- published: 26 Jun 2009
- views: 47120
- author: worldhistoryclass
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- 7th millennium BC
- Adze
- Adzes
- Albania
- Aleppo
- Americas
- Anatolia
- Ancestor cult
- Ancient Hawaii
- Ancient Near East
- Animal husbandry
- Antler
- Ard (plough)
- Arrow
- Asia Minor
- ASPRO chronology
- Atlatl
- Axe
- Banpo
- Baodun culture
- Basket
- Basketmaking
- Bead
- Beadwork
- Beaker culture
- Behavioral modernity
- Beifudi
- Beixin culture
- Biface
- Blade (archaeology)
- Boian culture
- Bone tool
- Bow and arrow
- Bow drill
- British Isles
- British Museum
- Bronze Age
- Brú na Bóinne
- Burdei
- Burial mound
- Burin
- Burma
- Burnt mound
- Byblos
- Cairn
- Canoe
- Carbon dating
- Cardium Pottery
- Catal Huyuk
- Cattle
- Causewayed camp
- Causewayed enclosure
- Cave
- Cave painting
- Celt (tool)
- Central Asia
- Central Europe
- Cereal
- Cernavodă culture
- Chalcolithic
- Chalcolithic Europe
- Chamber tomb
- Check dam
- Chengtoushan
- Chiefdoms
- China
- Chogha Bonut
- Circa
- Circular ditches
- Cishan culture
- Cist
- Cistern
- City
- Cleaver (tool)
- Cliff dwelling
- Comb Ceramic culture
- Copper Age
- Copper age
- Corded Ware
- Cortaillod culture
- Coțofeni culture
- Cremation
- Crete
- Cucuteni culture
- Cultural diffusion
- Cupstone
- Cursus
- Dadiwan culture
- Danielle Stordeur
- Dart (missile)
- Dawenkou culture
- Daxi culture
- Denticulate tool
- Diet (nutrition)
- Digging stick
- Disease
- Dispilio Tablet
- Dolmen
- Domesticated pig
- Domestication
- Drought
- Dudeşti culture
- Dugout (shelter)
- Dwelling
- Einkorn wheat
- