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Radio programming is the Broadcast programming of a Radio format or content that is organized for Commercial broadcasting and Public broadcasting radio stations.

The original inventors of radio, such as Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi, expected it to be used for one-on-one wireless communication tasks where telephones and telegraphs could not be used because of the problems involved in stringing copper wires from one point to another, such as in ship-to-shore communications. Those inventors had no expectations whatever that radio would become a major mass media entertainment and information medium earning many millions of dollars in revenues annually through radio advertising commercials or sponsorship. These latter uses were brought about after 1920 by business entrepreneurs such as David Sarnoff, who created the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), and William S. Paley, who built Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). These broadcasting (as opposed to narrowcasting) business organizations began to be called network affiliates, because they consisted of loose chains of individual stations located in various cities, all transmitting the standard overall-system supplied fare, often at synchronized agreed-upon times. Some of these radio network stations were owned and operated by the networks, while others were independent radio owned by entrepreneurs allied with the respective networks. By selling blocks of time to advertisers, the medium was able to quickly become profitable and offer its products to listeners for free, provided they invested in a radio receiver set.

The new medium grew rapidly through the 1920s, vastly increasing both the size of its audience and its profits. In those early days, it was customary for a corporation to sponsor an entire half-hour radio program, placing its commercials at the beginning and the end. This is in contrast to the pattern which developed late in the 20th century in both television and radio, where small slices of time were sold to many sponsors and no corporation claimed or wanted sponsorship of the entire show, except in rare cases. These later commercials also filled a much larger portion of the total program time than they had in the earlier days.

In the early radio age, content typically included a balance of comedy, drama, news, music and sports reporting. Variety radio programs included the most famous Hollywood talent of the day. During the 1920s, radio focused on musical entertainment, the Grand Ole Opry, has been focused on broadcasting country music since it began in 1925. Radio soap operas began in the U.S. in 1930 with Painted Dreams. Laurdagsbarnetimen, a Norwegian children's show, with its premiere in 1924, is still being broadcast weekly, which makes it the longest running radio show in the world.^[1]

In the early 1950s, television programming eroded the popularity of radio comedy, drama and variety shows. By the late 1950s, radio broadcasting took on much the form it has today – strongly focused on music, talk, news and sports, though drama can still be heard, especially on the BBC.

International radio[link]

In Britain during the 1950s, radio broadcasting was dominated entirely by the BBC. Rock and pop music fans, dissatisfied with the BBC's output, often listened to Radio Luxembourg. During the post-1964 period, western Europe offshore radio (such as Radio Caroline broadcasting from ships at anchor or abandoned forts) helped to supply the demand for the pop and rock music. The BBC launched their own pop music station, BBC Radio 1, in 1967.

In South Asia, Radio Ceylon was the oldest radio station in the region. Broadcasting in Ceylon was launched by British engineer, Edward Harper in 1925. Radio Ceylon became a public corporation in 1967 and was known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation when the island turned into a republic in 1972.

Interest in Old-time radio (OTR) increased with programs traded and collected on reel-to-reel tapes, cassettes and CDs and Internet downloads, as well as the popularity of podcasts.^[2][3]

See also[link]

Radio portal

• Audio theater
• Freeform radio
• History of radio
• List of old-time radio people
• List of old-time radio programs
• List of radio programs
• Payola
• Radio comedy
• Radio drama
• Radio format
• Radio promotion
• Serial (radio and television)
• Soap opera

References[link]

External links[link]

• Necrology of Old Radio Personalities
• "OTR Actors and Their Roles"
• Internet Archive with OTR Programs

Johannes Brahms around 1866

A German Requiem, To Words of the Holy Scriptures, Op. 45 (German: Ein deutsches Requiem, nach Worten der heiligen Schrift) by Johannes Brahms, is a large-scale work for chorus, orchestra, and a soprano and a baritone soloist, composed between 1865 and 1868. It comprises seven movements, which together last 65 to 80 minutes, making this work Brahms's longest composition. A German Requiem is sacred but non-liturgical, and unlike a long tradition of the Latin Requiem, A German Requiem, as its title states, is a Requiem in the German language.

