Buru

Geography
Location	South East Asia
Coordinates	3°24′S 126°40′E / 3.4°S 126.667°E / -3.4; 126.667
Archipelago	Maluku Islands
Area	9,505 km2 (3,669.9 sq mi)
Highest elevation	2,428 m (7,966 ft)
Highest point	Gunung Kaplamada
Country
Indonesia
Maluku Province	Maluku
Demographics
Population	161,828 (as of 2010)
Density	17 /km2 (44 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups	Buru, Lisela, Ambelau, Kayeli

Buru (formally spelt Boeroe) is the third largest island within Maluku Islands of Indonesia. It lies between the Banda Sea to the south and Seram Sea to the north, west of Ambon and Seram islands. The island belongs to Maluku province (Indonesian: Provinsi Maluku) and includes the Buru (Indonesian: Kabupaten Buru) and South Buru (Indonesian: Kabupaten Buru Selatan) regencies. Their administrative centers, Namlea and Nampole, respectively, have ports and the largest towns of the island. There is a military airport at Namlea which supports civilian cargo transportation.

About a third of the population is indigenous, mostly Buru, but also Lisela, Ambelau and Kayeli people. The rest of population are immigrants from Java and nearby Maluku Islands. The religious affiliation is evenly split between Christianity and Sunni Islam, with some remnants of traditional beliefs. While local languages and dialects are spoken within individual communities, the national Indonesian language is used among the communities and by the administration. Most of the island is covered with forests rich in tropical flora and fauna. From the present 179 bird and 25 mammal species, about 14 are found either on Buru only or also on a few nearby islands, the most notable being the wild pig Buru babirusa. There is little industry on the island, and most population is engaged in growing rice, maize, sweet potato, beans, coconuts, cocoa, coffee, clove and nutmeg. Other significant activities are animal farming and fishing.

The island was first mentioned around 1365. Between 1658 and 1942, it was colonized by the Dutch East India Company and then by the Crown of the Netherlands. The Dutch administration relocated many local villages to the newly built island capital at Kayeli Bay for working at clove plantations. It also promoted the hierarchy among the indigenous people with selected loyal rajas placed above the heads of the local clans. The island was occupied by the Japanese forces between 1942 and 1945 and in 1950 became part of independent Indonesia. During former President Suharto's New Order administration in the 1960s–1970s, Buru was the site of a prison used to hold thousands of political prisoners. While held at Buru, writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer wrote most his novels, including Buru Quartet.

Geography and geology[link]

Kayeli bay near Namlea in 1949

Kayeli Bay

Buru island lies between two seas of Pacific Ocean – Seram Sea (Indonesian: Laut Seram) on the north and Banda Sea (Indonesian: Laut Banda) to the south and west. To the east, it is separated by Manipa Strait (Indonesian: Selat Manipa) from Seram Island (Indonesian: Pulau Seram). With an area of 9,505 km² (3,670 sq mi),^[1] Buru is the third largest among the Maluku Islands (Indonesian: Kepulauan Maluku) after Halmahera and Seram.

Buru is shaped as an oval elongated from west to east. The maximum length is about 130 km (81 mi) from east to west and 90 km (56 mi) from north to south. The coastline is smooth, with the only indentation being Kayeli Bay located on the eastern coast. The bay also has a smooth oval shape. It extends into the island to 8–12 km and has a maximum width of 17 km, the width decreases to 9 km at the mouth; the coastal length of the bay is about 50 km. At the northern part of the mouth stands Namlea – the largest town of the island.^[2][3]

The highest point on the island (2,429 m (7,969 ft)^[1]) is the peak of Mount Kapalamadan (also called Kepala Madan,^[2] Kepalat Mada or Ghegan^[4]). Off the coast of Buru there are several smaller islands; those permanently inhabited are Ambelau (the largest, about 10 km in diameter, located about 20 km south-east of Buru) and Tengah (Indonesian: Pulau Tengah). The largest uninhabited islands are Fogi (Indonesian: Pulau Fogi), Oki (Indonesian: Pulau Oki) and Tomahu (Indonesian: Pulau Tomahu).^[2][5]

The relief is mostly mountainous, especially in central and western parts. So from the 9,505 km² of the island area, 1,789 km² lie 900 m above mean sea level, 872 km² above 1,200 m and 382 km² above 1,500 m.^[6][7] Flat areas are located in narrow stripes near the coast and along the banks of river Apo – there they form a valley of the same name. Much of the island is covered with tropical rain forests.^[8]

