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Ayodhya
—  city  —
Ayodhya
Coordinates: 26°48′N 82°12′E / 26.80°N 82.20°E / 26.80; 82.20Coordinates: 26°48′N 82°12′E / 26.80°N 82.20°E / 26.80; 82.20
Country	India
State	Uttar Pradesh
District	Faizabad
Area
• Total	10.24 km2 (3.95 sq mi)
Elevation	93 m (305 ft)
Population (2001)
• Total	49,650
• Density	4,800/km2 (13,000/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Hindi
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
PIN	224123
Telephone code	05278
Vehicle registration	UP-42

Ayodhya  pronunciation (help·info) (Sanskrit: अयोध्या, Urdu: ایودھیا, IAST Ayodhyā), also known as Saket (Sanskrit: साकेत, Urdu: ساکیت ) is an ancient city of India adjacent to Faizabad city in Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh. As a result of rapid settlement and development Ayodhya has been merged to Faizabad city. Ayodhya is the birth place of the Hindu deities Rama and Swaminarayan. It used to be the capital of the ancient Kosala Kingdom. This Hindu holy city is described as early as in the Hindu Epics. Ayodhya has an average elevation of 93 metres (305 feet).

Background[link]

Ayodhya is located on the right bank of the river Saryu, as it is called within sacred precincts. Just 6 km from Faizabad, Ayodhya is a popular pilgrim centre. This town is closely associated with Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The ancient city of Ayodhya, according to the Ramayana, was founded by Manu, the law-giver of the Hindus. For centuries, it was the capital of the descendants of the Surya dynasty of which Lord Rama was the most celebrated king. Ayodhya during ancient times was the capital of the Rama Empire and known as Kaushaldesa.

Skanda and some other Puranas mention Ayodhya as one of the seven most sacred cities of India. It was the venue of many events in Hindu mythology. Today pre-eminently a temple town, Ayodhya is famous for its close association with the epic Ramayana. It is a city of immense antiquity full of historical significance and sacred temples. The Atharvaveda described Ayodhya as "a city built by Gods and being prosperous as paradise itself."

The first ruling dynasty of this region were the Ikshvakus of the solar clan (Suryavansa). According to tradition, Ikshvaku was the eldest son of Vaivasvata Manu, who established himself at Ayodhya. The word for earth `Prithivi’ found in many Indian languages is supposed to have been derived from Prithu, the sixth king of the line. A few generations later came Mandhatri, in whose line the 31st king was Harischandra, known widely for his truthfulness(Sathya-sandhata) which he accepted as his life-style. He is also famous for his other good acts as king which were followed by the other kings of the Surya Vamsa also. Raja Sagar of the same clan performed the Asvamedha Yajna and his great grandson Bhagiratha is reputed to have brought the river Ganges on to the earth by virtue of his penance. Later in the time came the great Raghu, after whom the family came to be called as Raghuvamsa. His grandson was Raja Dasaratha, the father of Rama with whom the glory of the Kausala dynasty reached its highest point. The story of this epic has been immortalized by Valmiki in the Ramayana.

Ayodhya is a city of many places of worship. Several religions have grown and prospered simultaneously and at different periods. Remnants of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Islam can still be found in Ayodhya. According to Jainism, five Tirthankaras were born at Ayodhya, including Adinath (first Tirthankar),^[1] Ajitnath (second Tirthankar),^[2] Abhinandanath (fourth Tirthankar),^[3] Sumatinath (fifth Tirthankar)^[4] and Anantnath (fourteenth Tirthankar).^[5] According to Jain Agams, it is the 2nd eternal city after Shikharji, which never vanishes or disappears during change of eras.

Etymology[link]

The city is considered to be named after its founder, King Ayudh mentioned in the ancient Hindu scriptures as one of the forefathers of Lord Rama. The name comes from the Sanskrit root yudh, meaning "fight" or "wage war," and it translates to either "not to be fought" or, less literally, "unconquerable." During the time of Gautama Buddha the city was called Ayojjhā in Pali and Ayodhyā in Sanskrit.

In the first few centuries of the Common Era it was called Saketa. Śāketa or 沙奇 (Pinyin: Shāqí) was conquered by the Kushan/Yuezhi Emperor Kanishka c. 127 CE, who made it the administrative centre of his eastern territories.^[6][7] The name occurs again in Faxian as 沙祗 (Pinyin: Shāzhī) in the early 5th century. It is not clear when the name changed, but by the time of the visit of the Chinese pilgrim monk, Xuanzang, c. 636 CE, it was known as Ayodhya.

Under Mughal rule, it was the seat of the governor of Awadh. During the British Raj the city was known as Ajodhya or Ajodhia and was part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; it was also the seat of a small 'talukdari' state.^[8][9]

The cities of Ayutthaya, Thailand, and Yogyakarta, Indonesia, are named after Ayodhya.

Festivals[link]

Festivals observed in Ayodhya include Shravan Jhoola Mela (July–August), Parikrama Mela (October–November), Ram Navmi (March–April), Rathyatra (June–July), Saryu Snan (October–November), Ram Vivah (November), Ramayan Mela and vijay dashmi .

Geography and Climate[link]

Ayodhya has a warm humid subtropical climate, typical of the Indian heartland. Summers are long, dry and extremely hot, lasting from late March to mid June, with average daily temperatures near 32 °C (90 °F) . They are followed by the monsoon season which lasts till early October, with a total precipitation of about 1067 mm (42 inches) and average temperatures around 28 °C (84 °F). Winter starts in early November and lasts till the end of January, followed by a short spring in February and early March. Average temperatures are mild, near 16 °C (60 °F), but nights can be chilly to cold.

