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Catholic schools are maintained parochial schools or education ministries of the Catholic Church. As of 2011^[update] the Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system.^[1] Catholic schools participate in the evangelizing mission of the Church, integrating religious education as the core subject within their curriculum.

Background[link]

Irish immigration provides the main contribution to the increase in Catholic communities across the globe. The Irish immigration established the revival of Catholicism through movement to countries across Europe, United Kingdom and Australia. Historically, the establishment of Catholic schools in Europe encountered various struggles following the creation of the Church of England in the Elizabethan Religious settlements of 1558-63. Anti-Catholicism in this period encouraged Catholics to create modern Catholic education systems to preserve their traditions. The Relief Acts of 1782 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 later increased the possibility to openly practice Catholicism in England and to create charitable institutions by the Church.^[2] This led to the development of numerous native religious congregations which established schools, hospitals, orphanages, reformatories, and workhouses.^[3]

Traditionally, Catholic schools originated as single sex schools. Catholic schools were previously required to depend on school fees and endowments. This ceased and prevented students from enrolling into Catholic schools due to the inability of paying expensive fees.

Purpose[link]

Catholic schools are very distinctive from their public school counterparts in that they aim to focus on the development of individuals as practitioners of the Catholic faith. The leaders, teachers and students are required to focus on four fundamental rules initiated by the Church and school. This includes the Catholic identity of the school, education in regards to life and faith, celebration of life and faith, and action and social justice.^[4]

Religious education[link]

The Religious Education as a core subject is a vital element of the curriculum where individuals are to develop themselves: “intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally and of course, spiritually.”^[5] The education also involves: “the distinct but complementary aspect of the school's religious dimension of liturgical and prayer life of the school community.”^[5] In Catholic schools, teachers teach a Religious Education Program provided by the Bishop. Both teacher and Bishop therefore, contribute to the planning and teaching Religious Education Lessons.

Asia[link]

Japan[link]

Japan has two Catholic schools.^{[citation needed]}

India[link]

In India, Catholic educational institutions are second in numbers behind government run schools. There are 14,539.^[6] While the schools are centrally tracked by the Catholic Bishops Council of India, they are controlled by the diocese in which they are located.^[7]

There are 13,004 primary and secondary Catholic schools. There are 243 special schools. There are 448 Catholic colleges. There are 534 technical institutions.^[8]

Philippines[link]

In the Philippines, many private schools have been operated by the Catholic Church since the time of Spanish colonization. The Philippines is one of only two predominant Roman Catholic nations in Southeast Asia, with a 2004 study by UNESCO indicating that 83% of the population as identifying themselves as Catholics.^[9] The oldest existing university in Asia can in fact be found in the Philippines known as the University of Santo Tomas and today acts as the largest single Catholic University in the world. The University was established by the Order of Preachers, also known as the Dominican Order, on April 28, 1611 and is much older than the United States Harvard University (1636).^[9]

Europe[link]

Ireland[link]

Catholic schools in Ireland are state-aided, rather than state owned. Not all costs of operating, building and maintenance is provided by the central government.^{[clarification needed]} Local Catholic communities raise funds, as well. Catholics perform volunteer work, for example, on boards of management,^{[clarification needed]} and as Managers. This spares the state expense and resources.^{[clarification needed]} Despite criticism of Church control of the school system by some,^[who?] there is evidence^{[clarification needed]} that the majority of teachers in Catholic schools have great regard for the structures and supports of teaching in a Catholic school.^{[citation needed]}

Church groups in Ireland privately own most primary and secondary schools. Evidence indicates that approximately 60% of secondary schools pupils attend schools owned by religious congregations.^[2]

United Kingdom[link]

England and Wales[link]

In England and Wales, Catholic schools are either independent or voluntary aided, with the funding divided between the state and the Catholic Education Service. The service provides education for approximately 840,000 pupils each year through its 2,300 schools. In addition, some 130 independent schools have a Catholic character.^[10][11] The Catholic Education Service in their website indicates that they interact on behalf of all bishops with the government, and other national bodies on legal, administrative, and religious education matters. This as their website indicates is to: “promote Catholic interests in education; safeguard Catholic interests in education; and, contribute to Christian perspectives within educational debate at national level.”^[12] There have been considerable changes to the way the money has been collected to the support of Catholic schools. The money towards the Catholic community in regards to building and supporting schools has risen from 50% to 90% in both England and Wales. In 2009, Catholic schools in England comprised two-thirds of all religious secondary schools.^[13]

Northern Ireland[link]

The Council for Catholic Maintained Schools (CCMS) is the advocate for the Catholic Maintained Schools sector in Northern Ireland. CCMS represents trustees, schools and governors on issues such as raising and maintaining standards, the schools estate and teacher employment. As the largest employer of teachers in Northern Ireland (8500 teachers), CCMS plays a central role in supporting teachers whether it is through its welfare service or, for example, in working parties such as the Independent Inquiry into Teacher Pay and Conditions of Service. According to the latest figures from Department of Education, N.I. Statistics Branch 2006/2007, the number of pupils registered at school in Northern Ireland is 329,583. The number of pupils attending Catholic managed schools is 148,225.^[14][14]

North America and South America[link]

Latin America[link]

The vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics. It is indicated that 83% of the Latin American population consider themselves Catholic. Catholic educational practices were brought to the indigenous population of the Maya, Inca and Aztec by Spaniards, Portuguese and European cultures. The neoliberal political reforms by Milton Friedman, from 1990-2010 further challenged Catholic schools in Latin America.^{[citation needed][clarification needed]} Anticlericalism was established in the 19th century resulting to a temporary alienation between church and state. The 20th century, however has seen political powers seek to harness the continuing popular influence of the church in support of authoritarian regimes, including military dictatorships.^{[citation needed]}

