Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey
200 px Official Seal
Established	6 September 1943 [1]
Type	Private multiple-campus university
Rector	Salvador Alva[2]
Academic staff	8,567 (2010) [3]
Students	90,173 (2010) [3]
Undergraduates	49,498 (2010) [3]
Postgraduates	17,136 (2010) [3]
Location	Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico 25°39′05″N 100°17′26″W / 25.651435°N 100.290686°W / 25.651435; -100.290686Coordinates: 25°39′05″N 100°17′26″W / 25.651435°N 100.290686°W / 25.651435; -100.290686
Campus	31 across Mexico; mostly urban [4]
Colors	White and blue
Athletics	Borregos Salvajes (Rams)
Affiliations	SACS, APRU, Universitas 21, ECIU, ANUIES, CUDI, FIMPES
Website	http://www.itesm.edu
High school students account for the difference between its total number of students and the sum of graduate and undergraduate students.

The Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (in Spanish: Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, ITESM) commonly shortened as Monterrey Institute of Technology (Tecnológico de Monterrey) or Monterrey Tech (Tec de Monterrey) is one of the largest private, nonsectarian and coeducational multi-campus universities in Latin America with over 90,000 students at the high school, undergraduate, and postgraduate levels.^[3] Based in Monterrey, Mexico, the Institute has 31 campuses in 25 cities throughout the country^[4] and is known for becoming the first university ever connected to the Internet in Latin America^[5] and the Spanish-speaking world,^{[6][nb 1]} having one of the top graduate business schools in the region^[7] and being one of the leaders in patent applications among Mexican universities.^[8]

History[link]

Early years[link]

The Institute was founded on September 6, 1943 by a group of local businessmen led by Eugenio Garza Sada, a moneyed heir of a brewing conglomerate who was interested in creating an institution that could provide highly skilled personnel — both university graduates and technicians— to the booming Monterrey corporations of the 1940s.^[9] The group was structured into a non-profit organization called Enseñanza e Investigación Superior A.C. (EISAC) and recruited several academicians led by León Ávalos y Vez, an MIT alumnus and then director-general of the School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering of the National Polytechnic Institute, who designed its first academic programs and served as its first director-general.^[10]

In its early years the Institute operated at Abasolo 858 Oriente in a large, two-story house located a block and a half away from Zaragoza Square, behind the city's Metropolitan Cathedral.^[10] As these facilities soon proved to be insufficient, it started renting out adjacent buildings and by 1945 it became apparent that a university campus was necessary. For that reason, a master plan was commissioned to Enrique de la Mora and on 3 February 1947 what would later be known as its Monterrey Campus was inaugurated by Mexican President Miguel Alemán Valdés.^[1]

Because the operations of the local companies were highly reliant on U.S. markets, investments, and technology; internationalization became one of its earliest priorities. In 1950 it became the first foreign university in history to be accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS),^[11] one of the six regional accreditation agencies recognized by the United States Department of Education. Its foreign accreditation would end up being a decisive influence in its development, as it was forced to submit itself to external evaluation earlier than most Mexican universities (1967)^[11] and unlocked additional sources of revenue, such as tuition funds from foreign students interested in taking summer courses in Mexico for full-academic credit.^[11]

Expansion[link]

The Eugenio Garza Sada Memorial honors the Institute's chief founder and promoter at the Monterrey Campus.

Its growth outside the city of Monterrey began in the late-1960s, when both its rector and head of academics lobbied for expansion. A first attempt, funded a few years earlier by several businessmen from Mexicali, Baja California, was staffed and organized by the Institute but faced opposition from the Board of Trustees once the federal government refused any additional subsidy^[12] and members of the Board cast doubt on its ability to get funds as an out-of-state university. At the end the project was renamed Centro de Enseñanza Técnica y Superior (CETYS) and grew into a fully independent institution.^[10][13]

Aside from the CETYS experiment and the 150 hectares bought in 1951 for the agricultural program's experimental facilities in nearby Apodaca, Nuevo León, no other expansion outside Monterrey was attempted until 1967, when a school of maritime studies was built in the port of Guaymas, Sonora. Shortly thereafter, premises were built in Obregón and courses began to be offered in Mexico City. Those premises and the ones that followed, then called external units, were fully dependant of the Monterrey Campus until 1984, when they were restructured as semi-independent campuses and reorganized in regional rectorates (see Organization).

In 1987, when the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools demanded faculty members with master's degrees to lecture 100% of its undergraduate courses,^[14] the Institute invested considerably in both distance learning and computer network technologies and training, effectively becoming, on 1 February 1989, the first university ever connected to the Internet in both Latin America^[5] and the Spanish-speaking world.^[6] Such efforts contributed to the creation of its Virtual University a few years later and allowed it to become the first country-code top level domain registry in Mexico; first by itself from 1989 to 1995, and then as a major shareholder of NIC Mexico, the current national registry.^[15]

Campuses[link]

The Institute has campuses in twenty-five Mexican cities (see: Campuses by region).

There are thirty-three campuses of the Institute distributed in twenty-five Mexican cities. Each campus is relatively independent but shares a national academic curriculum (see Academics). The flagship campus is located in Monterrey, where the national, system-wide rectorate is located. Most of them deliver both high school and undergraduate education, some offer postgraduate programs and only five (Cumbres, Eugenio Garza Sada, Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Santa Catarina and Valle Alto) deliver high school courses exclusively. Nevertheless, Virtual University curricular and extension courses and seminars are usually available at most facilities.

Campuses by region[link]

As of 2010^[update], campuses were divided in the following Mexican regions:^[4]

• Greater Monterrey: Monterrey, Cumbres, Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Eugenio Garza Sada, Santa Catarina, Valle Alto.
• Greater Mexico City: Mexico City, State of México, Santa Fe, Toluca.
• North: Aguascalientes, Chihuahua, Ciudad Juárez, Laguna, Saltillo, San Luis Potosí, Tampico, Zacatecas.
• South: Veracruz Central, Chiapas, Cuernavaca, Hidalgo, Morelia, Puebla.
• West: Obregón, Colima, Guadalajara, Irapuato, León, Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Northern Sonora, Querétaro.

