Claudia Octavia
Empress consort of the Roman Empire
Tenure	13 October AD 54 – AD 62 (8 years)
Spouse	Nero
Full name
Claudia Octavia
House	Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Father	Claudius
Mother	Valeria Messalina
Born	late AD 39/early AD 40 Rome
Died	9 June AD 62 Pandateria

Claudia Octavia (Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA^[1]) (late AD 39 or early AD 40 – 9 June AD 62) was an Empress of Rome. She was a great-niece of the Emperor Tiberius, paternal first cousin of the Emperor Caligula, daughter of the Emperor Claudius, and stepsister and first wife of the Emperor Nero. Asteroid 598 Octavia is named after her.

Life[link]

Family[link]

Octavia was the only daughter of the Emperor Claudius by his third marriage to his second cousin Valeria Messalina. She was named for her great-grandmother Octavia the Younger, the second eldest and full-blooded sister of the Emperor Augustus. Her elder half-sister was Claudia Antonia, Claudius's daughter through his second marriage to Aelia Paetina, and her full sibling was Britannicus, Claudius's son with Messalina.

Early life[link]

She was born in Rome. As a young girl, her father betrothed her to future praetor Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, who was a descendant of Augustus.

Rise of Nero[link]

Octavia's mother was executed in 48, for conspiring to murder her father. Claudius later remarried her paternal first cousin and his own niece Agrippina the Younger. Agrippina the Younger had a son from her first marriage: Nero (at that time known as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus)

Agrippina, through her plotting and manipulating, ended the engagement between Octavia and Lucius Silanus and persuaded Claudius to adopt Nero as his son and heir and arranged for Octavia and Nero to marry on 9 June 53.

Life as empress[link]

Claudius died on 13 October 54 and Nero acceded to the throne, possibly poisoning Octavia's full brother Britannicus in early 55 in order to do so. Tacitus states that from this moment Octavia became very unhappy, but learned to hide her affections and feelings around her husband and stepbrother. Octavia was caught up in the power struggles between Nero and his mother, which concluded when Nero murdered his mother in March 59.

Although she was admired as empress by the Roman citizen body, the marriage was unhappy. Octavia was an ‘aristocratic and virtuous wife' (in Tacitus's words), whereas Nero hated her and grew bored with her (according to both Tacitus and Suetonius), trying on several occasions to strangle her (according to Suetonius) and having affairs with a freedwoman called Claudia Acte and then with Poppaea Sabina. He excused this treatment of her when at one point his friends showed their concerns about it. When Poppaea became pregnant with Nero's child, Nero divorced Octavia, claiming she was barren, and married Poppaea twelve days after the divorce.

Banishment by Nero and Poppaea and death[link]

Nero and Poppaea then banished Octavia to the island of Pandateria (modern Ventotene) on a false charge of adultery. When Octavia complained about this treatment, her maids were tortured to death.

Octavia's banishment became so unpopular that the citizens of Rome protested loudly, openly parading through the streets with statues of Octavia decked with flowers and calling for her return. Nero (badly frightened) nearly agreed to remarry Octavia, but instead he signed her death warrant.

A few days later, Octavia was bound and her veins were opened in a traditional Roman suicide ritual. She was suffocated in an exceedingly hot vapor bath. Octavia’s head was cut off and sent to Poppaea. Her death brought much sorrow to Rome. According to Suetonius, years later Nero would have nightmares about his mother and Octavia.

Ancestry[link]

In later fiction[link]

The events of the divorce are dramatised in Octavia which is sometimes attributed to Seneca the Younger and, more recently, in Handel's lost opera Nero, Octavia (opera, 1705) by Keiser, and Claudio Monteverdi and Giovanni Francesco Busenello's L'incoronazione di Poppea. Octavia is a character in the novel and television series I Claudius and Claudius the God.

Notes[link]

Sources[link]

• Suetonius - The Twelve Caesars - Claudius and Nero.
• Tacitus - The Annals of Imperial Rome.

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Claudia Octavia

• E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen - e.a. (edd.), Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III, Berlin, 1933 - . (PIR²)
• Levick, Barbara, Claudius. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1990.
• Barrett, Anthony A., Agrippina: Sex, Power and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1996.

Claudio Monteverdi in 1640 by Bernardo Strozzi

Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi (Italian pronunciation: [ˈklaudjo monteˈverdi]; 15 May 1567 (baptized) – 29 November 1643) was an Italian composer, gambist, and singer.