United States[link]

St. Thomas High School in Houston, Texas

Catholic schools are the largest non-public school system in the USA. Catholicism of schools in the United States was first established during the nineteenth century with the arrival of English immigrants. Catholic schools in the USA are significant in that Catholicism is seen to have been critical in developing the American culture. The development and enrollment of Americans into Catholic schools increased after World War II, Post-war development and Cold War in the battle against anti-religious Communism.^[15] By the time of 1964-1965, 89% of students attended Catholic schools in Catholic private schools, the largest Catholic attendance ever seen in the history of the United States.^[15] Since then, there has been a large decline in the amount of enrollment in Catholic schools, predominantly believed to be due to “suburbanization, liberalization of education and the rise of the Catholic middle-class.”^[15] In the United States, Catholic schools are also accredited by independent and/or state agencies, and teachers are generally certified. Schools are supported through tuition payments and fund raising charities.

In contrast to its public school counter-parts, Catholic urbanization have made more significant achievements in poor areas than wealthier areas. Holy Angels, for example has become one of the strongest academic institutions in the country; it serves the Kenwood, Oakland neighborhoods of South Side Chicago, Illinois, where 3 out of 4 people live in poverty and violent crime is frequent.^[15]

Oceania[link]

Australia[link]

In Australia, Catholic schools have been operating for over 175 years.The arrival of the first fleet brought the first Irish Catholics to Australia, predominantly by the transport of convicts. Catholics consisted one-tenth of the convicts settling in Australia, mostly Irish whilst the rest were English and Scottish. By 1803, 2086 convicts of Irish descent and majority being Catholics had been transported to Botany Bay.^[16]

Catholic schools are the largest group of non-government schools in Australia accounting for some 18% of institutions (1705 of 9529 as of 2009), compared to 11% for independent schools (1022).^[17] Catholic schools are those run by the diocesan Catholic Department of Education; some independent schools are owned and run by Catholic religious orders. In addition, there is at least one school operating within the Society of St Pius X, Catholic traditionalists in irregular canonical status with Rome (Their current canonical status is being resolved in Rome presently): St Thomas Aquinas College in Tynong, Victoria.

As with other classes of non-government schools in Australia, Catholic schools receive funding from the Commonwealth Government. As this does not constitute the establishment of a church, nor the restriction of the free exercise of religion, nor does it create a religious test for public office, it is not considered to breach the separation of Church and State in Australia. This was the decision of the High Court in the Defence of Government Schools (DOGS) case of 1981, in which the judges selectively interpreted s.116 of the Australian Constitution, and is controversial.^[18]

New Zealand[link]

Catholic education in New Zealand was first introduced following the arrival of the first Catholic Bishop, Jean Baptiste Pompallier in 1838. A year after signing the Treaty of Waitangi, the first Catholic school in New Zealand was developed in Auckland on 1841.^[19]

The schools were originally managed by seven sisters from Ireland and aimed to assist the Maori population and the new settlers. From 1853 to 1875, the provincial governments financed grants for the Catholic schools. The Education Act 1877 however, allowed all schools to be free, compulsory and secular, and therefore disallowing funding of Catholic schools. It was only after the passing of the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975 in which Catholic schools were integrated with the State education system with the State being able to assist in operating Catholic schools.^[19]

As of 2005, 9% of the total population in New Zealand attended Catholic schools.^[19] The majority are New Zealand Europeans however, it is believed to be increasingly becoming multicultural.

The Catholic schools are owned by a proprietor, typically by the Bishop of the diocese. Currently, Catholic schools in New Zealand are termed 'state integrated schools' for funding purposes, meaning that teachers' salaries, learning materials, and operations of the school (e.g. power and gas) are publicly funded, but the school property is not. New Zealand Catholic schools are built on land owned by the diocese; if the government were to fund Catholic school property maintenance and capital works above the entitlement of any other private property owner, it would be transferring wealth to the bishop, breaking the separation of church and state. Instead, parents of students at Catholic schools pay "attendance dues" to the proprietors to fund property costs.

Funding[link]

State funding[link]

In some countries, Catholic schools are funded by the state. These are institutions that requires assistance from the government. This is the same in public schools where government who mandate schools pay for the needs of schools whether in whole or in part, by taxes of the population. Australian catholic schools fall under this category, where the Australian government fund Catholic schools as well as state schools.^[20] Non-independent catholic schools in Scotland is another example where the institutions are fully funded by the Scottish Government.

Private schools[link]

Private schools, also known as independent schools are not managed by local, state or national governments. They instead may select their students and are funded in whole or in part by the tuition fees charged to students, rather than relying on the government as public schools do. Students may also get scholarships to enter into a private school depending on the student’s talent.

Voluntary aided schools[link]

Voluntary aided schools are a kind of "maintained school", meaning that they receive the majority of their running costs from central government via the local authority, and do not charge fees to students. In contrast to other types of maintained school, only 90% of the capital costs of a voluntary aided school are met by government. The foundation contributes the rest of the capital costs, owns the school's land and buildings and appoints a majority of the school governors. The governing body runs the school, employs the staff and decides the school's admission arrangements, subject to rules imposed by central government. Pupils follow the National Curriculum, except that faith schools may teach Religious Education according to their own faith. Within the maintained sector in England, approximately 22% of primary schools and 17% of secondary schools are voluntary aided, including all of the Roman Catholic schools and the schools of non-Christian faiths.