According to CNN-Expansión, the Institute is planning to build a new Campus in China.^[16]

Other infrastructure[link]

The Rectorate (left) and the CETEC towers at the Monterrey Campus.

In addition to the campuses, the Institute manages:

• The Ignacio A. Santos Medical School, the Hospital San José and the US$ 150 million Zambrano-Hellion Medical Center (due for completion in 2010).^[17]
• 1430 reception sites for its Virtual University broadcasts across Latin America.^[18]
• Eight international sites in Argentina (Buenos Aires), Colombia (Bogotá, Medellín), Ecuador (Guayaquil and Quito), Panama (Panama City), Peru (Lima) and the United States (Miami) offering extension courses, research and international consulting.^[4][19]
• Thirteen liaison offices in charge of forging international partnerships and negotiating professional internships and academic exchanges with local universities, companies and civil institutions. Current liaison offices are located in Belgium (Brussels), Canada (Montreal and Vancouver), China (Beijing, Guangzhou and Shanghai), France (Paris), Switzerland (Fribourg), Spain (Barcelona and Madrid) and the United States (Boston, Dallas and Washington, D.C.)^[4]

Organization[link]

The Old Library Building, current Rectorate, was designed by Enrique de la Mora, displays a bas relief by Jorge González Camarena and holds one of the largest collections of Don Quixote incunabula, an original edition of L'Encyclopédie and other bibliographical treasures.^[1]

All campuses are sponsored by non-profit organizations composed primarily of local businesspeople. The Monterrey Campus is sponsored by Enseñanza e Investigación Superior, A.C. (EISAC), which co-sponsored the system as a whole until a newly built organization, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, A.C. (ITESMAC) overtook those responsibilities.^[13] Such organizations (effectively serving as boards of trustees) are responsible for electing the rectors or directors of a particular campus. Since 1997, the president of ITESMAC is Lorenzo Zambrano, a class of 1966 alumnus and current head of Cemex, the World's third largest cement producer.^[20] Former presidents include the founder, Eugenio Garza Sada (1943–73) and his son, Eugenio Garza Lagüera (1973–97), who both served as chairman of the board of what would later be called FEMSA, Latin America's largest bottling group.^[21]

Internally, a system-wide rectorate based in Monterrey oversee six regional rectorates that supervise all campuses nationwide and several vice-rectorates attending internal affairs. Since 2011, the system-wide rector is Salvador Alva, former president of PepsiCo Foods & Beverages Latin America.^[2] Former heads of the Institute include:

• León Ávalos y Vez (1943–1947) first director-general.^[22]
• Roberto Guajardo Suárez (1947–1951) second director-general.^[22]
• Víctor Bravo Ahuja (1951–1958) third director-general, and from 11 April 1955, first rector.^[23]
• Fernando García Roel (1959–1984) second rector.^[22]
• Rafael Rangel Sostmann (1985–2011) third rector.^[2]

High schools[link]

Following the historical trend of Mexico's largest universities,^[24] the Institute sponsors several high schools that share one or more national curricula: bilingual, bicultural, multicultural and/or International Baccalaureate, which is administered from Geneva, Switzerland.^[25] As of May 2010^[update], over 23,000 students in several campuses were registered as high school students within the system.^[3]

TecMilenio University[link]

The Institute broadcasts its Virtual University courses from both the Mexico State (pictured) and Monterrey campuses.^[18]

The TecMilenio University (Universidad TecMilenio) is a private institution of higher education sponsored by the Institute and specialized in both corporate training and short degree programs. Founded in 2002 in order to provide a cheaper alternative to the high costs involved at pursuing a degree at the Institute and, purportedly, to fend-off foreign for-profit schools that have entered the country in recent years,^[26] the university serves some 21,000 students at high school, undergraduate and postgraduate levels; frequently through online courses. As of 2009^[update], TecMilenio was training personnel of companies such as the Philips, H-E-B, BBVA Bancomer and Cemex.^[27]

Virtual University[link]

The Virtual University (Universidad Virtual) delivers most of the Institute's distance education courses, conferences and seminars. It broadcasts from either Monterrey or State of Mexico campuses to some 1430 reception sites across Latin America^[18] and has developed several social programs in partnership with the World Bank Institute^[28] and The Nature Conservancy.^[29] As of 2008^[update] every postgraduate program (except for the two most recently created) are accredited as Level 1 (the highest) by the Inter-Institutional Committees for Higher Education Evaluation^[30] (see Accreditations).

Academics[link]

The oldest academic building in the Monterrey Campus, Aulas I, and the towers of the Center of Advanced Production Technology (CETEC), which house several research centers.

Academically, the university is organized into several departments and divisions —as opposed to the traditional faculty school scheme used by most Mexican public universities— and it was the first Mexican university in history to divide the academic year in semesters (which used to run from February to June and from September to January) and to offer summer courses.^[13] Current academic calendar for both high school and undergraduate students is composed of two semesters running from August to December and from January to May (each lasting between 15 to 16 weeks) and an optional summer session from June to July, where at most two courses can be taken in an intensive basis.

As of 2010^[update], the Institute offers 57 undergraduate degrees, of which 37 are taught in English and are generally awarded after nine semesters of study (except for Medicine and Architecture);^[3] 53 master's degrees, generally lasting three to five semesters (and can also be structured in three-months terms),^[3] and 10 doctorate degrees varying in length according to their academic field.^[3]

Admissions[link]

Since 1969 the Institute requires every college applicant to achieve a minimum pass mark at an academic aptitude test (Prueba de Aptitud Académica, PAA) delivered by The College Board, a not-for-profit examination board in the United States.^[31] However, each campus is free to request additional requirements; such as a grade average of 80 or 90 in high school (on a 100-point scale) for those willing to transfer or apply to the Monterrey Campus.^[32] As of January 2008^[update], 50% of the freshman class at the Monterrey Campus had an average grade of 90 and 25% had an average grade of 95 out of 100 at high school level.^[33] As for the graduate schools, the requirements may vary according to the discipline, such as a grade average of 80/100 and 550-points in both the GMAT and the TOEFL for some programs at its Graduate Business School (EGADE).^[34]

Accreditations[link]

The International Center for Advanced Learning (CIAP).