With the length of about 80 km (50 mi), Apo is the largest river of Buru. It flows nearly straight to the north-east and empties into the Kayeli Bay, however its bed is very winding on the hundreds meters scale, with loops all along the length. Two other permanent rivers are Geren and Nibe, the rest are periodic rivers with discontinuous flow. The river discharge varies significantly through the year reaching the maximum in rainy season.^[9] Note that Indonesian sources often include wae (meaning river) before the river names; thus Apo is often referred to as Waeapo or Wae Apo, it is also called Apu in some local dialects. In the center of the island at an altitude of 767 meters (2,516 ft) lies a freshwater lake Rana (Indonesian: Danau Rana). This is the only significant lake on Buru; it has a nearly rectangular shape with the length of about 4.3 km, width of about 2.7 km and an area of 11.5 km² (4.4 sq mi) ^[4]

The crust consists of several types of deposits. It is dominated by Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, probably originating from the Australian continent;^[10] Also present are younger volcanic rocks and more recent alluvial deposits.^[8] Sedimentary deposits in the form of silt, peat, sand and mud are mostly found in the river valleys. Metamorphic rocks of slate, schist and arkose dominate the northern part of the island. Very few mineral deposits of Buru have industrial value, and only limestone is mined commercially.^[11] However, significant reserves of oil and gas were discovered in the shelf in 2009.^[12] There are numerous coral reefs around the island.^[1] The soil mostly consists of yellow-red Podsol, Organosol, Grumosol and various mixtures.^[9]

Climate[link]

The climate is equatorial monsoonal, wet, and in general typical for the Maluku Islands. Rainy season spreads from October to April with the highest rainfall in December–February.^[9] Despite relatively small size of the island, its mountainous terrain results in several climatic zones. Apart from temperature reduction with altitude, the temperature variations across these zones are negligible, with the annual average of about 26 °C,^[9][13] However the annual precipitation differs and amounts to 1,400–1,800 mm in the north, 1,800–2,000 mm in the center, 2,000–2,500 mm in the south and 3,000–4,000 mm in the mountains, at elevation above 500 m.^[5][9]

Flora and fauna[link]

Buru Racket-tail is endemic to the island

As Buru is located at the boundary between the biogeographic zones of Australia and Asia, its flora and fauna are unique and are the subject of national and international scientific research.^[4] Of 25 species of mammals found on the island, at least four are endemic to Buru and closest to it islands. The local species of the wild pig named Buru babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is distinguished from the other Babyrousa species by having relatively long and thick body-hair. It also has very low fat content in their meat (only 1.27% compared to 5–15% for domestic pigs) and is regarded as a delicacy among the local population, which favors it to other wild pigs or deer in terms of texture and flavor.^[14] Also endemic to Buru are three types of bats: Moluccan flying fox (Pteropus chrysoproctus), Ceram fruit bat Pteropus ocularis and lesser tube-nosed bat (Nyctimene minutus).^[8]

Of the 178 recorded species of birds, 10 are endemic to Buru and nearby islands: Buru Racket-tail (Prioniturus mada), Black-lored Parrot (Tanygnathus gramineus), Blue-fronted Lorikeet (Charmosyna toxopei), Buru Honeyeater (Lichmera deningeri), Buru Cuckooshrike (Coracina fortis), Streaky-breasted Jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias addita), Rufous-throated White-eye (Madanga ruficollis), Buru White-eye (Zosterops buruensis), Tawny-backed Fantail (Rhipidura superflua) and Black-tipped Monarch (Monarcha loricatus). Among those, the rufous-throated white-eye is regarded as endangered and the Black-lored Parrot and vulnerable (threatened) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature; both species were observed only in very limited areas of Buru island. There are another 19 birds that are near-endemic to Buru: Rufous-necked Sparrowhawk (Accipiter erythrauchen), Dusky Megapode (Megapodius forstenii), Moluccan Megapode (Megapodius wallacei), White-eyed Imperial Pigeon (Ducula perspicillata), Long-tailed Mountain Pigeon (Gymnophaps mada), Red Lory (Eos bornea), Moluccan Hawk-owl (Ninox squamipila), Moluccan Masked Owl (Tyto sororcula), Wakolo Myzomela (Myzomela wakoloensis), Black-faced Friarbird (Philemon moluccensis), Drab Whistler (Pachycephala griseonota), White-naped Monarch (Monarcha pileatus), Dark-grey Flycatcher (Myiagra galeata), Black-eared Oriole (Oriolus bouroensis), Pale Cicadabird (Coracina ceramensis), Buru Thrush (Zoothera dumasi), Cinnamon-chested Flycatcher (Ficedula buruensis), Chestnut-backed Bush-warbler (Bradypterus castaneus) and Flame-breasted Flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythrothorax). Among butterflies, 25% of Pieridae and 7% of Papilionidae are endemic to the island.^[8]

