Smart IPA Keyboard quickly type IPA phonetics without memorizing symbol codes
- IPANow! - Automatic Foreign Language IPA Transcription : IPANow! is shareware that automatically creates phonetic transcriptions of texts in Latin, Italian, German, and French.
- PhoTransEdit - English Phonetic Transcription Editor : PhoTransEdit is an on-line and off-line application created to make typing phonetic transcriptions easier. It includes automatic phonemic transcription (in RP and General American) of English texts and an IPA phonetic keyboard to edit them. The transcription can be pasted into other editors (e.g. Microsoft Word) or exported to use it in HTML pages.
Sound files[link]
- An introduction to the sounds of languages
- Complete IPA chart with sound samples, including English diphthongs
- IPA chart with MP3 sound files for all IPA letters on the chart (limited version is available to anyone)
- IPA chart with AIFF sound files for IPA symbols
- Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)
Unicode charts[link]
- International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode
- Unicode chart for main IPA lettersPDF (246.8 KB)
- Unicode chart for IPA modifier lettersPDF (203 KB)
- Unicode chart including IPA diacriticsPDF (231.2 KB)
- IPA with Unicode superimposedPDF (1.6 MB) from the University of Marburg
- MySQL Unicode collation chart for IPA and other phonetic blocks
- Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names, character entity references and/or numeric character references at Penn State.
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Technical note[link]Most IPA symbols are not included in the most widely used form of Times New Roman (though they are included in the version provided with Windows Vista), the default font for Latin scripts in Internet Explorer for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a font which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include Lucida Sans Unicode, which comes with Windows XP; Gentium, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, DejaVu Sans, or TITUS Cyberbit, which are freely available; or Arial Unicode MS, which comes with Microsoft Office. On this page, we have forced Internet Explorer to use such a font by default, so it should appear correctly, but this has not yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using special symbols. Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as "" in articles. Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera, Safari and most other recent browsers. |
http://wn.com/International_Phonetic_Alphabet
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet
http://es.wn.com/Alfabeto Fonético Internacional
http://ru.wn.com/Международный фонетический алфавит
http://cs.wn.com/Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda
http://pt.wn.com/Alfabeto fonético internacional
http://pl.wn.com/Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny
http://hi.wn.com/अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला
http://it.wn.com/Alfabeto fonetico internazionale
http://id.wn.com/Alfabet Fonetis Internasional
http://nl.wn.com/Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet
http://fr.wn.com/Alphabet phonétique international
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