The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2010)

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An embargo (from the Spanish embargo) is the partial or complete prohibition of commerce and trade with a particular country, in order to isolate it. Embargoes are considered strong diplomatic measures imposed in an effort, by the imposing country, to elicit a given national-interest result from the country on which it is imposed. Embargoes are similar to economic sanctions and are generally considered legal barriers to trade, not to be confused with blockades, which are often considered to be acts of war.^[1]

Embargo may also refer to the practice of blocking fare classes at certain levels, and award availability on airlines. In response to embargoes, an independent economy or autarky often develops in an area subjected to heavy embargo. Effectiveness of embargoes is thus in proportion to the extent and degree of international participation.

Examples of Embargoes[link]

The Embargo of 1807 was a series of laws passed by the U.S. Congress 1806–1808, during the second term of President Thomas Jefferson. Britain and France were engaged in a major war; the U.S. wanted to remain neutral and trade with both sides, but neither side wanted the other to have the American supplies. The American national-interest goal was to use the new laws to avoid war and force that country to respect American rights.^[2]

One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo happened during the Napoleonic Wars. In an attempt to cripple the United Kingdom economically, the Continental System – which forbade European nations from trading with the UK – was created. In practice it was not completely enforceable and was as harmful if not more so to the nations involved than to the British.^[3]

The United States imposed an embargo on Cuba on February 7, 1962.^{[citation needed]} Referred to by Cuba as "el bloqueo" (the blockade), the US embargo on Cuba remains one of the longest-standing embargoes. The embargo was embraced by few of the United States' allies and apparently has done little to affect Cuban policies over the years. Nonetheless, while taking some steps to allow limited economic exchanges with Cuba, President Barack Obama recently reaffirmed the policy, stating that without improved human rights and freedoms by Cuba's current government, the embargo remains "in the national interest of the United States."

In effort to punish South Africa for its policies of apartheid, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a voluntary international oil embargo against South Africa on November 20, 1987; that embargo had the support of 130 countries.^[4]

List of countries under embargo[link]

• Mali (by ECOWAS) total embargo in order to force Juntas to give power back and re-install National constitution. Decided on April 2nd, 2012
• China (by EU and US), arms embargo, enacted in response to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
• Iran (by US and US international allies), notably bar nuclear, missile and many military exports to Iran and target investments in oil, gas and petrochemicals, exports of refined petroleum products, as well as the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, banks, insurance, financial transactions and shipping. enacted 1979, increased through the following years and reached its tightest point in 2010.
• North Korea (by UN, USA, EU),^[5] luxury goods (and arms), enacted 2006
• Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, (by UN), consumer goods, enacted 1975^{[citation needed]}
• Cuba (by US), arms, consumer goods, money, enacted 1960
• Georgia (by Russia), agricultural products, wine, mineral water, enacted 2006
• Japan, animal shipments due to lack of infrastructure and radiation issue after the 2011 9.0 earthquake aftermath.
• Indonesia (by Australia), cattle, enacted since 2011
• Gaza Strip by Israel since 2001
• Syria (by EU, US), arms and imports of oil. ^[6]

Former trade embargoes[link]

• FR Yugoslavia (by UN)
• North Vietnam (1964–1975) and later Vietnam (1975–1994), trade embargo by the US ^[7]
• Republic of Macedonia (by Greece), complete trade embargo (1994-1995).
• Libya (by United Nations), weapons, enacted 2011 after mass killings of Libyan protesters/rebels and ended later that year after the overthrow and summary execution of Gaddafi.
• India (by UK),^[8] nuclear exports restriction.
• Pakistan (by UK),^[8] nuclear exports restriction, enacted 2002
• Serbia by Kosovo's unilaterally declared government, since 2011^[9]
• European Union arms embargo on the People's Republic of China
• Embargo Act of 1807
• Former Yugoslavia Embargo November 21, 1995 Dayton Peace Accord
• United States embargoes and permanent normal trade relations
• United States embargo against Cuba
• United States embargo against Nigeria
• CoCom

See also[link]

Economics portal

• Arms embargo
• Boycott

General:

• Trade
• International sanctions

Notes[link]

