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Al-Andalus under the Ummayads

The Umayyad conquest of Hispania is the initial Islamic Ummayad Caliphate's conquest, between 711 and 718, of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, centered in the Iberian Peninsula, which was known to them under the Arabic name al-Andalus.

The conquest began with an invasion by an army that (according to traditional accounts) consisted largely of Berber Northwest Africans and was commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad. They disembarked in early 711 at Gibraltar and campaigned their way northward. After the decisive Battle of Guadalete against the usurper Roderic and the defection to the Saracens of the legitimate heirs to the throne, the Visigothic kingdom splintered into client-kingdoms of the Ummayads and over the following decade most of the Iberian Peninsula was further occupied and brought under Muslim sovereignty, save for mountainous areas in the north-west (Galicia, Asturias) and northern mountainous areas defended successfully by the Basques with the assistance of the Franks. The successfully retained conquered territory became the Caliphate of Córdoba, part of the expanding Umayyad empire.

The invaders initially had moved northeast across the Pyrenees to occupy Septimania, then under the client-king Ardo, only to be temporarily halted by Odo the Great´s Aquitanians in the Battle of Toulouse (721). However, massing a larger army they resumed their advance to the northwest, defeating king Odo at the Battle of Bordeaux. Charles Martel at the time held the high office of mayor of the palace in Francia and Odo saw no choice but to seek the help of his former enemy, swear an oath of loyalty to him and join the Frankish military forces, who after a forced march defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) in 732. Muslim control of territory in what became France was intermittent and ended in 759.

Though Muslim armies dominated the Iberian Peninsula for centuries afterward, Pelayo of Asturias's victory at the Battle of Covadonga in 722 preserved at least one Christian principality in the north. This battle later assumed major symbolic importance for Iberian Christians as the beginning of the Reconquista.

Perhaps because of the Muslim perception of Christians and Jews as People of the Book (those who believe in the God of Abraham), numerous Jewish and Christian communities survived through the centuries of Muslim rule in al-Andalus.^[1]

Issue of the Caliphate of Cordoba, 807

Background[link]

Depiction of Tarik ibn Ziyad

Precisely what happened in Iberia in the early 8th century is subject to much uncertainty. There is one contemporary Christian source, the Chronicle of 754 (which ends on that date), regarded as reliable but often vague. There are no contemporary Muslim accounts. What Muslim information there is comes from later compilations, which are much coloured by the writers' sense of what was proper, and by contemporary politics — the most prominent such compilation is that of Al-Maqqari, which dates from the 17th century. This paucity of sources means that any specific or detailed claims need to be regarded with caution.

What are available are a number of stories that might more properly be described as legends. The manner of King Roderic's ascent to the throne is unclear; there are accounts of dispute with the son of his predecessor Wittiza, and accounts that Wittiza's family fled to Tangier and solicited help from there. Numismatic evidence suggests some division of royal authority, with several coinages being struck. There is also a story of one Julian, count of Ceuta, whose wife or daughter was raped by Roderic and who also sought help from Tangier. However, these stories are legendary and not included in the earliest accounts of the conquest.^[2]

As to the initial nature of the expedition, historical opinion takes four directions: (1) that a force was sent to aid one side in a civil war in the hope of plunder and a future alliance; (2) that it was a reconnaissance force sent to test the military strength of the Visigothic kingdom; (3) that it was the first wave of a full–scale invasion; (4) that it was an unusually large raiding expedition with no direct strategic intentions.

Invasion[link]

The Age of the Caliphs

  Prophet Mohammad, 622–632

  Patriarchal Caliphate, 632–661

  Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

The Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000 at the apogee of Al-Mansur.

According to traditional Islamic accounts, in the early 8th century an army estimated at some 10,000–15,000 combatants^[3] led by one Tariq Ibn Ziyad crossed from North Africa. Ibn Abd-el-Hakem reports, one and a half centuries later, that "the people of Andalus did not observe them, thinking that the vessels crossing and recrossing were similar to the trading vessels which for their benefit plied backwards and forwards." They defeated the Visigothic army, led by King Roderic, in a decisive battle at Guadalete in 712. Tariq's forces were thence reinforced by those of his superior, the Emir Musa ibn Nusair, and went on to take control of most of Iberia.

During the period of the second (or first, depending on the sources) Arab governor Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa (714-716) the principal urban centres of Catalonia surrendered, at which time Muslim troops reached Pamplona. This submitted too, after a compromise was brokered with Arab commanders to respect the town and its inhabitants, a practice that seems to have been common in many towns of the Iberian Peninsula.^[4] The Muslim troops found little resistance and, given the situation of the communications, 3 years seems to have been a reasonable lapse of time to cover the distance to almost the Pyrenees after making the necessary arrangements for the towns' submission and their future governance.^[5]

The Chronicle of 754 states that 'the entire army of the Goths, which had come with him fraudulently and in rivalry out of hopes of the Kingship, fled'. This is the only contemporary account of the battle, and the paucity of detail led many later historians to invent their own. The location of the battle is not totally clear, but was probably the Guadalete River.

