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• 
  

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  Abakan
  Abakan (Russian: Абака́н; Khakas: Ағбан) is the capital city of the Republic of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. Population: 165,183 (2010 Census preliminary results); 165,197 (2002 Census); 154,092 (1989 Census).
  Abakansky ostrog (Абаканский острог) was built at this location in 1675, also known as Abakansk. In the Russian Empire, it was a part of Yeniseysk Governorate. During 1823–1931 the grown settlement was known as Ust-Abakanskoye, 1914–1925: Abakan, 1925–1931: Khakassk. It was granted town status and given its current name in 1931.
  In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and the nearby district center village of Askyz (Аскыз). When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists during 1941-45, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han Dynasty era (206 BCE–220 CE) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside of the borders of the Han Empire, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist L.A. Evtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BC, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by A.A. Kovalyov as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.
  
  wn.com/Abakan
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  Afghanistan
  Afghanistan ⁱ/æfˈɡænɨstæn/ (Persian/Pashto: افغانستان, Afġānistān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of South Asia, Central Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of 647,500 km² (250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
  Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
  
  wn.com/Afghanistan
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  Agryz
  Agryz (Russian: Агрыз; Tatar Cyrillic: Әгерҗе, Latin: Ägerce) is a town and the administrative center of Agryzsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Izh River (Volga's basin), 304 kilometers (189 mi) east of Kazan. Population: 19,299 (2010 Census preliminary results); 18,620 (2002 Census); 19,732 (1989 Census).
  It was founded as a settlement around Agryz railway station (which opened in 1915) due to the construction of the Kazan–Yekaterinburg railroad. It was granted town status in 1938.
  vep:Agriz
  
  wn.com/Agryz
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  Agryzsky District
  
  Agryzsky District (Russian: Агрызский райо́н; Tatar: Әгерҗе районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the northeast portion of the republic on the bank of the Izh River. The area of the district is 1,796.6 square kilometers (693.7 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Agryz. District's population: 36,628 (2010 Census preliminary results); 36,848 (2002 Census); 39,336 (1989 Census). Population of Agryz accounts for 52.7% of the district's population.
  About 20% of the district's total area forested.^{[citation needed]}
  Ethnic composition: Tatars: 59.5%; Russians: 25%; Mari people: 7.3%; Udmurt people: 6.4%.^{[citation needed]}
  
  wn.com/Agryzsky_District
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  Aktanyshsky District
  
  Aktanyshsky District (Russian: Актанышский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Aktanysh. District's population: 31,970 (2010 Census preliminary results); 31,712 (2002 Census); 32,750 (1989 Census). Population of Aktanysh accounts for 25.7% of the district's population.
  
  wn.com/Aktanyshsky_District
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  Aktobe
  Aktobe (Kazakh: Ақтөбе / Aqtöbe / اقتٶبه ), formerly known as Aktyubinsk (Russian: Актюбинск, until 1999), is a city on the Ilek River in Kazakhstan. With a population of 277,700, it is the capital of Aktobe Province.
  The name "Aktobe" comes from Kazakh "ақ" (white) and "төбе" (hill); the name is a reference to the heights on which the original 19th century settlement was located.
  The territory of modern-day Aktobe province has borne witness to the rise and fall of many Central Asian cultures and empires. The region has figured prominently in the history of the Kazakh "Little Horde" (Kaz. Кіші Жуз, Rus. Младший Жуз). The Kazakh war-leader Eset Batyr (Kaz. Есет Батыр) based his campaigns against the Dzungars from this area. His mausoleum is located 35 km. to the south of Aktobe city. Abulkhair Khan (1693–1748) was also based in this region.
  In March 1869 a Russian military fort with a garrison of 300 was built at the confluence of the Kargala and Ilek Rivers, along the Orenburg - Kazalinsk caravan route. From this period Slavic settlers began to immigrate to the region in order to farm, and very soon neighborhoods had been built around the fort. In 1874 the fort was expanded in size, and streets were laid out to and from the fort's gate. In 1891 the settlement was labelled a district city, and officially named "Aktyubinsk": Актюбинск.
  
  wn.com/Aktobe
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  Alkeyevsky District
  
  Alkeyevsky District (Russian: Алькеевский райо́н; Tatar: Әлки районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Bazarnye Mataki. District's population: 19,991 (2010 Census preliminary results); 22,059 (2002 Census); 23,031 (1989 Census). Population of Bazarnye Mataki accounts for 24.2% of the district's population.
  
  wn.com/Alkeyevsky_District
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  Almaty
  Almaty (Kazakh: Алматы / Almatı / الماتى , i.e. "city of apples" or "city of apple trees", under the Russian Empire from 1867 to 1921 known by the Russian name of Верный, Vierny, i.e. "the Faithful," and under the Soviet Union from 1921 to 1993 known as Alma-Ata (Russian: Алма́-Ата́, from the Kazakh алма/alma, i.e. "apple", and ата/ata, i.e. "grandfather"), is the former capital of Kazakhstan and the nation's largest city, with a population of 1,348,500 (at 1 September 2008). This represents approximately 9% of the country's population.
  Almaty was the capital of the Kazakh SSR from 1929 to 1991 and of independent Kazakhstan from 1991 to 1997. Despite losing its status as the capital to Astana in 1997, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan. The city is located in a mountainous area of southern Kazakhstan, near the border with Kyrgyzstan.
  From 1927 to 1936, Almaty was the capital of Kazakh ASSR. From 1936 to 1991, it was the capital of Kazakh SSR. From 1991 to 1997, it was the capital of Kazakhstan. Almaty remains the largest, most developed, and most ethnically and culturally diverse city in Kazakhstan. The city is located in the foothills of Trans-Ili Alatau (or Zailiysky Alatau) in the extreme south-east and has a peculiar, relatively mild climate regime with a difficult environmental situation. Since the city is located in a tectonically active area there is a constant possibility of the earthquakes, most of which do not represent any significant danger or cause damage. However, Almaty has a record of some large destructive earthquakes too.
  
  wn.com/Almaty
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  Almetyevsk
  Almetyevsk (Russian: Альме́тьевск; Tatar Cyrillic: Әлмәт, Latin: Älmät) is a city in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the left bank of the Zay River (Kama's tributary) 265 kilometers (165 mi) southeast of Kazan. Population: 146,309 (2010 Census preliminary results); 140,437 (2002 Census); 129,008 (1989 Census); 77,000 (1969); 49,000 (1959).
  Almetyevsk is one of the youngest cities in the republic. It was founded as an oil-processing settlement and was granted town status in 1953.^{[citation needed]}
  Almetyevsk serves as the administrative center of Almetyevsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated separately as a city of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Almetyevsk is incorporated within Almetyevsky Municipal District as Almetyevsk Urban Settlement.
  Almetyevsk is an important center of Russia's oil industry. The Druzhba pipeline starts in Almetyevsk. Pipelines to Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, and Subkhankulovo also start in this city. The city houses several oil equipment plants producing pipes, pumps and other oil tools.
  
  wn.com/Almetyevsk
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  Almetyevsky District
  
  Almetyevsky District (Russian: Альме́тьевский райо́н; Tatar: Әлмәт районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the southeastern central portion of the republic. The area of the district is 2,500.2 square kilometers (965.3 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the city of Almetyevsk (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 51,503 (2010 Census preliminary results); 40,624 (2002 Census); 33,988 (1989 Census).
  The city of Almetyevsk serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a city of republic significance.Municipally, however, Almetyevsk is incorporated within Almetyevsky Municipal District as Almetyevsk Urban Settlement.
  
  wn.com/Almetyevsky_District
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  Antalya
  Antalya (Turkish pronunciation: [anˈtalja]; from Ancient Greek: Aττάλεια, "Attalia") is a city on the Mediterranean coast of southwestern Turkey. It was the world's third most visited city by number of international arrivals in 2011, displacing New York, and had a population of 1,001,318. Antalya is the eighth most populous city in Turkey and country's biggest international sea resort.
  It is uncertain when the site of the current city was first inhabited. Attalos II, king of Pergamon, was believed to have founded the city around 150 BC, naming it Attalia and selecting it as a naval base for his powerful fleet. However, excavations in 2008 in the Doğu Garajı district of Antalya have uncovered remains dating to the 3rd century BC, suggesting that the city was founded earlier than previously supposed. Antalya became part of the Roman Republic in 133 BC when King Attalos III of Pergamon willed his kingdom to Rome at his death. The city grew and prospered during the Ancient Roman period.
  Christianity started to spread in the region after 2nd century. Antalya was visited by Paul of Tarsus, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles: "From Perga, Paul and Barnabas went down to Attalia and sailed from there to Antioch after preaching in Pisidia and Pamphylia" (Acts 14:25-26).
  
  wn.com/Antalya
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  Apastovsky District
  
  Apastovsky District (Russian: Апастовский райо́н; Tatar: Апас районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Apastovo. District's population: 21,627 (2010 Census preliminary results); 23,105 (2002 Census); 39,132 (1989 Census). Population of Apastovo accounts for 23.8% of the district's population.
  
  wn.com/Apastovsky_District
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  Arkhangelsk
  Arkhangelsk (Russian: Архангельск; IPA: [ɐrˈxanɡʲɪlʲsk]), formerly known in English as Archangel, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea in the north of European Russia. The city spreads for over 40 kilometers (25 mi) along the banks of the river and numerous islands of its delta. Arkhangelsk was the chief seaport of medieval Russia, until 1703. It is served by the Talagi Airport and a smaller Vaskovo Airport. The city is located at the northern end of a 1,133-kilometer (704 mi) long railroad, connecting it to Moscow via Vologda and Yaroslavl. Population: 348,716 (2010 Census preliminary results); 356,051 (2002 Census); 415,921 (1989 Census).
  The area where Arkhangelsk is situated was known to the Vikings as Bjarmaland. Ohthere of Hålogaland told from his travels circa 800 of an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the place later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, there was a Viking raid on this area in 1027, led by Thorir Hund.
  
  wn.com/Arkhangelsk
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  Arsk
  Arsk (Russian: Арск; IPA: [ˈarsk]; Tatar Cyrillic: Арча, Latin: Arça, [ʌrˈɕa]) is a town and the administrative center of Arsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the banks of the Kazanka River, 65 kilometers (40 mi) from Kazan, the republic's capital. Arsk is also a station on the Kazan-Agryz railroad. Population: 18,114 (2010 Census preliminary results); 17,211 (2002 Census); 13,938 (1989 Census).
  The Tatar name of the town (Arça) can be translated as Udmurt's or Udmurtian. It was founded in the 13th century by Volga Bulgarians. The town was a capital of Arsk Darugha (Arça daruğası) during the Kazan Khanate period (a darugha was a type of subdivision of Kazan Khanate). Even though the town was located in the area mostly populated by Tatars, the larger part of darugha's population was Udmurt. It is possible that earlier population of this area was also Finnic, who later assimilated with the Tatars.
  Arsk was one of the strongest forts in the khanate. In 1506 it was the site of the Battles of Arsk Field, in which Tatar forces were initially defeated by the Russians but later turned the tables and won one of their most significant victories in the course of the Russo-Kazan Wars.
  
  wn.com/Arsk
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  Arsky District
  Arsky District (Russian: А́рский райо́н; Tatar Cyrillic: Арча районы, Latin: Arça rayonı), also called Arça District or Archa District, is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the town of Arsk. District's population: 51,667 (2010 Census preliminary results); 51,343 (2002 Census); 61,959 (1989 Census). Population of Arsk accounts for 35.1% of the district's population.
  The district was established on September 10, 1930 after Arsky Kanton was abolished. On October 25, 1990 Atninsky District was split from Arsky District, and the borders of Arsky District have not changed since then.
  Arsky District has administrative jurisdiction over one town (with one rural locality in its jurisdiction) and 126 rural localities.
  Municipally, the district is divided into one urban settlement and twenty-nine rural settlements:
  
  wn.com/Arsky_District
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  Astana
  Astana (Russian/Kazakh: Астана, formerly known as Akmola (Kazakh: Ақмола / Aqmola, until 1998), Целиноград / Tselinograd until 1992) and Akmolinsk (Russian: Акмолинск, until 1961), is the capital and second largest city (after Almaty) of Kazakhstan, with an officially estimated population of 708,794 as of 1 August 2010. It is located in the north-central portion of Kazakhstan, within Akmola Province, though administrated separately from the province as a federal city area.
  The current mayor of Astana is Imangali Tasmagambetov. He was appointed on 4 April 2008.
  The word Astana in Kazakh literally means Capital but the word itself originates from Persian Astane (Persian: آستانه‎ means "sublime threshold," "royal porte" implying a royal capital city or a holy shrine town, (from the Persian verb Istadan (آستان) 'to stand' (in respect)), and literally means "threshold" (royal or sacred, where people stand in respect or awe),^{[citation needed]} implying where the court is seated (the capital city) or the body of a sacred person is interred (a shrine town). The city of Turkistan in Kazakhstan that hosts the body of the saint Ahmad Yasavi is also called the "astana" as is the city of Mashhad in Iran that is the burial place of the 8th Shiite Imam Reza. In fact, long before becoming the new capital of Kazakhstan, the city was "an astana," a burial ground of a saint, hence the old name of the city, Ak Mola (Ақмола), "white mausoleum."
  
  wn.com/Astana
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  Astrakhan
  Astrakhan (Russian: Астрахань, tr. Astrakhanʹ; IPA: [ˈastrəxənʲ]) is a major city in southern European Russia and the administrative center of Astrakhan Oblast. The city lies on the left bank of the Volga River, close to where it discharges into the Caspian Sea at an altitude of 28 meters (92 ft) below sea level. Population: 520,662 (2010 Census preliminary results); 504,501 (2002 Census); 509,210 (1989 Census).
  Astrakhan is situated in the Volga Delta, rich in sturgeon and exotic plants. The fertile area formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan' itself was first mentioned by travellers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. Tamerlane burnt it to the ground in 1395. From 1459 to 1556, Xacitarxan was the capital of Astrakhan Khanate. The ruins of this medieval settlement were found by archaeologists 12 km upstream from the modern-day city.
  In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress, or kremlin, built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga. In 1569, Astrakhan was besieged by the Cossack Ottoman army, which had to retreat in disarray. A year later, the Sultan renounced his claims to Astrakhan, thus opening the entire Volga River to Russian traffic. In the 17th century, the city was developed as a Russian gate to the Orient. Many merchants from Armenia, Persia, India and Khiva settled in the town, giving it a multinational and variegated character.
  
  wn.com/Astrakhan
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  Atninsky District
  
  Atninsky District (Russian: Атнинский райо́н; Tatar: Әтнә районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Bolshaya Atnya. District's population: 13,650 (2010 Census preliminary results); 14,411 (2002 Census). Population of Bolshaya Atnya accounts for 25.3% of the district's population.
  
  wn.com/Atninsky_District
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  Azerbaijan
  Azerbaijan (ⁱ/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.
  Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war. Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.
  
  wn.com/Azerbaijan
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  Aznakayevo
  Aznakayevo (Russian: Азнака́ево; Tatar Cyrillic: Азнакай, Latin: Aznaqay) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Styarlya River (left tributary of the Ik), 376 kilometers (234 mi) southeast from Kazan. Population: 34,859 (2010 Census preliminary results); 35,412 (2002 Census); 32,171 (1989 Census).
  It was founded in 1762 and was known as a selo by 1859.^{[citation needed]} It was granted urban-type settlement status in 1956 and town status in 1987.^{[citation needed]}
  Chatyr-Tau range is located 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) east of Aznakayevo.
  Aznakayevo serves as the administrative center of Aznakayevsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Aznakayevo is incorporated within Aznakayevsky Municipal District as Aznakayevo Urban Settlement.
  Oil-producing industry is highly developed (oil and gas producing administration "Aznakayevskneft", JSC "RITEK-introduction"); there are some car-building and metal-working enterprises (JSC "Aznakayevo plant "Neftemash"), food industry (Aznakayevo butter-making factory, AO "Aznakayevo Bread", AO "Aznakayevo foodstuff factory"), and light industry (JSC "Aznakayevo Clothes").
  