Studies at the Tech are officially accredited by the Secretariat of Public Education of Mexico (Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP) and by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS)^[35] of the United States. On November 2008, its graduate business school (EGADE) became one of the 34 business schools in the world to hold simultaneous accreditation of its programs by the AACSB of the United States, the Association of MBAs of the United Kingdom and the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS)^[36] while the Institute became the first Latin American university in history to receive full-accreditation on some of its engineering programs by ABET (as opposed to the traditional substantially-equivalent designation given to most schools outside the United States).^[37]

The quality of its programs is also audited by the Institute of Food Technologists, the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management and by the national accrediting councils of Mexico, such as the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (Consejo para la Acreditación de la Educación Superior, COPAES) and the Inter-Institutional Committees for Higher Education Evaluation (Comités Interinstitucionales de Evaluación de la Educación Superior, CIEES).^[38]

As of 2010^[update], 215 undergraduate degrees (99.5%) were accredited by national accrediting councils and 41 were accredited by international accrediting agencies.^[3] As for graduate degrees, 8 were accredited by international accrediting agencies and 53 (64%) were listed in the National Census of High-Quality Postgraduate Studies (Padrón Nacional de Posgrados de Calidad, PNPC) by the National Council for Science and Technology (CONACYT).^[3]

Academic memberships[link]

Its 1,600 square metres (17,000 sq ft) Center for Advanced Design at the Guadalajara Campus.^[39]

The Institute is the only Latin American institution at the European Consortium of Innovative Universities (ECIU) —an organization committed to innovations in both teaching and learning^[40]— and at Universitas 21; an international network of research-intensive universities established as an "international reference point and resource for strategic thinking on issues of global significance."^[41] It is also the only Mexican university, along the National Autonomous University of Mexico, to be enrolled at the Association of Pacific Rim Universities, an international consortium of leading research universities including Stanford University, University of California, Berkeley and Caltech.^[42] The Institute was also the first private university to become a member of the National Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education of Mexico (ANUIES) back when it was composed entirely by public universities (1958)^[11] and is a full member of the Mexican Federation of Private Institutions of Higher Education (Federación de Instituciones Mexicanas Particulares de Educación Superior, FIMPES).

Faculty[link]

The Institute has over 8,500 professors at high school, undergraduate and postgraduate levels: 32.8% full-time, 67.2% part-time, and all of them have the appropriate academic credentials to lecture at their corresponding academic level according to the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.^[3] As of December 2009^[update] some 621 professors taught courses, worked in international projects or attended seminars or congresses at foreign universities while some 818 foreign professors read courses at the Tech.^[3] As for their academic development, its faculty training program was bestowed with the 2004 Andrew Heiskell Award for Innovation in International Education by the Institute of International Education.^[43]

Libraries[link]

The Institute has at least thirty-three libraries in twenty-five Mexican cities holding over 2.4 million books, publications, and 46 types of electronic databases with at least 51,000 specialized magazines and academic journals and over 9000 e-books.^[44] Its Cervantean Library, named after Miguel de Cervantes and located in the current rectorate, holds one of the largest collections of Don Quixote incunabula, an original edition of L'Encyclopédie, and other bibliographical treasures while the main library of the Monterrey Campus holds the personal collections of archaeologist Ignacio Bernal.^[45]

Rankings[link]

Its graduate business school, EGADE, is ranked among the best business schools in the world by several sources (see rankings).

Overall, the Institute is the only Mexican university besides the National Autonomous University of Mexico to be ranked at the 2010 QS World University Rankings, in which it was classified #65 worldwide at its Employer's Review, #269 in Engineering and Information Technology, #232 in Social Sciences and #387 at its overall ranking.^[46] In the 2010 International Professional Ranking of World Universities, developed by the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris, it ranked 224 out of 390 worldwide.^[47]

Among its graduate schools, EGADE has been ranked 7th among the best business schools outside the United States according to the Wall Street Journal (2006),^[48] 4th in the world in business ethics and social-responsibility programs according to BusinessWeek magazine (2005),^[49] among the 100 best graduate business schools in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit (2009)^[50] and its OneMBA program, delivered in partnership with four different institutions (see Joint programs and international partnerships below) was ranked 27 worldwide by the Financial Times in its 2009 Executive Master in Business Administration rankings.^[51]

Joint programs and international partnerships[link]

Some of its academic programs are offered as joint degrees or in partnership with foreign universities:

• Its Master of Science in Information Technology is offered as a joint degree with Carnegie-Mellon University,^[52] which is ranked 4th for graduate studies in computer science in 2008 according to US News and World Report and 7th in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences among Shanghai Jiao Tong University's world's top 100 universities.^[53]

Ricardo Legorreta designed the EGAP CEMEX building, which houses the Graduate School of Public Administration and Public Policy, at San Pedro Garza García, a suburb of Monterrey.^[54]

• The OneMBA degree is offered through a partnership with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the Rotterdam School of Management of the Netherlands, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Getulio Vargas Foundation of Brazil and is ranked 27 worldwide among executive MBAs by the Financial Times.^[51]

• The Global MBA for Latin American Managers is offered in partnership with the Thunderbird School of Global Management, which has been ranked consistently by US News & World Report as the #1 school in International Management since 1995.^[55]

• The medical degree is offered as a dual Ph.D. program with the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences of the Texas A&M Health Science Center.^[56]

• An International MBA program is offered as a joint degree with the University of San Diego.

• The institute has a strategic partnership with Johns Hopkins Hospital through Johns Hopkins Medicine International.