International benefits[link]

Preference for the poor[link]

Catholic schools have experienced changes heralded by the Second Vatican Council in regards to Catholic social teaching cantered on the poor: “First and Foremost, the Church offers its educational services to the poor, or those who are deprived of family help and affection or those who are far from faith...”^[21] These changes have led to instances in Brazil, Peru and Chile where the contributions has led to “a new way of being in school,” by including the disadvantaged and people in poor areas to education.

High attendance and performance[link]

Empirical evidence in the United States and Australia indicates that education performance and attendance are greater in Catholic schools in contrasts to its public counter-parts. Evans and Schwab (1998) in their experiment found that attendance at Catholic schools in the United States increases the probability of completing high school or commencing college by 13%.^[22] Similarly, an experiment conducted by Williams and Carpenter (1990) of Australia through comparing previous examination by private and public schools concluded that students in private education outperform those from government schools on all educational, social and economic indicators.^[22]

Development of girls in society[link]

Catholic schooling has indicated a large impact in the changing role of women for countries such as Malta and Japan. Catholic schooling of girls in Malta, for example indicates: “...evidence of remarkable commitment to the full development of girls in a global society.”^[21] Similarly, all girl schools in Japan have also contributed powerfully to the “personal and educational patriarchal society”.^[21]

International challenges[link]

Economic inequality[link]

The expensive cost and necessity to obtain high salary levels is contributing to the difficulty of maintain Catholic schools. This is especially a challenge for the Church’s commitment of the “preferential education for the poor.” Many Catholic schools in the United States in inner America which has traditionally served the most in are continuously being forced to close at an increasing rate. This may be seen as contradicting the Catholic schools principles as it does not live up to its reality. The preferential services to the poor serves a problem when there is a clear distinction that wealthier Catholic schools receive better resources and are more privileged than those in areas of low-income.^[21][21] This today is being experienced in Latin America and other national settings where financial constraints in serving the poor is not being undertaken as state aid or subsidy are not being available to the Catholic schools.

Political context[link]

There has been instances where some political ideologies that are engaged with secularism or countries that have high nationalism are suspicious of what Catholic schools are teaching. The moral and social teachings by Catholic schools may be seen as “continuation of Colonial cultural dominance of the society,” still being felt in countries of Spain, Zambia and Malawi.^[21]

See also[link]

• Category:Roman Catholic schools by country
• Category:Roman Catholic schools by region (continent)
• Christian school
• National Catholic Educational Association
• Parochial school

References[link]

External links[link]

• Alliance for Catholic Education – more information on support for Catholic schools in the United States
• Catholic Colleges and Universities in the United States
• Catholic Schools List of Catholic schools in Australia
• List of Catholic schools in Denmark
• [4] CBCI, INDIA

Saint Charles Borromeo
Cardinal Archbishop of Milan
Carlo Borromeo, by Giovanni Figino. Oil on canvas, 41 × 48 cm. Biblioteca Ambrosiana
Church	Catholic Church
See	Milan
Enthroned	12 May 1564
Reign ended	3 November 1584
Predecessor	Filippo II Archinti
Successor	Gaspare Visconti
Orders
Ordination	4 September 1563
Consecration	7 December 1563 by Giovanni Serbelloni
Created Cardinal	31 January 1560
Rank	Cardinal-Priest of Santa Prassede
Personal details
Birth name	Count Charles Borromeo di Arona
Born	(1538-10-02)2 October 1538 Castle of Arona, Duchy of Milan
Died	3 November 1584(1584-11-03) (aged 46) Milan
Buried	Milan Cathedral
Parents	Gilberto Borromeo, 7th Count of Arona Margherita de' Medici di Marignano
Sainthood
Feast day	November 4
Venerated in	Catholic Church
Beatified	12 May 1602 by Pope Paul V
Canonized	1 November 1610 by Pope Paul V
Attributes	cord, red cardinal robes
Patronage	against ulcers; apple orchards; bishops; catechists; catechumens; colic; intestinal disorders; Lombardy, Italy; Monterey California; seminarians; spiritual directors; spiritual leaders; starch makers; stomach diseases; São Carlos city in Brazil (as the name indicates)
Shrines	Milan Cathedral

Intercession of Charles Borromeo supported by the Virgin Mary by Rottmayr (Karlskirche, Vienna)

Charles Borromeo (Italian: Carlo Borromeo, Latin: Carolus Borromeus, 1538–1584) was the cardinal archbishop of the Catholic Archdiocese of Milan from 1564 to 1584. He was a leading figure during the Counter-Reformation and was responsible for significant reforms in the Catholic Church, including the founding of seminaries for the education of priests. He is honoured as a saint in the Catholic Church and his feast day is November 4.

Early life[link]

The son of Gilberto II Borromeo, conte (count) of Arona, and Margherita de' Medici (sister of Pope Pius IV), Carlo Borromeo was born on October the 2nd, 1538 at the castle of Arona on the shores of Lago Maggiore in northern Italy. The aristocratic Borromeo family's coat of arms included the Borromean rings, sometimes taken to symbolize the Holy Trinity.

When Borromeo was about twelve years old, his uncle Giulio Cesare Borromeo, resigned to him an abbacy (the office and dignity of an abbot). Borromeo applied the revenue from this position in charity to the poor. He studied civil and canon law at Pavia. In 1554 his father died, and although he had an elder brother, Count Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the management of their domestic affairs. After a time, he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctoral degree. In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de' Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pope Pius IV.

Pius IV named Borromeo as protonotary apostolic (secretary of state), entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the ecclesiastical state. He then named Borromeo to the post of Cardinal of Romagna and the March of Ancona, and supervisor of the Franciscans, Carmelites and Knights of Malta.