The vegetation is characteristic of tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests, with the dominant family of Dipterocarpaceae, genuses of Hopea, Shorea and Vatica, and the individual species of Anisoptera thurifera, Hopea gregaria, H. iriana, H. novoguineensis, Shorea assamica, Shorea montigena, Shorea selanica and Vatica rassak. Some of these trees may grow to more than 30 meters (98 ft) and are usually bound by thick lianas and other epiphytes. Open forest, woodland, and savanna areas also exist on Buru. The fire-resistant paper bark tree (Melaleuca cajuputi) is common in dry areas. The northwestern part of the island has steep limestone cliffs covered by mixed forests that include Shorea trees, and stunted Dacrydium novo-guineense is present at the mountain tops.^[8]

Primary forests constitute 60% of the island, and are mostly found in the areas of Air Buaya and Waeapo. There is only 0.51% of secondary forests, in the district Batabual, and 0.9% of mangroves, at Waeapo, Air Buaya, Batabual and Namlea. A significant part of the island (23.10%) is taken by shrubs, and only 5.83% is open land, which is spread over most districts of Buru.^[9]

Administrative division[link]

The island belongs to the Indonesian province of Maluku (Indonesian: Propinsi Maluku). Until 1999, it was part of the Central Maluku Regency (Indonesian: Kabupaten Maluku Tengah) and then became a separate regency of the same name.^[15] In 2008, it was split into Buru Regency (Indonesian: Kabupaten Buru) and South Buru Regency (Indonesian: Kabupaten Buru Selatan).^[16]

Buru Regency has an area of 5,578 km² and the administrative center at Namlea. It is divided into 5 districts: Namlea (center in Namlea), Waplau (center – Waplau), Waeapo (center – Waenetat), Air Buaya (center – Air Buaya) and Batubual (center – Ilath). The governor (Regent or Indonesian: bupati, as of October 2009) is Husni Hentihu and Vice Regent is Ramli Umasugi.^[9]

South Buru Regency (administrative center Namrole) has an area of 5,060 km² and includes the Ambelau and other small islands south of Buru. Its governing structure has not been completed as of February 2010, and the current acting Regent is A. R. Uluputti.^[17][18] The regency is divided into 5 districts: Namrole (center – Namrole), Kepalamadan (center – Biloro), Leksula (center – Leksula), Wae Sama (center – Wamsisi), and Ambalau (center – Wailua); the last district is entirely located on the island Ambalau.^[9]

Population[link]

As of the 2010 Census, the population of the islands administered as Buru was 161,828 people, with about 2/3 in the northern regency and 1/3 in the southern;^[19] this number also includes some other small islands to the south. In the early 2000s, most of the population was concentrated in the coastal areas,^[20] and comprised the following major groups: indigenous Buru (33,000 people), Lisela (13,000), Ambelau (6,000) and Kayeli people (800); migrants from Java, and migrants from other Maluku Islands. The migration to Buru was stimulated by the Dutch colonial administration in the 1900s, and by Indonesian authorities in the 1950s–1990s. The local communities speak Buru, Lisela and Ambelau languages in everyday life, however, the national Indonesian language is used as a means of international communication. It is also used for writing, as none of the local languages (except for Buru) have a writing system. Also common is Ambon dialect of Malay language (Melayu Ambon). The latter is widely used in the Maluku Islands as a second language and is a simplified form of Indonesian language with additions of the local lexicon. Some local dialects, such as the Hukumina and Kayeli, became extinct in the second half of the 20th century.^[21][22]

Religious composition of the population is heterogeneous: the number of islanders practicing Sunni Islam and Christianity is almost the same at about 40–45% each, and the rest – mainly residents of remote mountain areas – still follow traditional local cults or do not have a clear religious affiliation. Most Christians are indigenous islanders and migrants from Maluku Islands, while most Muslims originate from Java.^[21][23] The economical crisis of the 1990s resulted in frequent conflicts among Buru people over religious grounds.^[24] So within a few days in December 1999, 43 people were killed and at least 150 houses burned in the Wainibe village.^[25][26][27]

History[link]

Precolonial period[link]

One of the first mentioning of Buru can be found in Nagarakretagama – an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk, the ruler of the Majapahit Kingdom, dating back to 1365.^[28] The island appears in the third line of 15th song in the list of lands subordinate to Majapahit under the name Hutan Kadali.^[28][29]

In the 16th–17th centuries the Buru territory was claimed by the rulers of Ternate island and by the Portuguese; both claims were however symbolic, as neither party controlled the island but only visited it on trade matters. More active were Makassar people from Sulawesi island, who had built fortifications on Buru and forced the natives to grow valuable spices, such as clove.^[23]

Colonial period[link]

Clove – a spice, which played a significant role in the history of Buru

Clove tree

Remains of the Dutch fortress at Kayeli Bay.