• The Master of Business Administration with a concentration in Global Business and Strategy (MBA-GBS) is a double degree MBA program jointly offered by the Graduate School of Business Administration and Leadership (EGADE) at the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey, and the Belk College of Business (Belk College) at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.^[57]

• The bachelor degrees in Chemical Engineering are offered as joint degrees with the Reutlingen University of Germany.^[58]

• Several high schools offer the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, which is administered by the Geneva-based International Baccalaureate.^[25]

Research[link]

Its Femsa Biotechnology Center (left) is the leading source of patent applications among its research centers.^[59] In 2008 the Tech was the leading patent applicant among Mexican universities^[60] and generated three times as many international patents as its closest competitors.^[61]

Although some of the founding members of its faculty were prominent researchers (first rector León Ávalos y Vez had formed a National Commission on Science and served as director-general of the School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering of the National Polytechnic Institute) formal research activities at the Tech did not start until 1951, when its Institute of Industrial Research was founded in close collaboration with the Southwest Research Institute of San Antonio, Texas —one of the oldest and largest independent, nonprofit, applied research and development organizations in the United States.^[62]

Notwithstanding some reputable achievements, throughout most of the 20th century its research activities —normally financed independently or under private sponsorship— were rather scarce in comparison to public universities such as the National Autonomous University of Mexico or the National Polytechnic Institute, whose budgets make up to 30% of the federal spending in higher education and, as such, are heavily financed by the government through the federal budget.^[63]

Despite its inherent difficulties to secure research funds in a developing country where private sponsorship barely accounts for 1.1% of the national spending on science,^[64] a new institutional mission in 2005 made social and scientific research in Mexico's strategic areas one of its top priorities for the next decade. As a result, new corporate endowments and funds were committed, new research programs were created (including the first research program financed by Google in Latin America)^[65] and important labs and infrastructure have been built, such as the US$ 43 million Femsa Biotechnology Center,^[66] the Water Center for Latin America and the Caribbean (financed by the Inter-American Development Bank and the Femsa Foundation),^[67] the Motorola Research and Development Center on Home & Networks Mobility,^[68] its MXN $24 million Center for Advanced Design at the Guadalajara Campus^[39] and, in association with the Mainz Institute of Microtechnology of Germany (IMM), the first center of chemical micro process engineering in Latin America.^[69]

Additionally, the Institute developed a researcher-friendly patent scheme that aims to attract talented researchers and reduce the national brain drain. The scheme, in which the researcher may receive up to 30% of the patent licencing income,^[70] works in combination with its internal MXN$ 100,000 Rómulo Garza Prize and its national MXN$ 200,000 Luis Elizondo Prize and has allowed it to became the leading patent applicant among Mexican universities since 2006.^[8]

Student life[link]

An American football player from the State of Mexico Campus overlooks the playing field. Teams from the Institute won every single American Football Collegiate Championship in Mexico from 1998 to 2008.^[71]

Student life, traditions and activities vary notably among campuses. Generally speaking, student involvement is encouraged by the local campus through an office of student affairs, which supervises most of the student clubs, regional associations and its student federation.

The Institute goes great lengths to provide scholarships to those in need, awarding partial financial assistance to up to 47.65% of its student population.^[3] However, with tuition fees of almost MXN $160,000 per academic year^[72] (among the highest in Latin America according to Forbes magazine)^[73] most of its student community comes from upper and upper-middle class and the overall atmosphere is arguably politically and socially conservative. For example, there are no official LGBT student clubs or associations; no coeducational residence halls; opposite-sex visits are forbidden in dormitories; attendance is taken daily at 10:00 p.m. in women's dormitories^[74] and some high school staff in the Mexico City Campus has publicly admonished students for questioning conservative politicians during school visits^[75] (although no disciplinary action was ever taken).^[76]

The number of international students vary notably among campuses. As of December 2009^[update], some 4,516 foreign students were studying in one of its campuses while 5,746 Tech students were taking courses in a foreign university.^[3]

Athletics[link]

The Estadio Tecnológico, aside from hosting athletic and cultural events, hosts professional football matches since 1952^[77] and served as an official venue for the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship^[78] and the 1986 FIFA World Cup.^[79]

The Tech has a good record in college athletics, picking up over 18% of the medals at the 2007 national collegiate competition (Universiada)^[80] and one of its campuses won every American Football Collegiate Championship in Mexico (ONEFA) from 1998 to 2008.^[71] Such accomplishments were possible through the Institute's investments in sports facilities and personnel and a well-funded and comprehensive athletic scholarships program, which attracted a significant number of promising athletes but prompted allegations of talent drain by some of its rivals.^[81] Before the 2009 season the Institute decided to part ways with the organization and create a new league;^[82] however, the league didn't materialize after other breakaway universities decided to remain in the ONEFA.^[83] The Institute asked to return to the organization, but the ONEFA Board decided that the request should be formally presented in its next ordinary meeting, after the 2009 season,^[84] which its four teams ended up playing between themselves in a Tech-only championship.^[85] For the 2010 season, the Institute decided not to participate in the ONEFA championship and, instead, asked the CONADEIP, a national athletic association of private educational institutions, to create an American football championship.^[86]

Although there are local adaptations, since 1945 the system-wide sports mascot is the ram (borrego salvaje), traditionally embodied in a male bighorn sheep. A somewhat popular urban legend states that the mascot was chosen by the American football team on its way to a match, after spotting a male sheep on the road. According to the official sources, however, the mascot was chosen during an official contest held by students in the mid-1940s.^[11]

Noted people[link]

Carlos Gutiérrez, former U.S. Secretary of Commerce. From December 2006 to January 2009 both secretaries of commerce of Mexico and the United States were Tech alumni (see Noted people).

The Institute has graduated prominent and influential members in several areas, particularly among the Latin American business community. From December 2006 to January 2009 both the U.S. Secretary of Commerce and the Mexican Secretary of Economy (former Kelloggs' CEO Carlos Gutiérrez^[87] and Gerardo Ruiz Mateos^[88]) were Tech alumni. Other businesspeople include Cemex' CEO Lorenzo Zambrano,^[89] FEMSA's CEO José Antonio Fernández Carbajal,^[90] Grupo Salinas' CEO Ricardo Salinas Pliego^[91] and Casa Cuervo's CEO Juan Beckman.^[92]

In science and technology, Alexander Balankin, former lecturer at the Mexico City Campus,^[93] has received the 2005 UNESCO Science Prize for his works on Fractal Mechanics; Ernesto Enkerlin received UNESCO's 2005 Sultan Qaboos Prize for Environmental Preservation for his involvement in sustainability^[94] and two alumni have been members of the United States President's Information Technology Advisory Committee: Pedro Celis (Distinguished Engineer at Microsoft) and Héctor García Molina, former Director of Stanford University's Computer Science Department, 1999 ACM SIGMOD Innovations Award^[95] and highest h-index in Computer Science.^[96]