Archbishop of Milan[link]

At age twenty-two, Borromeo was highly trusted at the papal court. Soon afterwards Pius IV raised him to the archbishop of Milan. In compliance with the pope's desire, Borromeo lived in splendor to represent the glory of the church. He established an academy of learned persons, the Academy of the Vatican Nights, and published their memoirs as the Noctes Vaticanae.

About the same time, Borromeo founded and endowed a college at Pavia, today known as Almo Collegio Borromeo, which he dedicated to Saint Justina of Padua. On the death of his elder brother Federigo, his family urged Borromeo to quit the church to marry and have children, so that the family name would not become extinct.

Borromeo declined the proposal. He worked even harder for the welfare of the church. Owing to his influence over Pius IV, he facilitated the final deliberations of the Council of Trent. He took a large share in the creation of the Tridentine Catechism (Catechismus Romanus).

Reform Program (Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis)[link]

After the death of his uncle, Pius IV (1566), Borromeo contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of the conclave. Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his diocese. It had deteriorated in practice owing to the 80-year absence of previous archbishops.^[1] Borromeo made numerous pastoral visits, and restored dignity to divine service.

In conformity with the decrees of the Council of Trent, which suggested simplifying church interiors, Borromeo cleared the cathedral of ornate tombs, rich ornaments, banners, and arms. He did not even spare the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the nave of the church into two compartments to separate the sexes at worship.

Painting by Francesco Caccianiga showing an angel tending to Charles Borromeo

He extended his reforms to the collegiate churches, monasteries and even to the Confraternities of Penitents, particularly that of St. John the Baptist. This group was to attend to prisoners and those condemned to death, to give them help and support.

Borromeo believed that abuses in the church arose from clergy ignorance. Among his most important actions, he established seminaries, colleges and communities for the education of candidates for holy orders. His emphasis on Catholic learning greatly increased the preparation of men for priesthood and benefited their congregations.

In addition, Borromeo founded the fraternity of Oblates of St. Ambrose, a society of secular men who did not take orders, but devoted themselves to the church and followed a discipline of monastic prayers and study. They provided assistance to parishes where ordered by the church.^[1]

Suppression of witchcraft and heresy[link]

Though the Diet of Ilanz of 1524 and 1526 had proclaimed freedom of worship in the Republic of the Three Leagues, Saint Charles repressed Protestantism in the Swiss valleys. The Catholic Encyclopedia relates: “In November [1583] he began a visitation as Apostolic visitor of all the cantons of Switzerland and the Grisons, leaving the affairs of his diocese in the hands of Monsignor Owen Lewis, his vicar-general. He began in the Mesoleina Valley; here not only was there heresy to be fought, but also witchcraft and sorcery, and at Roveredo it was discovered that the provost, or rector, was the foremost in sorceries.” ^[2] During his pastoral visit to the region, the Cardinal had about a hundred people arrested for practising witchcraft. Ten women and the provost were condemned to “the flaming death”. They were put to death by being placed head-first in the fire.^[3]

Reacting to the pressure of the Protestant Reformation, Borromeo encouraged the Golden League formed in 1586 by Ludwig Pfyffer in Switzerland. Based in Lucerne, the organization (also called the Borromean League) linked activities of several Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland, which became the centre of Catholic Counter-Reformation efforts. This Inquisition-type organization was determined to expel heretics and burned some people at the stake. It created severe strains in the civil administration of the confederation, and it caused the break-up of Appenzell canton along religious lines.

In 1576, when Milan suffered an epidemic of the bubonic plague, Borromeo led efforts to accommodate the sick and bury the dead. He avoided no danger and spared no expense. He visited all the parishes where the contagion raged, distributing money, providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging their duties.^{[citation needed]}

Controversy and last days[link]

Borromeo met with much opposition to his reforms. The governor of the province, and many of the senators, addressed complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. They were apprehensive that the cardinal's ordinances would encroach upon the civil jurisdiction.

Borromeo also faced staunch opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the Humiliati (Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society formed a conspiracy against his life, and a shot was fired at him in the archiepiscopal chapel. His survival was considered miraculous.

He successfully attacked his Jesuit confessor, Giovanni Battista Ribera who, with other members of the college of Milan, was found to be guilty of unnatural offenses. This action increased Borromeo's enemies within the church.

Borromeo's manifold labors and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He was seized with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on November the 3rd, 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is celebrated on 4 November each year in the Roman Catholic Rite.

Legacy[link]

Crypt of Charles Borromeo, in the Duomo di Milano.

Il Sancarlone (English: The huge Saint Charles): colossal statue of Charles Borromeo erected in Arona, Italy in 1697. The work of Giovanni Battista Crespi, the statue is 23 m tall and stands on a plinth 12 m. in height.

• Besides the Noctes Vaticanae, to which he appeared to have contributed, Borromeo's written legacy consisted only of some homilies, discourses and sermons, with a collection of letters. Borromeo's sermons have been translated into many languages.

• Contrary to Borromeo's last wishes, the Duomo di Milano created a memorial crypt to him in the church.

• His relative Federico Borromeo and admirers commissioned a statue 20 m high that was erected on the hill above Arona, as they regarded him an important leader of the Counter-Reformation.

• The famous church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome was dedicated in his honor.

• His nephew, Federico Borromeo (1564–1631), was archbishop of Milan from 1595 and, furthering Charles' support for Catholic learning, in 1609 founded the Ambrosian Library in that city. He donated a tremendous collection of art and literature to the library.

• Borromeo's emblem is the Latin word humilitas (humility), which is a portion of the Borromeo shield. He is usually represented in art in his robes, barefoot, carrying the cross as archbishop; a rope round his neck, one hand raised in blessing, thus recalling his work during the plague.