The rivalry between the Makassar and Dutch East India Company for control over production and trade in spices in the east of the Malay archipelago resulted in a military conflict. In 1648, a Dutch expedition to Buru expelled Makassar from the island and destroyed their buildings and boats; instead of re-using the existing clove plantations, the Dutch burned more than three thousand trees, as they were not in position to settle on the island and were afraid that Makassar will return after their departure.^[23] They however returned after several years and raised a fortress armed with four cannons and 24 soldiers in 1658, at the southern coast of Kayeli Bay, in the eastern part of Buru. A permanent settlement was established at the fortress, which became the administrative center of the island. About 2,000 of native inhabitants of the island were forcibly relocated to this area from other parts of the island, including much of the tribal nobility, and about thirteen large villages had been built around the fort: Lumaite, Hukumina, Palamata, Tomahu, Masarete, Waisama, Marulat, Leliali, Tagalisa, Ilat, Kayeli, Bara and Lisela. The relocation was designed to facilitate control over the local population and provide workforce for clove fields which were being planted by the Dutch in this part of the island. Kayeli ethnicity with its own language was formed as a mixture of the newly arriving settlers and the native population of the fort area.^[23]

The presence among the ancestors of the tribal aristocracy and interaction with the Dutch colonial administration resulted in a special position of Kayeli over the next centuries, who claimed the role of indigenous elite of the island. In particularly, they requested donations from each clan of Buru, which could be rice, millet, coconuts, sago, sweet potatoes and tobacco, as well as supplying men to work exclusively for the Kayeli rajas.^[23]

The Dutch East India Company was abolished in the early 18th century and all its possessions in the Malay archipelago came under the direct control of Crown of the Netherlands.^[23] In 1824, as part of the reform of the colonial administration, Buru was divided into 14 regencies (this number gradually reduced to seven over the next 100 years). They were headed by the local rulers, rajas, who were subordinate to the Dutch advisors. All rajas were selected from the Kayeli tribal nobles, who had by this time proved their loyalty to the Dutch.^[23][30]

The demise of Kayeli dominance began in 1880s, when the leaders of Leliali, Wae Sama and Fogi clans moved significant parts of their ethnic groups to their original settlements; they were joined in the early 1900s by Tagalisa. By then, many other of the original 13 Kayeli villages were either abandoned or lost their rajas. By about 1910, the leading role of Kayeli clan had almost disappeared.^[23]

Transition years 1942–1950[link]

From spring of 1942 to summer of 1945, the entire Dutch East Indies, including Buru, were occupied by the Japanese army. During this period, the island was raided by the bombers of the Allies aiming to incapacitate the Japanese military infrastructure, in particular the airport at Namlea – the major town of Buru.^[31]

After the capitulation of Japan on 2 September 1945, the control over the island fell back to the Netherlands. In December 1946, Buru, along with other Maluku Islands, Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, was included in a quasi-independent State of East Indonesia (Indonesian: Negara Indonesia Timur) which was established by the Dutch government in order to gradually transform their former colonial possessions in the East Indies in a dependent state. In December 1949, eastern Indonesia joined the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Serikat RIS) established at the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference of 23 August – 2 November 1949.^[32][33][34]

In April 1950, just before the abolition of RIS and inclusion of most of eastern Indonesia to the Republic of Indonesia, the local authorities of Buru, Ambon, Seram and several smaller nearby islands proclaimed the establishment of an independent Republic of South Moluccas (Indonesian: Republik Maluku Selatan, RMS) and committed to maintain close political ties with the Netherlands.^[32][33] After unsuccessful attempts to absorb RMS through negotiations, the Republic of Indonesia initiated a six-month military conflict in July 1950. In December 1950, Buru was brought under control of Indonesian troops and proclaimed part of the Republic of Indonesia.^[32][33]

As part of Indonesia[link]

Between 1950 and 1965, the policy of the new government was aimed at rapid social, political and economic integration of Buru to Indonesia. In the 1960s and 1970s, during the military regime of general Suharto (Indonesian: Soeharto), Buru became one of the main places of exile and imprisonment of political dissidents – primarily Communists and other left-wing representatives, as well as disobeying intellectuals. Most camps were closed on Buru in 1980. More than 12,000 people had served a prison sentence in those camps by then,^[27][35][36] and at least several hundred have died or were killed.^[27]

One of the prisoners was a prominent Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, who spent 14 years (1965–1979) in a prison, mostly on Buru, and wrote there many of his novels. Those included a large part of Buru Quartet (Indonesian: Tetralogi Buru), in particular its first part "The world of humanity" (Indonesian: Bumi manusia).^[35][37] Until 1975, Toer was deprived of writing tools. He memorized his novels and was reciting them to his cellmates partly relying on their memory.^[27][35][38]