Legacy and importance[link]

Ancient Indian (Bharata) cities and places.

History of Ayodhya[link]

Ayodhya is said to be one of the most ancient, magnificent and holy of Hindu cities. According to the ancient Hindu Scriptures, it is said to have covered an area of 250 km² (97 sq mi)^{[citation needed]}, and was the capital of the powerful Hindu kingdom of Kosala (Kaushal). It is on the banks of the Ghaghara River, bathing in which is supposed to destroy even the deadliest of sins. It stands on the right bank of the river Ghagra (or Saryu, as it is called within sacred precincts). The illustrious Ikshvaku of the solar clan (suryavansha) was the ruling dynasty of this region.^{[citation needed]} This city was the court of the great Dasharatha, the 63rd monarch of the Solar line. King Dasaratha's son Rama, born in Ayodhya, was believed to be the incarnation of Vishnu. In the Atharvaveda, this place was described as a city made by gods and as prosperous as Heaven itself.^{[citation needed]}

Valmiki is said to have begun the writing of his famous devotional poem Valmiki Ramayana, also called the Ramayana in Ayodhya. The opening chapters recount the magnificence of the city, the glories of the monarch and the virtues, wealth and loyalty of his people. Other sages like Kamban and Tulsidas also wrote versions of the Ramayana praising of Rama and the magnificent city of Ayodhya. Tulsidas' Ramayana is popularly known as Ramacharitamanasa and is one of the most revered scriptures of Hinduism. Several Tamil Alvars mention the city of Ayodhya. Ayodhya is also said to be the birthplace of Jadabharata (the first Chakravartin), Bahubali, Brahmi, Sundari, Padaliptasurisvarji, Harishchandra and Achalbharata.

Ayodhya has a historical significance for the Jain community too. This is the birth place of two important tirthankaras who were born in the early centuries CE. The Jain agamas also stand testimony to the visit of Mahavira, Jainism's last tirthankara, to this city. Ayodhya is also the birth place of five Tirthankaras, including the first, Rishabha as well as that of Mahavira's ninth Ganadhara.

The city is also important in the history and heritage of Buddhism in India, with several Buddhist temples, monuments and centers of learning having been established here during the age of the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Dynasty. Ayodhya reached its glorious peak as known to history during the reign of the Guptas over India.^{[citation needed]}

This city was also a significant trade centre in 600 BCE.^{[citation needed]} Historians have identified this place as Saketa, a key Buddhist centre during the 5th century BCE (it is a widely held belief^{[citation needed]} that Buddha visited Ayodhya on several occasions) which it remained till the 5th century CE. In fact, Faxian, the Chinese monk, recorded several Buddhist monasteries that he saw here.^{[citation needed]}

Rama being welcomed back to Ayodhya, also shown him flying in the Pushpaka Vimana

Swaminarayan, founder of the Swaminarayan sect of Hinduism lived here during his childhood years. It was from Ayodhya that Swaminarayan started his seven year journey across India as a 'Neelkanth'.

Amongst the 'Mokshdayani Puris' of the world meaning "the lands of spiritual bliss and liberation from the karma-bandhan," Ayodhya city holds a leading place, along with cities such as Varanasi, Dwarka and others. Ramcharitmanas and other respected Hindu scriptures like the Vishnu Purana, Shrimad Bhagvat Mahapuran and others emphasize the importance of living and visiting such religious places. According to them, these spiritually charged cities increase the Punya (or 'fruits of virtuous and righteous actions') and Paap ('fruits of a person's wrong doings') of an individual many times over. Therefore people visiting and living in such holy cities are found doing noble and virtuous deeds.^{[citation needed]}

Today people from various religious faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Jainism live together united, making it a place of enormous sacred importance.

Among Seven Holy Cities of India[link]

Moreover, Ayodhya is one of seven most holy places for Hindus in India where Varanasi is considered as Holiest of holy cities.

A Kṣetra is a sacred ground, a field of active power, a place where Moksha, final release can be obtained. The Garuda Purana enumerates seven cities as giver of Moksha, They are Ayodhya, Mathura, Māyā (Haridwar), Kāsi (Varanasi), Kāñchī, Avantikā (Ujjain), and Dvārāvatī (Dvārakā).^[10]

Historical Events[link]

The Atharva Veda called Ayodhya "a city built by gods and being as prosperous as paradise itself".

According to an 11th century Korean chronicle the Samguk Yusa, the wife of King Suro of the ancient Korean kingdom of Geumgwan Gaya was a princess who travelled by boat from a faraway land called Ayuta to Korea in 48 CE. It is commonly thought that Ayodhya is the foreign land referred to in the Korean chronicles, but some scholars believe that the foreign land may have been Ayutthaya of Thailand. However, the local government of Ayodhya and the South Korean government validated and acknowledged the legitimacy of the connection and held a ceremony between the two governments to raise a statue of the princess on the banks of the Saryu River. The princess's adopted Korean name is Heo Hwang-ok, who was the first queen of Geumgwan Gaya Dynasty and is the ancestor of the Korean Kim family of Kimhae and the Heo surname lineages. 2,000 years ago, a princess of Ayodhya had been shipped off as a bride to Suro. They had ten children, of whom nine became Buddhist monks. His descendants now form the 10 million-strong Kim Kimhae clan and Heo Gimhae clan.^{[11][12][13][14]}

In the 7th century CE, Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), the Chinese monk, recorded spotting many Hindu temples in Ayodhya. In the epic Ramayana, the city of Ayodhya is cited as the birthplace of Lord Sri Rama, a Hindu deity who was worshipped as Lord Vishnu's seventh incarnation. Ayodhya became a famous pilgrimage destination in the 15th century when Ramananda, the Hindu mystic, established a devotional sect of Sri Rama.