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  Baghdad
  Baghdad (Arabic: بغداد‎, Baġdād, IPA: [bæɣˈdæːd]) is the capital of Republic of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Province. The population of Baghdad as of 2011 is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran).
  Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic World. This in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom) garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arabic culture.
  
  wn.com/Baghdad
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  Baku
  Baku (Azerbaijani: Bakı, IPA: [bɑˈcɯ]), sometimes spelled as Baki or Bakou, is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, which projects into the Caspian Sea. The city consists of two principal parts: the downtown and the old Inner City (21.5 ha). Baku's urban population at the beginning of 2009 was estimated at just over two million people. Officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in the metropolitan city area of Baku.
  Baku is divided into eleven administrative districts (raions) and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on islands in the Baku Bay and the town of Oil Rocks built on stilts in the Caspian Sea, 60 km (37 mi) away from Baku. The Inner City of Baku along with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. According to the Lonely Planet's ranking, Baku is also among the world's top ten destinations for urban nightlife.
  
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  Baltasinsky District
  Baltasinsky District (Russian: Балтасинский райо́н; Tatar: Балтач районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Baltasi. District's population: 33,880 (2010 Census preliminary results); 32,967 (2002 Census); 29,004 (1989 Census). Population of Baltasi accounts for 22.8% of the district's population.
  
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  Bavlinsky District
  
  Bavlinsky District (Russian: Бавлинский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the republic. The area of the district is 1,210.4 square kilometers (467.3 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Bavly (which is administratively not a part of the district). District's population: 14,161 (2010 Census preliminary results); 14,566 (2002 Census); 56,709 (1989 Census).
  The town of Bavly serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance.Municipally, however, Bavly is incorporated within Bavlinsky Municipal District as Bavly Urban Settlement.
  
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  Bavly
  Bavly (Russian: Бавлы; Tatar Cyrillic: Баулы, Latin: Bawlı) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Bavly River (Ik's tributary), 369 kilometers (229 mi) southeast of Kazan. Population: 22,109 (2010 Census preliminary results); 22,939 (2002 Census); 20,025 (1989 Census).
  It was founded in 1755, granted urban-type settlement status in 1950, and that of a town in 1998.^{[citation needed]}
  Bavly serves as the administrative center of Bavlinsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Bavly is incorporated within Bavlinsky Municipal District as Bavly Urban Settlement.
  vep:Bavli
  
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  Belarus
  Belarus (ⁱ/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
  Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
  
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• Bilär
  Coordinates: 54°59′07″N 50°23′52″E / 54.9852722322°N 50.3977194544°E / 54.9852722322; 50.3977194544
  Bilär (Tatar Cyrillic: Биләр; also Bilyar, Bülär, Бүләр) was a medieval city in Volga Bulgaria and its second capital before the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria. It was located on the left bank of the Small Cheremshan River in modern-day Alexeyevsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan.
  The city was founded by the indigenous Bilyar tribe of the Volga Bulgars. In the Rus chronicles, it was also known as "Great City" (Великий город), because its population reputedly was in excess of 100,000. Bilyar was one of the main trade centers in the Middle Volga, and alternatively with the Bulgar city and Nur-Suvar served as the capital of Volga Bulgaria in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1236, the city was sacked by the army of Batu Khan. The city was later rebuilt, but it never regained its former size or power. The city's ruins (nearly 8 km²) were explored by Rychkov, Tatischev, Khalikov and Khuchin.
  
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  Bishkek
  Bishkek (in Kyrgyz and Russian: Бишкек), formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative centre of Chuy Province which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the province but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.
  The name is thought to derive from a Kyrgyz word for a churn used to make fermented mare's milk (kumis), the Kyrgyz national drink. Founded in 1825 as the Kyrgyz-Khokand fortress of "Bishkek", then, in 1862, named as the Russian fortress Pishpek (крепость Пишпек), in 1926 the city was renamed Frunze (Фрунзе), after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament restored the city's historical name.
  Bishkek is situated at about 800 metres (2,600 ft) altitude just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range, which rises up to 4,855 metres (15,928 ft) and provides a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring Kazakhstan. The Chui River drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan-Siberia Railway by a spur line.
  
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  Bugulma
  Bugulma (Russian: Бугульма; Tatar Cyrillic: Бөгелмә, Latin: Bögelmä) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Population: 89,144 (2010 Census preliminary results); 93,014 (2002 Census); 89,589 (1989 Census).
  Bugulma serves as the administrative center of Bugulminsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Bugulma is incorporated within Bugulminsky Municipal District as Bugulma Urban Settlement.
  Bugulma is the birthplace of noted Tatar singer Alsou.
  Bugulma has one sister city:
  vep:Bugul'm
  
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  Bugulminsky District
  
  Bugulminsky District (Russian: Бугульми́нский райо́н; Tatar: Бөгелмә районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the republic. The area of the district is 1,408.6 square kilometers (543.9 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Bugulma (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 22,264 (2010 Census preliminary results); 22,205 (2002 Census); 19,767 (1989 Census).
  The town of Bugulma serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance.Municipally, however, Bugulma is incorporated within Bugulminsky Municipal District as Bugulma Urban Settlement.
  
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  Buinsky District
  
  Buinsky District (Russian: Буинский райо́н; Tatar: Буа районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the southwest of the republic. The area of the district is 1,543 square kilometers (596 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Buinsk (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 25,100 (2010 Census preliminary results); 27,800 (2002 Census); 46,664 (1989 Census).
  The town of Buinsk serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance.Municipally, however, Buinsk is incorporated within Buinsky Municipal District as Buinsk Urban Settlement.
  
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  Bulgaria
  Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
  Bulgaria ⁱ/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
  Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
  
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  Cheboksary
  Cheboksary (Russian: Чебокса́ры; Chuvash: Шупашкар, Šupaškar) is the capital city of the Chuvash Republic, Russia and a port on the Volga River. Population: 453,645 (2010 Census preliminary results); 440,621 (2002 Census); 419,592 (1989 Census).
  A satellite city of Novocheboksarsk is located about 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) east of Cheboksary.
  Cheboksary was first mentioned in written sources in 1469, when Russian soldiers passed here on their way to the Khanate of Kazan. According to archaeological excavations, however, the area had been populated considerably earlier. The site hosted a Bulgarian city of Veda Suvar, which appeared after Mongols defeated major Volga Bulgarian cities in 13th century. During Khanate period the town is believed by some^[who?] to have had a Turkic (probably, Tatar^{[citation needed]}) name Çabaqsar and that the current Russian and English names originate from it. However, in maps by European travelers it was marked as Cibocar (Pizzigano, 1367), Veda-Suar (Fra Mauro, 1459). Shupashkar, the Chuvash name literally means the "fortress" of the Chuvash.
  
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  Chelyabinsk
  Chelyabinsk (Russian: Челябинск; IPA: [tɕɪˈlʲæbʲɪnsk] ( listen)) is a city and the administrative center of Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located in the northwestern side of the oblast, 210 kilometers (130 mi) south of Yekaterinburg, just to the east of the Ural Mountains, on the Miass River. It is located on the border of Europe and Asia. Population: 1,130,273 (2010 Census preliminary results); 1,077,174 (2002 Census); 1,141,777 (1989 Census).
  The fortress of Chelyaba, from which the city takes its name, was constructed on the site in 1736; town status was granted to it in 1781. Around 1900, it served as a center for the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. According to official statistics the population on 1 January 1913 was 45,000 inhabitants.
  For several months during the Russian Civil War, Chelyabinsk was held by the White movement and Czechoslovak Legions, becoming a center for splinters of the Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia. The city later fell to Bolshevik Russian forces.
  
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  Cherkessk
  Cherkessk (Russian: Черке́сск) is the capital city of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Russia, as well as its political, economic, and cultural center. Population: 121,439 (2010 Census preliminary results); 116,244 (2002 Census); 113,060 (1989 Census).
  It was founded as the Cossack stanitsa of Batalpashinskaya (Баталпашинская) nearby the Russian Army outpost of the same name (built in 1804).^{[citation needed]} The officially recognized year of founding of Batalpashinskaya and modern Cherkessk is 1825. However, the Cossack settlers of Khopyour and Kuban regiments began arriving to the newly organized stanitsa not early than spring of 1826. For some reason, the name "Batalpashinskaya" was given after Batal-Pasha, a Turkish general of Circassian origin, who was defeated in the battle that took place in the vicinity in 1790. In 1931, it was granted town status and renamed Batalpashinsk (Баталпашинск); then Sulimov (Сулимов) in 1934, then Yezhovo-Cherkessk (Ежово-Черкесск) in 1937, and finally Cherkessk in 1939.^{[citation needed]}
  
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  China
  China (ⁱ/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
  The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
  
  wn.com/China
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  Chistopol
  Chistopol (Russian: Чи́стополь; Tatar Cyrillic: Чистай, Latin: Çistay; Chuvash: Чистай) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the left bank of the Kuybyshev Reservoir, on the Kama River. Population: 60,703 (2010 Census preliminary results); 63,029 (2002 Census); 65,468 (1989 Census).
  It was first mentioned in chronicles at the end of the 17th century.^{[citation needed]} It developed very quickly, and by 1761 the number of inhabitants exceeded 1,000.^{[citation needed]}
  In 1781, a decree by Catherine the Great granted Chistopol the status of an uyezd town, with the establishment of its own coat of arms.^{[citation needed]}
  At the end of the 19th century, Chistopol became a major center of trade for grain. Prior to 1917, it was the second largest town (after Kazan) in Kazan Governorate.
  During the Great Patriotic War, Chistopol become a shelter for the Union of Soviet Writers, which included Boris Pasternak, Leonid Leonov and other notables.
  The town is famous for its watch plant founded in 1941.
  
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  Czech Republic
  The Czech Republic (ⁱ/ˈtʃɛk/ CHEK;Czech: Česká republika, pronounced [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka] ( listen), short form Česko Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛskɔ]) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south and Slovakia to the east. Its capital and largest city, with 1.3 million inhabitants, is Prague.
  It is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group.
  The Czech state, formerly known as Bohemia, was formed in the late 9th century as a small duchy around Prague, at that time under dominance of the powerful Great Moravian Empire (which reached its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I from the House of Mojmír). After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power was transferred from Moravia to Bohemia, under the Přemyslids. During the rule of Přemyslid dukes/kings and their successors, the Luxembourgs, the country reached its greatest territorial extent (13th–14th century). Life in the country was significantly affected by the Hussite wars, during which it faced economic embargo and crusades from all over Europe. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy as one of its three principal parts alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) led to the further centralization of the monarchy including forced recatholization and Germanization. During radical reforms in the 18th century the Bohemian Crown was even de facto abolished (1749). In the 19th century the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia which was formed in 1918, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire after World War I.
  
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  Denmark
  The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
  Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
  
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  Donetsk
  Donetsk (Ukrainian: Донецьк Ukrainian pronunciation: [doˈnɛt͡sʲk], translit. Donets’k; Russian: Доне́цк, translit. Donetsk; former names: Yuzovka, Staline, Stalino, see also: Cities' alternative names), is a large city in eastern Ukraine on the Kalmius river. Administratively, it is a center of Donetsk Oblast, while historically, it is the unofficial capital and largest city of the larger economic and cultural Donets Basin (Donbass) region. Donetsk is a major economic, industrial and scientific center of Ukraine with a high concentration of companies and a skilled workforce.
  The city was founded in 1869 by a Welsh businessman, John Hughes, who constructed a steel plant and several coal mines in the region; the town was thus named Yuzovka (Юзовка) in recognition of his role in its founding ("Yuz" being a Russian or Ukrainian approximation of Hughes). During Soviet times, the city's steel industry was expanded. In 1924–1931, the town was renamed in Stalino (Сталино). In 1932 the city became the center of Donetsk region. Today, the city remains the center for Ukraine's coal mining and notable steel industry center.
  
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  Egypt
  Egypt ⁱ/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic:  جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
  Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
  
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  Elista
  Elista (Russian: Эли́ста or Элиста́;Kalmyk: Элст, Elst) is the capital city of the Republic of Kalmykia, Russia. Population: 103,728 (2010 Census preliminary results); 104,254 (2002 Census); 89,695 (1989 Census).
  Elista was founded in 1865 as a small settlement; the name is from Kalmyk els(e)n 'sand(y).' In November 1920, Elista became the administrative center of Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast. By the early 1930s, Elista was transformed into a small city as the collectivization policies of Joseph Stalin forced many Kalmyks to abandon their traditional pastoral nomadic lifestyle in exchange for a modern, sedentary, and urban lifestyle. In October 1935, Elista was recognized as the capital of the Kalmyk ASSR.
  On December 27, 1943, the Kalmyk ASSR was dissolved and its ethnic Kalmyk residents were forcibly exiled to Siberia. Russian people were brought in to repopulate Elista whose name was changed to Stepnoy (Степно́й). It was called Stepnoy until 1957, when the survivors of the deportations were allowed to return from exile.
  