Economy[link]

Economic development of the island was depressed in the late 1990s as a result of the national and regional crisis. The growth resumed in the early 2000s,^[39] however, unemployment remains high (9.92% of the population in 2008), and more than 37% of islanders are living below the national poverty line (as of 2008).^[39]

The basis of the island's economy is agriculture which contributed 51.22% to the GDP in 2008.^[39] The major crop is rice with plantations taking an area of more than 5,700 hectares and yielding about 23,000 tonnes per the year (for 2008).^[40] Most rice fields are located on the northern coasts of the island, in the districts of Namlea, Waeapo and Air Buaya.^[41] With the total area of 135 hectares, maize dominates the southern field of districts Waisama, Kepalamadan and Namrole, yielding 176 tonnes per year (as of 2008). Other crops of the southern part are sweet potato (211 hectares, 636 tonnes), beans (926 hectares, 946 tonnes ) and soybeans (965 hectares, 965 tonnes).^[41][40] Coco^{[disambiguation needed ]} (5,724 ha, 2,742 tonnes), cocoa (4,453 ha, 2,368 tonnes), clove (947 ha, 881 tonnes) and coffee (114 acres, 1223 tonnes) are grown in the Namlea, Air Buaya, Waeapo, Batubual and Waplau areas, whereas nutmeg (143 ha, 75 tonnes) is restricted to Batubual.^[41][42] Teak plantations are found almost everywhere on Buru and complement the natural sources of timber.^[43][44]

Animal farming is of secondary importance, but its role is gradually increasing. The major animals are cows (41,349 animals as of 2008), buffalo (3,699), chickens (more than 1,346,000), ducks (195,000), sheep (26,950), domestic pigs (1,276) and horses (497).^[45] In 2008, there were 410 fishing enterprises with the annual catch of 3,891 tonnes of fish and seafood. The major commercial species are tuna (900 tonnes), sardines (420 tonnes) and mackerel (385 tonnes).^[44][46]

The industry employs only about 2,700 islanders and contributes about 7% to the GDP.^[39] Among the 537 enterprises registered in 2008, 482 were engaged in processing of agricultural products and 44 in engineering, chemicals and repair.^[47] In January 2010, the Ministry of Industry of Indonesia has approved a plan to build major cement plants on the island.^[48] The expansion of tourism is hindered by the lack of infrastructure on the island.^[20][39]

Apart from agriculture and engineering, other significant economic areas are trade, hotel industry and catering (19.19% of GDP in 2008), custom services (12.74%), transport and communication (3.10%), construction (3.13%), financial sector (2.64%) and energy and water (0.49%).^[39]

Transportation[link]

Buru is linked with other parts of Indonesia via sea routes and has two main ports in Namlea and Namrole. With 866 registered cargo and passenger vessels, the average transport rate in 2008 was 400 tonnes per day.^[49] Speedboats "Bahari Express" run daily between Namlea and the capital of Maluku Province, Ambon (distance 160 km, travel time three hours).^[50]

By agreement between the administration of Buru district and local military authorities, the military airfield at Namlea (runway 750 meters) is used for air transportation.^[51] Aircraft CASA C-212 Aviocar make 96 passenger flights a year between Namlea and several towns of Maluku. In 2007, construction began of a civil airport near the villages of Suva and Namrole, about 30 km south-west of Namlea.^[49]

In absence of railways, most local transportation occurs via the roads. In 2008, their total length was 1,310 km, of which 278 km was covered with asphalt, 282 km with gravel and the rest were laid in soil.^[49] The construction project of a modern 287 km long highway across the island, connecting its two major towns of Namlea and Namrole and several other towns is delayed due to underfunding.^[20] There is a regular long-distance bus service supported by a park of 18 units.^[49]

Health[link]

As of 2007, the medical system of the island was in a poor state due to underfunding and lack of qualified medical personnel. There were 2 hospitals and 16 clinics, 5 of which were first-aid clinics and 11 were serving non-emergency patients who could arrive there on their own. The medical staff consisted of 22 doctors (two with the medical degree), 65 obstetricians and 303 nurses. The authorities plan to increase the number of medical facilities and staff by 2–4 times by 2012.^[52]

Traditional occupations and culture[link]

Traditional Buru house of the early 1900s

Lisela men at a village, early 20th century.