History[link]

Brahms's mother died in February 1865, a loss that caused him much grief and may well have inspired Ein deutsches Requiem. Brahms's lingering feelings over Robert Schumann's death in July 1856 may also have been a motivation, though his reticence about such matters makes this uncertain.^[1]

His original conception was for a work of six movements; according to their eventual places in the final version, these were movements 1–4 and 6–7.^[2] By the end of April 1865, Brahms had completed the first, second, and fourth movements. The second movement used some previously abandoned musical material written in 1854, the year of Schumann's mental collapse and attempted suicide, and of Brahms's move to Düsseldorf to assist Clara Schumann and her young children.^[1]

Brahms completed all but what is now the fifth movement by August 1866.^[3] Johann Herbeck conducted the first three movements in Vienna on 1 December 1867. This partial premiere went poorly due to a misunderstanding in the timpanist's score. Sections marked as pf were played as f or ff, essentially drowning out the rest of the ensemble in the fugal section of the third movement.^[4] The first performance of the six movements premiered in the Bremen Cathedral six months later on Good Friday, 10 April 1868, with Brahms conducting and Julius Stockhausen as the baritone soloist.^[3] The performance was a great success and marked a turning point in his career.^[1]

In May 1868 Brahms composed an additional movement, which became the fifth movement within the final work. The new movement, which was scored for soprano soloist and choir, was first sung in Zürich on 12 September 1868 by Ida Suter-Weber, with Friedrich Hegar conducting the Tonhalle Orchester Zürich. The final, seven-movement version of A German Requiem was premiered in Leipzig on 18 February 1869 with Carl Reinecke conducting the Gewandhaus Orchestra and Chorus, and soloists Emilie Bellingrath-Wagner and Franz Krükl.^[3]

Text[link]

Brahms assembled the libretto himself. In contrast to the traditional Roman Catholic Requiem Mass, which employs a standardized text in Latin, the text is derived from the German Luther Bible.

Brahms's first known use of the title Ein deutsches Requiem was in an 1865 letter to Clara Schumann in which he wrote that he intended the piece to be "eine Art deutsches Requiem" (a sort of German Requiem). Brahms was quite moved when he found out years later that Robert Schumann had planned a work of the same name.^[1] German refers primarily to the language rather than the intended audience. Brahms told Carl Martin Reinthaler, director of music at the Bremen Cathedral, that he would have gladly called the work "Ein menschliches Requiem" (A human Requiem).^[5]

Although the Requiem Mass in the Roman Catholic liturgy begins with prayers for the dead ("Grant them eternal rest, O Lord"), A German Requiem focuses on the living, beginning with the text "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." from the Beatitudes. This theme—transition from anxiety to comfort—recurs in all the following movements except movements 4 and 7, the central one and the final one. Although the idea of the Lord is the source of the comfort, the sympathetic humanism persists through the work.^[5]

Brahms purposely omitted Christian dogma.^[6] In his correspondence with Carl Reinthaler, when Reinthaler expressed concern over this, Brahms refused to add references to "the redeeming death of the Lord", as Reinthaler described it, such as John 3:16. In the Bremen performance of the piece, Reinthaler took the liberty of inserting the aria "I know that my Redeemer liveth" from Handel's Messiah to satisfy the clergy.^[7]

Instrumentation[link]

In addition to soprano and baritone soloists and mixed chorus, A German Requiem is scored for:

• woodwind: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons and contrabassoon (contrabassoon ad libitum)
• brass: 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba
• percussion: timpani
• strings and harp (one part, preferably doubled)
• organ (ad libitum)

Structure[link]