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  Eskişehir
  Eskişehir (pronounced [esˈciʃehiɾ]; Turkish: eski "old", şehir "city") (Latin: Dorylaeum; Ancient Greek: Δορύλαιον, Dorýlaion) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the capital of the Eskişehir Province. According to the 2009 census, the population of the city is 631,905. The city is located on the banks of the Porsuk River, 792 m above sea level, where it overlooks the fertile Phrygian Valley. In the nearby hills one can find hot springs. The city is 233 km (145 mi) to the west of Ankara, 330 km (205 mi) to the southeast of Istanbul and 78 km (48 mi) to the northeast of Kütahya. Known as a university town, both Eskişehir Osmangazi University and Anadolu University (which has one of the largest student enrollments in the world) are based in Eskişehir. The province covers an area of 2,678 km² (1,034 sq mi).
  The name Eskişehir literally means Old City in Turkish; indeed, the city was founded by the Phrygians in about 1000 BOT. Many Phrygian artifacts and sculptures can still be found in the city's archeological museum. There is also a museum of meerschaum stone, whose production remains still notable, used to make high quality meerschaum pipes. In the fourth century AD the city moved about ten km northeast, from Karacahisar to Şehirhöyük.
  
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  Finland
  Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
  Finland ⁱ/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
  Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
  
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  Germany
  Germany (ⁱ/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km² and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
  A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
  
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  Greece
  Greece ⁱ/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
  Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
  
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  Grozny
  Grozny (Russian: Гро́зный; Chechen: Соьлжа-ГIала, ГIалитIа, Sölƶa-Ġala, or Жовхар, Ƶovxar) is the capital city of the Chechen Republic, Russia. The city lies on the Sunzha River. According to the preliminary results of the 2010 Census, the city had a population of 271,596; up from 210,720 recorded in the 2002 Census, but still only about two-thirds of 399,688 recorded in the 1989 Census.
  In Russian, "Grozny" means "fearsome". During the existence of the separatist republic, it was renamed to Dzokhar-Ghala in 1996, and Chechen separatists sometimes continue refer to the city as Dzhokhar or Djohar (Chechen: Джовхар-ГIала, Dƶovxar-Ġala); it was named so after Dzhokhar Dudaev, the first president of the separatist Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. As of December 2005, the Chechen parliament voted to rename the city Akhmadkala after Akhmad Kadyrov, a proposition which was rejected by his son Ramzan Kadyrov, the prime minister and later president of the republic.
  
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  Hangzhou
  Hangzhou (Chinese: 杭州; Hangzhou dialect: ɦaŋ tsei; Mandarin pinyin: Hángzhōu Mandarin pronunciation: [xɑ̌ŋtʂóʊ] ( listen)), formerly transliterated as Hangchow, is the capital and largest city of Zhejiang Province in Eastern China. It is governed as a sub-provincial city. As of 2010, the entire administrative division ("shì", 杭州市) or prefecture had a registered population of 8.7 million people. The built up area of the Hangzhou municipality had a resident population of 6.242 million in 2010 (urban and suburban districts), of which 3.56 million lived in the six urban core districts.
  A core city of the Yangtze River Delta, Hangzhou has a position on the Hangzhou Bay 180 kilometres (110 mi) southwest of Shanghai that gives it economic power. It has been one of the most renowned and prosperous cities of China for much of the last 1,000 years, due in part to its beautiful natural scenery. The city's West Lake is its best-known attraction.
  The celebrated Neolithic culture of Hemudu inhabited Yuyao, an area (now a city) 100 kilometers south-east of Hangzhou, as far back as seven thousand years ago when rice was first cultivated in southeastern China. The area immediately surrounding the modern city of Hangzhou was inhabited five thousand years ago by the Liangzhu culture, so named for the small town of Liangzhu not far to the northwest of Hangzhou where the ancient jade carving civilization was first discovered.
  
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  Iceland
  Iceland ⁱ/ˈaɪslənd/ (Icelandic: Ísland, IPA: [ˈislant]) is a Nordic European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The country has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km² (40,000 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding areas in the southwestern region of the country being home to two-thirds of the country's population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterised by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle.
  According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norse settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the following centuries, Norsemen settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls (slaves) of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1918 Iceland was part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fisheries and agriculture, and the country was one of the poorest and least developed in the world. Industrialisation of the fisheries and aid from the Marshall Plan brought prosperity in the years after World War II, and by the 1990s it was one of the world's wealthiest countries. In 1994, Iceland became party to the European Economic Area, which made it possible for the economy to diversify into economic and financial services.
  
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  Iran
  Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
  Iran (ⁱ/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران‎ [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
  The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
  
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  Istanbul
  Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul) is the largest city in Turkey, forming the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population of 13.4 million, the city is at the center of the second-largest urban area in Europe after Moscow, and among the world's largest cities by population within city limits. Istanbul's vast area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi) is coterminous with Istanbul Province, of which the city is considered capital. Straddling the Bosphorus—one of the world's busiest waterways—in northwestern Turkey, between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, Istanbul is a transcontinental city, with one third of its population living in Asia but its commercial and historical center in Europe.
  Founded around 660 BC as Byzantium on the Seraglio Point, the city now known as Istanbul developed to become one of the most significant cities in history. For nearly sixteen centuries following its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 AD, it served as the capital of four empires — the late classical Roman Empire (330–395), the Eastern Roman ("Byzantine") Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold from which the last caliphate ruled. Although the Republic of Turkey established its capital elsewhere, in Ankara, remnants of Istanbul's previous central role still remain highly visible across the city, with palaces and imperial mosques lining its hills.
  
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  Italy
  Italy ⁱ/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km² (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
  Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
  
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  Ivanovo
  Ivanovo (Russian: Ива́ново; IPA: [ɪˈvanəvə]) is a city and the administrative center of Ivanovo Oblast, Russia. Population: 409,277 (2010 Census preliminary results); 431,721 (2002 Census); 481,042 (1989 Census).
  Ivanovo has traditionally been called the textile capital of Russia. Since most textile workers are women, it has also been known as the "City of Brides". Probably the most famous of the city's female natives was the postmodern French writer Nathalie Sarraute.
  It is home to Ivanovo Severny, which is one of the largest military airlift bases in Russia. Civilian air services are provided at Ivanovo Yuzhny Airport.
  Ivanovo has several educational institutions: Ivanovo State University, Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology, Ivanovo Medical Academy, Ivanovo Architectural Academy, Ivanovo State Power University(ISPU).
  Ivanovo was created by merging the old flax-processing village Ivanovo (first documented in 1561) with the industrial Voznesensky Posad in 1871. Until 1932, its official name was Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Because of its textile manufacturing industry, Ivanovo earned the sobriquet of the "Russian Manchester" during the 19th century.
  
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  Izhevsk
  Izhevsk (Russian: Иже́вск; IPA: [ɪˈʐɛfsk]; Udmurt: Иж, Ижкар, Iž, Ižkar) is the capital city of the Udmurt Republic, Russia, situated on the Izh River in the Western Urals. Population: 628,116 (2010 Census preliminary results); 632,140 (2002 Census); 635,109 (1989 Census).
  From 1984 to 1987, Izhevsk was called Ustinov (Усти́нов, in honor of Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union, Marshal Dmitry Ustinov). The city is an important industrial center, and is the economic, industrial, and administrative hub of the republic. Izhevsk is especially noted for its military industry, with Russia's biggest munitions enterprise, Izhmash, manufacturer of the AK-47, based in the city.
  Izhevsk was founded on April 10, 1760 as a settlement surrounding a newly built ironworks.^{[citation needed]} The ironworks and the town were built by Count Peter Shuvalov as a private venture and passed to the crown after the count's death in lieu of the latter's large debt to the treasury. The location was selected to better accommodate a dam on the Izh River, which was completed in 1763.
  
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  Jūrmala
  Jūrmala (Latvian: [juːrmala] ( listen) "seaside"; German: Riga-Strand; Russian: Юрмала) is a city in Latvia, about 25 kilometers west of Riga. Jūrmala is a resort town stretching 32 kilometres (20 mi) and sandwiched between the Gulf of Riga and the Lielupe River. It has a 33 km stretch of white-sand beach, and a population of 55,580, making it the fifth largest city in Latvia.
  While Latvia was a part of the Soviet Union, Jūrmala was a favorite holiday-resort and tourist destination for high-level Communist Party officials, particularly Leonid Brezhnev and Nikita Khrushchev. Although many amenities such as beach-houses and concrete hotels remain, some have fallen into disrepair. Jūrmala remains a tourist attraction with long beaches facing the Gulf of Riga and romantic wooden houses in the Art Nouveau style.
  Imants Ziedonis, one of Latvia's most important poets and folklorists of the Soviet and post-Soviet eras, was born in the Jūrmala district.
  Visitors can access Jūrmala from Riga by suburban rail (30 min) or along the highway by car (20 min). Since 2008 Jūrmala and Riga airport are connected with a bus service.
  
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  Kabul
  Kabul ( /ˈkɑːbəl/, /ˈkɑːbuːl/; Pashto: کابل Kābəl, IPA: [kɑˈbəl]; Persian: کابل Kābol‎, IPA: [kɒːˈbol]), also spelled Cabool, Caubul or Cabul, mostly in historical contexts, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Kabul is the 5th fastest growing city in the world [2] and the world's 64th largest city [3]. It is also the capital of Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan. According to latest estimates, the population of the Kabul metropolitan area is over 4 million.
  The city serves as the nation's cultural and learning centre, situated 1,791 metres (5,876 ft) above sea level in a narrow valley, wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains along the Kabul River. It is linked with Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif via the circular Highway 1 that stretches across Afghanistan. It is also the start of the main road to Jalalabad and further to Peshawar, Pakistan. The Kabul International Airport is located about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from the center of the city, next to the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood. Bagram Airfield is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Kabul.
  
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  Kaybitsky District
  
  Kaybitsky District (Russian: Кайбицкий райо́н, Tatar Cyrillic: Кайбыч районы, Latin: Qaybıç rayonı) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Bolshiye Kaybitsy. District's population: 14,898 (2010 Census preliminary results); 16,116 (2002 Census). Population of Bolshiye Kaybitsy accounts for 9.8% of the district's population.
  Before 1920 the area was in the area and Sviyazhsky Tetyushsky counties from 1920 to 1927 only Sviyazhsky canton. February 14, 1927 was formed with the center of the Ulyanovsk region in the village Ulyankovo​​, and from August 1, 1927 the district moved to the center of the village and the area of ​​Big Kaybitsy renamed Kaybitsky. May 17, 1956 was abolished Podberezinsky district, and its territory was declared a Kaybitsky area. January 4, 1963 Kaybitsky district was abolished and its territory attributed to Apastovkomu area. April 19, 1991 Kaybitsky area was once again restored.
  
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  Kazakhstan
  Kazakhstan (ⁱ/ˌkɑːzəkˈstɑːn/ or /ˌkæzəkˈstæn/) (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Europe. The ninth largest country in the world by land area, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. Although Kazakhstan does not share a border with Mongolia, its most easterly point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Mongolia's western tip. The terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.6 million people (2011 estimate) Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital was moved in 1998 from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city, to Astana.
  
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  Kazan
  Kazan (Russian: Каза́нь; IPA: [kɐˈzanʲ]; Tatar Cyrillic: Казан, Latin: Qazan) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. With a population of 1,161,308, it is the eighth most populous city in Russia, while the metropolitan area has a population of 1.57 million (2011).^{[citation needed]} Kazan lies at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka Rivers in European Russia.
  The Kazan Kremlin is a World Heritage Site. In 2005, the Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" was established by Russia to denote this landmark event. The multi-ethnic city is is honored by UNESCO and famous for Muslims and Christians living side-by-side in peace.
  In April 2009, the Russian Patent Office granted Kazan the right to brand itself as the "Third Capital" of Russia. In 2009 it was chosen as the "Sports capital of Russia" and it still is referred to as such. The city will host 2013 Summer Universiade, 2015 World Aquatics Championships, and 2018 FIFA World Cup.
  The origin of the name Kazan is uncertain. The most accepted legends derive it from the Bulgar Turkic (and also modern Tatar) word qazan, which means 'boiler' or 'cauldron'.
  
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  Kazan Kremlin
  The Kazan Kremlin (Russian: Казанский Кремль; Tatar Cyrillic: Казан кирмәне, Latin: Qazan kirmäne) is the chief historic citadel of Tatarstan, situated in the city of Kazan. It was built on behest of Ivan the Terrible on the ruins of the former castle of Kazan khans. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2000.
  The Kazan Kremlin includes many old buildings, the oldest of which is the Annunciation Cathedral (1554-62), the only 16th-century Russian church to have six piers and five apses. Like many of Kazan's buildings of the period, it is constructed of local pale sandstone rather than of brick. The renowned Pskov architects Postnik Yakovlev and Ivan Shirjay (called Barma) were invited by the Tzar to rebuild Kazan Kremlin in stone. The cathedral bell tower was erected in five tiers at the urging of Ivan the Terrible and was scored to resemble the Ivan the Great Belltower in Moscow, but was pulled down by the Soviets in 1930.
  The most conspicuous landmark of the Kazan Kremlin is the leaning Söyembikä Tower, which probably goes back to the reign of Peter the Great. A well-known legend connects the tower with the last queen of Kazan. Another recognizable architectural feature is the Spasskaya Tower, which anchors the southern end of the Kremlin and serves as the main entrance to the Kremlin.
  