Whereas local people traditionally occupied villages, variation of their seasonal activities – predominantly hunting and farming – tended to either disperse or gather them. Men hunted the wild pig Buru babirusa, deer and possum, in the forests, mostly during the peak of east monsoon (June and July); meanwhile women were gathering wild vegetables. However, during the west monsoon (November to April) both men and women were working together in the fields. The position of the villages was also changing with time, mostly because of the low soil fertility on the island – recovery of the soil took significant time urging long-distance travel to the new fields. It was rather common for a family to leave the village for most of the week to their field and return only for the religious service on Sunday. It was also rather common to move the entire village after some 20 years of exploiting a plot of land. Partly because of this, most settlements were rather small, with the smallest type accommodating one-two families (hum-hawa or hum-tapa), middle-type (hum-lolin) consisting of 3–10 houses and accommodating 20–50 people, and larger ones of 30–50 houses and 150–300 people (fen-lale). On the coast, there were several multi-ethnic settlements with more than 200 houses (ibu kota kecamatan). This local variety of terms for a "settlement" puzzled the Dutch colonizers trying to systematize the local registries.^[23]

Traditional Buru houses were made from bamboo, often on stilts. The roofs were covered with palm leaves or reeds. Cement, metal and tiles were introduced in the 20th century and urged to build more permanent dwelling, but with limited results, as the locals continued to relocate. This was partly due to the habits of relocation and partly due to local disputes or superstitions, such as cursing a place where a certain number of people died within a short period. Presence of a church in a village might hindered relocation for a century, but not always. Traditional Buru costumes are similar those of most other Indonesia peoples. Men wear sarong (a kind of kilt) and a long-skirted tunic, and women are dressed in sarong and a shorter jacket. However, the dress color systematically varies between the different tribes of the island.^[23]

Research[link]

The unique flora, fauna and tropical forest ecosystem of the island are systematically researched by both Indonesian and foreign scientific bodies.^[4] The original vegetation on the coastal plain has been cleared, and much of the mountain forest on the northern side of the island has been cut and burned out for timber and creating new farming fields, but two large areas of stable rain forest still exist in the mountains. These are currently protected areas, Gunung Kapalat Mada (1,380 km²) and Waeapo (50 km²).^[8]

Most of the published studies on the history, culture and languages of the island were conducted in the 1980s out by spouses Charles E. Grimes and Barbara Dix Grimes – Australian missionaries and ethnographers and active members of SIL International (they should not be confused with Joseph E. Grimes and Barbara F. Grimes, Charles' parents, also known Australian ethnographers). They have also completed translation of the Bible to Buru language, which was started by the early Dutch missionaries.^[53][54][55]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Buru.

• Grimes, Barbara Dix (1994). Buru inside out. In: Visser, L.E., ed. Halmahera and beyond. Leiden: KITLV Press. pp. 59–78. ISBN 90-6718-072-6.

External links[link]

• Buru rain forests (World Wildlife Fund)
• Buru's official website (in Bahasa Indonesia)

Coordinates: 3°24′S 126°40′E / 3.4°S 126.667°E / -3.4; 126.667

Black Scorpion is an action-crime TV series that aired on the Sci-Fi Channel in 2001. The series is based on two Roger Corman movies, Black Scorpion, and the sequel Black Scorpion II: Aftershock. The show focuses on a female police officer, who, by night, takes to the streets and fights crime as the superheroine, the Black Scorpion. The show contains many references to the old Batman TV series, including guest appearances by Adam West and Frank Gorshin.^[1]

Episode 1.1, 1.3 and 1.8 were combined into a 2002 straight to video movie called Sting of the Black Scorpion.

The complete series was briefly available on DVD in North America, but the set is now out of production.

Lead character[link]

Darcy Walker[link]

The Black Scorpion's real name is Darcy Walker, played by Michelle Lintel. She lives in Angel City (a fictionalized version of Los Angeles), where she works as a police detective. Darcy's father was shot by the city's crooked district attorney. The D.A. was arrested, but the charges were suspiciously dropped. That was when Darcy decided to take to the streets as the vigilante, Black Scorpion. In the original Corman films, the role of Darcy was played by Joan Severance. In the series, she is a red-headed enforcer with a badge who enforces the law more efficiently without the badge as her crime-fighting alter-ego, Black Scorpion. She appears to be a big fan of the color black, a fact she made clear during an interview after being asked with such a trivial question which would explain the color of her costume. However, as shown in the first episode, her choice of the scorpion relates to an old fable about a scorpion trying to cross a river, which her father told her.