In politics, at least two late presidential candidates and democracy activists, Luis Donaldo Colosio and Manuel Clouthier, were former graduates and over a dozen Mexican governors and cabinet members have attended classes at the Tech, including former Secretary of Commerce and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) negotiator Herminio Blanco. In cultural affairs, Gabriel Zaid has distinguished himself as one of the leading Mexican intellectuals of the 20th century and in sports Fernando Platas and Víctor Estrada have both won Olympics medals, while former coach of Mexico's national football team, Miguel Mejía Barón, is in charge of the Football Department at Puebla.^[97]

As for staff and faculty, at least two rectors or directors of different universities have been lecturers or members of the staff at the Tech: former Secretary of Economy and Foreign Relations, Luis Ernesto Derbez at the University of the Americas, Puebla and Enrique Cabrero Mendoza at CIDE. In addition, current rector Rafael Rangel Sostmann is member of the External Advisory Council of the World Bank Institute.

Notes[link]

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: ITESM

David Noel

Paris-Levallois Basket
Small Forward
Personal information
Born	(1984-02-27) February 27, 1984 (age 28) Durham, North Carolina
Nationality	United States
High school	Southern (North Carolina)
Listed height	6 ft 6 in (1.98 m)
Listed weight	230 lb (104 kg)
Career information
College	North Carolina
NBA Draft	2006 / 2nd round, 39th overall
Selected by the Milwaukee Bucks
Pro career	2006–present
Career history
Milwaukee Bucks (2006-2007) Tulsa 66ers (2008) Albuquerque Thunderbirds (2008-2009) Reno Bighorns (2009) Barangay Ginebra Kings (2009) Chorale Roanne Basket (2009-2010) Paris-Levallois Basket (2010-present)
Career highlights and awards
2009 PBA Slam Dunk Champion (Overall and Imports Division) 2009 PBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player
Stats at NBA.com

David Anthony Noel III (born February 27, 1984 in Durham, North Carolina) is an American professional basketball player. A graduate of Southern High School in Durham, North Carolina and the University of North Carolina, Noel was drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks in the second round of the 2006 NBA Draft with their lone pick, 39th overall.

Noel averaged 2.7 points, 1.8 rebounds, and 1.0 assists per game during his sole season with the Bucks. On January 20, 2008, David Noel joined the Tulsa 66ers of the NBDL. On November 7, 2008, he was selected with the 14th pick in the first round of the 2008 NBA D-League Draft by the Albuquerque Thunderbirds.^[1]

On March 2, 2009, Noel was traded to the Reno Bighorns for Antonio Meeking.^[2]

Later that year, David Noel was chosen by the Barangay Ginebra Kings team of the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA) to be their import.^[3]

David Noel played with the French team Chorale Roanne Basket during the 2009-10 season. ^[4]

Awards[link]

• College Slam Dunk Champion: 2006
• PBA Slam Dunk Champion: 2009
• PBA All-Star MVP: 2009

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• David Noel at NBA.com
• NBA Development League: David Noel Playerfile @ nba.com
• Bucks Back When ... David Noel @ nba.com
• New Ginebra Import @ pba.ph
• Noel on Knicks roster NBA Summer League 2009 @ nba.com
• Pro A Roanne engage David Noel
• Paris-Levallois page on Eurobasket.com

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2011)

Paul Feyerabend

Born	(1924-01-13)January 13, 1924 Vienna, Austria
Died	February 11, 1994(1994-02-11) (aged 70) Genolier, Vaud, Switzerland
Era	20th-century philosophy
Region	Western Philosophy
School	Epistemological Anarchism
Main interests	Philosophy of science, Critiquing Falsificationism, Epistemology, Politics
Notable ideas	Epistemological anarchism
Influenced by Mill · Lessing · Popper · Anscombe · Wittgenstein · Kierkegaard · Bachelard · Koyré · Ehrenhaft
Influenced Lakatos · Churchland · McCloskey · Murphy · Hacking · Foucault  · Kuhn  · Nader

Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades (1958–1989). He lived a peripatetic life, living at various times in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, Germany, and finally Switzerland. His major works include Against Method (published in 1975), Science in a Free Society (published in 1978) and Farewell to Reason (a collection of papers published in 1987). Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules.^[1] He is an influential figure in the philosophy of science, and also in the sociology of scientific knowledge.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Paul Feyerabend was born in 1924 in Vienna, where he attended primary school and high school. In this period he got into the habit of frequent reading, developed an interest in theatre, and started singing lessons. When he graduated from high school in April 1942, he was drafted into the German Arbeitsdienst. After basic training in Pirmasens, Germany, he was assigned to a unit in Quelern en Bas, near Brest (France). Feyerabend described the work he did during that period as monotonous: "we moved around in the countryside, dug ditches, and filled them up again." After a short leave, he joined the army and volunteered for officer school. In his autobiography, he wrote that he hoped the war would be over by the time he had finished his education as an officer. This turned out not to be the case. From December 1943 on, he served as an officer on the northern part of the Eastern Front, was decorated with an Iron cross, and attained the rank of lieutenant. After the German army started its retreat from the advancing Red army, Feyerabend was hit by three bullets while directing traffic. It turned out that one of the bullets had hit him in the spine. As a consequence of this, he needed to walk with a stick for the rest of his life and frequently experienced severe pains. He spent the rest of the war recovering from his wounds.