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  Kazan Metro
  Kazan Metro (Russian: Каза́нское метро́; Tatar Cyrillic: Казан метросы, Latin: Qazan metrosı) is a rapid-transit system that serves the city of Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Opened on August 27, 2005, it is the newest system in Russia, and the first one to open after the breakup of the Soviet Union.
  Kazan is a historic and cultural centre on the middle Volga. The first plans to have a rapid-transit system were proposed back in the days of the Russian Empire, but after the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War little was left for the design. Nevertheless, in the 1930s, Kazan, being the capital of the Tatar ASSR—one of the most visible autonomous republics and rapidly growing as an industrial centre—prompted some to propose a rapid transit system for the future, particularly after the successful construction of Moscow Metro in 1935.
  However, World War II ended such attempts, and in the post-war USSR only the largest capitals of Union republics could afford a Metro system. Nevertheless, in 1979 the Kazan city's population passed the one million mark: a Soviet requirement for a Metro to be allowed. 1983 was the year when the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR authorised planning a metro system. The original design was to prove the final, as the City of Kazan effectively followed a typical Soviet model with a historical centre on the inflow of the Kazanka River into the Volga, and the various industrial and "bedroom" districts (housing complexes) on the edges. The first line would follow a north-south axis beginning in the Transit Railway Station in the north, passing through the post-war Stalinist buildings and then down south of the Kazanka, next to the Kazan Kremlin and through the historical centre to the microdistrict of Gorki.
  
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  Kazanka River
  Kazanka or Qazansu (Russian: Каза́нка; Tatar Cyrillic: Казансу, Latin: Qazansu) is a river in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, a left tributary of the Volga. Kazanka begins near the village of Bimeri in Arsk District and flows into the Samara Reservoir in Kazan, near the Kazan Kremlin. Another towns on the Kazanka are Arsk and historical Iske Kazan. The river is 142 km long. The main tributaries are Iya, Kismes, Shimyakovka and Sula. Historically, the Bulak river was flowing into Kazanka, until it was separated by a dam in 1957. The maximum river discharge is 299 m³/s, the minimal mineralization is 400–1000 mg/l. In Tatarstan, Kazanka has a status of a natural monument.
  During construction of the Samara Reservoir, a lower part of the Kazanka valley was flooded. A part of the riverbed was separated from the reservoir by dams, was created a new riverbed. In 2008 a project was proposed to fill in a cove in the wide section of the estuary for a business district.
  Kazanka divides Kazan onto two equal parts. Over Kazanka are six bridges within the city, a most notable of them is a Millennium Bridge.
  
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  Khanate of Kazan
  The Khanate of Kazan (Tatar Cyrillic: Казан ханлыгы, Latin: Qazan xanlığı, Arabic: قازان خانليغى; Russian: Казанское ханство, tr: Kazanskoye khanstvo) was a medieval Tatar state which occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El, Chuvashia, Mordovia, parts of Udmurtia and Bashkortostan; its capital was the city of Kazan. It was one of the successor states of the Golden Horde, and it came to an end when it was conquered by the Tsardom of Russia.
  The territory of the khanate comprised the Muslim Bolgar-populated lands of Bolğar, Cükätäw, Kazan, Qaşan duchies and other regions that originally belonged to Volga Bulgaria. The Volga, Kama and Vyatka were the main rivers of the khanate, as well as the major trade ways. The majority of the population were Kazan Tatars (i.e. Muslim Bolgars that adopted the Tatar language). Their self-identity was not restricted to Tatars; many identified themselves as simple Muslims or "the people of Kazan". Islam was the state religion.
  
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  Krasnoyarsk
  Krasnoyarsk (Russian: Красноярск; IPA: [krəsnɐˈjarsk]) is a city and the administrative center of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located on the Yenisei River. It is the third largest city in Siberia after Novosibirsk and Omsk, with a population of 973,891 (2010 Census preliminary results). Krasnoyarsk is an important junction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and one of Russia's largest producers of aluminium.
  The city is notable for its nature landscapes; author Anton Chekhov judged Krasnoyarsk the most beautiful city in Siberia.
  The total area of the city, including suburbs and the river, is 348 square kilometers (134 sq mi).
  The Yenisei River flows from west to east through the city. Due to the Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric dam 32 kilometers (20 mi) upstream, the Yenisei never freezes in winter and never exceeds +14 °C (57 °F) in summer through the city. Near the city center, its elevation is 136 meters (446 ft) above sea level. There are several islands in the river, the largest of which are Tatyshev and Otdyha Isles, used mainly for recreation.
  
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  Kukmorsky District
  
  Kukmorsky District (Russian: Кукморский райо́н; Tatar: Кукмара районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Kukmor. District's population: 52,021 (2010 Census preliminary results); 53,691 (2002 Census); 49,558 (1989 Census). Population of Kukmor accounts for 32.5% of the district's population.
  
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  Kyrgyzstan
  Kyrgyzstan ( /ˈkɜrɡɨstæn/ KUR-gi-stan;Kyrgyz & Russian: Кыргызстан, Kyrgyzstan, or Киргизия, Kirgiziya), officially the Kyrgyz Republic is a nation located in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east. Its capital and largest city is Bishkek.
  Kyrgyzstan is officially a democratic parliamentary republic. A revolution in April 2010 overthrew the former president Kurmanbek Bakiyev and resulted in the adoption of a new constitution and the appointment of an interim government. Presidential elections were held in November 2011.
  Kyrgyzstan is one of the active members of the Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community. The national language, Kyrgyz, is also closely related to the other Turkic languages, with which it shares strong cultural and historical ties.
  Additionally, Kyrgyzstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Non-aligned movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
  
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  Kyzyl
  Kyzyl (Russian: Кызы́л; Tuvan: Кызыл) is the capital city of the Tuva Republic, Russia. The name of the city means "red" in Tuvan (as well as in many other Turkic languages). Population: 109,906 (2010 Census preliminary results); 104,105 (2002 Census); 84,641 (1989 Census).
  Kyzyl claims to be located exactly in the geographical center of Asia. Whether these coordinates are in fact the center of Asia is disputed. However, there is a monument labelled "Center of Asia" in English, Russian, and Tuvan which asserts this claim. Tos-Bulak is the area of open fields and mineral springs which lies immediately south of Kyzyl.
  Kyzyl is located where the Yenisei River meets the Maly Yenisey River to form the Verkhny Yenisey. Most development is south of the river and follow the curves of the river, with the highest development centered where the two headstreams of the Yenisei, the Bolshoy Yenisey, and the Maly Yenisey, meet. A monument was built in 1964 on the river bank to mark this.
  It was founded in 1914 as Belotsarsk (Белоца́рск).^{[citation needed]} In 1918, it was renamed Khem-Beldyr (Хем-Белды́р), and in 1926 it was given its present name.^{[citation needed]} In September 2004, Kyzyl celebrated its 90th anniversary as a city.
  
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• Laishevo
  Coordinates: 55°24′1.08″N 49°32′48.12″E / 55.4003°N 49.5467°E / 55.4003; 49.5467
  Laishevo (Russian: Лаишево; Tatar Cyrillic: Лаеш, Latin: Layış) is a town and the administrative center of Laishevsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the shore of Kuybyshev Reservoir, southeast of Kazan. Population: 7,735 (2010 Census preliminary results); 7,730 (2002 Census); 7,067 (1989 Census).
  Laishevo was re-granted town status in 2004.
  
  
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  Laishevsky District
  
  Laishevsky District (Russian: Лаишевский райо́н; Tatar: Лаеш районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the town of Laishevo. District's population: 36,515 (2010 Census preliminary results); 37,011 (2002 Census); 35,521 (1989 Census). Population of Laishevo accounts for 21.2% of the district's population.
  
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  Latvia
  Latvia ⁱ/ˈlætviə/ (Latvian: Latvija), officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Republika), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia (border length 343 km), to the south by Lithuania (588 km), to the east by the Russian Federation (276 km), to the southeast by Belarus (141 km), and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden. With 2,067,887 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km² (24,938 sq mi) it is one of the least populous and least densely populated countries of the European Union. The capital of Latvia is Riga. The official language is Latvian and the currency is called Lats (Ls). The country has a temperate seasonal climate.
  The Latvians are a Baltic people, culturally related to the Lithuanians. Together with the Finno-Ugric Livs (or Livonians), the Latvians are the indigenous people of Latvia.Latvian is an Indo-European language and along with Lithuanian the only two surviving members of the Baltic branch. Indigenous minority languages are Latgalian and the nearly extinct Finno-Ugric Livonian language. In terms of geography, territory and population Latvia is the middle of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Latvia and Estonia share a long common history: historical Livonia, times of German (Teutonic Order), Polish-Lithuanian, Swedish, Russian, Nazi German and Soviet rule, 13th century Christianization and 16th century Protestant Reformation. Both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians (26.9% in Latvia and 25.5% in Estonia) of whom some are non-citizens. Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant, except for the region of Latgalia in the southeast which is historically predominantly Roman Catholic.
  
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  Magas
  Magas (Russian: Мага́с) is the capital town of the Republic of Ingushetia, Russia. It was founded in 1995 and replaced Nazran as the capital of the republic in 2002. In terms of population, Magas is the smallest capital of a federal subject in Russia: 2,505 (2010 Census preliminary results); 275 (2002 Census).
  The Republic of Ingushetia came into existence in 1992, having been split from the Chechen–Ingush ASSR. Nazran, the largest of three towns of the new republic, was made a temporary capital; however, it was badly suited for this purpose.
  In 1995, President Ruslan Aushev founded Magas just a few kilometers south of Nazran, naming it after the medieval city of Maghas. The new town was supposed to serve purely for administrative needs. The president's palace and the government building were built in rich oriental style, and a business district is under construction. Town status was officially granted to it in 2000.
  The town is projected to house about 30,000 inhabitants in the future.^{[citation needed]}
  
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  Makhachkala
  Makhachkala (Russian: Махачкала́; IPA: [məxətɕkɐˈla]; Avar: МахIачхъала; Lezgian: Магьачкъала; Kumyk: Магьачкъала, Mağaçqala) is the capital city of the Republic of Dagestan, Russia. It is located on the western shore of the Caspian Sea and is home to the Makhachkala Grand Mosque, one of Russia's largest. According to the preliminary results of the 2010 Census, the city had a population of 577,990.
  Makhachkala's historic predecessor was the town of Tarki, now a near suburb, whose history goes back to the 15th century and possibly much earlier. The modern city of Makhachkala was founded in 1844 as a fortress; town status was granted in 1857. The original Russian name of the city was Petrovskoye (Петро́вское)—after the Russian tsar Peter the Great who visited the region in 1722. However, among the locals it was known as Anzhi-Qala (A Fortress of Soil, Qala or Kala قلعه means Fortress in Arabic and Turkic). The city was renamed Petrovsk-Port (Петро́вск-Порт) in 1857, sometimes simply Petrovsk, and then Makhachkala in 1921. The city incurred major damage during the earthquake of May 14, 1970. It was briefly renamed as Shamilkala in 1920s.
  
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  Malta
  Malta ⁱ/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km² (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
  Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
  
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  Mamadysh
  Coordinates: 55°42′47.16″N 51°24′38.16″E / 55.7131°N 51.4106°E / 55.7131; 51.4106
  Mamadysh (Russian: Мамадыш; Tatar Cyrillic: Мамадыш, Latin: Mamadış) is a town and the administrative center of Mamadyshsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the right bank of the Vyatka River (Kama's tributary), 167 kilometers (104 mi) east of Kazan. Population: 14,432 (2010 Census preliminary results); 13,509 (2002 Census); 11,835 (1989 Census).
  Originally a Tatar village, it had some Russian settlers by the 17th century. Town status was granted to it in 1781.
  
  
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  Mamadyshsky District
  
  Mamadyshsky District (Russian: Мамадышский райо́н; Tatar: Мамадыш районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the town of Mamadysh. District's population: 44,998 (2010 Census preliminary results); 48,075 (2002 Census); 50,685 (1989 Census). Population of Mamadysh accounts for 32.1% of the district's population.
  
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  Maykop
  Maykop (Russian: Майко́п; Adyghe: Мыекъуапэ, Myequape) is the capital city of the Republic of Adygea, Russia, located on the right bank of the Belaya River (a tributary of the Kuban). Population: 144,246 (2010 Census preliminary results); 156,931 (2002 Census); 148,608 (1989 Census).
  Maykop was founded in 1857 as a Russian Kuban Cossack fortress. It served as an important strategic outpost during the finale of the Caucasian War in 1858–1863. It was granted town status in 1870.
  The early Bronze Age Maykop culture has been named after the city after the discovery of a royal burial site there in 1897.
  In 1911, oil deposits were discovered in the vicinity of Maykop.
  In 1936, Maykop and the surrounding region was merged with Adyghe Autonomous Oblast, and became the administrative center of the autonomy. Maykop was occupied by the Wehrmacht on August 9, 1942 without a fight as a result of Brandenburger commando operation. In January 1943 it was liberated by the Transcaucasian Front of the Red Army.
  
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• Mendeleyevsk
  Coordinates: 55°53′26″N 52°19′8″E / 55.89056°N 52.31889°E / 55.89056; 52.31889
  Mendeleyevsk (Russian: Менделе́евск; Tatar Cyrillic: Менделеев, Latin: Mendeleyev) is a town and the administrative center of Mendeleyevsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Toyma River, 238 kilometers (148 mi) east of Kazan. Population: 22,075 (2010 Census preliminary results); 22,027 (2002 Census); 18,085 (1989 Census).
  It grew around a chemical plant established in 1868. It was granted town status in 1967. Begishevo, the nearest airport, is located 50 kilometers (31 mi) south of Mendeleyevsk.
  
  
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• Menzelinsk
  Coordinates: 55°43′N 53°05′E / 55.717°N 53.083°E / 55.717; 53.083
  Menzelinsk (Russian: Мензелинск; Tatar Cyrillic: Минзәлә, Latin: Minzälä), also spelled Minzala or Minzele, is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Menzelya River (Kama's basin), 292 kilometers (181 mi) east of Kazan. Population: 16,730 (2002 Census); 15,223 (1989 Census); 15,800 (1973). Russians account for 49.3% of the town's population, while Tatars comprise 46.8%.^{[citation needed]}
  It was founded in 1584–1586 and was granted status of a town of Ufa Province in 1781. It is served by Menzelinsk Airport.
  
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  Menzelinsky District
  
  Menzelinsky District (Russian: Мензелинский райо́н; Tatar: Минзәлә районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the town of Menzelinsk. District's population: 29,363 (2010 Census preliminary results); 31,295 (2002 Census); 30,517 (1989 Census). Population of Menzelinsk accounts for 56.1% of the district's population.
  