Roderic is believed to have been killed, and a crushing defeat would have left the Visigoths largely leaderless and disorganized. In this regard, the ruling Visigoth population is estimated at a mere 1 to 2% of the total population,^[6] something which facilitated the apparently nearly instant demise of the Visigothic kingdom. The resulting power vacuum, which may have indeed caught Tariq completely by surprise, would have aided the Muslim conquest immensely.

The conquering army was made up mainly of Berbers, who had themselves only recently come under Muslim influence. It is probable that this army represented a continuation of a historic pattern of large-scale raids into Iberia dating to the pre–Islamic period, and hence it has been suggested that actual conquest was not originally planned. Both the Chronicle and later Muslim sources speak of raiding activity in previous years, and Tariq's army may have been present for some time before the decisive battle. It has been argued that this possibility is supported by the fact that the army was led by a Berber and that Musa, who was the Ummayad Governor of North Africa, only arrived the following year — the governor had not stooped to lead a mere raid, but hurried across once the unexpected triumph became clear. The Chronicle of 754 states that many townspeople fled to the hills rather than defend their cities, which might support the view that this was expected to be a temporary raid rather than a permanent change of government.

Aftermath[link]

The conquest led to a period of several hundred years in which the Iberian peninsula was the province of Al-Andalus, dominated by Muslim rulers, and with only a handful of small Christian states surviving in the mountainous north. In 756 Abd ar-Rahman I, a survivor of the then-recently overthrown Umayyad Dynasty, seized power in Al-Andalus, founding an independent dynasty that survived until the 11th century. Muslim domination lasted longer: until the defeat of the Almohads in the 13th century, after which the Christian Reconquista became irresistible.

Chronology[link]

History of Al-Andalus 711–1492
711–732 Muslim conquest
Battles : Battle of Guadalete Battle of Toulouse | Battle of Tours
756–1031 Umayyads of Córdoba
Emirate of Córdoba Caliphate of Córdoba Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
1009–1106 First Taifa period
1085–1145 Almoravid rule
Almoravid conquest Battle of Sagrajas
1140-1203 Second Taifa period
1147–1238 Almohad rule
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1232–1287 Third Taifa period
1238–1492 Emirate of Granada
Nasrid dynasty Battle of Granada
connected articles
Map of Al-Andalus Reconquista

As discussed above, much of the traditional narrative of the Conquest is more legend than reliable history. Some of the key events and the stories around them are outlined below.

• 6th century – Visigothic noblemen had grown into territorial lords.
• 612 – Royal decree issued enjoining all Jews to be baptized, under penalty of banishment and confiscation of property
• 710 – Tariq ibn Ziyad (Malluk?), a Berber freedman, landed with 400 men and 100 horses on the tiny peninsula of the European continent now called isle of Tarifa after his name. ("Gibraltar" also derives from his name.)
• 711 – Musa ibn Nusair, Governor of Ifriqiya in North Africa, dispatched Tariq into the Iberian Peninsula, encouraged by the earlier success and the dynastic trouble in Hispania.
• July 19, 711 – Tariq, with 7,000 men, and Julian, count of Ceuta, with 12,000 men, confronted King Roderick, with 25,000 men, by the Barbate (Salado) River on the shore of a lagoon. Roderick's army was utterly routed (see Battle of Guadalete).
• June 712 – Syrians rushed to Hispania and attacked towns and strongholds avoided by Tariq.
• 715 – Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa was announced first Emir of Andalus and married the widow of King Roderick, Egilona. Seville became the capital.
• 717–18 – Lured by the rich treasures of convents and churches of France and encouraged by the internal dissension between the chief officers of the Merovingian court and the dukes of Aquitaine, Al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi invaded Septimania.
• 719 – Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, 4th Emir, transferred the seat of Governor from Seville to Cordova.
• 721 – Battle of Toulouse. An Umayyad army led by Al-Samh besieged the city of Toulouse, and was crushed by the Aquitanian army led by Duke Odo of Aquitaine.
• Spring 732 – Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi advanced through the western Pyrenees, crossed them, and vanquished Odo on the banks of the Garonne. Tours was a sort of religious capital for Gaul (France), the resting-place of the body of Martin of Tours, the apostle of Gaul.
• October 732 – Battle of Tours (Balat Al Shuhada`). Abd Al–Rahman Al–Ghafiqi, the Arab leader, met Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace at the Merovingian court. Odo pledges allegiance to and joins Charles Martel against the Muslim army. After seven days of waiting anxiously to join the battle, Abd Al–Rahman took the initiative in the attack. Charles' army hewed the attackers down with their swords. Among the victims was Abd Al-Rahman. Under cover of night the Muslims had quietly vanished, and Charles came off victorious.
• 734–42 – Open revolt from Morocco to Kairouan (Al–Qayrawan) spread to the Iberian peninsula. Mudarites and Yemenites agreed on choosing alternately one of their numbers each year to rule Al–Andalus.
• Governor Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, a Mudarite and descendant of Uqbah ibn Nafiaa`, refused to give turn to the Yemenite candidate and ruled for nine years, 747–56.
• 755 – Advent of the Umayyad Abd Al-Rahman Al Dakhel, "Saqr Quraysh". In late 755, he landed on the southern coast, in Granada, and was on his way to conquer al–Andalus.