Koffi Olomide
Background information
Birth name	Antoine Christophe Agbepa Mumba
Also known as	Koffi
Born	(1956-08-13) 13 August 1956 (age 55)
Genres	Soukous/Tcha Tcho
Occupations	composer, arranger, producer, singer
Instruments	Vocals
Years active	1978 - Present
Associated acts	Quartier Latin

Antoine Christophe Agbepa Mumba, also known as Koffi Olomide (Friday, August 13, 1956), is a DR Congolese soukous singer, dancer, producer, and composer. He is also known by a multitude of other names and aliases.^[1]

Background[link]

He was born in Kisangani, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. His father is Congolese (Gbandi tribe from Equateur region) and his mother was born from a Sierra-Leone father and a Congolese mother (Songye tribe from Kasaï region). According to the ethnic custom of his Sierra-Leone grand father, his mother named him 'Koffi' because he was born on a Friday ^[2]. Koffi grew up in the city of Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in a middle-class family, where education was valued.

Education[link]

He was a very bright student. He earned a scholarship and went to study in Bordeaux, France where he obtained a Bachelors Degree in Business Economics. He is also reported to hold a Masters Degree in Mathematics from the University of Paris.^[3]

Music career[link]

Upon his return to Congo in the 1970s he joined Papa Wemba's band, Viva la Musica, at first as a composer and song-writer, and later as a vocalist and lead-singer. He launched his solo career. In 1986, Koffi formed his band known as Quartier Latin, which celebrated its 20-year anniversary in 2006. Since then, he has performed and recorded both with the group and by himself. Over the years, he has built up a faithful fan base Internationally, particularly in Africa and Europe. Koffi popularized the slower style of soukous, which he dubbed Tcha Tcho. Koffi's music can be quite controversial, taking on current events and topics considered taboo in some conservative societies. He has also participated in the salsa music project Africando. For his effort, Affaire D'Etat, released in 2003, Koffi received four Kora Awards on a single night at the annual Kora Awards in South Africa for 2002/2003, including the award for Best African Artist, which he had earlier won in 1998. More recently, he has won the Kora Award for "Best African Artist of The Decade". This led to the establishment of one of his many aliases as the 'Quadra Kora Man'. ^[4]

His music[link]

Olomide's album Haut de Gamme: Koweït, Rive Gauche is listed in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.^[5] In March 2003 Olomide released "Affaire D'Etat", a double CD album featuring 18 tracks.

He has trained many young musicians some of whom have since left his Quartier Latin band and gone solo while a few are still sticking with him. Some of those who have left are Fele Mudogo, Sam Tshintu, Suzuki 4x4, Soleil Wanga, Fally Ipupa, Montana Kamenga, Ferre Gola and are so far doing fairly well on their own. However "Suzuki 4x4" has recently showed up once more in some of Quartier Latin shows, along with new recruits like Cindy le Coeur, a female singer with very high pitched vocals.

Koffi, who mostly refers to himself as Mopao, has a brand new release known as La Chicotte a Papa, having recently excelled in hits like Cle Boa, Lovemycine, Diabolos, Grand Pretre Mere and Soupou, among others. Mopao has also proven to be of such very high standards of talent which could easily be compared to the once king of African rhumba the late Luambo Makiadi, who equally saw many artistes pass through his expert hands during his days. Today, Mopao is the undisputed king of romantic rhumba. Not only that, he is one of Africa's biggest musicians today.^[6]

Personal[link]

Koffi Olomide is reported to be very intelligent and wealthy. He is married and is the father of seven (7) children:Nzau Twengi Aristote, Elvis, Minou Miss Univers, Didi Stone Nike, Rocky, Del pirlo Mourhino and Saint James Rolls. Olomide's father, who is currently in poor health, lives in Paris, France. Olomide's mother lives in Kinshasa and works as a jewellery dealer in the Zando Market in the city. Koffi has an elder brother, Johnny Ko, who also lives in Paris. Also a younger brother Tutu Roba, who lives in London, England.^[7]

Photos[link]

• Koffi Olomide With Some of His Female Dancers

References[link]

External links[link]