The Thai kingdom and city of Ayutthaya, and the Indonesian sultanate of Yogyakarta, were named after Ayodhya, reflecting the common Southeast Asian practice of adopting place names from Hindu kingdoms.^{[citation needed]}

Ayodhya, like other Indian cities, came under Mughal rule. The cultural fabric was enriched with the coming of the Mughals. With Muslim rulers established around the city under Mohammed of Ghor, it lost its strategic and economic importance to Lucknow and Kanpur.

The 16th century witnessed a shift in power with Ayodhya coming under the rule of the Mughal Empire.

Saadat Ali Khan, Nawab of Awadh, bestowed the riyasat of Ayodhya on his loyal Brahmin soldier Dwijdeo Mishra of the Kasyapa gotra, for quelling revenue rebels in Mehendauna in Eastern UP. The Hanumangarhi temple was built by the Nawab of Awadh.^[11]

United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, showing 'Ajodhia', 1903 map

Ayodhya was annexed in 1856 by the British rulers. Between 1857 and 1859, this place was one of the main centers where the sparks of the first war of Indian Independence originated. These sparks later led to a nationwide revolt of the Indian soldiers in opposition to the British East India Company that began in Calcutta.^[15]

Culture[link]

Ayodhya is example of Ganga-Jamuni culture where the Hanumangarhi temple was built by the Nawab of Awadh. And Sundar Bhavan, the famous Ramji temple, had a devoted caretaker, Munne Mian, who looked after it for fifty years until his death in 2004.^[11]

Demographics[link]

As of the 2001^[update] India census,^[16] Ayodhya had a population of 49,593. Males constitute 59% of the population and females 41%. Ayodhya has an average literacy rate of 65%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with 66% of the males and 34% of females literate. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Ayodhya debate[link]

Ayodhya dispute
Demolition of Babri Masjid
Babri Masjid
Ram Janmabhoomi
Archaeology
2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack
Liberhan Commission
People and organizations
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
L. K. Advani
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Murli Manohar Joshi
Kalyan Singh
AIBMAC
Babur
Bharatiya Janata Party
Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha
Sunni Wakf Board
Koenraad Elst
Nirmohi Akhara

The centre of the Ayodhya debate concerns the Babri Mosque, which was alleged to have been built on the foundations of a Ram Janmabhoomi temple. Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, was the namesake for the mosque. This temple was believed to be the actual birthplace of Lord SriRama. The mosque was destroyed when a right wing Hindu nationalist rally developed into a riot involving a mob of over 150,000 people in 1992. A title suit on the disputed site was heard on the 30th of September 2010, in which it was established that the disputed land was indeed the birthplace of Lord Ram on basis of popular belief of Hindus. It was also decided to divide the disputed land into three separate pieces: one each for Hindus, Muslims and the Nirmohi Akhara. The status quo would be maintained for three months as per the judgement.

Before 2003, it was not proven that the original Hindu temple was demolished or dramatically modified on the orders of the Mughal Emperor Babur and the mosque was built in its place. A movement was launched in 1984 by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP party to reclaim the site for Hindus who wanted to erect a temple dedicated to the infant SriRama (Ramlala), at this spot. Many Muslim organizations have continued to express outrage at the destruction of the disputed structure.^[17] There were several later mosques constructed in Faizabad district in which pilgrim city of Ayodhya falls. Due to long isolation, Ayodhya has almost negligible^[18] Muslim population though there are substantial Muslims 7 km away at District Headquarters – Faizabad. The Babri Mosque at Ayodhya became famous due to the importance of the disputed site where Hindus have been offering Pujas to Lord Ramlala from even before 1947 independence. Since, 1948 Indian Government order, no one is permitted to be near the site for at least 200 yards and the main gate has been locked in this effect. However Hindu pilgrims have been entering through a side door to offer Puja. In 1989 Allahabad High Court order opened the locks of the main gate and restored the site for use. However, when Hindus wanted modifications of the dilapidated Islamic style structure built by General Mir Banki and did Shilanyas (inauguration) of a proposed new grand Temple with Government permissions, there were unrests in many parts of India regarding the disputed structure and Government moved court. Since, then the matter is sub-judiced and this political, historical and socio-religious debate over the history and location of the Babri Mosque, is known as the Ayodhya Debate. In 2003, on court orders Archeological Survey of India dug the spot and found a previous ancient temple that was demolished or modified to create the later Mosque under Babur.^[19]

References such as the 1986 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica reported that "SriRama’s birthplace is marked by a mosque, erected by the Mughal emperor Babar in 1528 on the site of an earlier temple".^[20] According to the Hindu view, the ancient temple could have been destroyed on the orders of Mughal emperor Babur. This view has been supported by findings of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), which carried out an excavation in Ayodhya.^[21]

The latest archeological evidence comes from examination of the site after the destruction of the Babri Mosque. The Archaeological Survey of India under BB Lal, although initially published as finding no significant structures as these reports were based on inconclusive facts and were mere a media leak, subsequently put forward evidence of a pre-existing temple predating the mosque by hundreds of years as its final report.