Since Brahms inserted movement 5, the work shows symmetry around movement 4, which describes the "lovely dwellings" of the Lord. Movement 1 and 7 begin "Selig sind" (Blessed are), taken from the Beatitudes of the Sermon on the Mount in 1, from Revelation in 7. These two slow movements also share musical elements, especially in their ending. Movements 2 and 6 are both dramatic, 2 dealing with the transient nature of life, 6 with the resurrection of the dead, told as a secret about a change. Movements 3 and 5 are begun by a solo voice. In the third movement, the baritone requests "Herr, lehre doch mich" (Lord, teach me); the choir repeats his words several times, making the personal prayer more general. In the fifth movement, the soprano and chorus sing different text, corresponding to each other. As opposed to Baroque oratorios, the soloists do not sing any arias, but are part of the structure of the movements. Almost all movements, with the exception of 4 and 7, connect different Bible verses, which lead from suffering and mourning to consolation. The very last word of the work is the same as the first: "selig" (blessed).

Table of movements[link]

This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.

The following table is organized first by movement, then within a movement by Bible quotation (where appropriate), which generally also causes a change in mood, expressed by tempo, key and orchestration. The choir is in four parts, with the exception of a few chords. The choir is not especially mentioned in the table because it is present throughout the work. The translation is close to the original. The links to the King James version of the Bible are supplied. Brahms marked some sections in German for tempo and character, trying to be more precise than the common Italian tempo markings.

Title	Solo	Key	Tempo	Time	Source	Translation
I
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen		F major	Ziemlich langsam und mit Ausdruck (Rather slow and with expression)		Matthew 5:4	Blessed are they who bear suffering
Die mit Tränen säen, werden mit Freuden ernten		D-flat major			Psalm 126:5–6	They that sow in tears shall reap in joy
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen		F major				Blessed are they who bear suffering
II
Denn alles Fleisch, es ist wie Gras		B-flat minor	Langsam, marschmäßig (Slow, like a march)	3/4	1 Peter 1:24	For all flesh, it is as grass
So seid nun geduldig		G-flat major	Etwas bewegter (A bit more moving)		James 5:7	So be patient
Denn alles Fleisch, es ist wie Gras		B-flat minor	Tempo I			For all flesh, it is as grass
Aber des Herrn Wort bleibet in Ewigkeit		B-flat major	Un poco sostenuto		1 Peter 1:25	But the Lord's word remains forever
Die Erlöseten des Herrn werden wiederkommen			Allegro non troppo		Isaiah 35:10	The ransomed of the Lord shall return
ewige Freude			Tranquillo			eternal joy
III
Herr, lehre doch mich	Bar	D minor	Andante moderato		Psalm 39:4	Lord, teach me
Ach, wie gar nichts	Bar			3/2	Psalm 39:5–6	Ah, how in vain
Ich hoffe auf dich		D major			Psalm 39:7	My hope is in you
Der Gerechten Seelen sind in Gottes Hand				4/2	Wis 3:1	The souls of the righteous are in the hand of God
IV
Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen		E-flat major	Mäßig bewegt (Moderately moving)	3/4	Psalm 84:1,2,4	How lovely are thy dwellings
V
Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit	Sop	G major	Langsam (Slow)		John 16:22	You now have sadness
Ich will euch trösten					Isaiah 66:13	I will comfort you
Sehet mich an	Sop	B-flat major			Sirach 51:27	Look at me
Ich will euch trösten						I will comfort you
Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit	Sop					You now have sadness
Ich will euch trösten		G major				I will comfort you
VI
Denn wir haben hie keine bleibende Statt		C minor	Andante		Hebrews 13:14	For here we have no lasting place
Siehe, ich sage euch ein Geheimnis	Bar	F-sharp minor			1 Cor 15:51–52	Behold, I tell you a mystery
Denn es wird die Posaune schallen		C minor	Vivace	3/4	1 Cor 15:52	For the trumpet (lit. trombone) will sound
Dann wird erfüllet werden	Bar				1 Cor 15:54	Then shall be fulfilled
Der Tod ist verschlungen in den Sieg					1 Cor 15:54–55	Death is swallowed up in victory
Herr, du bist würdig		C major	Allegro	4/2	Rev 4:11	Lord, you are worthy
VII
Selig sind die Toten		F major	Feierlich (Solemn)		Rev 14:13	Blessed are the dead
Ja, der Geist spricht, daß sie ruhen		A major				Yea, the Spirit speaks that they rest
Selig sind die Toten		F major				Blessed are the dead

Composition[link]

Notable orchestration devices include the first movement's lack of violins, the use of a piccolo, clarinets, one pair of horns, trumpets, a tuba, and timpani throughout the work, as well as the use of harps at the close of both the first and seventh movements, most striking in the latter because at that point they have not played since the middle of the second movement.