Black Scorpion[link]

The Black Scorpion is a clear reference to Batman: Apart from being an excellent hand-to-hand fighter and an expert with computers, Black Scorpion has no superpowers. She does, however, have access to a large assortment of weapons and gadgets, her best known weapon being her "Scorpionmobile," a high-tech car that is decked out like the Batmobile, with unique features activated via voice command and with a disguise capability similar to the "Defender" from Viper. She also wears a ring that shoots powerful blasts of energy and allows her to change into the Black Scorpion costume by converting "to an atomic level" whatever clothes she's wearing into the said attire. As far as personality goes, Black Scorpion is rather cocky, almost to the point of overconfidence, which often leads to her opponents catching her off-guard and getting the best of her, usually by knocking her out. In fact, there is hardly an episode where the antagonist(s) doesn't knock her out as part of the climax. She apparently dislikes the way she looks on camera, which contradicts her choice of attire when garbed as a crimefighter. She also has a tendency to avoid hitting people if they happen to be wearing glasses; unless she really thinks they deserve it, as with the character Clockwise.

Other Major Characters[link]

• Detective Steve Rafferty: Darcy's partner and love interest. Apart from Darcy, Steve is the best cop on the force. At present, he is on a mission to unmask the Black Scorpion. Darcy wants to tell Steve that she's the Black Scorpion, but whenever she tries, the opportunity slips away. Steve may also have a crush on the Black Scorpion, which visibly upsets Darcy, forming a bizarre love triangle between Steve, herself, and her costumed alter-ego. He is played by Scott Valentine. Of special note, Scott Valentine played a cameo in the second Black Scorpion film as minor thug.

• Specs and Slugger: A pair of incompetent Cops that work with Darcy and Steve. Often the pair get into Car crashes while chasing Black Scorpion. They are played by Shane Powers and Steven Kravitz respectively. Of note they are the only characters, save Gangster Prankster and Aftershock, to return for the series with their original actors.

• Argyle Sims: Darcy's personal mechanic, he is the only person whom Darcy allowed to know her identity unconditionally, since he freely gave her most of her more hi-tech equipment. He is somewhat a mentor figure to her at times, but his role is watered down somewhat in the series, only seeming to appear when a new gadget is needed. In one episode, he garbed himself as the "Argyle Avenger", after tipping off Detective Steve Rafferty who couldn't make it in time, in order to aid Darcy (Black Scorpion) foil the antagonist's plot. He is played by Brandon Terrell (listed as BT in the credits).

• Tender Lovin' (Veronica): Argyle's girlfriend and a former hooker. She and Argyle are constantly arguing about relationship issues. She is played by Enya Flack.

• Arthur "Artie" Worth: Angel City's extremely corrupt Mayor. Often involved in various shady deals either to fund his campaign for reelection or his extravagant lifestyle. Many criminals in the city are created because of this, including his own Deputy mayor. He is played by Robert Pine.

• Dr. Phineas Phoenix: A scientist who deals in reanimating the dead, and creating clones. His goal is to take a criminal and reform him into a productive member of society. As a result several of Black Scorpion's enemies return from fatal defeats at her hand. He is played by Raye Birk.

Major Enemies[link]

Aerobicide

• Real Name: Susie Payne
• Powers: Cybernetic implants give her superstrength and agility; exercise-based weaponry
• First appearance: No Sweat Episode 1.9
• Portrayed by: Renee Griffin
• Notes: Her sidekicks are Bend and Stretch

Angel of Death

• Real Name: Detective Angela Archer
• Powers: None; uses her poison lipstick to bring death to all criminals
• First Appearance Kiss of Death Episode 1.16
• Portrayed by: Nancy Valen
• Notes: A Punisher-like vigilante who like Darcy was a cop.

Aftershock

• Real Name: Professor Ursula Undershaft
• Powers: None; uses gauntlets that shoot out shock waves through the city.
• First appearance: Home Sweet Homeless Episode 1.4
• Portrayed By Sherrie Rose
• Notes: Was Darcy's main enemy in Black Scorpion II. Footage from the movie was edited into the episode.

Breathtaker

• Real Name: Dr. Noah Goddard
• Powers: None; hallucinogenic gas dispensers
• First appearance: Out of Thin Air Episode 1.6
• Portrayed by: Adam West
• Notes: Breathtaker is handicapped. He has to breathe through a respirator. He was also the original enemy of the film version.

Clockwise

• Real Name: Benjamin Tickerman
• Powers: None, but physically strong enough to KO a time-frozen Black Scorpion; time-related weaponry that can freeze the time localized around Black Scorpion, leaving her defenseless
• First appearance: Crime Time Episode 1.8
• Portrayed by: Frank Gorshin
• Notes: His henchmen are the sexy Hourglass, the tall Big Hand, and the dwarfish Little Hand.