Claims have been made that worship took place on a platform called the "Ram Chabutara" prior to Independence. According to British sources, Hindus and Muslims used to worship together in the Disputed Structure in the 19th century until about 1855. P. Carnegy wrote in 1870:

"It is said that up to that time, the Hindus and Mohamedans alike used to worship in the mosque-temple. Since the British rule a railing has been put up to prevent dispute, within which, in the mosque the Mohamedans pray, while outside the fence the Hindus have raised a platform on which they make their offerings."^[22]

This platform was outside the disputed structure but within its precincts. Hindu protagonists say that they have been demanding the return of the site for centuries, and cite accounts from several western travellers to India during the Mughal rule in India.

At present, there is a makeshift Ram mandir (temple) at Ram Janmabhoomi with a Ram Lalla deity. The deity was gifted by Chandresh Pandey of Jaipur Pandey Idol Museum, depicting SriRama as a child with a benign smile is in a sitting posture over a blooming lotus. The 27-inch-high (690 mm) deity is carved in white marble from the mines of Makrana in Rajasthan, is laced with gold. The palanquin is made of seasoned Rosewood brought from forest in Karnataka.^[23]

Findings[link]

The excavation carried out by Archeological Survey of India from 12 March 2003 to 7 August 2003 uncovered a variety of different structures and objects, including a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Lord Hanuman and coins dating to early historic times and other historic objects.^[24][25] Jonathan Walters remarks: "The impact of the 2003 discovery of Buddhist ruins underlying both Hindu and Muslim layers at Ayodhya remains to be seen."^[26]

Attack[link]

On 5 July 2005, five terrorists attacked the site of the makeshift Ramlalla temple in Ayodhya. All five were killed in the ensuing gunfight with the security forces guarding the area, and one civilian died in the bomb blast triggered while they attempted to breach the cordon wall.

Allahabad High Court verdict, September 2010[link]

On 30 September 2010, the Lucknow bench of the Allahabad High Court pronounced its verdict on the Ayodhya title suit. The three-judge bench ruled in a majority judgement (2 to 1) that one-third of the disputed land should be given to the Sunni Central Board of Waqfs (U.P.), one-third to the Nirmohi Akhara and one-third to the party for 'Ram Lalla'. The court further ruled that the area where the idols of Ram are present shall be given to the Hindus in the final decree, and the rest of the land shall be divided equally by metes and bounds among the three parties.^[27][28]

Place of Interest[link]

The Hanuman Garhi

Situated in the centre of the town, this temple is approachable by a flight of 76 steps. Legend has it that Hanuman lived here in a cave and guarded the Janambhoomi or Ramkot. The main temple contains the statue of Maa Anjani, with Bal Hanuman seated on her lap. The faithful believe that all their wishes are granted with a visit to this holy shrine.

A massive structure in the shape of a four sided fort with circular bastions at each corner houses a temple of Hanuman and is the most popular shrine in Ayodhya.

Kanak Bhawan

This is famous temple of Ayodhya. As per mythology it is gifted to Sita by mother Kaikai after marriege. This is private palace of lord SitaRam, here all statue of SitaRam.

Ramkot

The chief place of worship in Ayodhya is the site of the ancient citadel of Ramkot which stands on an elevated ground in the western part of the city. Although visited by pilgrims throughout the year, this sacred place attracts devotees from all over India and abroad, on `Ram Navami’, the day of Lord’s birth, which is celebrated with great pomp and show, in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March–April).

Swarg Dwar

According to mythology, Lord Rama is said to have been cremated here.

Mani Parbat and Sugriv Parbat

The first of these ancient earth mounds is identified with a stupa built by the Emperor Ashoka, while the second is believed to be an ancient monastery.

Treta ke Thakur

This temple stands at the place where Rama is said to have performed the Ashvamedha Yajnya. About 300 years ago the Raja of kulu built a new temple here, which was improved by Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore during 1784, at the same time the adjoining Ghats were also built. The initial idols in black sandstone were recovered from Saryu and placed in the new temple, famous as Kaleram-ka-Mandir.

Nageshwarnath Temple

The temple of Nageshwarnath is said to have been established by Kush the son of Rama. Legend has it that Kush lost his armlet, while bathing in the Saryu, which was picked up by a Nag-Kanya, who fell in love with him. As she was a devotee of Shiva, Kush erected this temple for her. It is said that this has been the only temple to have survived till the time of Vikramaditya, the rest of city had fallen into ruins and was covered by dense forests. It was by means of this temple that Vikramaditya was able to locate Ayodhya and the sites of different shrines here. The festival of Shivratri is celebrated here with great pomp and splendour.

Chhoti Devkali Mandir

This is the temple of goddess Ishani (Durga). As per mythalogy she is Kuldevi of Sita.

Other places of interest

Angad Tila, Shri Rama Janaki Birla Temple, Tulsi Smarak Bhawan, Ram ki Paidi, Kaleramji ka Mandir, Datuvan Kund,Janki Mahal, Gurudwara Brahma Kund,Rishabhadeo Jain Temple, Brahma Kund, Amawan Temple, Tulsi Chaura, Laxman Quila, Ram Katha Museum, Valmiki Ramayan Bhawan, Mandir Sunder Sadan (in front of controversial site) are among other places of interest in Ayodhya.