A German Requiem is unified compositionally by a three-note motif of a leap of a major third, usually followed by a half-step in the same direction. The first exposed choral entry presents the motif in the soprano voice (F–A–B♭). This motif pervades every movement and much of the thematic material in the piece.^[8]

Critical reception[link]

Most critics have commented on the high level of craftsmanship displayed in the work, and have appreciated its quasi-classical structures (e.g. the third and sixth movements have fugues at their climax). But not all critics responded favourably to the work. George Bernard Shaw, an avowed Wagnerite, wrote that "it could only have come from the establishment of a first-class undertaker." Some commentators have also been puzzled by its lack of overt Christian content, though it seems clear that for Brahms this was a humanist rather than a Christian work.^[4]

Versions and arrangements[link]

An alternative version of the work was prepared by Brahms to be performed as a piano duet with four hands on one piano. This version also incorporates the vocal parts, suggesting that it was intended as a self-contained version probably for at-home use. However, the vocal parts can also be omitted, making the duet version an acceptable substitute accompaniment for choir and soloists in circumstances where a full orchestra is unavailable.

The piano duet accompaniment was based on an 1866 arrangement for piano of the six-movement version of the Requiem, which Brahms revealed to Clara Schumann at Christmas of that year.^[9] The alternative version was used, sung in English, for the first complete British performance of the Requiem (complete except for the fifth movement, which in 1866 had not yet been written). This took place on 10 July 1871 in London, at the home of Sir Henry Thompson and his wife, the pianist Kate Loder (Lady Thompson). The pianists were Kate Loder and Cipriani Potter.^[10] This version of the Requiem became known as the "London Version" (German: Londoner Fassung).^[11]

Notable recordings[link]

Appearances in culture[link]

A German Requiem inspired the titles of Jorge Luis Borges' 1949 short story "Deutsches Requiem" and Philip Kerr's 1991 novel A German Requiem.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Geiringer, Karl; Irene Geiringer (1947). Brahms, his life and work. Da Capo Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-306-80223-2. 
• McGrade, Michael (2007). "'Blessed Are They That Mourn', Notes on Brahms' German Requiem", "State of the Arts" (pdf). http://www.brandeis.edu/arts/office/state/archives/spring2007.pdf. , vol. 3, no. 2, Winter/Spring 2007, p. 7.
• Musgrave, Michael (1996). Brahms, A German Requiem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40995-7. 
• Musgrave, Michael; Bernard D. Sherman (2003). Performing Brahms: early evidence of performance style. Cambridge University Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-65273-5. 
• Steinberg, Michael (2005). "Johannes Brahms: A German Requiem ..., Op. 45." Choral Masterworks: A Listener's Guide. [1] Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512644-0
• Thuleen, Nancy (1998). "Ein deutsches Requiem: (Mis)conceptions of the Mass." Website Article. 2 April 1998.
• Van Camp, Leonard (2002). A Practical Guide for Performing, Teaching, and Singing the Brahms Requiem. Alfred Music Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7579-9859-1. 
• Zebrowski, Armin (2002). "Brahms' German Requiem" Sunrise magazine, August/September 2002, Theosophical University Press.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ein deutsches Requiem

German Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ein deutsches Requiem

• Ein deutsches Requiem: Free scores at the International Music Score Library Project
• Free scores of this work in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
• Detailed Listening Guide using the recording by Carlo Maria Giulini.
• The ghost of the Free Music project has a recording available under a Creative Commons license.
• Brahms's German Requiem: Promise Fulfilled. Emmeline Rushton's analysis, with discussion of the Schumann connection.
• Brahms's German Requiem, analysis by Armin Zebrowski.