Monteverdi's work, often regarded as revolutionary, marked the transition from the Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period.^[1] He developed two individual styles of composition – the heritage of Renaissance polyphony and the new basso continuo technique of the Baroque.^[2] Monteverdi wrote one of the earliest operas, L'Orfeo, an innovative work that is still regularly performed. He was recognized as an innovative composer and enjoyed considerable fame in his lifetime.

Life[link]

Claudio Monteverdi, circa 1597, by an anonymous artist, (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). Thought to be the earliest known image of Monteverdi, at about age 30, painted when he was still at the Gonzaga Court in Mantua.

Claudio Monteverdi was born in 1567 in Cremona, a town in Northern Italy. His father was Baldassare Monteverdi, a doctor, apothecary and surgeon.^[3] He was the oldest of five children.^[4] During his childhood, he was taught by Marc'Antonio Ingegneri,^[5] the maestro di cappella at the Cathedral of Cremona.^[6] The Maestro di capella’s job was to conduct important worship services in accordance with the liturgy books of the Catholic Church.^[7] Monteverdi learned about music by being part of the cathedral choir.^[8] He also studied at the University of Cremona.^[8] His first music was written for publication, including some motets and sacred madrigals, in 1582 and 1583.^[9] His first five publications were: Sacrae cantiunculae, 1582 (collection of miniature motets); Madrigali Spirituali, 1583 (a volume of which only the bass partbook is extant); Canzonette a tre voci, 1584 (a collection of three-voice canzonettes); and the five-part madrigals Book I, 1587, and Book II, 1590.^[10] Monteverdi worked for the court of Mantua first as a singer and violist, then as music director.^[11] He worked at the court of Vincenzo I of Gonzaga in Mantua as a vocalist and viol player.^[12] In 1602, he was working as the court conductor.^[12]

In 1599 Monteverdi married the court singer Claudia Cattaneo,^[13] who died in September 1607.^[14] He and his wife had two boys (Francesco and Massimilino) and one girl (Leonora) – another daughter died shortly after birth.^[15]

By 1613, he had moved to the San Marco in Venice where, as conductor,^[16] he quickly restored the musical standard of both the choir and the instrumentalists. The musical standard had declined due to the financial mismanagement of his predecessor, Giulio Cesare Martinengo.^[16] The managers of the basilica were relieved to have such a distinguished musician in charge, as the music had been declining since the death of Giovanni Croce in 1609.^[16]

In 1632, he became a priest.^[17] During the last years of his life, when he was often ill, he composed his two last masterpieces: Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (The Return of Ulysses, 1641), and the historic opera L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppea, 1642), based on the life of the Roman emperor Nero.^[18] L'incoronazione especially is considered a culminating point of Monteverdi's work. It contains tragic, romantic, and comic scenes (a new development in opera), a more realistic portrayal of the characters, and warmer melodies than previously heard.^[19] It requires a smaller orchestra, and has a less prominent role for the choir. For a long period of time, Monteverdi's operas were merely regarded as a historical or musical interest. Since the 1960s, The Coronation of Poppea has re-entered the repertoire of major opera companies worldwide.

Monteverdi died in Venice on 29 November 1643^[12] and was buried at the church of the Frari.^[20]

Works[link]

Monteverdi's works are split into three categories: madrigals, operas, and church-music.^[21]

Madrigals[link]

	Cor mio mentre vi miro Non si levav'ancor Lamento della Ninfa from Madrigali Guerrieri et Amorosi Live recording
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Until the age of forty, Monteverdi worked primarily on madrigals, composing a total of nine books. It took Monteverdi about four years to finish his first book of twenty-one madrigals for five voices.^[9] As a whole, the first eight books of madrigals show the enormous development from Renaissance polyphonic music to the monodic style typical of Baroque music.

The titles of his Madrigal books are:

• Book 1, 1587: Madrigali a cinque voci^[22]
• Book 2, 1590: Il secondo libro de madrigali a cinque voci
• Book 3, 1592: Il terzo libro de madrigali a cinque voci^[10]
• Book 4, 1603: Il quarto libro de madrigali a cinque voci^[10]
• Book 5, 1605: Il quinto libro de madrigali a cinque voci^[10]
• Book 6, 1614: Il sesto libro de madrigali a cinque voci^[23]
• Book 7, 1619: Concerto. Settimo libro di madrigali^[24]
• Book 8, 1638: Madrigali guerrieri, et amorosi con alcuni opuscoli in genere rappresentativo, che saranno per brevi episodi fra i canti senza gesto.^[25]
• Book 9, 1651: Madrigali e canzonette a due e tre voci^[25]