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  Moscow
  Moscow ( /ˈmɒskaʊ/ or /ˈmɒskoʊ/; Russian: Москва́, tr. Moskva; IPA: [mɐˈskva] ( listen)) is the capital and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural and scientific center of Russia and the continent. Moscow is the northernmost megacity on Earth, the most populous city in Europe, and the 6th largest city proper in the world. Its population, according to the results of the 2010 Census, is 11,503,501. Based on Forbes 2011, Moscow has the largest community of billionaires in the world.
  Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia. In the course of its history the city has served as the capital of a progression of states, from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Soviet Union. Moscow is the site of the Moscow Kremlin, an ancient fortress that is today the residence of the Russian President and of the executive branch of the Government of Russia. The Kremlin is also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in Moscow.
  
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  Naberezhnye Chelny
  Naberezhnye Chelny (Russian: На́бережные Челны́; Tatar Cyrillic: Яр Чаллы, Latin: Yar Çallı) is the second largest city in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. A major industrial center, Naberezhnye Chelny stands on the Kama River 225 kilometers (140 mi) east of Kazan near Nizhnekamsk Reservoir. Population: 513,242 (2010 Census preliminary results); 509,870 (2002 Census); 500,309 (1989 Census).
  It is reported to have been founded in 1172.^{[citation needed]} It was granted town status on August 10, 1930, and was called Brezhnev (after Leonid Brezhnev) from 1982 to 1988.^{[citation needed]}
  The city serves as the administrative center of Tukayevsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Naberezhnye Chelny—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, the city of republic significance of Naberezhnye Chelny is incorporated as Naberezhnye Chelny Urban Okrug.
  Kamaz and ZMA trucks are produced there, and the city is one of the largest planned centers in the world related to vehicle production. With more than two square miles dedicated to production, the Kamaz plant is the largest vehicle factory in the world.
  
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  Nalchik
  Nalchik (Russian: На́льчик; IPA: [ˈnalʲtɕɪk]; Kabardian: Налшык; Balkar: Нальчик) is the capital city of the Kabardino-Balkar Republic, Russia, situated at an altitude of 550 meters (1,800 ft) in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains; about 100 kilometers (62 mi) northwest of Beslan in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania. It covers an area of 131 square kilometers (51 sq mi). Population: 240,095 (2010 Census preliminary results); 274,974 (2002 Census); 234,547 (1989 Census).
  The territory of modern-day Nalchik was inhabited by native Balkars and Kabardians as far back as 1743, but the modern city dates from the early 19th century when the expanding Russian Empire built a fort there in 1818; this date is seen at the top of the city's coat of arms. A military settlement was founded on the site in 1838. Nalchik remained relatively unimportant until after the Russian Revolution of 1917, when it was given the status of a city in 1921. It was promoted to become the administrative center of the Kabardian autonomous oblast.
  
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  Netherlands
  The Netherlands (ⁱ/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] ( listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
  
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  Nizhnekamsk
  Nizhnekamsk (Russian: Нижнека́мск; IPA: [nʲɪʐnʲɪˈkamsk]; Tatar Cyrillic: Түбән Кама, Latin: Tübän Kama) is a city in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located to the south of the Kama River between the cities of Naberezhnye Chelny and Chistopol. Population: 234,108 (2010 Census preliminary results); 225,399 (2002 Census); 190,793 (1989 Census).
  It was founded in 1961 as the work settlement of Nizhnekamsky (Нижнекамский).^{[citation needed]} In connection with the building of the Nizhnekamskneftekhim petrochemical industrial complex, Nizhnekamsk was granted city status in 1966. It remains an important center of the petrochemical industry. It is served by Begishevo Airport.
  Nizhnekamsk serves as the administrative center of Nizhnekamsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is, together with three rural localities, incorporated separately as a city of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Nizhnekamsk and the three rural localities are incorporated within Nizhnekamsky Municipal District as Nizhnekamsk Urban Settlement.
  
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  Nizhny Novgorod
  Nizhny Novgorod (Russian: Нижний Новгород; IPA: [ˈnʲiʐnʲɪj ˈnovɡərət]), colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is, with the population of 1,250,615, the fifth largest city in Russia.
  From 1932 to 1990, the city was known as Gorky (Горький, IPA: [ˈɡorʲkʲɪj]), after the writer Maxim Gorky who was born there.
  The city is an important economic, transport and cultural center of the Russian Federation. It is the economic and cultural center of the vast Volga-Vyatka economic region, and also the administrative center of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Volga Federal District.
  After the destruction of the Mordvin Inäzor Obram, a hillfort named Obran Osh (Ashli) at the site of future stone Kremlin in 1220, a small Russian wooden hillfort was founded by Grand Duke Yury II in 1221. Located at the confluence of two most important rivers of his principality, the Volga (Mordvin "Rav" or "Rava"), and the Oka, and Obran Osh was renamed Nizhny Novgorod. Its name literally means Lower Newtown, to distinguish it from the older Veliky Novgorod. Its independent existence was threatened by the continuous Mordvin attacks against it. The major attempt made by Inäzor Purgaz from Arzamas in January 1229 was repulsed, but after the death of Yuri II on March 4, 1238 at the Battle of Sit River the Mongols occupied the fortress and the remnants of small Nizhny Novgorod settlement which surrendered without any resistance in order to preserve what had been developed since Purgaz's attack nine years earlier. Later a major stronghold for border protection, Nizhny Novgorod fortress took advantage of a natural moat formed by the two rivers.
  
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  Nurlat
  Nurlat (Tatar and Russian: Нурла́т) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Kondurcha River, 268 kilometers (167 mi) southeast of Kazan. Population: 32,600 (2010 Census preliminary results); 32,527 (2002 Census); 23,507 (1989 Census).
  Nurlat was formerly known as Nurlat-Oktyabrsky.^{[citation needed]}
  It was founded in 1905 as a settlement around a railway station.^{[citation needed]} Town status was granted to it in 1961.^{[citation needed]}
  Nurlat serves as the administrative center of Nurlatsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Nurlat is incorporated within Nurlatsky Municipal District as Nurlat Urban Settlement.
  There is an airport in Nurlat.
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  Orenburg
  Orenburg (Russian: Оренбу́рг; IPA: [ərʲɪnˈburk]) is a transcontinental city on the Ural River and the administrative center of Orenburg Oblast, Russia. It lies 1,478 kilometers (918 mi) southeast of Moscow, very close to the border with Kazakhstan. Population: 546,987 (2010 Census preliminary results); 549,361 (2002 Census); 546,501 (1989 Census). The highest point is at 154.4 m. As of 2012, the mayor of the city is Yury Mishcheryakov.
  The Russian Empire began plans for the expansion into Asia by construction of an eastern frontier fortress town in the southern Ural region to be named Orenburg in 1734. The colonists originally founded a settlement in 1735 at the confluence of the Ural River with the Or River. The town's name meant "fortress near the Or," as Burg is German for fortress. This settlement changed its name in 1739 to Orsk. An attempt was made to found another Orenburg about 175 kilometers (109 mi) west at a location called Krasnogor, or "Red Hill," in 1741, but this settlement failed. A third Orenburg was successfully established by Ivan Neplyuyev at its present location approximately 250 kilometers (160 mi) west down the Ural from Orsk in 1743. This third Orenburg functioned as an important military outpost on the frontier with the nomadic Kazakhs. It became the center for the Orenburg Cossacks.
  
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  Oryol
  Oryol or Orel (Russian: Орёл; IPA: [ɐˈrʲɵl]) is a city and the administrative center of Oryol Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River, approximately 360 kilometers (220 mi) south-southwest of Moscow. Population: 317,854 (2010 Census preliminary results); 333,310 (2002 Census); 336,862 (1989 Census). It is served by the Oryol Yuzhny Airport.
  While there are no historical records, archaeological evidence proves that a fortress settlement existed between the Oka and Orlik Rivers as early as the 12th century, when the land was a part of the Principality of Chernigov. The name of the fortress is unknown; it may not have been called Oryol at the time. In the 13th century the fortress became a part of the Zvenigorod district of the Karachev Principality. In the early 15th century, the territory was conquered by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The city was soon abandoned by its population, after being sacked either by Lithuanians or the Golden Horde. The territory became a part of the Tsardom of Russia in the 16th century.
  
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  Petrozavodsk
  Petrozavodsk (Russian: Петрозаво́дск; IPA: [pʲɪtrəzɐˈvotsk]; Karelian/Vepsian/Finnish: Petroskoi) is the capital city of the Republic of Karelia, Russia. It stretches along the western shore of the Lake Onega for some 27 kilometers (17 mi). Population: 263,540 (2010 Census preliminary results); 266,160 (2002 Census); 269,485 (1989 Census).
  It is served by Petrozavodsk Airport.
  On September 11, 1703, Prince Menshikov founded the settlement of Petrovskaya Sloboda ("Petrine Sloboda"). He did so at the behest of Tsar Peter the Great, who needed a new iron foundry to manufacture cannons and anchors for the Baltic Fleet at the time of the Great Northern War (1700–1721). At first the foundry used the name Shuysky zavod (literally, "factory at the Shuya River"), but a decade later it became Petrovsky zavod ("Petrine factory"), after the name of the reigning monarch. From this form the present name of the city derives.
  By 1717, Petrovskaya Sloboda had grown into the largest settlement in Karelia, with about 3,500 inhabitants, a timber fort, a covered market, and miniature palaces of the Tsar and Menshikov. The town's best-known landmark became the wooden church of Saints Peter and Paul, rebuilt in 1772 and renovated in 1789. The church retained its original iconostasis until this relic of Peter's reign was destroyed by fire on October 30, 1924.
  
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  Russia
  Russia ⁱ/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
  
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  Sabinsky District
  
  Sabinsky District (Russian: Сабинский райо́н; Tatar: Саба районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Bogatye Saby. District's population: 31,039 (2010 Census preliminary results); 31,317 (2002 Census); 42,585 (1989 Census). Population of Bogatye Saby accounts for 24.7% of the district's population.
  
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  Saransk
  Saransk (Russian: Сара́нск; IPA: [sɐˈransk]; Moksha: Саранош; Erzya: Саран ош) is a city in central European Russia and the capital of the Republic of Mordovia, as well as its financial and economic center. It is located in the Volga basin at the confluence of the Saranka and Insar Rivers, about 630 kilometers (390 mi) east of Moscow. Population: 297,425 (2010 Census preliminary results); 304,866 (2002 Census); 312,128 (1989 Census).
  Saransk was founded in 1641 as the Russian fortress Atemar,^{[citation needed]} taking its name from a nearby Mordvin village; the fortress was, at the time, located on the southeastern frontier of Russia. The current name "Saransk" refers to the city's situation on the Saranka river. Soon after its founding, the city became an important trade center for nearby Erzya villagers. After 1708, Saransk was assigned to Azov Province, and later to Kazan Governorate. In 1780, the settlement was granted town status and was again transferred, this time to Penza Governorate.^{[citation needed]} In 1928, Saransk become the administrative center of the newly established Mordvin National Okrug which was transformed into Mordovian Autonomous Oblast in 1930. Soviet planners reconstructed the old city center in the 1960s and 1970s, adding wide streets and planning the construction of massive residential areas.
  
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  Saratov
  Saratov (Russian: Сара́тов; IPA: [sɐˈratəf] ( listen)) is a major city in southern Russia. It is the administrative center of Saratov Oblast and a major port on the Volga River. Population: 837,831 (2010 Census preliminary results); 873,055 (2002 Census); 904,643 (1989 Census). In addition to ethnic Russians, the city also has many Tatar, Ukrainian, Jewish, and German residents.
  Ukek, a city of the Golden Horde, was situated near the site of the modern city of Saratov from the mid 13th century until its destruction in 1395.
  The modern city was founded in 1590. It traces its history to the reign of Tsar Feodor Ivanovich, who constructed several settlements along the Volga River in order to secure the southeastern boundary of his state. During the summer of 1586, the fortress of Samara was founded, followed by Tsaritsyn in 1589 and finally Saratov, located midway between Samara and Tsaritsyn, in 1590. Saratov was built at the insistence of count Grigory Zasekin. All three forts were located in a region where the Volga and the Don flow nearest one another, which allowed the Duchy of Moscovy to secure both rivers and to ensure control over the recently annexed khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan in the years following the Livonian War. The future town's buildings were first constructed in the upper reaches of the Volga, a full year prior to the in situ foundation of Saratov. In the spring of 1590, workers disassembled the constructions, marked each log, and delivered the "town" to its destination via the river. This method allowed the buildings to be rapidly erected in just a few weeks.
  
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  Sarmanovsky District
  
  Sarmanovsky District (Russian: Сармановский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Sarmanovo. District's population: 36,681 (2010 Census preliminary results); 37,475 (2002 Census); 32,258 (1989 Census). Population of Sarmanovo accounts for 16.9% of the district's population.
  
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  Shumen Province
  Coordinates: 43°15′N 27°0′E / 43.25°N 27°E / 43.25; 27
  Shumen Province (Bulgarian: Област Шумен, transliterated Oblast Shumen, former name Shumen okrug) is a province in northeastern Bulgaria named after its main city Shumen. It is divided into 10 municipalities with a total population, as of December 2009, of 194,090 inhabitants.
  The city of Shumen is famous in the region for the Monument to 1300 Years of Bulgaria. The monument is in the cubist style and is 1300 steps (each step representing a year) above the center of the town. Other places of note are the Shumen fortress, Tombul Mosque,and Shumen Plato National park. The center of the town has a historical museum, large library, and large theater. The municipality building, also in the center, has a concert hall that features regular symphony performances. Shumen is also the location of the Shumensko Brewery, a popular beer in Bulgaria. The area surrounding Shumen plays a significant part in Bulgarian History with the first and second capitols of historical Bulgaria within thirty kilometers from the city.
  