• Fan-site with history and discography link

Joaquín Sabina
Background information
Birth name	Joaquín Ramón Martínez Sabina
Born	(1949-02-12) 12 February 1949 (age 63)
Origin	Úbeda, Jaén, Spain
Genres	Latin, rock, trova
Occupations	singer-songwriter
Years active	1978–present
Labels	BMG Ariola Spain
Website	JSabina.com

Joaquín Ramón Martínez Sabina (Úbeda, Jaén, Spain, 12 February 1949), known artistically as Joaquín Sabina, is a singer, songwriter, and poet. He has released fourteen studio albums, two live albums, and three compilation albums. He has collaborated and composed songs for Ana Belén, Olga Román and Miguel Ríos amongst others.

He performed both solo and with a group for his live albums, performing with Javier Krahe and Alberto Pérez in La mandrágora, the group Viceversa in a 1986 concert, and with Joan Manuel Serrat in "Dos pájaros de un tiro" (Two birds with one stone).

Sabina suffered a stroke in 2001 and although he physically recovered, he entered a deep depression which resulted in a four-year-long concert hiatus.^[1] He recovered and released his eighteenth album, Alivio de Luto, in November 2005. He released his latest album, Vinagre y rosas, in 2009.

Biography and career[link]

Early years[link]

Joaquín Sabina, is the second son of Adela Sabina del Campo and Jerónimo Martinez Gallego. His father was a policeman. He attended a Carmelite primary school and he started writing his first poems and composing music at the age of 14. He was part of a band called Merry Youngs which imitated singers such as Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry and Little Richard, as well as many others.

He attended a high school run by the Salesians of Don Bosco and during this period he began reading works by Fray Luis de León, Jorge Manrique, José Hierro, Marcel Proust, James Joyce and Herbert Marcuse.

After completing high school, his father wanted him to follow in his footsteps and become a police officer but he refused, saying that he preferred the guitar. In his song La del pirata cojo he says he fantasises about living different lives, but he would not even joke about becoming a police officer.

A refugee in London[link]

He then enrolled in the University of Philosophy and Philology of Granada, reading philology in the faculty. There, he read the poetry of Pablo Neruda and César Vallejo. Sabina lived at first with a woman called Lesley and started to prepare his thesis.

His revolutionary ideology led him to be related to the anti-fascist groups. In 1970, he began collaborating with the magazine "Poesía 70", sharing pages with Carlos Cano and Luis Eduardo Aute, he then left the university, going into exile in London using a fake passport under the name Mariano Zugasti, to avoid persecution from Francisco Franco's government after throwing a Molotov cocktail into a government building. That same year, his father received an order to arrest Sabina due to his anti-Franco ideals.^[2]

In 1975, Sabina started writing songs and singing at local bars. In a local bar called "Mexicano-Taverna" Sabina performed in the presence of George Harrison, who was celebrating his birthday. The ex-Beatle then gave Sabina a five-pound note as tip, which Sabina still preserves to this day. When Franco's dictatorship ended in 1975, Sabina returned to Spain and joined the army but, feeling imprisoned, he got married in order to be able to sleep outside the barracks.

After the return[link]

Sabina's first album, Inventario (Inventory) was released in 1978 by a small label Movieplay. He describes this album "as his own version of death metal", but the album largely went unnoticed. Afterwards, he moved to the powerful CBS (today Sony) and released malas compañías (bad companies). This album gave Sabina his first number-one hit single "Pongamos que hablo de Madrid"^[3] (Let's say I'm talking about Madrid), and the artist attained wide recognition. He released a live album called La mandrágora (The Mandrake), sharing the spotlight with bandmates Javier Krahe and Alberto Pérez. The trio enjoyed much popularity due to their participation in a TV program. La Mandrágora created much controversy due to the racy and political content of the lyrics.

Sabina released his third album Ruleta Rusa (Russian Roulette) in 1983 and two years later, Juez y Parte (Judge and Side). His political views led him to take part in the anti-NATO movement. He later released Joaquín Sabina y Viceversa en directo, his first live album, recorded in the Salamanca theatre in Madrid. In this album, the singer collaborates with other singers such as Javier Krahe, Javier Gurruchaga, and Luis Eduardo Aute.