The Fifth Madrigal Book[link]

	Cruda Amarilli
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The Fifth Book of Madrigals shows the shift from the late Renaissance style of music to the early Baroque.^[26] The Quinto Libro (Fifth Book), published in 1605, was at the heart of the controversy between Monteverdi and Giovanni Artusi. Artusi attacked the "crudities" and "license" of the modern style of composing, centering his attacks on madrigals (including Cruda Amarilli, composed around 1600) (See Fabbri, Monteverdi, p. 60) from the fourth book.^[9] Monteverdi made his reply in the introduction to the fifth book, with a proposal of the division of musical practice into two streams, which he called prima prattica, and seconda prattica. Prima prattica was described as the previous polyphonic ideal of the sixteenth century, with flowing strict counterpoint, prepared dissonance, and equality of voices. Seconda prattica used much freer counterpoint with an increasing hierarchy of voices, emphasizing soprano and bass. In Prima Prattica the harmony controls the words.^[8] In Seconda Prattica the words should be in control of the harmonies.^[8] This represented a move towards the new style of monody. The introduction of continuo in many of the madrigals was a further self-consciously modern feature.^[15] In addition, the fifth book showed the beginnings of conscious functional tonality.

The Eighth Madrigal Book[link]

Posthumous portrait medallion of Monteverdi, etching by Barberis, (Associazione Amici della Raccolta Bertarelli, Milan).

While in Venice, Monteverdi also finished his sixth (1614), seventh (1619), and eighth (1638) books of madrigals. The eighth is the largest, containing works written over a thirty-year period. Originally the work was to be dedicated to Ferdinand II, but because of his ill health, his son was made king in December 1636. When the work was first published in 1638 Monteverdi rededicated it to the new King Ferdinand III.^[27] The eighth book includes the so-called Madrigali dei guerrieri et amorosi (Madrigals of War and Love).^[23]

The important preface of Monteverdi’s eighth madrigal book seems to be connected with his seconda prattica. He claims to have invented a new “agitated” style (Genere concitato, later called Stile concitato). ^[28]

The book is divided into sections of War and Love each containing madrigals, a piece in dramatic form (genere rappresentativo), and a ballet. In the Madrigals of War, Monteverdi has organized poetry that describes the pursuits of love through the allegory of war; the hunt for love, and the battle to find love. In the second half of the book, the Madrigals of Love, Monteverdi organized poetry that describes the unhappiness of being in love, unfaithfulness, and ungrateful lovers that feel no shame. In his previous madrigal collections, Monteverdi usually set poetry from one or two poets he was in contact with through the court where he was employed. The Book 8 Madrigals of War and Love represent an overview of the poets he has dealt with throughout his life; the classical poetry of Petrarch, poetry by his contemporaries (Tasso, Guarini, Marino, Rinuccini, Testi and Strozzi), or anonymous poets that Monteverdi found and adapted to his needs.

Madrigals of War

1. Altri canti d’Amor tenero arciero (Let others sing of Love, the tender archer) anonymous sonnet
   1. is preceded by a sinfonia introduction that is written for two violins and four viols. The madrigal that follows serves as an introduction to the first half of the collection and as a dedication to Ferdinand III.
2. Hor che’l ciel e la terra e’l vento tace (Now that the sky, earth and wind are silent) Sonnet by Petrarch,
   1. is the first significant poetic work of the collection in which Monteverdi splits into two sections. In the first section, his poetry introduces the idea of the wars of love, in which he yearns for someone to love him.
      1. "War is my condition full of anger and grief, and only when thinking of her do I find some peace."
      2. In the second section, "Thus from a single bright and living fountain" (Cosi sol d’una chiara fonte viva) the symbolism of war continues:
         1. "One hand alone cures me and wounds me. And, because my suffering never reaches its limits, a thousand times daily I die, and a thousand I am born, so far am I from my salvation."
3. Gira il nemico insidioso Amore (The insidious enemy, Love, circles the citadel of my heart) canzonetta by Strozzi
4. Se vittorie si belle han le guerre d’amore (If love’s wars have such beautiful victories) madrigal by Testi
5. Armato il cor d’adamanina fede (My heart armed with adamantine faith) madrigal by Rinuccini
6. Ogni amante e guerrier: nel suo gran regno (Every lover is a warrior: in his great kingdom) madrigal by Rinuccini
7. Ardo, avvampo, mi struggo, ardo: accorrete (I burn, I blaze, I am consumed, I burn; come running) anonymous sonnet
8. Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (The Combat of Tancredi and Clorinda) from Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata, Canto XII
   1. was originally composed and performed at the home of Girolamo Mocenigo (1624)^[29] and includes the dramatic scene in which the orchestra and voices form two separate entities, acting as counterparts. Most likely Monteverdi was inspired to try this arrangement because of the two opposite balconies in San Marco. What made this composition also stand out is the first-time use of string tremolo (fast repetition of the same tone) and pizzicato (plucking strings with fingers) for special effect in dramatic scenes.
9. Introduzione al ballo e ballo: Volgendo il ciel (Introduction to the ballet, and ballet) sonnet by Rinuccini