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  Soviet Union
  The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
  The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
  The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
  
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  Spain
  Spain (ⁱ/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
  Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
  
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  Sterlitamak
  Sterlitamak (Russian: Стерлитама́к; Bashkir: Стәрлетамаҡ) is the second largest city in the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia, located on the left bank of the Belaya River (Kama's tributary), 121 kilometers (75 mi) from Ufa. The city's name comes from the Bashkir language and literally means "mouth of the river Sterlya".^{[citation needed]} Population: 273,432 (2010 Census preliminary results); 264,362 (2002 Census); 247,457 (1989 Census).
  Sterlitamak is located just south of the geographical center of the Republic of Bashkortostan, 121 kilometers (75 mi) from Ufa. Approximately 50 kilometers (31 mi) to the east of the city are the Ural Mountains; to the west the East European Plain begins. In the vicinity of Sterlitamak (inside the Belaya basin) are the Shikhan Mountains (Yurak Tau, Kush Tau, Shakh Tau, and Tra Tau), which are unique geological formations. In the area of Mount Kush Tau, there are children summer camps and "Shikhany" sanatorium; there is also a ski base on the slope of the mountain.
  
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  Syktyvkar
  Syktyvkar (Russian: Сыктывка́р; IPA: [sɨktɨfˈkar]; Komi: Сыктывкар) is the capital city of the Komi Republic, Russia. Population: 235,006 (2010 Census preliminary results); 230,011 (2002 Census); 232,117 (1989 Census).
  The city's current name comes from Syktyv, the Komi name for the same river, plus kar, meaning "city".
  Syktyvkar is located on the Sysola River, which is the origin of its former name Ust-Sysolsk. The city is located near to the point where the Sysola joins the larger Vychegda River, which is itself a branch of the Northern Dvina.
  It is believed that there has been a settlement at the city's present site since at least the 16th century.^{[citation needed]} It was granted city status by Catherine the Great in 1780, and later became the administrative center of Komi Autonomous Oblast.^{[citation needed]} It has retained its position as the Komi capital since that point, although a large influx of ethnic Russians in the 20th century has actually left the Komi in a minority there.
  The majority of the population were merchants and peasants. The main occupations of the inhabitants were agriculture, cattle-breeding, hunting, fishing, and trade.
  
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  Tabriz
  Tabriz (Persian/Azerbaijani:تبریز) ( pronunciation (help·info)) is the fifth largest city and one of the historical capitals of Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quru River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former capitals, and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history. Tabriz is located in a valley to the north of the long ridge of the volcanic cone of Sahand, south of the Eynali mountain. The valley opens out into a plain that slopes gently down to the northern end of Lake Urmia, 60 km to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers the city is considered a summer resort.
  The estimated population of the city is around 1,400,000 based on results of the Iranian census bureau. Tabriz is the fourth most populous city in Iran after Tehran, Mashhad, and Esfahan, and is also a major Iranian heavy industrial and manufacturing center. Some of these industries include automobile, machine tools, oil and petrochemical and cement production.
  
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  Tashkent
  Tashkent (/ˌtæʃˈkɛnt/; Uzbek: Toshkent, Тошкент; Russian: Ташкент, [tɐʂˈkʲent]; literally "Stone City") is the capital of Uzbekistan and of the Tashkent Province. The officially registered population of the city in 2008 was about 2.2 million. Unofficial sources estimate the actual population may be as much as 4.45 million.
  During its long history, Tashkent has had various changes in names and political and religious affiliations.
  Tashkent started as an oasis on the Chirchik River, near the foothills of the West Tian Shan Mountains. In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer "capital" of the Kangju confederacy.
  In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times the town and the province were known as "Chach". The Shahnameh of Ferdowsi also refers to the city as Chach. Later the town came to be known as Chachkand/Chashkand, meaning "Chach City".^{[citation needed]} The principality of Chach, whose main town had a square citadel built around the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of the Syr Darya River. By the 7th century AD, Chach had over 30 towns and a network of over 50 canals, forming a trade center between the Sogdians and Turkic nomads. The Buddhist monk Xuánzàng 玄奘 (602/603? – 664 CE), who travelled from China to India through Central Asia, mentioned the name of the city as Zhěshí 赭時. The Chinese chronicles Suí shū 隋書 (Book of Suí), Běi shǐ 北史 (History of Northern Dynasties) and Táng shū 唐書 (Book of Táng) mention a possession called Shí 石 or Zhěshí 赭時 with a capital of the same name since the fifth century AD [Bichurin, 1950. v. II]. The region came under the sway of Islam in the early parts of the 8th century.
  
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  Tatarstan
  The Republic of Tatarstan (Russian: Респу́блика Татарста́н, tr. Respublika Tatarstan; IPA: [rʲɪsˈpublʲɪkə tətɐrˈstan]; Tatar Cyrillic: Татарстан Республикасы, Latin: Tatarstan Respublikası) is a federal subject of Russia (a republic) located in the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Kazan, which is one of Russia's largest and most prosperous cities. The republic borders with Kirov, Ulyanovsk, Samara, and Orenburg Oblasts, and with the Mari El, Udmurt, and Chuvash Republics, as well as with the Republic of Bashkortostan. The unofficial Tatarstan motto is: Bez Buldırabız! (We can!). Population: 3,786,488 (2010 Census).
  The state has strong relations with its Muslim neighbor Bashkortostan.
  "Tatarstan" derives from the name of the Tatar, Turkic ethnic group, and the Persian suffix -stan (an ending common to many Central Asian countries). Another version of the Russian name is "Тата́рия" (Tatariya), which was official along with "Tatar ASSR" during the Soviet rule.
  Inhabitants of Tatarstan regardless of ethnicity are usually called Tatari (Tatar Cyrillic: татарлар, Latin: Tatarlar, татары).
  
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  TatNeft Arena
  TatNeft Arena (ru: Татнефть-Арена, tt: TatNeft Arena, or TatNeft Səhıt) is an indoor sporting arena located in Kazan, Russia. The capacity of the arena is 10,000 and was opened in 2005. The arena is home to Ak Bars Kazan of the Kontinental Hockey League.
  Coordinates: 55°49′2″N 49°7′28″E / 55.81722°N 49.12444°E / 55.81722; 49.12444
  
  
  
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  Tetyushi
  Coordinates: 54°56′N 48°50′E / 54.933°N 48.833°E / 54.933; 48.833
  Tetyushi (Russian: Тетю́ши; Tatar Cyrillic: Тәтеш, Latin: Täteş) is a town and the administrative center of Tetyushsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the shore of Kuybyshev Reservoir, 180 kilometers (110 mi) south of Kazan. Population: 11,596 (2010 Census preliminary results); 11,931 (2002 Census); 10,487 (1989 Census).
  It was founded in the 16th century as Tetyushskaya zastava (Тетюшская застава). It was granted town status in 1781.
  The town was the site of a major battle during Stepan Razin's rebellion.
  vep:Tetüši
  
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  Tetyushsky District
  
  Tetyushsky District (Russian: Тетю́шский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the town of Tetyushi. District's population: 24,875 (2010 Census preliminary results); 27,040 (2002 Census); 27,812 (1989 Census). Population of Tetyushi accounts for 46.6% of the district's population.
  
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  Tolyatti
  Tolyatti (Russian: Толья́тти; IPA: [tɐˈlʲjætʲɪ]), also known in English as Togliatti, is a city in Samara Oblast, Russia. Population: 719,514 (2010 Census preliminary results); 702,879 (2002 Census); It is the largest city in Russia which does not serve as an administrative center of a federal subject.
  It was founded in 1737 as a fortress called Stavropol (Ста́врополь) by the Russian statesman Vasily Tatishchev.^{[citation needed]} Informally it was often referred as Stavropol-on-Volga (Ста́врополь-на-Во́лге, Stavropol-na-Volge) to distinguish from Stavropol, a large city in southwest Russia.
  The construction of the Kuybyshev Dam and Hydroelectric Station on the Volga River in the 1950s created the Kuybyshev Reservoir, which covered the existing location of the city, and it was completely rebuilt on a new site. In 1964, the city was renamed Tolyatti (after Palmiro Togliatti, the longest-serving secretary of the Italian Communist Party).
  Tolyatti serves as the administrative center of Stavropolsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, along with two rural localities, it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti is incorporated as Tolyatti Urban Okrug.
  
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  Tukayevsky District
  
  Tukayevsky District (Russian: Тукаевский райо́н; Tatar: Тукай районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the northeast of the republic. The area of the district is 1,744 square kilometers (673 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the city of Naberezhnye Chelny (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 36,561 (2010 Census preliminary results); 29,864 (2002 Census); 27,334 (1989 Census).
  The city of Naberezhnye Chelny serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a city of republic significance.Municipally, Naberezhnye Chelny is also separate from the district and is incorporated as Naberezhnye Chelny Urban Okrug.
  
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  Turkey
  Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
  Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
  
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  Ufa
  Ufa (Russian: Уфа́; IPA: [ʊˈfa]; Bashkir: Өфө) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia. It is the industrial, economic, scientific and cultural center of the republic. Population: 1,062,300 (2010 Census preliminary results); 1,042,437 (2002 Census); 1,082,052 (1989 Census).
  The newspaper English Russia and the President of Bashkortostan coined Ufa as the Muslim centre of Russia.
  The city began as a fortress built on the orders of Ivan the Terrible in 1574, and originally bore the name of the hill it stood on, Tura-Tau. It was granted town status in 1586.
  In the 18th century Ufa evolved into an administrative, trading, manufacturing and cultural center of Russia. Ufa Municipal Public Bank was established on December 15, 1876.
  In 1918, Ufa was the residence of the Provisional All-Russian Government.
  On June 14, 1922, the Decree of the All-Union Central Executive Committee abolished Ufa Governorate, and Ufa became the capital of the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
  
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  Ukraine
  Ukraine (ⁱ/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
  According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
  
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  Ulyanovsk
  Ulyanovsk (Russian: Улья́новск; IPA: [ʊlʲˈjænəfsk]), formerly Simbirsk (Симби́рск), is a city and the administrative center of Ulyanovsk Oblast, Russia, located on the Volga River 893 kilometers (555 mi) east from Moscow. Population: 613,793 (2010 Census preliminary results); 635,947 (2002 Census); 625,155 (1989 Census).
  The city is the birthplace of Vladimir Lenin (originally named Ulyanov), for whom it is named.
  Simbirsk was founded in 1648 by the boyar Bogdan Khitrovo.^{[citation needed]} The fort of "Simbirsk" (alternatively "Sinbirsk") was strategically placed on a hill on the Western bank of the Volga River. The fort was meant to protect the eastern frontier of the Russian Empire from the nomadic tribes and to establish a permanent Imperial presence in the area.
  In 1668, Simbirsk withstood a month-long siege by a 20,000-strong army led by rebel Cossack commander Stenka Razin. Also in Simbirsk another country rebel, Yemelyan Pugachev, was imprisoned before execution. At the time Simbirsk possessed a wooden kremlin, which was destroyed by a fire during the 18th century.
  
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  United States
  The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
  At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
  
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  Urbino
  Urbino  listen (help·info) is a walled city in the Marche region of Italy, south-west of Pesaro, a World Heritage Site notable for a remarkable historical legacy of independent Renaissance culture, especially under the patronage of Federico da Montefeltro, duke of Urbino from 1444 to 1482. The town, nestled on a high sloping hillside, retains much of its picturesque medieval aspect, only slightly marred by the large car parks below the town. It hosts the University of Urbino, founded in 1506, and is the seat of the Archbishop of Urbino. Its best-known architectural piece is the Palazzo Ducale, rebuilt by Luciano Laurana.
  The modest Roman town of Urvinum Mataurense ("the little city on the river Mataurus") became an important strategic stronghold in the Gothic Wars of the 6th century, captured in 538 from the Ostrogoths by the Byzantine general Belisarius, and frequently mentioned by the historian Procopius.
  Though Pippin presented Urbino to the Papacy, independent traditions were expressed in its commune, until, around 1200, it came into the possession of the House of Montefeltro. Although these noblemen had no direct authority over the commune, they could pressure it to elect them to the position of podestà, a title that Bonconte di Montefeltro managed to obtain in 1213, with the result that Urbino's population rebelled and formed an alliance with the independent commune of Rimini (1228), finally regaining control of the town in 1234. Eventually, though, the Montefeltro noblemen took control once more, and held it until 1508. In the struggles between the Guelphs and Ghibellines where factions supported either the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire, the 13th and 14th century Montefeltro lords of Urbino were leaders of the Ghibellines of the Marche and in the Romagna region.
  
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  Uzbekistan
  Uzbekistan ⁱ/ʊzˌbɛkɨˈstɑːn/, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the only doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union.
  Uzbekistan is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia.
  Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by Uzbek nomads, who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages.
  Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).
  
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  Vladikavkaz
  Vladikavkaz (Russian: Владикавкáз; IPA: [vlədʲɪkɐfˈkas], lit. ruler of the Caucasus; Ossetic: Дзæуджыхъæу, Dzæwdžyqæw, lit. Dzaug's settlement) is the capital city of the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania in southern Russia. It is located in the southeast of the republic at the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains, situated on the Terek River. Population: 311,635 (2010 Census preliminary results); 315,068 (2002 Census); 300,198 (1989 Census). Vladikavkaz is one of the most populous cities in the North Caucasus.
  The city is an industrial and transportation center. Manufactures include processed zinc and lead, machinery, chemicals, clothing, and food products.
  The city was founded in 1784 as a fortress during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus and was for many years the main Russian military base in the region. The Georgian Military Highway, crossing the mountains, was constructed in 1799 to link the city with Georgia to the south, and in 1875 a railway was built to connect it to Rostov-on-Don and Baku in Azerbaijan. Vladikavkaz has become an important industrial center for the region, with smelting, refining, chemicals and manufacturing industries.
  
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  Volgograd
  Volgograd (Russian: Волгогра́д; IPA: [ˌvəlɡɐˈɡrat] ( listen)), formerly called Tsaritsyn (Russian:  Цари́цын​ (help·info); 1589–1925) and Stalingrad (Russian:  Сталингра́д​ (help·info); 1925–1961) is an important industrial city and the administrative center of Volgograd Oblast, Russia. It is 80-kilometer (50 mi) long, north to south, situated on the western bank of the Volga River. Population: 1,021,244 (2010 Census preliminary results); 1,011,417 (2002 Census); 1,022,578 (1989 Census). The city became famous for its resistance, extensive damage, and death toll during the Battle of Stalingrad in World War II.
  Although it is possible the city originated in 1555, it was first mentioned documentally in 1589 as Tsaritsyn, located at the confluence of the Tsaritsa and Volga Rivers. The fortress Sary Su (a local Tatar language name meaning: yellow water/river), was established to defend the unstable southern border of the country. It soon became the nucleus of a trading settlement. It was captured twice by Cossack rebels, under Stepan Razin in the rebellion of 1670 and Yemelyan Pugachev in 1774. Tsaritsyn became an important river port and commercial center in the 19th century.
  