Post–WWII and university[link]

When the war was over, Feyerabend first got a temporary job in Apolda where he wrote pieces for the theatre. He was influenced by the Marxist playwright Bertold Brecht and was invited by Brecht to be his assistant at the East Berlin State Opera but turned down the offer. Feyerabend took various classes at the Weimar Academy, and returned to Vienna to study history and sociology. He became dissatisfied, however, and soon transferred to physics, where he met Felix Ehrenhaft, a physicist whose experiments would influence his later views on the nature of science. Feyerabend changed the subject of his study to philosophy and submitted his final thesis on observation sentences. In his autobiography, he described his philosophical views during this time as "staunchly empiricist". In 1948 he visited the first meeting of the international summer seminar of the Austrian College Society in Alpbach. This was the place where Feyerabend first met Karl Popper, who had a "positive" (early Popper), as well as "negative" (later Popper) effect on him. In 1949 he was a founding member of the Kraft Circle. In 1951, Feyerabend was granted a British Council scholarship to study under Wittgenstein. However, Wittgenstein died before Feyerabend moved to England. Feyerabend then chose Popper as his supervisor instead, and went to study at the London School of Economics in 1952. In his autobiography, Feyerabend explains that during this time, he was influenced by Popper: "I had fallen for [Popper's ideas]". After that, Feyerabend returned to Vienna and was involved in various projects; a translation of Karl Popper's Open Society and its Enemies, a report on the development of the humanities in Austria, and several articles for an encyclopedia.

Academia[link]

In 1955, Feyerabend received his first academic appointment at the University of Bristol, England, where he gave lectures about the philosophy of science. Later in his life he worked as a professor (or equivalent) at Berkeley, Auckland, Sussex, Yale, London, Berlin and ETH Zurich. During this time, he developed a critical view of science, which he later described as 'anarchistic' or 'dadaistic' to illustrate his rejection of the dogmatic use of rules, a position incompatible with the contemporary rationalistic culture in the philosophy of science. At the London School of Economics, Feyerabend met a colleague of K.R. Popper, Imre Lakatos with whom he planned to write a dialogue volume in which Lakatos would defend a rationalist view of science and Feyerabend would attack it. This planned joint publication was put to an end by Lakatos's sudden death in 1974. Against Method became a famous criticism of current philosophical views of science and provoked many reactions. In his autobiography, he reveals that the energy in his writings came at great cost to himself:

The depression stayed with me for over a year; it was like an animal, a well-defined, spatially localizable thing. I would wake up, open my eyes, listen – Is it here or isn't? No sign of it. Perhaps it's asleep. Perhaps it will leave me alone today. Carefully, very carefully, I get out of bed. All is quiet. I go to the kitchen, start breakfast. Not a sound. TV – Good Morning America –, David What's-his-name, a guy I can't stand. I eat and watch the guests. Slowly the food fills my stomach and gives me strength. Now a quick excursion to the bathroom, and out for my morning walk – and here she is, my faithful depression: "Did you think you could leave without me?"

—From his autobiography, Killing Time

Feyerabend moved to the University of California, Berkeley in California in 1958 and became a U.S. citizen. Following (visiting) professorships (or their equivalent) at University College London, Berlin, and Yale, he taught at the University of Auckland, New Zealand in 1972 and 1974, always returning to California. He later enjoyed alternating between posts at ETH Zurich and Berkeley through the 1980s but left Berkeley for good in October 1989, first to Italy, then finally to Zurich. After his retirement in 1991, Feyerabend continued to publish frequent papers and worked on his autobiography. After a short period of suffering from a brain tumor, he died in 1994 at the Genolier Clinic, overlooking Lake Geneva, Switzerland.

Thought[link]

Philosophy of science[link]

This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (May 2008)

Nature of scientific method[link]

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In his books Against Method and Science in a Free Society Feyerabend defended the idea that there are no methodological rules which are always used by scientists. He objected to any single prescriptive scientific method on the grounds that any such method would limit the activities of scientists, and hence restrict scientific progress. In his view, science would benefit most from a "dose" of theoretical anarchism. He also thought that theoretical anarchism was desirable because it was more humanitarian than other systems of organization, by not imposing rigid rules on scientists.

For is it not possible that science as we know it today, or a "search for the truth" in the style of traditional philosophy, will create a monster? Is it not possible that an objective approach that frowns upon personal connections between the entities examined will harm people, turn them into miserable, unfriendly, self-righteous mechanisms without charm or humour? "Is it not possible," asks Kierkegaard, "that my activity as an objective [or critico-rational] observer of nature will weaken my strength as a human being?" I suspect the answer to many of these questions is affirmative and I believe that a reform of the sciences that makes them more anarchic and more subjective (in Kierkegaard's sense) is urgently needed. Against Method. p. 154. 

Feyerabend's position was originally seen as radical in the philosophy of science, because it implies that philosophy can neither succeed in providing a general description of science, nor in devising a method for differentiating products of science from non-scientific entities like myths. (Feyerabend's position also implies that philosophical guidelines should be ignored by scientists, if they are to aim for progress.)

To support his position that methodological rules generally do not contribute to scientific success, Feyerabend provides counterexamples to the claim that (good) science operates according to a certain fixed method. He took some examples of episodes in science that are generally regarded as indisputable instances of progress (e.g. the Copernican revolution), and showed that all common prescriptive rules of science are violated in such circumstances. Moreover, he claimed that applying such rules in these historical situations would actually have prevented scientific revolution.

One of the criteria for evaluating scientific theories that Feyerabend attacks is the consistency criterion. He points out that to insist that new theories be consistent with old theories gives an unreasonable advantage to the older theory. He makes the logical point that being compatible with a defunct older theory does not increase the validity or truth of a new theory over an alternative covering the same content. That is, if one had to choose between two theories of equal explanatory power, to choose the one that is compatible with an older, falsified theory is to make an aesthetic, rather than a rational choice. The familiarity of such a theory might also make it more appealing to scientists, since they will not have to disregard as many cherished prejudices. Hence, that theory can be said to have "an unfair advantage".

Feyerabend was also critical of falsificationism. He argued that no interesting theory is ever consistent with all the relevant facts. This would rule out using a naïve falsificationist rule which says that scientific theories should be rejected if they do not agree with known facts. Feyerabend uses several examples, but "renormalization" in quantum mechanics provides an example of his intentionally provocative style: "This procedure consists in crossing out the results of certain calculations and replacing them by a description of what is actually observed. Thus one admits, implicitly, that the theory is in trouble while formulating it in a manner suggesting that a new principle has been discovered" Against Method. p. 61.  Such jokes are not intended as a criticism of the practice of scientists. Feyerabend is not advocating that scientists do not make use of renormalization or other ad hoc methods. Instead, he is arguing that such methods are essential to the progress of science for several reasons. One of these reasons is that progress in science is uneven. For instance, in the time of Galileo, optical theory could not account for phenomena that were observed by means of telescopes. So, astronomers who used telescopic observation had to use ad hoc rules until they could justify their assumptions by means of optical theory.