See also[link]

• Crusades
• History of Portugal
• History of Spain
• Muslim conquests
• Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
• Timeline of Portuguese history

Footnotes[link]

Sources[link]

• Kennedy. Muslim Spain and Portugal. 
• Collins, R. The Arab Conquest of Spain. 
• AD Taha. The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain. 

External links[link]

• Gibbon, Edward. "51". History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html. 

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Roman conquest and provinces in Hispania

The Roman conquest of Hispania was a historical period that began with the Roman landing at Empúries in 218 BC and ended with the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, then Hispania, by Caesar Augustus in 17 BC.

Long before the First Punic War, between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Phoenicians (and later the Carthaginians) had already appeared in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula as well as in the East, to the south of the Ebro. Their numerous commercial settlements based throughout these coastal strips provided an outlet into Mediterranean commerce for minerals and other resources of pre-Roman Iberia. These installations consisting of little more than warehouses and wharves allowed not only exports, but also the introduction to the Peninsula of products manufactured in the Eastern Mediterranean. This had the indirect effect of the native peninsular cultures adopting certain Eastern characteristics.

During the 7th century BC, the Greeks established their first colonies on the northern Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Setting off from Massalia (Marseille) they founded the cities of Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Roses), although at the time they had already spread throughout the coastal commercial centers of the region without establishing a permanent presence. Part of this Greek commerce was nevertheless carried out by Phoenician shipping; Phoenician trade in the peninsula included articles both coming from and heading to Greece. As a commercial power of the Western Mediterranean, Carthage expanded its interests to the island of Sicily and the south of Italy. This growing influence over the region soon proved to be an annoyance for Rome. This conflict of commercial interests ultimately led to the Punic Wars of which the First Punic War ended in an unstable armistice. The mutual hostility led to the Second Punic War, which, after twelve years of conflict, resulted in effective Roman domination of the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula. Later, a decisive defeat for Carthage at Zama would wipe that city from the historical scene.

Despite having vanquished their rival Mediterranean power, the Romans still took another two centuries to bring the entire Iberian Peninsula under their control through an expansionist policy that earned the enmity of practically all of the tribes of the interior. The abuses to which these people were submitted is considered to be responsible for the strong anti-Roman sentiment throughout these nations. After years of bloody conflict, the indigenous people of Hispania were finally crushed by the military and cultural heel of Rome, thus disappearing from the face of history. However, in the Roman Empire people kept their ancestral identifications but also were loyal to the Roman state, so even though the language became latin, the 'gens' continued being local.

Carthaginian Iberia[link]

After the First Punic War, the Carthaginian family descending from Hamilcar Barca began the effective subjugation of Hispania which would extend over the greater part of the south and the west of the peninsula. This subjugation was achieved through tributes, alliances, marriages or simply by force. The peninsula would go on to supply Carthage with a significant number of troops — both mercenaries and draftees — that assisted in its confrontations with Ancient Rome as well as its reaffirmation of dominance over Northern Africa. The Romans considered this sufficient motive to invade Hispania. The Ilergetes (from Northeast Hispania) and the legendary Baleric Slingers particularly stood out amongst these troops coming from diverse tribes of the region.

The Sagunt Matter[link]

The Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome was ignited by the dispute over the hegemony of Sagunt, a hellenized coastal city and Roman ally. After great tension within the city government culminating in the assassination of the supporters of Carthage, Hannibal laid siege to the city of Sagunt in 218 BC. The city called for Roman aid, but the pleas fell on deaf ears. Following a prolonged siege and a bloody struggle in which Hannibal himself was wounded and the army practically destroyed, the Carthaginians finally took control of the city. Many of the Saguntians chose to commit suicide rather than face the subjugation and slavery that awaited them at the hands of the Carthaginians.

The war later continued with Hannibal's expedition to Italia. The damage wrought throughout the Italian Peninsula by this expedition provoked the Romans to invade the Iberian Peninsula in an attempt to cut off Hannibal's supplies coming from Hispania and Carthage.

The Roman invasion[link]

Roman wall of Ampurias, initial entry point of Rome to the Iberian Peninsula

Rome sent troops under the command of Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. Gnaeus was the first to arrive in Hispania while his brother Publius turned towards Massalia with the goal of obtaining support and trying to halt the Carthaginian advance. Emporion, or Empúries, was the point where Rome began on the peninsula. Their first mission was to find allies among the Iberians. They signed treaties of alliance with Iberian tribal leaders on the coast but probably did not obtain support for their cause among the majority. One known example was the tribe of the Ilergetes, one of the most important north of the Ebro, who were allied with the Carthaginians. Gnaeus Scipio subjugated these tribes, either by treaty or through the forces of the coast north of the Ebro, including the city of Tarraco, where Gnaeus made his residence.

The war between Carthage and Rome[link]

The first important conflict between the Carthaginians and the Romans took place in Cissa in 218 BC, probably near Tarraco, although it has been tried to identify it as Guissona in the present-day province of Lleida. The Carthaginians, commanded by Hanno the Elder, were defeated by Roman forces commanded by Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The leader of the Ilergetes Indíbil, who fought with the Carthaginians, was captured. But when Gnaeus' victory was certain, Hasdrubal Barca arrived with reinforcements and dispersed the Romans but did not defeat them. The Carthaginian forces returned to their capital of Cartago Nova (now Cartagena) and the Romans to their primary base at Tarraco.