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  Yakutsk
  Yakutsk (Russian: Яку́тск; IPA: [jɪˈkutsk]; Sakha: Дьокуускай, pronounced [ɟokuːskaj]) is the capital city of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located about 450 kilometers (280 mi) south of the Arctic Circle. Population: 269,486 (2010 Census preliminary results); 210,642 (2002 Census); 186,626 (1989 Census).
  Yakutsk is a major port on the Lena River. It is served by Yakutsk Airport as well as the smaller Magan Airport. It is a major supplier of diamonds.
  Yakutsk was founded as an ostrog (fort) by Pyotr Beketov in 1632.^{[citation needed]} In 1639, it became the center of a voyevodstvo. The Yakutsk Voyevodstvo quickly became the most important Russian official in the region and directed expansion to the east and south. Yakutsk did not grow into a city until the discovery of large reserves of gold and other minerals in the 1880s and 1890s. These reserves were developed extensively during industrialization under Stalin. The rapid growth of forced labor camps in Siberia was also a major factor encouraging Yakutsk's development.
  
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  Yaroslavl
  Yaroslavl (Russian: Яросла́вль; IPA: [jɪrɐˈslavlʲ]) is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located 250 kilometers (160 mi) northeast of Moscow. The historic part of the city, a World Heritage Site, is located at the confluence of the Volga and the Kotorosl Rivers. It is one of the Golden Ring cities, a group of historic cities northeast of Moscow that has played an important role in Russian history. Population: 591,486 (2010 Census preliminary results); 613,088 (2002 Census); 632,991 (1989 Census).
  The city lies in the eastern portion of Yaroslavl Oblast. The nearest large towns are Tutayev (34 kilometers or 21 miles to the northwest), Gavrilov-Yam (37 kilometers or 23 miles to the south), and Nerekhta (47 kilometers or 29 miles to the southeast). The historic center of Yaroslavl lies to the north of the mouth of the Kotorosl River on the right bank of the larger Volga River. The city's entire urban area covers around 205 square kilometers (79 sq mi)^{[citation needed]} and includes a number of territories south of the Kotorosl and on the left bank of the Volga. With over 600,000 residents, Yaroslavl is, by population, the largest town on the Volga until it reaches Nizhny Novgorod. It is a large transport node, and a great number of important national and regional roads, railways, and waterways pass through the city. In fact many of the roads that connect Yaroslavl to Moscow and beyond are two-lane highways.
  
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  Yekaterinburg
  Yekaterinburg (Russian: Екатеринбу́рг; IPA: [jɪkətʲɪrʲɪnˈburk], also romanized Ekaterinburg) is the fourth-largest city in Russia with a population of 1,398,889 (2012). Yekaterinburg is situated in the middle of the Eurasian continent, on the border of Europe and Asia.
  Yekaterinburg is the administrative centre of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the main industrial and cultural center of the Ural Federal District. Between 1924 and 1991, the city was named Sverdlovsk (Свердло́вск) after the Communist party leader Yakov Sverdlov.
  Internationally Yekaterinburg is best known as a city where the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family were executed in 1918.
  The city was founded in 1723 by Vasily Tatischev and Georg Wilhelm de Gennin and named after Tsar Peter the Great's wife Catherine I (Yekaterina). The official date of the city's foundation is November 18, 1723. It was granted town status in 1796.
  Soon after the Russian Revolution, on July 17, 1918, Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, Alexandra, and their children Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei were murdered by the Bolsheviks at the Ipatiev House in this city. Other members of the Romanov family were killed at Alapayevsk the day after. In 1977, the Ipatiev House was demolished by order of Boris Yeltsin, to prevent it from being used as a rallying location for monarchists. He later became the first President of Russia and represented the people at the funeral of the Tsar in 1998.
  
  wn.com/Yekaterinburg
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  Yelabuga
  Yelabuga (Russian: Ела́буга; Tatar Cyrillic: Алабуга, Latin: Alabuğa) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the right bank of the Kama River and 200 kilometers (120 mi) east from Kazan. Population: 70,750 (2010 Census preliminary results); 68,663 (2002 Census); 53,537 (1989 Census).
  Its history dates back to the 11th century, when a Volga Bulgarian border castle was established. The castle was later abandoned, and its remains are now known as Şaytan qalası (Shaytan's castle). In the second half of the 16th century, a Russian village was founded on the same spot.^{[citation needed]}
  Yelabuga serves as the administrative center of Yelabuzhsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Yelabuga is incorporated within Yelabuzhsky Municipal District as Yelabuga Urban Settlement.
  Oil industry is present in the town. In the 1990s, a Ford assembly plant operated in the town.
  
  wn.com/Yelabuga
• 
  Yelabuzhsky District
  
  Yelabuzhsky District (Russian: Ела́бужский райо́н; Tatar: Алабуга районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the north of the republic. The area of the district is 1,362.1 square kilometers (525.9 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Yelabuga (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 10,904 (2010 Census preliminary results); 10,785 (2002 Census); 9,957 (1989 Census).
  The town of Yelabuga serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance.Municipally, however, Yelabuga is incorporated within Yelabuzhsky Municipal District as Yelabuga Urban Settlement.
  
  wn.com/Yelabuzhsky_District
• 
  Yutazinsky District
  
  Yutazinsky District (Russian: Ютазинский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Its administrative center is the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Urussu. District's population: 21,615 (2010 Census preliminary results); 23,277 (2002 Census). Population of Urussu accounts for 49.4% of the district's population.
  The district was established on April 6, 1991 when Bavlinsky District was split.
  
  wn.com/Yutazinsky_District
• 
  Zainsk
  Zainsk (Russian: Заи́нск; Tatar Cyrillic: Зәй, Latin: Zäy) is a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, located on the Stepnoy Zay River (Kama's tributary), 287 kilometers (178 mi) east of Kazan. Population: 41,798 (2010 Census preliminary results); 41,088 (2002 Census); 36,621 (1989 Census).
  Zainsk Reservoir, along the Zay River, is near the town.
  It was founded in 1652–1656 as a fortress.^{[citation needed]} It was granted urban-type settlement status in 1962, and was known as Novy Zay (Новый Зай) until 1978, when it was granted town status and renamed Zainsk.^{[citation needed]}
  Zainsk serves as the administrative center of Zainsky District, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, it is, together with one rural locality, incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, Zainsk and the rural locality are incorporated within Zainsky Municipal District as Zainsk Urban Settlement.
  
  wn.com/Zainsk
• 
  Zainsky District
  
  Zainsky District (Russian: Заи́нский райо́н; Tatar: Зәй районы) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. It is located in the central eastern portion of the republic. The area of the district is 1,861.6 square kilometers (718.8 sq mi).^{[citation needed]} Its administrative center is the town of Zainsk (which is not administratively a part of the district). District's population: 15,978 (2010 Census preliminary results); 16,103 (2002 Census); 16,002 (1989 Census).
  The town of Zainsk serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it and, along with one rural locality, is incorporated separately as a town of republic significance.Municipally, however, Zainsk, along with the rural locality, is incorporated within Zainsky Municipal District as Zainsk Urban Settlement.
  
  wn.com/Zainsky_District

• 
  Bulgars
  The Bulgars (also Bolgars, Bulghars, Huno-Bulgars) were a semi-nomadic people who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century. Ethnically, the Bulgars comprised Turkic and probably Scytho-Sarmatian elements. They had enveloped also other ethnic groups by their migration westwards across the Eurasian steppe.
  The Bulgars emerged after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century. Initially, they conquered the Pontic-Caspian steppe and around the lower Volga basin, by the 7th century dispersing further towards Bessarabia. Originating as nomadic equestrians of Central Asia, they became sedentary during the 7th century, establishing the polities (khanates) of Old Great Bulgaria in the Pontic steppe and Volga Bulgaria on the middle Volga.
  Old Great Bulgaria was absorbed by the Khazar Empire in the 8th century, but in the 680s, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor, opening access to Moesia, and established the First Bulgarian Empire, which was however Slavicized by the 10th century. Volga Bulgaria preserved their national identity well into the 13th century by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. But they were eventually subdued, and their capital Bolghar city became one of major cities of the Mongol Golden Horde. Later, Volga Bulgars mixed with Tatars of Kazan.
  
  wn.com/Bulgars
• 
  Catherine the Great
  Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great (Russian: Екатерина II Великая, Yekaterina II Velikaya; German: Katharina die Große), Empress of Russia (2 May [O.S. 21 April] 1729 – 17 November [O.S. 6 November] 1796), was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 9 July [O.S. 28 June] 1762 until her death at the age of 67. She was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, and came to power following a coup d'état and the assassination of her husband, Peter III, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Russia was revitalised under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognised as one of the great powers of Europe.
  In both her accession to power and in rule of her empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. Assisted by highly successful generals such as Pyotr Rumyantsev and Alexander Suvorov, and admirals such as Fyodor Ushakov, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the Crimean Khanate was crushed following victories over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish wars, and Russia colonised the vast territories of Novorossiya along the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. In the west, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled by Catherine's former lover, king Stanisław August Poniatowski, was eventually partitioned, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russia started to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America.
  
  wn.com/Catherine_the_Great
• 
  Chuvash people
  The Chuvash people (Chuvash: Чăвашсем; Russian: Чуваши) are a Turkic ethnic group, native to an area stretching from the Volga Region to Siberia. Most of them live in Republic of Chuvashia and surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout all Russia.
  There is no universally accepted etymology of the word Chuvash. However, there are two main theories that try to explain it.
  According to one theory, "Chuvash" is a Shaz-Turkic adaptation of Lir-Turkic Suvar, an ethnonym of people that are widely considered to be the ancestors of modern Chuvashes. Compare Lir-Turkic Chuvash: huran to Shaz-Turkic Tatar: qazan (cauldron).
  Another theory suggests that the word "Chuvash" may be derived from Common Turkic jăvaš ("friendly", "peaceful") as opposed to şarmăs ("warlike").
  There are rival schools of thought on the origin of Chuvash people. One is that they originated from a mixing between the Turkic Suar and Sabir tribes of Volga Bulgaria with local Mari tribes and also the Finno-Ugrian population of the Volga Basin. Another is that the Chuvash are a remainder of the pre-Volga Bulgar population of the Volga region, merged with Scythians, Volga Bulgars and Mari.
  
  wn.com/Chuvash_people
• Denis Arkhipov
  Denis Mikhailovich Arkhipov (Russian: Дени́с Миха́йлович Архи́пов; born May 19, 1979) is a Russian professional ice hockey player currently playing for Neftekhimik Nizhnekamsk of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL).
  Arkhipov was selected 60th overall in the third round of the 1998 NHL Entry Draft. He was selected as the second choice of the Nashville Predators.
  He made his National Hockey League (NHL) debut on January 8, 2001 in a 2–1 loss against the Vancouver Canucks in Vancouver. During this game he notched his first NHL point when he got an assist on a Richard Lintner goal against Bob Essensa. Two days later he scored his first NHL goal in a 5–2 win at the Edmonton Oilers. He scored when he took a Scott Hartnell pass and got it past Tommy Salo. He also got an assist on a Marián Cisár goal to make this his first ever NHL multi-point game.
  In the 2001–02 NHL season he played in all 82 games with a career high 42 points. He led the Predators in goals, game winning goals (6) and shooting percentage (16.9%). That year he centered the "Vowel Line" which also included, Vladimír Országh on right wing, and Martin Erat at left wing. They were called the Vowel Line because their last names all start with vowels.
  
  wn.com/Denis_Arkhipov
• 
  Gavrila Derzhavin
  Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin (Russian: Гаврии́л (Гаври́ла) Рома́нович Держа́вин [] ( listen), July 14, 1743 – July 20, 1816) was arguably one of the greatest Russian poets before Alexander Pushkin, as well as a statesman. Although his works are traditionally considered literary classicism, his best verse is rich with antitheses and conflicting sounds in a way reminiscent of John Donne and other metaphysical poets.
  Derzhavin was born in Kazan. His distant ancestor Morza Bagrim, who relocated from the Great Horde in the 15th century to Moscow, was baptized and became a vassal of the Russian Grand Prince Vasily II. Nevertheless, by the 18th century Derzhavin's father was just a poor country squire who died when Gavrila was still young. He received a little formal education at the gymnasium there but left for Petersburg as a private in the guards. There he rose from the ranks as a common soldier to the highest offices of state under Catherine the Great. He first impressed his commanders during Pugachev's Rebellion. Politically astute, his career advanced when he left the military service for civil service. He rose to the position of governor of Olonets (1784) and Tambov (1785), personal secretary to the Empress (1791), President of the College of Commerce (1794), and finally the Minister of Justice (1802). He was dismissed from his post in 1803 and spent much of the rest of his life in the country estate at Zvanka near Novgorod, writing idylls and anacreontic verse. At his Saint Petersburg house, he held monthly meetings of the conservative Lovers of the Russian Word society. He died in 1816 and was buried in the Khutyn Monastery near Zvanka, reburied by the Soviets in the Novgorod Kremlin, and then reinterred at Khutyn.
  
  wn.com/Gavrila_Derzhavin
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  Ilsur Metshin
  Ilsur Metshin (Russian: Ильсур Раисович Метшин, Tatar Cyrillic: Илсур Рәис улы Метшин, Latin: İlsur Räis ulı Metşin, born April 24, 1969) is a Tatarstan statesman. He was born in Tübän Kama. Since 1993 he worked in Kazan as a politician. Since 1998 he was Mayor of Nizhnekamsk and Nizhnekamsky District and chairman of the Nizhnekamsk Council. Since 2005 November 17 he is the Mayor of Kazan, replacing Kamil Isxaqov. Ethnic Tatar.
  
  wn.com/Ilsur_Metshin
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  Ivan the Terrible
  Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Russian:  Ива́н Четвёртый, Васи́льевич​ (help·info), Ivan Chetvyorty, Vasilyevich; 25 August 1530 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584), known in English as Ivan the Terrible (Russian:  Ива́н Гро́зный​ (help·info), Ivan Grozny; lit. Fearsome), was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km² (1,562,500 sq mi). Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of all Russia.
  Historic sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality: he was described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. On one such outburst Tsar beat and unpremeditatedly killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This led Tsardom to be passed to Tsar's younger son: the weak and intellectually disabledFeodor I of Russia. Ivan's legacy is complex: he was an able diplomat, a patron of arts and trade, founder of the Russia's first Print Yard, but he is also remembered for his paranoiac suspiciousness and cruel persecution of nobility.
  