FireArm

• Real Name: Jack Aimes
• Powers: None; prosthetic arm is a powerful energy blaster and artificial eye is sophisticated targeting apparatus.
• First appearance: Armed and Dangerous Episode 1.1
• Portrayed by: Martin Kove

Flashpoint

• Real Name: Cameron Albright
• Powers: None; light-based weaponry
• First appearance: Blinded by the Light Episode 1.3
• Portrayed by: Allen Scotti
• Notes: Flashpoint was blinded by Black Scorpion's energy ring, but his eyesight was restored by advanced laser surgery. Became one of the heroine's most persistent archenemies, and even managed to unmask her in one episode. He has a sexy sidekick named Vision.

Gangster Prankster

• Real Name: Luther Sims
• Powers: None, just terrorizes citizens with his maniacal laughter and his gang of fools. That, and a few novelty weapons, such as an acid-squirting squirt gun
• First appearance: An officer and a Prankster Episode 1.10
• Portrayed by Stoney Jackson
• Notes: Was an enemy in Black Scorpion II. He's Argyle's brother, and dies in Episode 17.

Greenthumb

• Real Name: Eugene Gardner
• Powers: Specializes in breeding plant with special and unique properties
• First appearance: Roses Are Red, You're Dead Episode 1.12
• Portrayed by: David Lander
• Notes: He has two sexy sidekicks named Tiger Lily and African Violet.

Hurricane

• Real Name: Dr. Gail Waters
• Powers: Weather manipulation
• First appearance: Wave Goodbye Episode 1.2
• Portrayed by: Athena Massey
• Notes: A marine biologist who gains her powers after being mutated by toxic waste. She has two sidekicks who are referred to as "the Squids", they are also marine biologist who are mutated to become half-human, half octopus (with "tentacles in embarrassing places").

Inferno

• Real Name: Adam Burns
• Powers: Pyrokinesis
• First appearance: Love Burns Episode 1.5
• Portrayed by: Brent Huff
• Notes: A fireman who, while chasing an arsonist, got blasted by an experimental device and gained his powers.

Medusa

• Real Name: Minerva Stone
• Powers: None; cement gun turns victims to stone
• Portrayed by: Lisa Boyle
• First Appearance: No Stone Unturned Episode 1.7
• Notes: Medusa owns her own health and beauty spa. Most of the statues in the spa are her victims. Her sidekicks are Marble and Granite.

Mindbender

• Real Name: Dr. Sarah Bellum
• Powers: None; just uses VR to trap her victims and her technological skills to build bombs.
• First Appearance: Virtual Vice Episode 1.14
• Portrayed By: Lana Clarkson
• Notes: Her henchwomen are Giga and Byte.

Polutia

• Real Name: Dr. Ariel Haze
• Powers: Can turn herself into smog, allowing her to outmaneuver Black Scorpion several times before kicking her into unconsciousness when the superheroine least expects to.
• First Appearance: Life's a Gas Episode 1.11
• Portrayed By: Julie McCullough
• Notes: Dr. Ariel Haze is a former student of the Breathtaker, who is desperate to stop pollution.

Professor Prophet

• Real Name: Sonny Dey
• Powers: None Uses a device to control Inferno, Aftershock, Hurricane, and Breathtaker.
• First Appearance:Zodiak Attack - Part 1 Episode 1.21
• Portrayed by: Soupy Sales.
• Notes: Professor Prophet is a washed up psychic who uses the super villains to carry out his evil deeds so he can make his predictions come true. He appeared earlier as a weatherman in "Wave Goodbye".

Slapshot

• Real Name: Ricky Blade
• Powers: None: uses his super metal armor to go after his victims and kill those who he blames for his accident
• First appearance: Bad Sport Episode 1.15
• Portrayed By: Greg Kean
• Notes: Ricky Blade is paralyzed so he must wear a metallic armor to overcome his injuries

Stunner

• Real Name: Edwina Watts
• Powers: Can shoot Electricity Through her hands.
• First Appearance: Power Play Episode 1.18
• Notes: Formerly the Mayor's Deputy, whom he used as a scapegoat for all his mistakes. Was electrocuted in an attempt to save the mayor and gained her powers.

Vox Populi

• Real Name: Unknown, only referred to by her stage name.
• Powers: None: uses subsonic sounds to turn her lyrics into orders. Also wields an electric guitar that sends out dangerous sonic waves.
• First Appearance: Face the Music Episode 1.20
• Portrayed By: Shannon Whirry
• Notes: With her sidekicks Screech and Shriek they form the band the Bleeding Eardrums. Used by the Mayor in an attempt to ensure his reelection.

A guest appearance was made by Dave Mustaine, who portrayed the pyromaniac Torchy Thompson. During his fight scenes, sound clips of Hangar 18 were played.

Ben McCain appeared in 16 episodes as anchor/reporter Don MacDonald.

Episodes[link]

There were 22 episodes of the Black Scorpion TV series.^[2]