In 217 BC, Gnaeus' fleet vanquished Hasdrubal Barca's on the mouth of the Ebro. Shortly afterward, reinforcements arrived from Italy under the command of Publius Scipio and the Romans were able to advance on Saguntum.

Gnaeus and Publius Scipio are attributed with the fortification of Tarraco and the establishment of a military port. The city wall was probably constructed over the front of an ancient wall; the marks of the Iberian stonemason can be appreciated, since the wall was constructed by hand.

In 216 BC, Gnaeus and Publius Scipio fought the Iberians, probably against tribes south of the Ebro. The Iberian attacks were repelled.

In 215 BC, the Carthaginians received reinforcements under the command of Himilco and fought again on the mouth of the Ebro, apparently near Amposta or Sant Carles de la Ràpita in the so-called Battle of Ebro River. The Roman fleet was victorious.

The rebellion of Syphax in Numidia required Hasdrubal to return to Africa with his best troops (214 BC), leaving his camp in Hispania to the Romans. In Africa, Hasdrubal secured the assistance of another Numidian king, Gala, lord of the region of Constantine. With the help of Gala and his son Masinissa, Hasdrubal defeated Syphax.

In 211 BC, Hasdrubal Barca returned to Iberia accompanied by Masinissa and his Numidian warriors.

Perhaps between 214 BC and 211 BC, Gnaeus and his brother Publius Cornelius Scipio overran the Ebro. We know for certain that in 211 BC the Scipio brothers counted among their army a strong contingent of Celtiberian mercenaries, composed of some thousands of combatants. The Celtiberians frequently acted as soldiers of fortune.

The Carthaginian forces were structured into 3 armies, commanded respectively by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco, the last son of the Carthaginian commander Hannibal Gisco, killed in the First Punic War. For their part, the Romans organized themselves into another three groups, commanded by Gnaeus and Publius Scipio, and also by Titus Fonteius.

Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca, supported by the Numidian Masinissa, vanquished Publius Scipio and killed him. Gnaeus Scipio had to retreat to the desert with his Celtiberian mercenaries to whom Hasdrubal offered a sum greater than that paid by Rome. Gnaeus died during the withdrawal and the Carthaginians were at the point of crossing the Ebro River when an official named Gaius Marcius Septimus, elected general by the troops, repelled them. The circumstance of this battle is uncertain but we know that Indibil fought again against the Carthaginians. The battle took place in 211 BC.

In 210 BC an expedition under Gaius Claudius Nero was able to capture Hasdrubal Barca but he went back on his word and retreated dishonorably.

Scipio Africanus

The Roman Senate decided to send a new army to the Ebro to prevent the Carthaginian army from crossing into Italy. Leadership of this force was given to Publius Scipio, the son of the general of the same name who had died in combat in 211 BC.

Publius Scipio (the younger) arrived in Hispania accompanied by Marcus Junius Silanus (who would succeed Claudius Nero) and his advisor Caius Lelius, chief of the group.

Upon his arrival the three Carthaginian armies found themselves in this situation: Hasdrubal Barca's army was in the area around the origin of the Tajo; the army of Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, was situated in Lusitania near modern Lisboa; and Mago's army was in the area near the Strait of Gibraltar.

Publius Scipio in an audacious move, left the camp on the Ebro, and attacked Carthago Nova by land and sea. The Punic peninsular capital was given an insufficient defense force under the command of a new leader who was also called Mago, had to surrender, and the city was occupied by the Romans. Publius Scipio returned to Tarraco before Hasdrubal could move out of his camp on the Ebro.

After this daring operation, a large part of Hispania Ulterior was subdued by Rome. Publius Scipio attracted various Iberian chiefs until then allied with the Carthaginians, such as Edeco (an enemy of Carthage since his wife and children were taken as slaves), Indibil (for the same reason), and Mandonius (who had been attacked by Hasdrubal Barca).

In the winter of 209 and 208 BC Publius Scipio advanced south and collided with the army of Hasdrubal Barca (who at the time was advancing north) near Santo Tomé in the hamlet of Baecula where the Battle of Baecula took place. Publius Scipio is said to have won (which is doubtful), but if that was the case, he did not prevent Hasdrubal Barca from advancing to the north with most of his troops. In his northern advance, Hasdrubal arrived at the passes of the western Pyrenees.

So it is known that Hasdrubal crossed the Pyrenees through the country of the Basques. He probably tried to make an alliance with them, and in this case, the Basques lacked the means to oppose the Carthaginian advance. Hasdrubal camped in the south of the Galias and later passed into Italy (209 BC).

In 208 BC, Mago Barca retreated with his forces to the Balearic Islands and Hasdrubal Gisco supported him in Lusitania.

In 207 BC, the reorganized Carthaginians and their reinforcements left Africa under Hannon's leadership managing to recover most of the south of the peninsula. After Hannon subdued this region, Mago returned with his forces and met with Hasdrubal Gisco. But soon after Hannon and Mago were defeated by the Romans led by Marcus Silanus. Hannon was captured, and Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago had to fortify their armies at the most important places.

Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca received new reinforcements from Africa in (206 BC), and for their part recruited an army of natives. They gave battle to the Romans at Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province), but on this occasion Publius Scipio Africanus clearly obtained victory. Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco took refuge in Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. He could cross to Africa and meet the Numidian king Syphax who had visited him in Hispania.