  wn.com/Ivan_the_Terrible
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  Konstantin Thon
  Konstantin Andreyevich Thon, also spelled Ton (Russian: Константи́н Андре́евич Тон; October 26, 1794 – January 25, 1881) was an official architect of Imperial Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. His major works include the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow.
  Konstantin, born in St. Petersburg to the family of a German jeweller, was one of three Thon brothers who all rose to become notable architects. He studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts (1803–15) under the Empire Style architect Andrey Voronikhin, best remembered for his work on the Kazan Cathedral, situated right in the middle of the Nevsky Prospekt. He studied Italian art in Rome from 1819 to 1828, and on his return home was admitted to the academy as its member (1830) and professor (1833). In 1854, he was appointed rector of the architectural division of the academy.
  Thon first attracted public attention with his sumptuous design for the interiors of the Academy building on the Neva embankment. In 1827, he submitted to the tsar his project of St Catherine church at the Obvodnyi Canal, the first ever design in the Russian Revival style. Nicholas I, who felt disaffected with the prevailing Neoclassicism of Russian architecture, remarked that "Russians have their own great art traditions and don't need to cringe before Rome". Thon's project was to become a revered model for other churches in St Petersburg and across Russia.
  
  wn.com/Konstantin_Thon
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  Kuzma Minin
  Kuzma (Kozma) Minin (Russian: Кузьма (Козьма) Минин; full name Kuzma Minich Zakhariev-Sukhoruky, Russian: Кузьма Минич Захарьев Сухорукий;; ? – 1616) was a Russian merchant from Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, who, together with Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, became a national hero for his role in defending the country against the Polish invasion in the early-17th century.
  A native of Balakhna, Minin was a prosperous butcher (meat trader) in the city of Nizhny Novgorod. When the popular patriotic movement to organize volunteer corps in his home city was formed, the merchants chose Minin, a trusted and respected member of the guild, to oversee the handling of the public funds donated by them to raise and equip the Second Volunteer Army (Второе народное ополчение).
  The army led by prince Dmitry Pozharsky was credited with clearing the Moscow Kremlin of Polish-Lithuanian forces on November 1, 1612. Minin distinguished himself as a skilled commander and was made a nobleman and member of the Boyar Duma under the newly elected Tsar Michael Romanov. He died in 1616 and was interred in the Archangel Cathedral of Nizhny Novgorod. A central square of that city is named after him and Prince Pozharsky.
  
  wn.com/Kuzma_Minin
• 
  Mari people
  The Mari (Russian: черемисы (old name), марийцы (modern name)), are a Volga-Finnic people who have traditionally lived along the Volga and Kama rivers in Russia. The majority of Maris today live in the Mari El Republic, with significant populations in the Tatarstan and Bashkortostan republics. In the past, the Mari have also been known as the Cheremis in Russian and the Çirmeş in Tatar.
  The Mari people consists of three different groups: the Meadow Mari, who live along the left bank of the Volga, the Mountain Mari, who live along the right bank of the Volga, and Eastern Mari, who live in the Bashkortostan republic. In the 2002 Russian census, 604,298 people identified themselves as "Mari," with 18,515 of those specifying that they were Mountain Mari and 56,119 as Eastern Mari. Almost 60% of Mari lived in rural areas.
  The Mari have their own language, also called Mari, which is a member of the Uralic language family. It is written with a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet. Linguists today distinguish four different dialects, which are not all mutually intelligible: Hill Mari (мары йӹлмӹ), concentrated mainly along the right Volga bank; Meadow Mari (марий йылме), spoken in the lowland regions of the Kokshaga and Volga rivers, which includes the city of Yoshkar-Ola; Eastern Mari, spoken east of the Vyatka River; and North-Western Mari.
  
  wn.com/Mari_people
• 
  Nikolai Lobachevsky
  Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (Russian: Никола́й Ива́нович Лобаче́вский) (December 1, 1792 – February 24, 1856 (N.S.); November 20, 1792 – February 12, 1856 (O.S.)) was a Russian mathematician and geometer, renowned primarily for his pioneering works on hyperbolic geometry, otherwise known as Lobachevskian geometry. William Kingdon Clifford called Lobachevsky the "Copernicus of Geometry" due to the revolutionary character of his work.
  Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia in 1792. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. He was one of three children. In 1800, his father died, and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium from 1802, graduating in 1807 and then received a scholarship to Kazan University, which was founded just three years earlier in 1804.
  At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833), a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822, he became a full professor, teaching mathematics, physics, and astronomy. He served in many administrative positions and became the rector of Kazan University in 1827. In 1832, he married Varvara Alexeyevna Moiseyeva. They had a large number of children (eighteen according to his son's memoirs, while only seven apparently survived into adulthood). He was dismissed from the university in 1846, ostensibly due to his deteriorating health: by the early 1850s, he was nearly blind and unable to walk. He died in poverty in 1856.
  
  wn.com/Nikolai_Lobachevsky
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  Peter the Great
  Peter the Great, Peter I or Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov (Russian: Пётр Алексе́евич Рома́нов, Пётр I, Pyotr I, or Пётр Вели́кий, Pyotr Velikiy) (9 June [O.S. 30 May] 1672 – 8 February [O.S. 28 January] 1725) ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May [O.S. 27 April] 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother. In numerous successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a huge empire that became a major European power. According to historian James Cracraft, he led a cultural revolution that replaced the traditionalist and medieval social and political system with a modern, scientific, Europe-oriented, and rationalist system.
  
  wn.com/Peter_the_Great
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  Ruslan Nigmatullin
  Ruslan Karimovich Nigmatullin (Russian: Руслан Каримович Нигматуллин, Tatar Cyrillic: Руслан Кәрим улы Нигъмәтуллин, Latin: Ruslan Kərim ulı Niğmətullin) (born 7 October 1974 in Kazan, Tatarstan, Soviet Union) is a retired association footballer who played goalkeeper of Tatar ethnicity. He has appeared for the Russian national team 24 times (including 5 Olympic appearances) and was their starting keeper at the 2002 World Cup. He was voted Russian Player of the Year 2001 and is considered the best Russian goalkeeper of this period.
  Despite officially retiring from football in February 2006, in September 2008, Nigmatullin decided to make a deal with FC SKA Rostov-on-Don, Russian club from First Division. After playing for another year for 3 different clubs, he retired again in November 2009.
  Nigmatullin signed with Israeli club, Maccabi Ahi Nazareth for the 2009–10 season. His start was a shaky one but his performance improved over the weeks as he acclimated to Israel. Nevertheless, he requested to leave the club in November 2009.
  
  wn.com/Ruslan_Nigmatullin
• 
  Russians
  The Russian people (Russian: русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries.
  The English term Russians is also used to refer to the citizens of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity; the demonym Russian is translated into Russian as rossiyanin (россиянин, plural rossiyane), while the ethnic Russians are referred to as russkiye (sg. русский, russkiy).
  According to the 2010 census, ethnic Russians make up about 81% of the population of Russia.
  The modern Russian is formed from two groups, Northern and Southern, which were made up of Kriviches, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians East Slavic tribes. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Poles or Slovenians or Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and Ukrainians than southern Russians to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Among those peoples were Merya and Muromian.
  
  wn.com/Russians
• Serving Tatars
  Serving Tatars (Tatar Cyrillic: йомышлы татарлар, Latin: Yomışlı Tatarlar; Russian: Служилые татары) were a class of ethnically Tatars state servants in Muscovy and Russia in 14th-18th centuries.
  Originally this class was formed Tatar nobles from Golden Horde and Tatar khanates that enjoyed membership of the Russian service class. Later, qara xalıq (black people) peasants of Kazan Khanate enjoyed this status after the fall of khanate in 1552. Their own ownership of shares in state land were granted to Russian and Qasim nobles.
  The elite of the Serving Tatars were those served as translators, scribes, clerks, ambassadors to Central Asian countries and so on. The majority participated in Livonian war of 1558-1583, as well as other campaigns. They also, with the Cossacks, protected the Eastern borders of Russia, especially in the modern Orenburg Oblast. Unlike most Tatars, they had the right to use firearms and some of them became officers in the Russian Army.
  Serving Tatars received land, financial support and food. They also had privileges in handicraft production and trade. In the 18th century they were reclassified as members of the class of State Peasants.
  
  wn.com/Serving_Tatars
• Svetlana Demina
  Svetlana Aleksandrovna Demina (Russian: Светлана Александровна Демина, born April 18, 1961 in Vologda Oblast) is a Russian sport shooter, specializing in the skeet shootings event. She won the silver medal at the 2000 Olympic Games in the skeet event. She has competed at five Olympic Games: 1988, 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2008 .
  
  
  
  wn.com/Svetlana_Demina
• 
  Tatar language
  The Tatar language (татар теле, татарча, tatar tele, tatarça), or more specifically Kazan Tatar, is a Turkic language spoken by the Tatars of historical Kazan Khanate, including modern Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. It should not be confused with the Crimean Tatar language, to which it is remotely related.
  Tatar is spoken in Russia (about 5.3 million people), Central Asia, Ukraine, Poland, China, Finland, Turkey and other countries.
  Tatar is also native for some thousands of Maris. Mordva's Qaratay group also speak Tatar. 94% of ethnic Tatar claimed knowledge of Tatar language during the 2002 census.
  File:Хальфин Азбука татарского языка 1778.pdf
  Tatar, along with Russian, is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan. The official script of Tatar language is based on the Cyrillic script with some additional letters. Sometimes other scripts are used, mostly Latin and Arabic. All official sources in Tatarstan use Cyrillic at their web-sites and publishing. In other cases, where Tatar has no official status, the use of a specific alphabet depends on the preference of the author. Guides in Tatarstan are published in two alphabets.
  
  wn.com/Tatar_language
• 
  Udmurt people
  The Udmurts are a people who speak the Udmurt language. Through history they have been known in Russian as Chud Otyatskaya (чудь отяцкая), Otyaks, or Votyaks (most known name), and in Tatar as Ar.
  The name Udmurt probably comes from *odo-mort 'meadow people,' where the first part represents the Permic root *od(o) 'meadow, glade, turf, greenery' (related to Finnish itää 'to germinate, sprout') and the second part (Udmurt murt 'person'; cf. Komi mort, Mari mari) is an early borrowing from Indo-Iranian *mertā or *martiya 'person, man' (cf. Persian mard). This is supported by a document dated Feb. 25, 1557, in which alongside the traditional Russian name otyaki the Udmurts are referred to as lugovye lyudi 'meadow people'.
  On the other hand, in the Russian tradition, the name 'meadow people' refers to the inhabitants of the left bank of river general. Recently, the most relevant is the version of V. V. Napolskikh and S. K. Belykh. They suppose that ethnonym was borrowed from the Iranian entirely: *anta-marta 'resident of outskirts, border zone' (cf. Antes) → Proto-Permic *odə-mort → Udmurt udmurt.
  
  wn.com/Udmurt_people
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  Viktor Kolotov
  Viktor Mikhailovich Kolotov ((Russian: Виктор Михайлович Колотов)) (born 3 July 1949, Yudino, Tatar ASSR – 3 January 2000, Kiev) was the Soviet footballer who spent the most and the best of his years in Ukraine.
  He was born in the settlement of Yudino, Kazan municipality. Today the settlement is included in the Kirov Raion of Kazan city. After becoming a coach he extended his welcomed stay in Kiev. Together with Dynamo Kyiv he became the four-time champion of the USSR as well as the two-time holder of the USSR Cup. Also in Europe he participated in the memorable 1976–1975 season when Dynamo Kyiv conquered the Cup Winner's Cup and the UEFA Super Cup. Kolotov was also a European vice-champion (1972).
  
  
  
  
  
  wn.com/Viktor_Kolotov
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  Yemelyan Pugachev
  Yemelyan Ivanovich Pugachov (e. 1742 – 21 January [O.S. January 10] 1775) (Russian: Емелья́н Ива́нович Пугачёв) was a pretender to the Russian throne who led a great Cossack insurrection during the reign of Catherine II. Alexander Pushkin wrote a remarkable history of the rebellion, The History of Pugachov, and he recounted some of the events in his novel The Captain's Daughter (1836).
  Pugachov, the son of a small Don Cossack landowner, was the youngest son of four children. Born in the stanitsa Zimoveyskaya, he signed on to military service at the age of 17. One year later, he married a Cossack girl, Sofya Nedyuzheva, with whom he had a total of five children, two of whom died in infancy. Shortly after his marriage, he joined the Russian Second Army in Prussia during the Seven Years' War under the command of Count Zakhar Chernyshov. He returned home in 1762, and for the next seven years would divide his time between his home village and several service assignments. During this period, he was recognized for his military skill and achieved the Cossack rank of khorunzhii, which would be roughly equivalent to the post of company commander. It was also during this period, in 1770 at the siege of Bender, that he first displayed a flair for impersonation, boasting to his fellow comrades that his sword was given to him by his "godfather", Peter I.
  
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• Yevgeny Zavoisky
  Yevgeny Konstantinovich Zavoisky (Russian: Евгений Константинович Завойский; September 28, 1907 – October 9, 1976) was a Soviet physicist known for discovery of electron paramagnetic resonance in 1944. He likely observed nuclear magnetic resonance in 1941, well before Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell, but dismissed the results as not reproducible. Zavoisky is also credited with design of luminescence camera for detection of nuclear processes in 1952 and discovery of magneto-acoustic resonance in plasma in 1958.
  Zavoisky was born in 1907 in Mogilyov-Podolsk, a town in the south of Russian Empire (now in Vinnytsia oblast, Ukraine). His father Konstantin Ivanovich was a military doctor and mother Elizaveta Nikolaevna was trained as a teacher. In 1910, Zavoisky family moved to Kazan – a major Russian university city – for the sake of better education and well-being of their five children. There, Konstantin Ivanovich obtained a respectable job and a large apartment, which he equipped with equipment and books for home experiments with his children. Yevgeny, in particular, was keen to electromagnetism.
  
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