Feyerabend was critical of any guideline that aimed to judge the quality of scientific theories by comparing them to known facts. He thought that previous theory might influence natural interpretations of observed phenomena. Scientists necessarily make implicit assumptions when comparing scientific theories to facts that they observe. Such assumptions need to be changed in order to make the new theory compatible with observations. The main example of the influence of natural interpretations that Feyerabend provided was the tower argument. The tower argument was one of the main objections against the theory of a moving earth. Aristotelians assumed that the fact that a stone which is dropped from a tower lands directly beneath it shows that the earth is stationary. They thought that, if the earth moved while the stone was falling, the stone would have been "left behind". Objects would fall diagonally instead of vertically. Since this does not happen, Aristotelians thought that it was evident that the earth did not move. If one uses ancient theories of impulse and relative motion, the Copernican theory indeed appears to be falsified by the fact that objects fall vertically on earth. This observation required a new interpretation to make it compatible with Copernican theory. Galileo was able to make such a change about the nature of impulse and relative motion. Before such theories were articulated, Galileo had to make use of ad hoc methods and proceed counterinductively. So, "ad hoc" hypotheses actually have a positive function: they temporarily make a new theory compatible with facts until the theory to be defended can be supported by other theories.

Feyerabend commented on the Galileo affair as follows:

The church at the time of Galileo was much more faithful to reason than Galileo himself, and also took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's doctrine. Its verdict against Galileo was rational and just, and revisionism can be legitimized solely for motives of political opportunism.^[2][3][4]

Together these remarks sanction the introduction of theories that are inconsistent with well-established facts. Furthermore, a pluralistic methodology that involves making comparisons between any theories at all forces defendants to improve the articulation of each theory. In this way, scientific pluralism improves the critical power of science. Pope Benedict XVI has cited Feyerabend to this effect.^[5]

According to Feyerabend, new theories came to be accepted not because of their accord with scientific method, but because their supporters made use of any trick – rational, rhetorical or ribald – in order to advance their cause. Without a fixed ideology, or the introduction of religious tendencies, the only approach which does not inhibit progress (using whichever definition one sees fit) is "anything goes": "'anything goes' is not a 'principle' I hold... but the terrified exclamation of a rationalist who takes a closer look at history." (Feyerabend, 1975).

Feyerabend considered the possibility of incommensurability, but he was hesitant in his application of the concept. He wrote that "it is hardly ever possible to give an explicit definition of [incommensurability]" Against Method. p. 225. , because it involves covert classifications and major conceptual changes. He also was critical of attempts to capture incommensurability in a logical framework, since he thought of incommensurability as a phenomenon outside the domain of logic. In the second appendix of Against Method (p. 114), Feyerabend states, "I never said... that any two rival theories are incommensurable... What I did say was that certain rival theories, so-called 'universal' theories, or 'non-instantial' theories, if interpreted in a certain way, could not be compared easily." Incommensurability did not concern Feyerabend greatly, because he believed that even when theories are commensurable (i.e. can be compared), the outcome of the comparison should not necessarily rule out either theory. To rephrase: when theories are incommensurable, they cannot rule each other out, and when theories are commensurable, they cannot rule each other out. Assessments of (in)commensurability, therefore, don't have much effect in Feyerabend's system, and can be more or less passed over in silence.

In Against Method Feyerabend claimed that Imre Lakatos's philosophy of research programmes is actually "anarchism in disguise", because it does not issue orders to scientists. Feyerabend playfully dedicated Against Method to "Imre Lakatos: Friend, and fellow-anarchist". One interpretation is that Lakatos's philosophy of mathematics and science was based on creative transformations of Hegelian historiographic ideas, many associated with Lakatos's teacher in Hungary Georg Lukács. Feyerabend's debate with Lakatos on scientific method recapitulates the debate of Lukács and (Feyerabend's would-be mentor) Brecht, over aesthetics several decades earlier.

The rationalist philosopher and popular essayist David Stove claimed that in his philosophical work Feyerabend was responsible for the "sabotaging of logical expressions".^[6] This was the practise of robbing logical statements of their logical force by placing them in epistemic contexts; for example, instead of saying "P is a proof for Q" one would say "It is generally believed by scientists that P is a proof for Q". This produces what Stove calls a "ghost logical statement": it gives the impression that serious statements of logic are being made when they are not - all that is really being made are sociological or historical claims which are immune to criticism on logical grounds.

It should be borne in mind that while Feyeradend described himself as an 'epistemological anarchist', he explicitly disavowed being a 'political anarchist',^[7] and this perspective on Feyerabend has been shared by other authors offering anarchist critiques of science.^[8][9] However, it has been argued by some that political anarchism is tacitly embedded in Feyerabend's assessment of the proper role of science and its practice within society.^[10]

The decline of the physicist-philosopher[link]

Feyerabend was critical of the lack of knowledge of philosophy shown by the generation of physicists that emerged after World War II:

The withdrawal of philosophy into a "professional" shell of its own has had disastrous consequences. The younger generation of physicists, the Feynmans, the Schwingers, etc., may be very bright; they may be more intelligent than their predecessors, than Bohr, Einstein, Schrödinger, Boltzmann, Mach and so on. But they are uncivilized savages, they lack in philosophical depth – and this is the fault of the very same idea of professionalism which you are now defending.^[11]

Role of science in society[link]

Feyerabend described science as being essentially anarchistic, obsessed with its own mythology, and as making claims to truth well beyond its actual capacity. He was especially indignant about the condescending attitudes of many scientists towards alternative traditions. For example, he thought that negative opinions about astrology and the effectivity of rain dances were not justified by scientific research, and dismissed the predominantly negative attitudes of scientists towards such phenomena as elitist or racist. In his opinion, science has become a repressing ideology, even though it arguably started as a liberating movement. Feyerabend thought that a pluralistic society should be protected from being influenced too much by science, just as it is protected from other ideologies.