In 1987 he released Hotel, Dulce Hotel (Hotel, Sweet Hotel), which sold a large number of records in Spain. That success followed with his next album El Hombre del Traje Gris (The Man in the Gray Suit), and followed with a successful tour of South America. This was followed by the released Mentiras Piadosas (White Lies) in 1990, and two years later Física y Química (Chemistry and Physics), which led to another successful tour of the Americas.

His later albums Esta boca es mía (This Mouth is Mine), yo, mi, me, contigo^[4] (i, my, myself, with you) and 19 Días y 500 Noches (19 Days and 500 Nights), won him more recognition and multiple platinum albums.

After recovering from a stroke,^[5] he returned to the stage in 2002 with Dímelo en la Calle (Tell me on the Street or Dare to say that outside). He later released a double album called Diario de un peatón (A Pedestrian's Diary), which included both his previous album and 12 new songs, along with a book illustrated by him.

In 2005 Sabina's released a new record Alivio de luto (Mourning Relief). The album release was accompanied by a DVD that includes interviews, music videos, acoustic versions of the songs, and home-made recordings.

In 2007, he went on tour with Spanish singer Joan Manuel Serrat, called Dos Pájaros de un Tiro (Two birds with one stone) and they recorded a CD of this tour, which includes the DVD of the concert and a documentary.^[6]

In 2009, he received the prize of the city of Madrid from the mayor Alberto Ruiz Gallardón, who said that he was one of the most important people who had given a good image to the city.^[7] This year, he published his 15th studio album, Vinagre y Rosas (Vinegar and Roses), an album in which he collaborated with his producers Pancho Varona and Antonio García de Diego, and with the band Pereza. The first single of the album is the song Tiramisu de limón (Lemon Tiramisu), sung with Ruben and Leiva, the members of Pereza. For the promotional video, he collaborated with the actress and singer Mónica Molina. Finally the album was published the December 14th, entering directly to the first position of the Spanish album chart.^[8]

Discography[link]

• Inventario (Inventory) (1978)
• Malas compañías (Bad Companies) (1980)
• La mandrágora (The Mandrake) (1981)
• Ruleta rusa (Russian Roullette) (1984)
• Juez y parte (1985) (Judge And Side), with Viceversa.
• Joaquín Sabina y Viceversa en directo (Joaquín Sabina and Viceversa live) (1986)
• Hotel, dulce hotel (Hotel, sweet hotel) (1987)
• El hombre del traje gris (The Man in the Gray Suit) (1988)
• Mentiras piadosas (Pious Lies) (1990)
• Física y Química (Physics and Chemistry) (1992)
• Esta boca es mía (This Mouth is Mine) (1994)
• Yo, mi, me, contigo (I, my, me, with you) (1996)
• Enemigos íntimos (Intimate Enemies) (1998), with Fito Páez.
• 19 días y 500 noches (19 Days and 500 Nights) (1999)
• Nos sobran los motivos (We have more than enough reasons, also a pun on We don't have enough reasons) (2000)
• Dímelo en la calle (Tell me on the street) (2002)
• Diario de un peatón (Diary of a Pedestrian) (2003)
• Alivio de luto (Mourning Relief) (2005)
• Dos pájaros de un tiro (Two Birds With One Stone) (2007), with Joan Manuel Serrat
• Vinagre y rosas (Vinegar and Roses) (2009)
• La Orquesta Del Titanic ("The Titanic's Orchestra") (2012), with Joan Manuel Serrat

Books[link]