Madrigals of Love

1. Altri canti di Marte e di sua schiera (Let others sing of Mars and of his host) sonnet by Marino
   1. the parallel work to Altri canti d amor, it serves as an introduction to the second half of the collection. Like its counterpart, it, too, is preceded by an instrumental sinfonia and contains a dedication to Ferdinand III.
2. Vago augelletto che cantando vai (Lovely little bird, who are you singing about) sonnet by Petrarch
3. Mentre vaga angioletta (While a charming, angelic girl attracts every wellborn soul with her singing) madrigal by Guarini
4. Ardo e scoprir, ahi lasso, io non ardisco (I burn and, alas, I do not have the courage to reveal that burning which I bear hidden in my breast) anonymous madrigal
5. O sia tranquillo il mare o pien d’orgoglio (Whether the sea be still or swelled with pride) anonymous sonnet
6. Ninfa che, scalza il piede e sciolto il crine (Nymph, who with bare feet and hair undone) anonymous madrigal
7. Dolcissimo uscignolo (Sweetest nightingale) madrigal by Guarini
8. Chi vol haver felice e lieto il core (Whoever wishes to have a happy joyful heart) madrigal by Guarini
9. Non Havea Febo ancora: Lamento della ninfa (Phoebus had not yet: The Lament of the Nymph) canzonetta by Rinuccini
10. Perche te n fuggi, o Fillide? (Why do you run away, Phyllis?) anonymous madrigal
11. Non partir, ritrosetta (Do not depart, maiden averse to love) anonymous canzonetta
12. Su, Su, Su, pastorelli vezzosi (Come, come, come, charming shepherd lads) anonymous canzonetta
13. Il Ballo delle ingrate (Entrance and Final ballet of the Ungrateful Women)
    1. The Ballet of the Ungrateful Women was originally composed for the 1608 wedding of Francesco Gonzaga and was revived in 1628 for a performance in Vienna.^[30]

The Ninth Madrigal Book[link]

The ninth book of madrigals, published posthumously in 1651,^[8] contains lighter pieces such as canzonettas which were probably composed throughout Monteverdi's lifetime representing both styles.

Operas[link]

L'Orfeo[link]

Frontispiece of Monteverdi's opera L'Orfeo, Venice edition, 1609.

Monteverdi composed at least eighteen operas, but only L'Orfeo, Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, L'incoronazione di Poppea, and the famous aria, Lamento, from his second opera L'Arianna have survived. From monody (with melodic lines, intelligible text and placid accompanying music), it was a logical step for Monteverdi to begin composing opera. In 1607, the premiere of his first opera, L'Orfeo, took place in Mantua.^[9] L'Orfeo was not the first opera, but the first mature opera, or one that realized all of its potential.^[31] It was normal at that time for composers to create works on demand for special occasions, and this piece was part of the ducal celebrations of carnival.^[32] (Monteverdi was later to write for the first opera houses supported by ticket sales which opened in Venice). L'Orfeo has dramatic power and lively orchestration. L'Orfeo is arguably the first example of a composer assigning specific instruments to parts in operas. It is also one of the first large compositions in which the exact instrumentation of the premiere has come down to us.^[33] The plot is described in vivid musical pictures and the melodies are linear and clear. With this opera, Monteverdi created an entirely new style of music, the dramma per la musica or musical drama.