Publius Scipio fell ill, which was taken advantage of by the army as an opportunity to demand higher wages by the Mutiny at Sucro. This in turn was taken advantage of by the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes who rebelled under the leadership of the chiefs Indibil and Mandonius (of the Ausetani). This rebellion was essentially against proconsuls L. Lentulus and L. Manlius. Publius Scipio appeased the mutineers and put down a final bloody revolt by the Iberians. Mandonius was caught and executed (205 BC); Indibil managed to escape.

Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco abandoned Gades with all of their ships and their troops to support Hannibal in Italy, and after the departure of these forces, Rome held the entire south of Hispania. Rome now ruled from the Pyrenees to Algarve along the coast. Roman dominance reached Huesca and from there, the Ebro to the south and the sea to the east.

The wars of conquest[link]

From 197 B.C. onward, the part of the Iberian Peninsula that fell under Roman control was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior to the north (the future Hispania Tarraconensis with Tarraco as its capital) and Hispania Ulterior to the south with capital Córdoba. The two provinces were governed by two biannual proconsuls. In the same year of 197, the Citerior province was the scene of a rebellion by the Iberian and Ilergete communities. The Proconsul Quinto Minucio had considerable difficulty controlling those rebellions. The Ulterior province escaped Roman control when its governor died as the local turdetano people were rebelling. In 195 B.C., Rome was forced to send the consul Marcus Cato. He arrived in Hispania to find the Citerior province in full rebellion with Roman forces controlling only a few fortified cities. Cato quelled the rebellion in summer of the same year and reestablished control over the province, but he failed to endear himself to the natives or Celtiberians who acted as paid mercenaries for the turdetanos. After making a show of force by passing the Roman legions through Celtiberian territory, Cato convinced them to return to their homes. However, the natives' submission proved superficial because when rumors spread that Cato would soon depart for Italy, the rebellion reignited. Cato acted decisively once again, conquering the rebels and selling the instigators off into slavery. The native population was totally disarmed. Cato returned to Rome with great fanfare from the Roman Senate. He brought with him an enormous war chest of over 11,000 kilos of silver, 600 kg of gold, 123,000 denarii, and 540,000 silver coins, all of which was taken from the Hispanic peoples in the course of his military actions. He fulfilled his promise to Rome before beginning the campaign that "the war will pay for itself."

A later proconsul of Hispania, Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, would fight other rebellions as well.

The next major Roman step was the conquest of Lusitania with two crushing victories: one in 189 B.C. won by proconsul Lucius Aemilius Paulus, and a more dubious one by the pretor/proconsul Caius Calpurnius in 185.

The central region of the peninsula, called Celtiberia, was officially conquered in 181 B.C. by Quintus Fabius Flaccus. He bested the local Celtiberian people and claimed control of several territories. But the real work was done by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus from 179 to 178 when he conquered thirty cities and villages. He took some by sheer force and others by exploiting rivalries between the Celtiberians and the Vascones to the north. His alliances with the Vascons would facilitate the Roman domination of Celtiberia.

By this time, some of the Basque cities and villages may have already been subject to Rome, but at any rate a significant number of Basque holdings came into the Roman Empire voluntarily through alliance. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus founded a new city named Gracurris on top of the existing city of Ilurcís (probably the modern-day Alfaro in La Rioja or Corella in Navarre). It was built of standard Roman construction and it appears to have housed several disorganized Celtiberian groups. The city would have been founded in roughly 179 B.C. according to references in later writings. The foundation of this city marks the end of the Celtiberian civilization and the consolidation of Roman influence in the area. Graccuris would prove to be situated in the middle of a region that would be hotly contested between the Celtiberians and Vascons. The area roughly corresponds to the modern Ebro River Valley. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus was probably responsible for the majority of the treaties signed with the two groups. The treaties generally established a tribute from the surrounding cities to be paid in silver or other products of the earth. Each city had to supply a predetermined amount of men for the army, and only a select few cities had the right to issue currency.

Yet the inhabitants of cities subdued by force were almost never tribute-paying subjects: when they offered resistance to the Romans and were defeated, they were sold as slaves. Those who surrendered before an outright conquest were recognized as citizens of their respective cities were denied Roman citizenship.

When cities subjugated themselves freely, the inhabitants became citizens, and the cities retained their municipal autonomy and at times, were exempt from taxes.

The proconsuls (also called pretores or propretores), that is, the provincial governors, adopted the custom of making themselves rich at their subjects' expense. Forced gifts and abuses were the norm. During their excursions, the proconsul and other functionaries were to be housed for free; at times they would confiscate a home. The proconsul would impose low prices on provisions of grain, for their own needs and those of the functionaries and their families, and at times also for their soldiers.

The resulting complaints became so strong that the Roman Senate, after hearing from an embassy of provincial Hispanics, released in 171 BC some laws of control: Tributes could not be collected by means of the military; cereal payments were permissible but proconsuls could not gather more than a fifth of the harvest; the proconsul was prohibited to fix the prices of grains on his own; petitions in support of popular holidays in Rome were limited; and the contribution of contingents for the army was maintained. However, like the judgement of the proconsuls that had committed abuses corresponding to the Senate through the proconsul of the city, it was rare that a proconsul was judged.