• Memorias del exilio (Memories from the exile) (1976)
• De lo contado y sus márgenes (About what has been told and its borders) (1986)
• El hombre del traje gris (Partitures of the 8th album) (1989)
• Perdonen la tristeza (Excuse me for my sadness) (2000) Written by Joaquín Sabina and Javier Mendez Flores.
• Ciento volando de catorce (A hundred of fourteen in the bush) (2001)
• Con buena letra (With a good handwriting) (2002) Compilation of lyrics.
• Esta boca es mía (This mouth is mine) (2005) Compilation of satirical poems published in the weekly magazine Interviú.
• Con buena letra II (With a good handwriting II) (2005) Compilation of lyircs
• Sabina en carne viva, yo también se jugarme la boca (2006) Written by Joaquín Sabina and Javier Mendez Flores.
• Esta boca sigue siendo mía (This mouth is still mine) (2007) Compilation of satirical poems published in the weekly magazine Interviú.
• A vuelta de correo (By return mail) (2007) Compilation of the correspondence between Joaquín Sabina and other personalities.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Joaquín Sabina Official Web Site, JSabina.com

This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the Spanish Wikipedia. (March 2011) Don't speak Spanish? Click here to read a machine-translated version of the Spanish article. Click [show] on the right to review important translation instructions before translating. Google's machine translation is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. After translating, {{Translated|es|Ana Belén}} must be added to the talk page to ensure copyright compliance. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.

This article relies on references to primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject, rather than references from independent authors and third-party publications. Please add citations from reliable sources. (June 2009)

Ana Belén is the professional name of María del Pilar Cuesta Acosta, a Spanish actress and singer. She was born on 27 May 1951 in Madrid.^[1]

Career[link]

Ana Belén studied acting in Spain during her youth and began acting in theatrical and cinematic productions in the mid-1960s. While working on the film Morbo by Gonzalo Suárez, she met Víctor Manuel, marrying him in 1972 in Gibraltar. At this time she also started her career as a singer, releasing several successful albums.

Ana Belén also appeared in various films: La petición by Pilar Miró, Emilia parada y fonda by Angelino Fons, El buscón by Luciano Berriatúa, La oscura historia de la prima Montse by Jordi Cadena, La criatura by Eloy de la Iglesia and Sonámbulos by Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón. She gave birth to her first child in 1976.

In 1991 she recorded Como una novia, with songs by Gloria Varona, Pancho Varona and Antonio García de Diego, this being the first album that did not include any songs composed or adapted by Víctor Manuel.

In 1997 she released a new album, Mírame, which consisted of her own songs and duets and which went on to become the best-selling album of her solo career. With its release, she went on tour throughout Spain, and in the autumn of the same year, the 'El gusto es nuestro' tour went to America, where it was received with the same enthusiasm as in Spain.

In 1998, Belen commemorated Federico García Lorca's centenary by releasing two albums under the title of Lorquiana, a collection of poems and popular songs by Lorca. The following year another album was released Ana Belén y Miguel Ríos cantan a Kurt Weill, and she had a role in the Tele 5 series, Petra Delicado.

Discography[link]

• 1965
  • Zampo y yo
  • Qué difícil es tener 18 años

• 1973
  • Al diablo con amor (BSO)
  • Tierra

• 1975
  • Calle del Oso

• 1976
  • La paloma del vuelo popular

• 1977
  • De paso

• 1979
  • Ana
  • Lo mejor de Ana Belén

• 1980
  • Con las manos llenas

• 1982
  • Ana en Río

• 1983
  • Victor y Ana en vivo

• 1984
  • Géminis

• 1985
  • BSO La corte de faraón

• 1986
  • Para la ternura siempre hay tiempo (with Víctor Manuel)
  • Grandes éxitos

• 1987
  • BSO Divinas palabras

• 1988
  • A la sombra de un león

• 1989
  • 26 grandes canciones y una nube blanca
  • Rosa de amor y fuego

• 1991
  • Como una novia

• 1993
  • Veneno para el corazón

• 1994
  • Mucho más que dos

• 1996
  • 20 exitos
  • El gusto es nuestro

• 1997
  • Mírame

• 1998
  • Lorquiana. Popular songs of Federico García Lorca
  • Lorquiana. Poems by Federico García Lorca

• 1999
  • Cantan a Kurt Weill (with Miguel Ríos)

• 2001
  • Peces de ciudad
  • Dos en la carretera

• 2003
  • Viva L`Italia

• 2006
  • Una canción me trajo aquí

• 2007
  • Anatomía

• 2008
  • Los grandes éxitos... y mucho más

Filmography as actress and director[link]

Television[link]