• Borromeo is one of only four people mentioned at the beginning of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, citing them as responsible for the Council of Trent, which gave way to the modern day catechism. The others mentioned are St. Peter Canisius, St. Turibius of Mongrovejo and St. Robert Bellarmine.

• The city and county of St. Charles, Missouri are named for Borromeo. Also, a Brazilian city was named after him, named in Portuguese São Carlos.

• The Parish of St. Charles, Louisiana is named for Borromeo.

Veneration[link]

People's devotion to Borromeo as a saint arose quickly and continued to grow. The Milanese celebrated his anniversary as though he were already canonized. Supporters collected documentation for his canonization. They began the process at Milan, Pavia, Bologna and other places.

In 1602 Pope Paul V beatified Borromeo. In 1604 his case was sent on to the Congregation of Rites. On 1 November 1610, Paul V canonized Charles Borromeo. Three years later, the church added Borromeo's feast to the Roman Catholic calendar of saints for celebration on 4 November, which is still his feast. Along with Anselm of Lucca, he was one of only two cardinal-nephews to have been canonized.

The position which Charles Borromeo held in Europe was indeed remarkable. He is venerated as a saint of learning and the arts. The mass of correspondence both to and by him testifies to the way in which his opinion was sought. The popes under whom he served sought his advice. The Catholic sovereigns of Europe: Henry III of France, Philip II of Spain, Mary, Queen of Scots and others showed how they valued his influence.

Depiction of Charles Borromeo in a stained glass window.

His brother cardinals wrote in praise of his virtues. Cardinal Valerio of Verona said of him that Borromeo was "to the well-born a pattern of virtue, to his brother cardinals an example of true nobility." Cardinal Baronius styled him "a second Ambrose, whose early death, lamented by all good men, inflicted great loss on the Church."

Late in the sixteenth or at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Catholics in England circulated among themselves a "Life of St. Charles".^[4] Saint Edmund Campion, a Jesuit who visited Borromeo at Milan in 1580 on his way to England, likely took his influence with him. Campion visited with Borromeo for eight days, when they would talk at length every night after dinner. Borromeo had also been involved in English affairs when he assisted Pius IV. He had a great veneration for the portrait of Bishop Fisher.

Borromeo also worked closely with Francis Borgia, General of the Jesuits, and with Andrew Avellino of the Theatines, who gave great help to his work in Milan.

Karlskirche, Vienna, Austria; Carolus Borromeuskerk, Antwerp, Belgium; Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California; Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo in nearby Monterey, California; the city of Saint Charles, Missouri, San Carlos City, Negros Occidental, were all named in his honor.

Roman Catholic schools and parishes are named after him in Toronto, CanadaTacoma, Washington;Kettering, Ohio; Fort Wayne, Indiana; Bloomington, Indiana; Albuquerque, New Mexico; Bayport, Minnesota; Paisley, Scotland; Brooklyn, New York, Staten Island, New York; Syracuse, New York; London, England; New York; Woonsocket, Rhode Island; Cinnaminson, New Jersey; Montgomery, New Jersey; Peoria, Arizona; Orlando, Florida; Port Charlotte, Florida; San Francisco, California; Livermore, California; Sacramento, California; Bloomington, California; Columbus, Ohio; Lima, Ohio; Cassville, Wisconsin;Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin; Hartland, Wisconsin; Pikesville, Maryland; Arlington, Virginia; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Cheboygan, Michigan; Newport, Michigan; Ryde, New South Wales, Australia; Waverley, New South Wales, Australia; Portland, Oregon; Cleveland, Ohio; Cebu City, Philippines. The San Carlos Seminary of the Archdiocese of Manila in Makati City, Philippines, San Carlos Major Seminary of the Archdiocese of Cebu, University of San Carlos in Cebu City, Philippines, the Priestly Seminary of St. Charles Borromeo (Kňazský Seminár sv. Karola Boromejského) in Košice, Slovakia,^[5] the seminary of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Colegio San Carlos in Bogotá, Colombia, are all named after him.

See also[link]

• Silent preaching

Notes[link]

Sources, references and external links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Charles Borromeo

• The Life of St. Charles Borromeo, Confessor and Archbishop of Milan
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. 
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• A Sala, Documenti circa la vita e la gesta di Borromeo (4 vols., Milan: 1857–1859)
• Chanoine Silvain, Histoire de St Charles Borromeo (Milan: 1884)
• A Cantono, "Un grande riformatore del secolo XVI" (Florence: 1904); "Borromus" in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (Leipzig: 1897).
• University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines Official Site
• Saint Charles Borromeo Seminary, Archdiocese of Philadelphia
• Pietro Canetta, "Biography of Carlo Borromeo" (in Italian), Magazzeno Storico Verbanese
• "St. Charles Borromeo", Catholic Encyclopedia
• "St. Charles Borromeo, Cardinal, Archbishop of Milan, Confessor", Butler's Lives of the Saints

Saint John Fisher
John Fisher, by Hans Holbein the Younger
Cardinal; bishop and martyr
Born	c. (1469-10-19)19 October 1469[1] Beverley, Yorkshire, England
Died	22 June 1535(1535-06-22) (aged 65) Tower Hill, London, England
Honored in	Roman Catholic Church, Church of England
Beatified	29 December 1886, Rome by Pope Leo XIII
Canonized	19 May 1935, Rome by Pope Pius XI
Feast	22 June (Roman Catholic Church) 6 July (Church of England)
Patronage	Diocese of Rochester

Saint John Fisher (1459^[2] /c. 19 October 1469^[1] – 22 June 1535) was an English Roman Catholic scholastic, cardinal, and martyr. He shares his feast day with Saint Thomas More on 22 June in the Roman Catholic calendar of saints and on 6 July in the Anglican. Fisher was executed by order of King Henry VIII during the English Reformation for refusing to accept the king as Supreme Head of the Church of England and for upholding the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine of papal primacy.