Viriathus and the Lusitanian Rebellion[link]

Lusitania was probably the area of the peninsula that resisted the Roman invasion for the longest time. Until the year 155 BC, the Lusitanian chief Punicus made raids into the part of Lusitania controlled by Rome, ending with the twenty-year peace made by the former praetor Sempronius Gracchus. Punicus obtained an important victory against the praetors Manilius and Calpurnius, inflicting 6,000 casualties.

After the death of Punicus, Caisaros took charge of the fight against Rome, vanquishing the Roman troops again in 153 BC, revealing his banner in the battle, which triumphantly showed to the rest of the Iberian peoples how to display the vulnerability of Rome. At the time, the Vetones and Celtiberians had united in resistance, leaving the situation for Rome in this area of Hispania somewhat precarious. Lusitanians, Vetones and Celtiberians raided the Mediterranean coasts, while in order to secure their position on the Peninsula, they were deployed to North Africa. It was in this year that two new consuls arrived in Hispania, Quintus Fulvius Nobilior and Lucius Mummius. The urgency of restoring dominion over Hispania made the two consuls enter into battle within two and a half months. The Lusitanians sent to Africa were defeated at Okile (modern Arcila in Morocco) by Mummius, who forced them to accept a peace treaty. For his part, the consul Serbius Sulpicius Galba made a peace treaty with three of the Lusitanian tribes, and then, pretending to be a friend, killed the youth and sold the rest of the people to Gaul.

Nobilior was replaced in the following year (152 BC) by Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul 166 BC). He in turn was succeeded in 150 BC by Lucius Lucullus who was distinguished by his cruelty and infamy.

In 147 BC, a new Lusitanian leader named Viriathus rebelled against the Roman forces. He had fled from Serbius Sulpicius Galba three years earlier, and, reuniting the Lusitanian tribes again, Viriathus began a guerrilla war that fiercely struck the enemy without giving open battle. He commanded many campaigns and arrived with his troops at the Murcian coasts. His numerous victories and the humiliation he inflicted upon the Romans made him worthy of the permanent place he holds in Portuguese and Spanish memory as a revered hero who fought without respite. Viriathus was assassinated about 139 BC by Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, probably paid off by the Roman General Marcus Popillius Lenas. With his death, the organized Lusitanian resistance did not disappear but Rome continued to expand into the region.

The war against the Celtiberian peoples[link]

Between 135 and 132 BC, Consul Decimus Junius Brutus brought about an expedition to Gallaecia (north of Portugal and Galicia). Almost simultaneously (133 BC) the Celtiberian city Numantia, the last bastion of the Celtiberians, was destroyed. This was the culminating point of the war between the Celtiberians and the Romans between 143 BC and 133 BC; the Celtiberian city had been taken by Publius Cornelius Scipio Æmilianus, when the opportunity was too much to resist. The Celtiberian chiefs committed suicide with their families and the rest of the population was sold into slavery. The city was razed.

For more than a century the Vascones and Celtiberians fought over the rich land of the Ebro River Valley. The Celtiberian Calagurris, today Calahorra, probably carried the weight of the struggle, helped by tribal alliances; the Vascones likely had a fairly important settlement situated on the other side of the Ebro, in an area across from Calagurris, which also gained the support of Vascones from other places. The Celtiberians surely shouldered most of the load in the conflict destroying the Vascone city and occupying lands on the other side of the Ebro.

But the so-called "Celtiberians" were enemies of Rome, and the Basques were Rome's allies (which was reasonable for strategic reasons). When Calagurris was destroyed by the Romans it was repopulated with Basques. It was probably the first Basque city on the other side of the river, destroyed before by the Celtiberians (who had occupied their lands north of the Ebro), and by other Basques.

In 123 BC, the Romans occupied the Balearic Islands, establishing a settlement there of three thousand Latin-speaking Hispanics. The fact that they were able to do this gives an impression of the profound cultural influence Rome projected on the Peninsula in just a century.

The civil wars[link]

Hispania was party to the political and military disputes of the Roman Republic's final years when Quintus Sertorius clashed with the aristrocatic party headed by Sulla in 83 BC. Upon losing in Italy, Quintus took refuge in Hispania continuing the war against the Roman government and establishing a complete government system in Huesca. Finally it was Pompey who, after several raid attempts in Hispania, finished with Quintus Sertorius more by using political intrigue than military force. Subsequently it was peninsular support for Pompey that caused a new war in Hispania between his followers and the followers of Julius Caesar. This war ended in 49 BC with Julius Caesar's victory.

Julius Caesar and the war against Pompey[link]

Julius Caesar invaded Hispania as part of his war against Pompey for control of Rome. Pompey fled to Greece and Caesar aimed to eliminate his base of support in the west and isolate him from the rest of the Empire. His forces clashed with those of Pompey's supporters at the Battle of Ilerda (Lerida) achieving a victory that opened the ports of the Peninsula. Finally, Pompey's forces were defeated at the Munda in 45 BC. One year later, Caesar was assassinated at the doors of the Roman Senate and his great-nephew Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later named Augustus, was named consul after a brief war against Mark Antony, and later gained power that finally transformed the crumbling Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

Cantabrian Wars[link]

During the reign of Caesar Augustus, Rome was obliged to maintain a bloody conflict against the Cantabrian tribes, a warlike people who presented fierce resistance to Roman domination. The Emperor himself moved to Segisama, modern Sasamon, (Burgos), to supervise the campaign personally. With the end of this war, the long years of civil wars and wars of conquest ended in the territories of the Iberian Peninsula, beginning a long era of political and economic stability in Hispania.