Theatre[link]

• Fedra (2007, 2009 – interruption between for the two due to musical contracts)
• Diatriba de amor contra un hombre sentado (2004/2005)
• Defensa de dama (2002)
• La bella Helena (1995/1996)
• La gallarda (1992)
• El mercader de Venecia (1991/1992)
• Hamlet (1989)
• La casa de Bernarda Alba (1984)
• La hija del aire (1982)
• Tío Vania (1979)
• Antígona (1975)
• Ravos (1972)
• Sabor a miel (1971)
• Los niños (1970)
• Te espero ayer (1969)
• Don Juan Tenorio (1969)
• Medida por medida (1968)
• Las mujeres sabias (1968)
• El sí de las niñas (1967)
• El rufián castrucho (1967)
• El rey Lear (1966)
• Numancia^{[disambiguation needed ]} (1965)

Awards[link]

• 1971 Best TV actress for Retablo de las mocedades del Cid Fotogramas Award
• 1972 Special mention for Morbo San Sebastián International Film Festival
• 1980 Best TV actress for Fortunata y Jacinta Fotogramas de Plata
• 1980 Best actress for Fortunata y Jacinta TP de Oro
• 1980 Best actress for La Corte del Faraón Bronce
• 1980 Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres
• 1987 Best actress for La Casa de Bernarda Alba and Divinas palabras Fotogramas de Plata
• 1988 Nominated for Best actress for Miss Caribe Goya Awards
• 1989 Nominated for Best actress for El vuelo de la Paloma Goya Awards
• 1991 Nominated for Best director for Como ser mujer y no morir en el intento Premios Ondas
• 1991 Nominated for Best director debut for Como ser mujer y no morir en el intento Goya Awards
• 1994 Best song for Contaminame Premios Ondas
• 1994 Nominated for Best actress for La Pasión Turca Goya Awards
• 1994 Best Actress for La Pasión Turca Goya Awards
• 1995 Gold Medal from the Spanish Cinema Academy
• 1995 Best theatre actress for La bella Helena Fotogramas de Plata
• 1996 Cadena Dial Award
• 1997 Best Female soloist. Carlos Gardel Awards
• 1997 Best actress El amor perjudica seriamente la salud Festival de Peñíscola
• 1997 Silver Lighthouse Award. Festival de Alfás del Pí
• 1997 Best Tour El gusto es nuestro Spanish Music Awards
• 1998 Nominated for Best Spanish female soloist for Lorquiana Premios Amigo
• 2000 William Layton Award
• 2001 Woman of the Year. Premios Elle
• 2001 Nominated Best Spanish female soloist for Peces de ciudad Premios Amigo
• 2002 Nominated Best female soloist for Peces de ciudad Latin Grammy Awards
• 2002 Runner up Defensa de dama Premios Mayte of Theatre
• 2003 Homage by the Instituto Cervantes of Toulouse
• 2004 Nominated for Best actress Cosas que hacen que la vida valga la pena Goya Awards
• 2004 Nominated for Best actress Cosas que hacen que la vida valga la pena Fotogramas de Plata
• 2004 Nominated for Best actress Cosas que hacen que la vida valga la pena Spanish Actors' Union
• 2004 Best actress Cosas que hacen que la vida valga la pena Premios Turia
• 2006 Málaga Award. Film Festival of Málaga
• 2007 Fine Arts Golden Medal presented by the Spanish royal family at Toledo Cathedral

References[link]

External links[link]

• (Spanish) Official Web Site
• Ana Belén at the Internet Movie Database

António Ferreira (1528 – November 29, 1569) was a Portuguese poet and the foremost representative of the classical school, founded by Francisco de Sá de Miranda. His most considerable work, Castro, is the first tragedy in Portuguese, and the second in modern European literature.

His life[link]

Ferreira was a native of Lisbon. His father held the post of escrivão de fazenda in the house of the Duke of Coimbra at Setúbal. In 1547, he went to the University of Coimbra, and graduated with a bachelor's degree.

Ferreira took his doctor's degree on July 14, 1555, an event which was celebrated, according to custom, by a sort of Roman triumph, and he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra, with its picturesque environs, congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a country life.