Accessbilty[link]

Air

For Ayodhya the nearest airports are Faizabad Airport (5 km), Amausi Airport (Lucknow-134 km), Allahabad Airport (Allahabad – 166 km)

Rail

Ayodhya is situated on the broad gauge Northern Railway line on Mughal Sarai – Lucknow main route. Ayodhya junction and Faizabad Railway Station are connected to various parts of the country.

Road

Connected by road to several major cities and towns. Some of the major road distances are: Lucknow (134 km), Gorakhpur (132 km), Jhansi (441 km), Allahabad (166 km), Sravasti (109 km), Varanasi (209 km) and Gonda (51 km).

See also[link]

• Archaeology of Ayodhya
• Ramayana
• Ramacharitamanas
• Bhagwan Swaminarayan
• Hou Hanshu
• Ram Janmabhoomi
• Hanumangarhi
• Yogyakarta (city)
• Faizabad Railway Station
• Faizabad Airport
• Gulab Bari
• Bahu Begum ka Maqbara
• Faizabad Sports Complex

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

• Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.

Further reading[link]

• Ayodhyā: The History of Ayodhya from the 7th Century BC to the Middle of the 18th Century: Its Development in to a Sacred Centre..., by Hans Bakker. Published by E. Forsten, 1986. ISBN 90-6980-007-1.
• Archeological Findings of Ayodhya Ruins
• Ayodhya and the Research on the Temple of Lord Ram

• Legge, James (1886): A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399–414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Reprint: New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. 1965.
• Thomas, F. W. (1944): “Sandanes, Nahapāna, Caṣṭana and Kaniṣka : Tung-li P’an-ch’i and Chinese Turkestan.” New Indian Antiquary VII. 1944, p. 90.
• Watters, Thomas (1904–1905): On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India. Thomas Watters. London. Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint: Delhi. Mushiram Manoharlal. 1973.
• Ajodhya State The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 5, p. 174.

External links[link]

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Ajodhya.

• Ayodhya travel guide from Wikitravel
• Ayodhya the spiritual abode. Complete details of Ayodhya, proofs and documents.
• Sri Ramar Temple, Ayodhya
• Ayodhya at Jainheritagecentres.com.
• Ayojjhaa in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names.
• Pilgrim Centers Of India
• Ayodhya map
• CNN Article on Ayodhya Conflict, Dec 6 2002
• Decision of Hon'ble Special Full Bench hearing Ayodhya Matters (Allahabad High Court Judgment/Order on Ayodhya Dispute (Ram Janmabhoomi Babri Masjid dispute)
• Ayodhya Shodh Sansthan
• Ayodhya Research Institute

v t e Hindu holy cities India Char Dham Badrinath (Badrinath Temple) Dwarka (Dwarakadheesh Temple) Puri (Jagannath Temple) Rameswaram (Ramanathaswamy Temple) Ashtavinayaka Morgaon (Moreshwar) Lenyadri (Girijatmaj) Pali (Ballaleshwar) Mahad (Varadvinayak) Ranjangaon (Mahaganapati) Siddhatek (Siddhivinayak) Ozar (Vighneswar) Theur (Chintamani) Jyotirlinga Prabhas Patan (Somnath) Srisailam (Mallikājuna) Ujjain (Mahakaleshwar) Omkareshwar (Omkareshwar) Deogarh District (Vaidyanath) Bhorgiri (Bhimashankar) Rameswaram(Ramanathaswamy) Parali-Vaijanath(Nageshvara) Varanasi (Kashi Vishvanath) Trimbakeshwar (Trimbakeshwar) Kedarnath (Kedarnath) Daulatabad (near Grishneshwar) Others Allahabad Ambaji Arunachala Ayodhya Bhadrachalam Chidambaram Chitrakuta Dakor Deoghar Dharmasthala Gangotri Gaya Gokul Guruvayur Haridwar Jageshwar Kalahasti Kalighat Kanchipuram Kollur Madurai Mathura Nashik Nathdwara Pushkar Rishikesh Sabarimala Somnath Sringeri Srirangam Tirupati Tripunithura Udupi Vrindavan Yamunotri Nepal Kathmandu Janakpurdham Sri Lanka Kataragama

Subramanian Swamy (born 15 September 1939 in Chennai, India sometimes spelt Subramaniam Swamy) is an Indian politician, academician and an economist.^[1] He is the President of the Janata Party of India. He also presently serves as chairman^[2] of the SCMS Board of Governors of the SCMS Group of Educational Institutions in Kerala.

Swamy has previously served as member of the Planning Commission of India and Cabinet Minister of India. He has written extensively on foreign affairs dealing largely with India-China, India-Pakistan and Indo-Israel relation and is also a published author.

In November 1978, Swamy was member of the Group of Eminent persons called to Geneva to prepare a report of the United Nations (UNCTAD) on Economic Co-operation between Developing countries (ECDC).Swamy simplified trade procedures and formulated a new export strategy which became the forerunner of trade reform adopted subsequently. In 1994, Swamy was appointed as Chairman of the Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade by then Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao. This was perhaps for the first time that an Opposition Party member was given a Cabinet rank post by the ruling party.

He is also known for his anti corruption activism.

Early life and education[link]

Subramanian Swamy was born in Mylapore, Chennai, India. His father Sitaram Subramanian^[3] is from Madurai, Tamil Nadu who was an Indian Statistical Service officer^[4] and retired as Director of the Central Statistical Institute.^[5][6] His mother Padmavati Subramanian^[4] belongs to Kerala Iyer family from Trichur, Kerala.