See also[link]

Romanization of Hispania

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Roman Hispania

• This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of July 15, 2006.

Bibliography[link]

Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library

• Los Celtíberos - Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante)
• Las relaciones entre Hispania y el norte de África durante el gobierno bárquida y la conquista romana (237-19 a. J.C.) - José María Blázquez Martínez
• El impacto de la conquista de Hispania en Roma (154-83 a.C.) - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Veinticinco años de estudios sobre la ciudad hispano-romana - Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (Universidad de Alicante)
• Segobriga y la religión en la Meseta sur durante el Principado - Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (Universidad de Alicante)
• Notas a la contribución de la Península Ibérica al erario de la República romana - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Prácticas ilegítimas contra las propiedades rústicas en época romana (II): "Immitere in alienum, furtum, damnum iniuria datum" - M.ª Carmen Santapau Pastor
• La exportación del aceite hispano en el Imperio romano: estado de la cuestión - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Administración de las minas en época romana. Su evolución - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Fuentes literarias griegas y romanas referentes a las explotaciones mineras de la Hispania romana - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Panorama general de la escultura romana en Cataluña - José María Blázquez Martínez
• Destrucción de los mosaicos mitológicos por los cristianos - José María Blázquez Martínez

Other online publications

• Revista Lucentum, XIX-XX, 2000-2001 (formato PDF) - Las magistraturas locales en las ciudades romanas del área septentrional del Conventus Carthaginensis, por Julián Hurtado Aguña - ISSN 0213-2338
• El uso de la moneda en las ciudades romanas de Hispania en época imperial: el área mediterránea (PDF). Universitat de Valencia - Servei de publicacions. Nuria Lledó Cardona - ISBN 84-370-5470-2
• Morfología històrica del territorium de Tarraco en època tardo-republicana romana o ibèrica final (catalán). Tesis doctoral, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Isaías Arrayás Morales (páginas 200 en adelante) - ISBN 84-688-1008-8
• Las constituciones imperiales de Hispania (PDF). Archivo CEIPAC. Fernando Martín
• Producción artesanal, viticultura y propiedad rural en la Hispania Tarraconense (PDF). Archivos CEIPAC. Victor Revilla Calvo (Dept. Prehistoria, Historia Antigua y Arqueología. Universidad de Barcelona)
• Explotación del salazón en la Bahía de Cádiz en la Antigüedad: Aportación al conocimiento de su evolución a través de la producción de las ánforas Mañá C. (PDF). Archivos CEIPAC. Lázaro Lagóstena Barrios (Universidad de Cádiz)
• La agricultura como «officium» en el mundo romano (PDF). Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Rosalía Rodríguez López (Universidad de Almería)
• Observaciones sobre el depósito de la cosa debida en caso de «mora creditoris» (PDF). Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Elena Quintana Orive (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)

Printed sources

• España y los españoles hace dos mil años (según la Geografía de Estrabón) de Antonio Gª y Bellido. Colección Austral de Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid 1945. ISBN 84-239-7203-8
• Las artes y los pueblos de la España primitiva de José Camón Aznar (catedrático de la Universidad de Madrid). Editorial Espasa Calpe, S.A. Madrid, 1954
• Diccionario de los Íberos. Pellón Olagorta, Ramón. Espasa Calpe S.A. Madrid 2001. ISBN 84-239-2290-1
• Geografía histórica española de Amando Melón. Editorial Volvntad, S.A., Tomo primero, Vol. I-Serie E. Madrid 1928
• Historia de España y de la civilización española. Rafael Altamira y Crevea. Tomo I. Barcelona, 1900. ISBN 84-8432-245-9
• Historia ilustrada de España. Antonio Urbieto Arteta. Volumen II. Editorial Debate, Madrid 1994. ISBN 84-8306-008-6
• Historia de España. España romana, I. Bosch Gimpera, Aguado Bleye, José Ferrandis. Obra dirigida por Ramón Menéndez Pidal. Editorial Espasa-Calpe S.A., Madrid 1935
• Arte Hispalense, nº21: Pinturas romanas en Sevilla. Abad Casal, Lorenzo. Publicaciones de la Exma. Diputación Provincial de Sevilla. ISBN 84-500-3309-8
• El mosaico romano en Hispania : crónica ilustrada de una sociedad. Tarrats Bou, F. Alfafar : Global Edition - Contents, S.A. ISBN 84-933702-1-5 . Libro declarado «de interés turístico nacional», [1] (enlace a BOE nº 44, 21 de febrero de 2005, formato PDF)

External links[link]

Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library

• Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: La Hispania prerromana
• Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: Hispania Romana