L'Arianna[link]

	Lamento d'Arianna
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L'Arianna was the second opera written by Claudio Monteverdi. It is one of the most influential and famous specimens of early baroque opera. It was first performed in Mantua in 1608.^[15] Its subject matter was the ancient Greek legend of Ariadne and Theseus. During the last years of his life, Monteverdi was often ill. During this time, he composed his two last masterpieces: Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (The Return of Ulysses, 1640), and the historic opera, L'incoronazione di Poppea, (The Coronation of Poppea, 1642),^[34] based on an episode in the life of the Roman emperor Nero. The libretto for Il ritorno d'Ulisse was by Giacomo Badoarro and for L'incoronazione di Poppea by Giovanni Busenello.^[35]

Sacred music[link]

Vespro della Beata Vergine[link]

	Deus in adiutorium, from Vespro della Beata Vergine Laudate pueri, from Vespro della Beata Vergine
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Monteverdi's first church music publication was the archaic Mass In illo tempore to which the Vesper Psalms of 1610 were added.^[10] The Vesper Psalms of 1610 are also one of the best examples of early repetition and contrast, with many of the parts having a clear ritornello. The published work is on a very grand scale and there has been some controversy as to whether all the movements were intended to be performed in a single service. However, there are various indications of internal unity. In its scope, it foreshadows such summits of Baroque music as Handel's Messiah, and J.S. Bach's St Matthew Passion. Each part (there are twenty-five in total) is fully developed in both a musical and dramatic sense – the instrumental textures are used to precise dramatic and emotional effect, in a way that had not been seen before.

• Messa in illo tempore (1610)
• Mass of Thanksgiving (1631)^[36]
• Messa a 4 da cappella (1641) (also: Missa in F), part of Selva morale e spirituale
• Messa a 4 v. et salmi a 1–8 v. e parte da cappella & con le litanie della B.V. (Mass for four voices, and Psalms ...) (published posthumously, 1650)

Other Works[link]

• Scherzi Musicali

[edit] Sacred contrafacta

In 1607, Aquilino Coppini published in Milan his "Musica tolta da i Madrigali di Claudio Monteverde, e d'altri autori … e fatta spirituale" for 5 and 6 voices, in which many of Monteverdi's madrigals (especially from the third, fourth and fifth books) are presented with the original secular texts replaced with sacred Latin contrafacta carefully prepared by Coppini in order to fit the music in every aspect.

See also[link]

• Compositions by Claudio Monteverdi
• Category:Operas by Claudio Monteverdi
• The Full Monteverdi (film)
• Jacopo Peri
• Cipriano de Rore

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Claudio Monteverde

• Arnold, Denis (1975). Monteverdi. London, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-460-03155-4
• Arnold, Denis, and Nigel Fortune (eds.) (1985) The New Monteverdi Companion. Boston: Faber and Faber Ltd. ISBN 978-0-571-13148-8
• Carter, Tim (1992). Music in Late Renaissance and Early Baroque Italy. Amadeus Press, 1992. ISBN 0-931340-53-5
• Leopold, Silke (1991). Monteverdi: Music in Transition. translated from the German by Anne Smith. Oxford & New York: Clarendon Press & Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315248-7. 
• Monteverdi, Claudio (1980). The Letters of Claudio Monteverdi. ed. Denis Stevens. London. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-521-23591-4|0-521-23591-4]]. 
• Schrade, Leo (1979). Monteverdi. London, Victor Gollancz Ltd. ISBN 0-575-01472-5
• Whenham, John, and Richard Wistreich (eds.) (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Monteverdi. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-87525-0 (cloth) ISBN 0-521-69798-0 (pbk)

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Claudio Monteverdi

• English translations of Monteverdi's fourth book of madrigals
• Free scores by Claudio Monteverdi in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
• Free scores by Claudio Monteverdi in the Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)
• Free scores by Claudio Monteverdi at the International Music Score Library Project
• The Mutopia Project has compositions by Claudio Monteverdi
• Lauda Jerusalem from Vespro della Beata Vergine as interactive hypermedia at the BinAural Collaborative Hypertext
• Video of several works by Monteverdi performed on original instruments by the ensemble Voices of Music using baroque instruments, ornamentation, temperaments, bows, and playing techniques.
• Score and audio files of an arrangement of Monteverdi's 'Si dolce e'l tormento'.
•  "Monteverde, Claudio". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. 
• Ilias Chrissochoidis, "The 'Artusi-Monteverdi' Controversy: Background, Content, and Modern Interpretations," British Postgraduate Musicology 6 (2004), online (general introduction suitable for undergraduates).

Claudia Cristina Moreno González (born in Caracas, Venezuela on November 8, 1977) is a Venezuelan beauty pageant titleholder. She was the official representative of Venezuela to the Miss Universe 2000 pageant, held in Nicosia, Cyprus on May 12, 2000; she won the title of 1st Runner Up.^[1] She represented the Distrito Capital in the Miss Venezuela 1999 pageant, on September 10, 1999, and placed as a top 10 semifinalist.^[2]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Claudia Moreno at Internet Movie Database
• Miss Venezuela Official Website
• Miss Universe Official Website