He attended Hindu College, University of Delhi, from where he earned his Bachelor Honours degree in Mathematics.^[5] He studied for his Masters degree in Statistics at the Indian Statistical Institute.^[5] He then went to study at Harvard University on a full Rockefeller scholarship.^[5] He received a Ph.D. in Economics in 1965. His thesis adviser was Nobel Laureate Simon Kuznets.^[7]

For some time, while completing his dissertation in 1963, he worked at the United Nations Secretariat in New York as an Assistant Economics Affairs Officer. He subsequently worked as a resident tutor at Lowell House at Harvard university.

Academic career[link]

Professorships[link]

In 1964, Swamy joined the faculty of economics at Harvard and since then has taught in the Department of Economics.^[8] He began as an assistant professor in July 1966^[5][9] and in 1969 became an associate professor.^[10] When he was Associate Professor at Harvard University, he was invited by Noble Laureate Amartya Sen^[3] for reader’s chair on Chinese studies at Delhi School of Economics.^[4] He accepted the offer and came back. However, when he arrived for the position at DSE, his appointment was cancelled due to his views on the nuclear capabilities for India and market friendly attitude.^[3] Thereafter, he moved to the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi and alongside to his teaching duties, he took special interest in talking to the hostel students. From 1969 to 1991, he was a Professor^[9] of mathematical economics at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi.^[11] He was removed from the position by its board of Governors in the early 1970s but was legally reinstated in the late 1990s by the Supreme Court of India. He continued in the position until 1991 when he resigned to become a cabinet minister. He served on the Board of Governors of the IIT, Delhi (1977–80), and on the Council of IITs (1980–82).

He taught economics courses in summer session at Harvard ^[12] until 2011. In December 2011, the Faculty Council of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences removed his course from the Harvard Summer School course offerings in response to a controversial article he wrote, effectively ceasing his employment at Harvard.^[13]

Political career[link]

Early politics[link]

Swamy's career started with his involvement in Jayaprakash Narayan's Sarvodaya movement, which was an apolitical movement but which formed the foundation of the creation of Janta Party later.^[14]. The real turn in his political career came after his sacking from IIT. Liberal economic policies put forward by him didn't go well with the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi who discredited him as 'Santa Claus with unrealistic ideas'. As a result he was expelled from Indian Institute of Technology. This marked the beginning of his active political career. Staunch opponent of Indira Gandhi and right wing political party Jansangh sent him to Rajya Sabha - the upper house of Indian Parliament.^[3]

He was elected Member of Parliament 5 times between 1974 and 1999. He has twice represented the city of Mumbai North East during 1977 and 1980, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the Parliament.^[3]

During the period of emergency, he fled to America, seeking save haven with a Indian businessman in Michigan who had become the spokesperson of opposition in the US. In 1976 when emergency was still in force and an arrest warrant issued in his name, he came to parliament to attend the session and managed to escape India after attending the session. This act made him a hero in the eyes of opposition parties.

He was one of the founding members of the Janata Party and has been its president since 1990.^[3]

Minister of Commerce and Law of India[link]

Economic Reforms in India[link]

During 1990 and 1991 Swamy was a member of the Planning Commission of India and Cabinet Minister of Commerce and Law of India. During this period he created the blueprint^[15][16] for economic reforms in India under Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar which was later carried out in 1991 by Manmohan Singh^[5], then Finance Minister under leadership of Prime Minister Narasimha Rao.^[16] The current Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh recently stated that Dr. Swamy was the first to envisage and articulate the need for reforms in India.^[2][17]

Between 1994 and 1996, he held the position of "Chairman of the Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade" (equivalent to the rank of a cabinet minister) under the P. V. Narasimha Rao government.^[3] Dr. Swamy has been subject to several defamation cases. He is known to argue these cases himself without the agency of lawyers. In October 2004, he along with other members of the erstwhile Janata Party established the Rashtriya Swabhiman Manch to oppose the policies of the ruling UPA.

Issues held and contributions[link]

Foreign policy and affairs[link]

China and India[link]

He is known for his efforts in normalizing relations between China and India. In 1981, Indira Gandhi sought his help and upon which he persuaded Deng Xiaoping^[18] to open the Kailash Mansarovar in Tibet to the Hindu pilgrims from India.^[19] He became the first Indian on the reopening to visit Kailash and Mansarovar in 1981. In 1990–1991, he was a minister in the Chandra Shekhar cabinet and was in charge of the Ministry of Commerce and Ministry of Law and Justice.

Israel[link]

In his speeches and articles, Dr Swamy has expressed his admiration for Israel, and has credited its retaliatory capacity for its ability to survive in a hostile Arab environment. He made pioneering efforts at establishing diplomatic relations with Israel. In 1982, Dr. Swamy became the first Indian political leader to make publicized trip to Israel, where he met with some important Israeli leaders such as Yitzhak Rabin and then Prime Minister Menachem Begin. His efforts at normalizing relations with Israel have borne fruit now with India's decision in 1992 to open Embassies in the respective countries.^[20]

Revealing 2G spectrum scam[link]

In November 2008, Subramanian Swamy wrote the first of five letters to PM Manmohan Singh seeking permission to prosecute A. Raja in regards to the 2G spectrum scam.^[21] However, Singh took no action^[22], leading Swamy to file a case on his own in the Supreme Court of India regarding the matter, which then asked the Central Bureau of Investigation to produce a detailed report on the matter.^[23] He further called on the Indian government to re-auction the 2G spectrum without the involvement of Communications Minister Kapil Sibal.^[24]