Recursos universitarios

• Universidad de Zaragoza: Historia antigua - Hispania
• Universidad de Zaragoza, departamento de Historia Antigua - Bibliografía sobre la conquista de Hispania
• Departament de Prehistòria, Història Antiga i Arqueologia - Facultat de Geografia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona - Centro para el estudio de la interdependencia provincial en la antigüedad clásica (CEIPAC)
• Exposición «El monte de las ánforas» - Una exposición en profundidad sobre el monte Testaccio y su importancia en la comprensión de la economía romana.
• Universitat de les Illes Balears (pdf) - Documento con bibliografía relacionada

Other links

• Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
• Celtiberia.net: Mercenarios hispanos durante la Segunda Guerra Púnica
• En Hispania: Página de D. José Miguel Corbí, catedrático de Latín
• Identificación de puentes romanos en Hispania
• Los ingenieros romanos
• La construcción de los puentes romanos
• Coordinadora para la defensa del Molinete - BAÑOS PÚBLICOS ROMANOS
• Zona arqueológica de Cercadilla (Córdoba)
• Augusta Emerita
• Bibliografía sobre la arquitectura de los teatros de Hispania
• Obras hidráulicas romanas en Hispania
• Minas del Aramo. Principado de Asturias
• El garum, la salsa del Imperio Romano
• Las provincias de la Hispania Romana
• Grupo Gastronómico Gaditano - El «Garum Gaditanum»
• TRAIANVS - Las explotaciones mineras de Lapis Specularis en Hispania
• Tesorillo.com - Algunas cecas provinciales romanas
• Tesorillo.com - Algunas cecas imperiales romanas'
• Acropoliscórdoba.org - El alma de la pintura en Roma
• ArteEspaña.com - Escultura romana: el retrato

Tariq ibn Ziyad طارق بن زياد
Tariq ibn Ziyad conquered Hispania in 711 CE
Died	720 Damascus, ash-Sham
Allegiance	Umayyad Caliphate
Rank	General
Battles/wars	Conquest of Hispania
Other work	Governor of Al-Andalus

Tariq ibn Ziyad (Arabic: طارق بن زياد‎, died 720) was a Muslim, possibly Berber general who led the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711-718 A.D. He is considered to be one of the most important military commanders in Iberian history. Under the orders of the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I he led a large army from the north coast of Morocco, consolidating his troops at a large hill now known as Gibraltar. The name "Gibraltar" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Tāriq (جبل طارق), meaning "mountain of Tariq",^[1] named after him.

Origin[link]

There are three different accounts of his origins given by Arabic histories. These are:

• He was a Persian from Hamadan^[2].
• He was an Arab of the Sadf tribe^[3].
• He was a Berber from North Africa. More specifically, the 13th-century historian Ibn Idhari states he was from the Ulhasa (French: Oulhaça) tribe. According to Ibn Khaldun, the Ulhasa could be found at that time on both sides of the Tafna river in Tlemcen, Algeria.^[4]

Most historians, Arab and Spanish, seem to agree that he was a slave of the emir of Ifriqiya (North Africa), Musa bin Nusayr, who gave him his freedom and appointed him a general in his army. But his descendants centuries later denied he had ever been Musa's slave.

History[link]

Musa bin Nusayr appointed Tariq governor of Tangiers after its conquest, but an unconquered Visigothic outpost remained nearby at Ceuta, a stronghold commanded by a nobleman named Julian.

After Roderic came to power in Spain, Julian had, as was the custom, sent his daughter to the court of the Visigothic king to receive an education. It is said that Roderic raped her, and that Julian was so incensed he resolved to have the Arabs bring down the Visigothic kingdom. Accordingly he entered into a treaty with Tariq (Musa having returned to Qayrawan) to secretly convey the Muslim army across the Straits of Gibraltar, as he owned a number of merchant ships and had his own forts on the Spanish mainland. The deal was approved by Musa.

On April 29 711, the armies of Tariq, composed of recent converts to Islam,^[5] landed at Gibraltar (the name Gibraltar is derived from the Arabic name Jabal at Tariq, which means mountain of Tariq).

A prior version of this article stated that according to the 17th-century historian al-Maqqari, Tariq "burned his ships" and then gave a stirring address to his troops. This is incorrect^[6].

The Muslim armies swept through Hispania and, in the summer of 711, won a decisive victory when the Visigothic king, Roderic, was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Afterwards, Tariq was made governor of Hispania but eventually was called back to Damascus by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in 714, where he spent the rest of his life.^[7]

Namesakes[link]

• Tarek ibn Ziyad Academy, in Inver Grove Heights and Blaine, Minnesota.
• Gibraltar

See also[link]

• List of military commanders
• Umayyad conquest of Hispania
• Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
• Al-Andalus
• Moors
• Musa ibn Nusair
• Tarif ibn Malluk
• History of Gibraltar

Literature[link]

• Roger Collins: The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Oxford and Cambridge Mass.: Blackwell, 1989. Revised reprint (in paperback) published in 1994, reprinted 1995, 1998.
• Pascual de Gayangos, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain.. vol. 1. 1840. English translation of al-Maqqari.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Tariq ibn-Ziyad

• Tarik's Address to His Soldiers, 711 CE, from The Breath of Perfumes
• Ibn Abd al-Hakam, rather outdated English translation in Medieval Sourcebook: The Islamic Conquest of Spain
• Article: Tariq ibnu zeyad in tha mazight(Berber: Rif)