Early life[link]

John Fisher was born in Beverley, Yorkshire, England in 1469, the eldest son of Robert Fisher, a modestly prosperous merchant of Beverley, and Agnes, his wife. He was one of four children. His father died when John was 8. His mother remarried and had five more children by her second husband, William White. Fisher seems to have had close contacts with his extended family all his life. Fisher's early education was probably received in the school attached to the collegiate church in his home town. He attended Beverley Grammar School, an old foundation claiming to date from the year 700. In the present day, one of the houses at the school is named in Fisher's honour.

Fisher studied at the University of Cambridge from 1484, where at Michaelhouse he came under the influence of William Melton, a pastorally-minded theologian open to the new current of reform in studies arising from the Renaissance. Fisher earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1487 and in 1491, proceeded to a Master of Arts degree. The same year he was elected a fellow of his college.^[3] He was also made Vicar of Northallerton, Yorkshire. In 1494 he resigned his benefice to become proctor of the university and three years later was appointed master debator, about which date he also became chaplain and confessor to Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of King Henry VII. On 5 July 1501, he became a doctor of sacred theology and 10 days later was elected Vice-Chancellor of the University. Under Fisher's guidance, his patroness Lady Margaret founded St John's and Christ's Colleges at Cambridge, and a Lady Margaret Professorship of Divinity at each of the two universities at Oxford and Cambridge, Fisher himself becoming the first occupant of the Cambridge chair. He was also in the years 1505 to 1508 the President of Queens' College. At the end of July 1516 he was at Cambridge for the opening of St John's College and consecrated the chapel.

Fisher's strategy was to assemble funds and attract to Cambridge leading scholars from Europe, promoting the study not only of Classical Latin and Greek authors, but of Hebrew. He was in his heart and soul a priest, and placed great weight upon pastoral commitment, above all popular preaching by the endowed staff. Fisher's foundations were also dedicated to prayer for the dead, especially through chantry foundations. Fisher had a wide and deep vision to which he dedicated all his personal resources and energies. A scholar and a priest, harsh with himself, humble and conscientious, he managed despite occasional opposition to carry with him and administer a whole university, one of only two in England. He conceived and saw through long-term projects, following them when he saw the chance. His production of learned and spiritual publications in the midst of a busy life and his attitude to persevere with learning Latin and Hebrew even when he was older show the man's willingness to achieve the extraordinary.

Bishop[link]

By Papal Bull dated 14 October 1504, Fisher was appointed the Bishop of Rochester at the personal insistence of Henry VII. Rochester was then the poorest diocese in England and usually seen as a first step on an ecclesiastical career, but Fisher stayed there, presumably by his own choice, for the remaining 31 years of his life. He aimed at becoming a model bishop. At the same time, like any English bishop of his day, he had certain state duties. In particular, he maintained a passionate interest in the University of Cambridge. In 1504 he was elected the university's chancellor and was re-elected annually for 10 years and then appointed for life. At this date he is also said to have acted as tutor to Prince Henry, afterwards King Henry VIII. As a preacher his reputation was so great that in 1509, during which both King Henry VII and the Lady Margaret died, Fisher was appointed to preach the funeral oration on both occasions, the texts being still extant.

Despite his fame and eloquence, it was not long before Fisher was in conflict with the new king, his former pupil, Henry VIII. The dispute arose over funds left by the Lady Margaret, the King's grandmother, for the financing of the foundations at Cambridge.

Besides his share in the Lady Margaret's foundations, Fisher gave further proof of his genuine zeal for learning by inducing Erasmus to visit Cambridge. The latter ("Epistulae" 6:2) attributes it to Fisher's protection that the study of Greek was allowed to proceed at Cambridge without the active molestation that it encountered at Oxford.

In 1512 Fisher was nominated as one of the English representatives at the Fifth Council of the Lateran, then sitting, but his journey to Rome was postponed, and finally abandoned.

Fisher has also been named, though without any real proof, as the true author of the royal treatise against Martin Luther entitled "Assertio septem sacramentorum" (The Defense of the Seven Sacraments), published in 1521, which won for King Henry VIII the title "Fidei Defensor" (Defender of the Faith). Prior to this date Fisher had denounced various abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, urging the need of disciplinary reforms. On about 11 February 1526, at the King's command, he preached a famous sermon against Luther at St Paul's Cross, the open-air pulpit outside St Paul's Cathedral in London. This was in the wake of numerous other controversial writings and the battle against heterodox teachings was to occupy increasingly his later years. In 1529 Fisher ordered the arrest of Thomas Hitton, a follower of William Tyndale, and subsequently interrogated him. Hitton was, according to Tyndale, tortured and executed at the stake for heresy.^[4]

Defence of Catherine of Aragon[link]

When the question of Henry's divorce from Queen Catherine of Aragon arose, Fisher became the Queen's chief supporter and most trusted counselor. In this capacity he appeared on the Queen's behalf in the legates' court, where he startled his hearers by the directness of his language and most of all by declaring that, like St John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. This statement was reported to Henry VIII, who was so enraged by it that he himself composed a long Latin address to the legates in answer to the bishop's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared the royal anger. The removal of the cause to Rome brought Fisher's personal share therein to an end, but the king never forgave him for what he had done.