Swamy has raised allegations that Sonia Gandhi's two sisters Anushka and Nadia have received sixty percent of the kickbacks in the 2G spectrum scam, amounting to Rs.18,000 crores each.^[25] On 15 April 2011, he filed a 206-page long petition with PM Singh seeking permission to prosecute Gandhi. In the petition, he claimed to have strong evidence of corrupt acts committed by Gandhi as early as 1972; he also raised doubts regarding her acquisition of Indian citizenship.^[26] At a lecture on corruption given on 29 May 2011, he again repeated his allegation against Sonia Gandhi, saying she has Rs.1 lakh crore stashed abroad.^[27] Most of Swamy's letters to the prime minister regarding this matter are backed up with full proof, which makes him defensive about his allegations.^[28]

Swamy filed various documents in the court to prosecute Minister of Home Affairs P.Chidambaram by including a January 15, 2008 letter written by Chidambaram to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Swamy also placed on record the certified copy of the minutes of a meeting between Chidambaram, Raja and the Prime Minister during the tenure of Raja as the MOC&IT. ^[29]After supreme court verdict cancelling all 122 licences awarded during A Raja tenure, Cho Ramaswamy described Subramanian swamy as not only man of the match but man of the series.^[30]

Supreme court petition in 2G scam[link]

On January 31, 2012, the Supreme Court of India accepted Swamy's petition against the Prime Minister's Office in the 2G case, saying that all public authorities should give a sanction within 3 months against any public official if a request is made for prosecution. The Supreme Court said that Subramanian Swamy had the locus to seek sanction from the Prime Minister for the prosecution of A Raja in the 2G scam. Sanction by a competent authority for the prosecution of a public servant has to be granted within a time frame, the apex court said. Justice A K Ganguly said that the sanction would be deemed to be granted if competent authority failed to take a decision within four months. Swamy's arguments were that he wrote to the PMO on November 29, 2008 but it was only on March 19, 2010 the PMO replied that the plea made by Swamy was "premature" as investigation was being carried out by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI). Raja was arrested by the CBI in the case and got bail on 15th May 2012 after spending nearly 15 months in the Tihar Central Jail.^[31]

Views on Kashmir[link]

In September 2008, Dr. Swamy stridently retorted against the contentions of some Indian columnists who voiced their opinions in favour of "peacefully" surrendering Kashmir to Pakistan. He said,

"I would say that the silent suffering majority of India wants none of this. The ‘Kashmir issue,’ in fact, can no more be solved by dialogue either with the Pakistanis or the Hurriyat, leave alone the constitutional impossibility of allowing it to secede. [...]Kashmir, in fact, is now our defining identity. It is a touchstone for our resolve to preserve our national integrity. The population of that State may be majority Muslim but the land and its history is predominantly Hindu. For our commitment to the survival of the ancient civilisation of India and the composite culture that secularists talk of, we have not only to win that coming inevitable war but also resolve never to part with Kashmir. [...]

I will not blame the jihadis for the coming war. They are, after all, programmed that way by their understanding of Islamist theology. I will blame ourselves for not understanding their understanding of the fundamentals of Islam. [...]

Pakistanis often cite the United Nations resolutions on Kashmir to argue for a plebiscite. This obfuscates the fact of accession of the State to India. The legality of the Instrument of Accession signed in favour of India by the then Maharaja of J&K, Hari Singh, on October 26, 1947 has to prevail anyway. "^[32]

Controversial Article and Its Impacts[link]

Article about 2011 Mumbai bombings[link]

In response to the 2011 Mumbai bombings, he wrote an editorial in Daily News and Analysis (DNA) Some of Swamy’s Controversial suggestions in the article.

• The Hindu is the target and that Muslims of India are being programmed by a slow reactive process to become radical and thus slide into suicide against Hindus.
• Remove Article 370, and re-settle ex-servicemen in the Valley. Create Panun Kashmir for Hindu Pandit community. Look or create opportunity to take over PoK. If Pakistan continues to back terrorists, assist the Baluchis and Sindhis to struggle for independence.
• Remove the masjid in Kashi Vishwanath temple complex, and 300 others in other sites as a tit-for-tat.
• Make Sanskrit learning compulsory and singing of Vande Mataram mandatory, and declare India as Hindu Rashtra in which only those non-Hindus can vote if they proudly acknowledge that their ancestors are Hindus. Rename India as Hindustan as a nation of Hindus and those whose ancestors are Hindus.

• Enact a national law prohibiting conversion from Hindu religion to any other religion.

Propagate the development of a Hindu mindset ^[33][34]. Swamy had written a similar column in The New Indian Express after the 2008 Mumbai attacks.

Negative reactions[link]

His column provoked a variety of reactions. His house was attacked by people alleged to be Congress party workers.^[35] Minorities Council of Maharashtra Vice Chairman Abraham Mathai and National Commission for Minorities chairman Wajahat Habibullah accused him of violating Indian Penal Code Section 153A.^[36][37] New Delhi law student Shehzad Poonawala attempted to lodge an FIR against him at Defence Colony police station, but was disallowed by the officer on duty.^[37] DNA published two hostile response columns by Rakesh Sharma and Parsa Venkateshwar Rao Jr. calling him a "Hindu Taliban", "maverick", and "Zionist" in response to his views.^[38][39]

Controversy at Harvard[link]