He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most distinguished literary men of the time, such as the scholarly Diogo de Teive, and the poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real. In 1558, at the age of 29, he married D. Maria Pimentel. After a short and happy married life, his wife died.

On October 14, 1567, he became Desembargador da Casa do Civel, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon. His verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of the capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad and almost tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral twists of the courtiers and traders, among whom he was forced to live, hurt his fine sense of honor, and he felt his mental isolation more, because his friends were few and scattered in that great city which the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire.

In 1569, a terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried off 50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on November 29, Ferreira, who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled; fell a victim.

His works[link]

Ferreira wrote the Terentian prose comedy, Bristo in (1553), at the age of twenty-five, and dedicated it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is neither a comedy of character nor manners, but its vis comica lies in its plot and situations. The Cioso, a later product, may almost be called a comedy of character.

The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew from him, as from Camões, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical lament, which consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative of Virgil and Horace, and devoid of interest.

The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism expressed in eloquent and sonorous verse.

The Sonnets[link]

The sonnets forming the First Book in his collected works, date from 1552 and contain the history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon. The sonnets in the Second Book were inspired by his wife, and they are marked by that chastity of sentiment, seriousness and ardent patriotism. The ninth sonnet of Book 2, written after her premature death, describes her end in moving words. This loss lent Ferreira's verse an added austerity, and the independence of his muse is remarkable when he addresses King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well as his rights.

Castro[link]

Castro is Ferreira most considerable work, and the first tragedy in Portuguese, and the second in modern European literature. Though fashioned on the great models of the ancients, it has little plot or action, and the characters, except that of the prince, are ill-designed. It is a splendid poem, with a chorus which sings the sad fate of Inês in musical odes, rich in feeling and grandeur of expression. His love is the chaste, timid affection of a wife and a vassal, rather than the strong passion of a mistress, but Pedro is really the man, history describes, the love-fettered prince whom the tragedy of Inês’s death converted into the cruel tyrant. King Afonso is little more than a shadow, and only meets Inês once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and Inês never come on the stage together, and their love is merely narrated. Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his subject, and though it has since been handled by poets of renown in many different languages, none has been able to surpass the old master.

Other works[link]

Ferreira also authored a brief epic poem called Historia de S.ta Comba dos Valles (History of Saint Comba of the Valleys), based on a religious legend of Lamas de Orelhão, Valpaços tracing to the Moorish occupation in pre-foundation Portugal.

His ideals[link]

Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was to win the applause of the good, and, in the preface to his poems, he says, "I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and my people." He was intimate with the aged Sá de Miranda, the founder of the classical school of which Ferreira became the foremost representative. Horace was his favorite poet, erudition his muse, and his admiration of the classics made him disdain the popular poetry of the Old School (Escola Velha) represented by Gil Vicente.

His national feeling would not allow him to write in Latin or Spanish, like most of his contemporaries, but his Portuguese is as Latinized as he could make it, and he even calls his poetical works, Poemas Lusitanos. Sá de Miranda had philosophized in the familiar redondilha, introduced the epistle and founded the comedy of learning.

It was the beginning of a revolution, which Ferreira completed by abandoning the hen. decasyllable for the Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done of set purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission and resolved to carry it out. The gross realism of the popular poetry, its lack of culture and its carelessness of form, offended his educated taste, and its picturesqueness and ingenuity made no appeal to him. It is not surprising, however, that though he earned the applause of men of letters, he failed to touch the hearts of his countrymen.

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antonio Ferreira". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Antonio_Ferreira. 
• António Ferreira: Poemas lusitanos. Edição crítica, Introdução e Comentário de T. F. Earle, Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2000
• Tom F. Earle: The Muse Reborn. The Poetry of António Ferreira, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia article
• Castro. Tragedia, in Obras Completas (Full Ouvre), Volume 2, 1865 edition, in Google Books
• The tragedy of Ines de Castro, English translation of A Castro, in Google Books
• Historia de S.ta Comba dos Valles (sic), on a 1771 edition of the "Poemas Lusitanos, Volume 1", in Google Books