Henry's attack on the Church[link]

In November 1529, the "Long Parliament" of Henry's reign began its series of encroachments on the Roman Catholic Church. Fisher, as a member of the upper house, at once warned Parliament that such acts could only end in the utter destruction of the Roman Catholic Church in England. On this the Commons, through their speaker, complained to the king that Fisher had disparaged Parliament, presumably with Henry prompting them behind the scenes. The opportunity was not lost. Henry summoned Fisher before him, demanding an explanation. This being given, Henry declared himself satisfied, leaving it to the Commons to declare that the explanation was inadequate, so that he appeared as a magnanimous sovereign, instead of Fisher's enemy.

A year later, in 1530, the continued encroachments on the Church moved Fisher, as Bishop of Rochester, along with the Bishops of Bath and Ely, to appeal to the Holy See. This gave the King his opportunity and an edict forbidding such appeals was immediately issued, and the three bishops were arrested. Their imprisonment, however, must have lasted a few months only for in February 1531, Convocation met, and Fisher was present. This was the occasion when the clergy were forced, at a cost of 100,000 pounds, to purchase the king's pardon for having recognized Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's authority as legate of the pope; and at the same time to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church in England, to which phrase, but the addition of the clause "so far as God's law permits" was made through Fisher's efforts.

A few days later, several of Fisher's servants were taken ill after eating some porridge served to the household and two died. A cook, Richard Rice, was executed for attempted poisoning.

"The King's Great Matter"[link]

Matters now moved rapidly. In May 1532, Sir Thomas More resigned the chancellorship and, in June, Fisher preached publicly against the divorce. In August, William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, died and Thomas Cranmer was at once proposed by Henry to the Pope as his successor. In January of the next year, Henry secretly went through a form of marriage with Anne Boleyn. Cranmer's consecration as a bishop took place in March 1533, and, a week later, Fisher was arrested. It seems that the purpose of this arrest was to prevent him from opposing the sentence of divorce which Cranmer pronounced in May, or the coronation of Anne Boleyn which followed on 1 June, for Fisher was set at liberty again within a fortnight of the latter event, no charge being made against him. In the autumn of 1533, various arrests were made in connection with the so-called revelations of the Holy Maid of Kent, Elizabeth Barton, but as Fisher was taken seriously ill in December, proceedings against him were postponed for a time. However, in March 1534, a special Bill of Attainder against Fisher and others for complicity in the matter of the Maid of Kent was introduced in Parliament and passed. By this, Fisher was condemned to forfeit all his personal estate and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. Subsequently a pardon was granted him on payment of a fine of 300 pounds.

The same session of Parliament passed the First Succession Act, by which all who should be called upon to do so were compelled to take an oath of succession, acknowledging the issue of Henry and Anne as legitimate heirs to the throne, under pain of being guilty of misprision of treason. Fisher refused the oath and was sent to the Tower of London on 26 April 1534. Several efforts were made to induce him to submit, but without effect, and in November he was attained of misprision of treason a second time, his goods being forfeited as from the previous First of March, and the See of Rochester being declared vacant as of 2 June following. He was to remain in the Tower for over a year, and while he was allowed food and drink sent by friends, and a servant, he was not allowed a priest, even to the very end. A long letter exists, written from the Tower by Fisher to Thomas Cromwell, speaking of the severity of his conditions of imprisonment.

As Thomas More, Bishop Fisher believed that because the statute condemned only those speaking maliciously against the King's new title, there was safety in silence. However, on 7 May he fell into a trap laid for him by Richard Rich, who was to perjure himself to obtain Thomas More's conviction. Rich told Fisher that for his own conscience's sake the King wished to know, in strict secrecy, Fisher's real opinion. A priest accustomed to secrecy in matters of conscience, Fisher was taken in and said that he was convinced "that the King was not, nor could be, by the Law of God, Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England". By saying this, he had fallen foul of the law.

Cardinalate and execution[link]

The armorial bearings of Cardinal Fisher

In May 1535, the new pope, Paul III, created Fisher Cardinal-Priest of San Vitale, apparently in the hope of inducing Henry to ease Fisher's treatment. The effect was precisely the reverse, Henry forbade the cardinal's hat to be brought into England, declaring that he would send the head to Rome instead. In June a special commission for Fisher's trial was issued, and on Thursday, 17 June, he was arraigned in Westminster Hall before a court of seventeen, including Thomas Cromwell, Anne Boleyn's father, and ten justices. The charge was treason, in that he denied that the king was the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Since he had been deprived of his position of Bishop of Rochester by the Act of Attainder, he was treated as a commoner, and tried by jury. The only testimony was that of Richard Rich. John Fisher was found guilty and condemned to be hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburn.

However, a public outcry was brewing among the London populace who saw a sinister irony in the parallels between the conviction of Fisher and that of his patronal namesake, Saint John the Baptist, who was executed by King Herod Antipas for challenging the validity of Herod's marriage to his brother's divorcée Herodias. For fear of John Fisher's living through his patronal feast day, that of the Nativity of St John the Baptist on 24 June, and of attracting too much public sympathy, King Henry commuted the sentence to that of beheading, to be accomplished before 23 June, the Vigil of the feast of the Nativity of St John the Baptist. His execution on Tower Hill on 22 June 1535, had the opposite effect from that which King Henry VIII intended. John Fisher's beheading created yet another ironic parallel with that of the martyrdom of St John the Baptist who was also beheaded; his death also happened on the feast day of St Alban, the first martyr of Britain.

Fisher's last moments were thoroughly in keeping with his previous life. He met death with a calm dignified courage which profoundly impressed those present. His body was treated with particular rancour, apparently on Henry's orders, being stripped and left on the scaffold until the evening, when it was taken on pikes and thrown naked into a rough grave in the churchyard of All Hallows' Barking, also known as All Hallows-by-the-Tower. There was no funeral prayer. A fortnight later, his body was laid beside that of Sir Thomas More in the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula within the Tower of London. Fisher's head was stuck upon a pole on London Bridge but its ruddy and lifelike appearance excited so much attention that, after a fortnight, it was thrown into the Thames, its place being taken by that of Sir Thomas More, whose martyrdom, also at Tower Hill, occurred on 6 July.