Some students at his alma mater Harvard University, where he also teaches economics in the summer school, accused him of stoking communalism and circulated a petition calling on the university to fire him and publicly repudiate his remarks. Two PhD students, Umang Kumar and Sanjay Pinto, started an online petition asking for the removal of courses taught by Dr Swamy, which received more than 450 signatures from students and faculty.^[40][41] Adam Kissel, on behalf of the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, wrote in a letter to Harvard that a disciplinary investigation against him would be inappropriate for an academic institution dedicated to intellectual freedom, represented a threat to free speech, and could lead to self-censorship by other faculty members.^[42]

In response to the petition, Donald H. Pfister, dean of Harvard Summer School, stated that the school would "give this matter our serious attention", and decided to stand by its instructor.^[35] On Tuesday, 6 December 2011, the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences voted to exclude Subramanian Swamy's summer school courses from its catalog.^[43][44][45] The Op-Ed was considered more to be a case of hate speech rather than free speech. 'I was persuaded... that the views expressed in Dr Swamy's op-ed piece amounted to incitement of violence instead of protected political speech,' Philosophy Department Chair Sean D Kelly wrote in an e-mail to the Crimson.^[46] Comparative Religion Professor Diana Eck said, "Swamy's op-ed [piece] clearly crosses the line by demonising an entire religious community and calling for violence against their sacred places".^[47] Swamy described the move as "nothing serious", saying "non-economists at Harvard don't like my views on how to protect India".^[48]

Views on Tamil Nadu Politics[link]

He is well known for his critical views against the Government of Tamil Nadu and against the "Aryan versus Dravidian" brand of divisive politics of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy.

He was staunch opponent of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.^[49][50]

He obtained Supreme Court Stay against the implementation of Sethu Samuthiram Shipping Channel project (SSSCP). He believes that it would hurt the sentiments of people who believe that this shallow land connecting between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka was built by Lord Rama. He strongly opposes the implementation of SSSCP citing that implementing this scheme may affect the sentiments of Hinduism. He wrote letters to Prime Minister of India in June 2009 asking him to stop the project.^[51]. He has also strongly urged the Supreme Court of India to declare this Rama-Sethu as a National heritage & historical monument.

Family and Personal life[link]

Dr.Swamy married Dr. Roxna Swamy (a Parsi) in June 1966 whom he met at Harvard. Then she had obtained Ph.D in Maths ^[52] who is presently an advocate at the Supreme Court of India. They have two daughters, Dr. Gitanjali Swamy who is married to Sanjay Sarma, a professor at MIT and Suhasini Haider, a senior editor at CNN-IBN is married to Nadeem Haidar who is a son of Salman Haider, former foreign secretary and external affairs minister.^[53] His brother-in-law is Jewish, his son-in-law Muslim, his sister-in-law Christian, and his wife Parsi.^[40]

Honours, awards and international recognition[link]

Books, Research Papers and Journals[link]

Subramanian Swamy is a published author of several books, research papers and journals. A complete list of papers, books and journals is included below to which he is the author.

Books[link]

• Economic Growth in China and India, 1952–70 (Publisher: University of Chicago Press; ISBN 978-0-226-78315-4)
• Indian economic planning;: An alternative approach (Publisher: Barnes & Noble; ISBN 978-0-389-04202-0)
• Building a New India: An Agenda for National Renaissance (Publisher: South Asia Books; ISBN 978-81-85674-21-6)
• India's Labour Standards and the WTO Framework (Publisher: Konark Publishers; ISBN 978-81-220-0585-1)
• India's economic performance and reforms: A perspective for the new millennium (Publisher: Konark Publishers; ISBN 978-81-220-0594-3)
• Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi: Unanswered Questions and Unasked Queries (Publisher: Konark Publishers; ISBN 978-81-220-0591-2)
• India's China perspective (Publisher: Konark Publishers; ISBN 978-81-220-0606-3)
• Financial Architecture and Economic Development in China and India (Publisher: Konark Publishers; ISBN 978-81-220-0718-3)
• Trade and Industry in Japan: A Guide to Indian Entrepreneurs and Businessmen (Publisher: Prentice-Hall of India; ISBN 978-81-203-0785-8)
• Sri Lanka in Crisis: India's Options (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1260-1)
• Kailas and Manasarovar after 22 years in Shiva's domain (Publisher: Allied Publishers)
• Hindus Under Siege (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1207-6)
• Rama Setu: Symbol of National Unity (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1418-6)
• Terrorism in India: A Strategy of Deterrence for India's National Security (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1344-8)
• Corruption and Corporate Governance in India: Satyam, Spectrum & Sundaram (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1486-5)
• 2G Spectrum Scam (Publisher: Har Anand Publications; ISBN 978-81-241-1638-8)
• Electronic voting machines: unconstitutional and tamperable (Publisher: Vision Books; ISBN 978-81-7094-798-1)

Article, Research Papers and Journals[link]

Article[link]

• Can India make it? India's path to sustained growth (Publisher: Harvard Asia Pacific review, Volumes 6-8 by Harvard University. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, 2002)
• The response to economic challenge: A comparative economic history of China and India, 1870-1952 (Publisher: The Quarterly journal of economics, Volume 93 by Harvard University by the MIT Press, 1979)

Research Papers[link]

• Economic growth and income distribution in a developing nation (Publisher: Harvard University, 1965)
• Nuclear policy for India (Publisher: Bharatiya Jana Sangh Publication, 1968)
• Plan for full employment (Publisher: Bharatiya Jana Sangh, 1970)
• Theoretical aspects of index numbers (Publisher: Harvard Institute of Economic Research, 1985)
• Land reforms: an economist's approach (Publisher: Deendayal Research Institute)

References[link]