Starting from the argument that a historical universal scientific method does not exist, Feyerabend argues that science does not deserve its privileged status in western society. Since scientific points of view do not arise from using a universal method which guarantees high quality conclusions, he thought that there is no justification for valuing scientific claims over claims by other ideologies like religions. Feyerabend also argued that scientific accomplishments such as the moon landings are no compelling reason to give science a special status. In his opinion, it is not fair to use scientific assumptions about which problems are worth solving in order to judge the merit of other ideologies. Additionally, success by scientists has traditionally involved non-scientific elements, such as inspiration from mythical or religious sources.

Based on these arguments, Feyerabend defended the idea that science should be separated from the state in the same way that religion and state are separated in a modern secular society ( Against Method (3rd ed.). p. 160. ). He envisioned a "free society" in which "all traditions have equal rights and equal access to the centres of power" ( Science in a Free Society. p. 9. ). For example, parents should be able to determine the ideological context of their children's education, instead of having limited options because of scientific standards. According to Feyerabend, science should also be subjected to democratic control: not only should the subjects that are investigated by scientists be determined by popular election, scientific assumptions and conclusions should also be supervised by committees of lay people.^{[citation needed]} He thought that citizens should use their own principles when making decisions about these matters. He rejected the view that science is especially "rational" on the grounds that there is no single common "rational" ingredient that unites all the sciences but excludes other modes of thought ( Against Method (3rd ed.). p. 246. ).

Philosophy of mind[link]

Along with a number of mid-20th century philosophers (most notably, Wilfred Sellars, W.V.O. Quine, and Richard Rorty), Feyerabend was influential in the development of eliminative materialism, a radical position in the philosophy of mind that holds that our ordinary, common-sense understanding of the mind (what materialist monists call "folk psychology") is false. It is succinctly described by a modern proponent, Paul Churchland, as follows:

"Eliminative materialism is the thesis that our commonsense conception of psychological phenomena constitutes a radically false theory, a theory so fundamentally defective that both the principles and the ontology of that theory will eventually be displaced, rather than smoothly reduced, by completed neuroscience."^[12]

In three short papers published in the early sixties,^[13][14][15] Feyerabend sought to defend materialism against the supposition that the mind cannot be a physical thing. Feyerabend suggested that our commonsense understanding of the mind was incommensurable with the (materialistic) scientific view, but that nevertheless we ought to prefer the materialistic one on general methodological grounds.

This view of the mind/body problem is widely considered one of Feyerabend's most important legacies. Even though Feyerabend himself seems to have given it up in the late 1970s, it was taken up by Richard Rorty and, more recently, by Patricia Churchland and Paul Churchland. In fact, as Keeley observes,^[16] "PMC [Paul Churchland] has spent much of his career carrying the Feyerabend mantle forward" (p. 13).

Other works[link]

Some of Feyerabend's work concerns the way in which people's perception of reality is influenced by various rules. In his last book, unfinished when he died, he talks of how our sense of reality is shaped and limited. Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstraction versus the Richness of Being bemoans the propensity we have of institutionalizing these limitations.

The last philosophy book that Feyerabend finished is The Tyranny of Science (written 1993, published May 13, 2011). In it Feyerabend challenges some modern myths about science, including the myth that 'science is successful'. He argues that some very basic assumptions about science are simply false and that substantial parts of scientific ideology were created on the basis of superficial generalizations that led to absurd misconceptions about the nature of human life. Far from solving the pressing problems of our age, scientific theorizing glorifies ephemeral generalities at the cost of confronting the real particulars that make life meaningful.

Criticism[link]

Popular influence[link]

The book On the Warrior's Path quotes Feyerabend, highlighting the similarities between his epistemology and Bruce Lee's worldview.^[17]

Quotes[link]

• ...And it is of course not true that we have to follow the truth. Human life is guided by many ideas. Truth is one of them. Freedom and mental independence are others. If Truth, as conceived by some ideologists, conflicts with freedom, then we have a choice. We may abandon freedom. But we may also abandon Truth.^[18]

• ...when sophistication loses content then the only way of keeping in touch with reality is to be crude and superficial. This is what I intend to be.^[19]

Selected bibliography[link]

Books[link]

• Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (1975), ISBN 0-391-00381-X, ISBN 0-86091-222-1, ISBN 0-86091-481-X, ISBN 0-86091-646-4, ISBN 0-86091-934-X, ISBN 0-902308-91-2 (First edition in M. Radner & S. Winokur, eds., Analyses of Theories and Methods of Physics and Psychology, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970.)
• Science in a Free Society (1978), ISBN 0-8052-7043-4
• Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method: Philosophical papers, Volume 1 (1981), ISBN 0-521-22897-2, ISBN 0-521-31642-1
• Problems of Empiricism: Philosophical Papers, Volume 2 (1981), ISBN 0-521-23964-8, ISBN 0-521-31641-3
• Farewell to Reason (1987), ISBN 0-86091-184-5, ISBN 0-86091-896-3
• Three Dialogues on Knowledge (1991), ISBN 0-631-17917-8, ISBN 0-631-17918-6
• Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend (1995), ISBN 0-226-24531-4, ISBN 0-226-24532-2
• Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstraction versus the Richness of Being (1999), ISBN 0-226-24533-0, ISBN 0-226-24534-9
• Knowledge, Science and Relativism: Philosophical Papers, Volume 3 (1999), ISBN 0-521-64129-2
• For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence with Imre Lakatos (1999), ISBN 0-226-46774-0, ISBN 0-226-46775-9
• The Tyranny of Science (2011), ISBN 0-7456-5189-5, ISBN 0-7456-5190-9

Articles[link]

• "Linguistic Arguments and Scientific Method". TELOS 03 (Spring 1969). New York: Telos Press
• "How To Defend Society Against Science". Radical Philosophy no. 11, Summer 03 1975. [1]

See also[link]

• Positivism and scientism
• Criticism of science
• Epistemological rupture
• Anarchism
• Relativism
• Subjectivism
• Thomas Kuhn

References[link]