Fisher was a figure universally esteemed throughout Europe and notwithstanding the subsequent efforts of the English government, was to remain so. In the Decree of Beatification issued on 29 December 1886 by Pope Leo XIII, when 54 English martyrs were beatified, the greatest place was given to Fisher. He was later canonised, on 19 May 1935, by Pope Pius XI along with Thomas More,^[5] after the presentation of a petition by English Catholics.

Portraits[link]

Several portraits of Fisher exist, the most prominent being by Hans Holbein the Younger in the Royal Collection; and a few secondary relics are extant.

Relic[link]

Fisher's walking-staff is in the possession of the Eyston family of East Hendred, in Oxfordshire (formerly Berkshire).^[6]

Cinematic and television portrayals[link]

John Fisher was portrayed by veteran actor Joseph O'Conor in the film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), by Bosco Hogan in the miniseries The Tudors, and by Geoffrey Lewis in the 1971 miniseries The Six Wives of Henry VIII.

Writings[link]

A list of Fisher's writings is found in Joseph Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of the English Catholics (London, s.d.), II, 262–270. There are twenty-six works in all, printed and manuscript, mostly ascetical or controversial treatises, several of which have been reprinted many times. The original editions are very rare and valuable. The principal are:

• Treatise concernynge...the seven penytencyall Psalms" (London, 1508);
• Sermon...agayn ye pernicyous doctrin of Martin Luther (London, 1521);
• Defensio Henrici VIII" (Cologne, 1525);
• De Veritate Corporis et Sanguinis Christi in Eucharistia, adversus Johannem Oecolampadium (Cologne, 1527);
• The Ballad of Barry Buttock, a Cautionary Tale (London, 1529);
• De Causa Matrimonii...Henrici VIII cum Catharina Aragonensi (Alcalá de Henares, 1530);
• The Wayes to Perfect Religion (London, 1535);
• A Spirituall Consolation written...to hys sister Elizabeth (London, 1735).

Patron[link]

• St John Fisher Catholic Church, Holland Park West (Tarragindi), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.^[7]
• St John Fisher College at the University of Tasmania in Hobart
• St John Fisher Catholic High schools in Harrogate, Wigan, Dewsbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme and Bracken Ridge^[8] (Qld, Australia) are named after him, as is Purley John Fisher RFC and Fisher Athletic F.C. of Rotherhithe.
• St John Fisher is the patron saint of the Cambridge University Catholic Chaplaincy.
• There is only one school in the UK that is called 'The John Fisher School', as it was named before Fisher was canonized. It is located in Purley, Surrey.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic School in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic Comprehensive in Chatham, Kent.
• St John Fisher House, Reading - the headquarters of the FSSP in England and Wales.^[9]
• Formerly, there was the Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Junior High School in Hull, East Yorkshire, that operated between c. 1966 – c. 1988, when the school system in the city was restructured.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic Primary School in Sheffield, which was founded in 1957.
• Formerly, there was St John Fisher Roman Catholic Secondary School, Woodhouse, Sheffield (now a training school for Fire Fighters)
• Formerly St John Fisher RC First School on the Church Hill Estate, Redditch, Worcestershire. This is now a community centre for the estate.
• St John's House, Ampleforth College is also named after him.
• St John Fisher Catholic Church in Tulsa, Oklahoma and one near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
• Saint John Fisher College in Rochester, New York
• Saint John of Rochester Catholic Church in Fairport, New York
• Saint John Fisher parish, Kidbrooke, London^[10]
• St. John Fisher Catholic Church, Rancho Palos Verdes, California^[11]
• Saint John Fisher Church, Newtown, Ohio
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church, Oakland County, Rochester, Michigan
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church and School, Portland, Oregon^[12]
• Saint John Fisher R.C Primary School, Alvaston, Derby UK
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church and School, Chicago, IL (Located in the West Beverly neighborhood)
• Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Church, Shepperton, London, UK
• Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Church, Rochester, Kent, UK
• Fisher Downside Amateur Boxing Club, Bermondsey, London, UK
• St John Fisher and Thomas More RC High School, Colne Lancs
• St John Fisher Catholic Church in Marlborough, Connecticut.^[13]

See also[link]

• List of Erasmus's correspondents

Further reading[link]

• E. Surtz, "The Works and Days of John Fisher," Boston: Harvard University Press, 1967.
• E.E. Reynolds, "Saint John Fisher," Wheathampstead: Anthony Clarke, 1972.
• "Humanism, Reform and the Reformation: The Career of Bishop John Fisher," edited by B. Bradshaw & Eamon Duffy, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Richard Rex, "The Theology of John Fisher," Cambridge University Press
• "The English Works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1469–1535): Sermons and other Writings, 1520–1535," edited by Cecilia A. Hatt, Oxford University Press, 2002.

John Fisher is remembered at New Hall School and is one of their houses

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. John Fisher". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. 
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London, J. M. Dent & Sons; New York, E. P. Dutton.

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia: St. John Fisher
• Fisher House – Catholic Chaplaincy to the University of Cambridge
• John Fisher School, Purley
• St John Fisher Catholic High School, Dewsbury
• Memorial Page on FindaGrave
• St. John Fisher - Bishop and Martyr from St. John Fisher Catholic Church, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA
•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fisher, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Media related to John Fisher at Wikimedia Commons

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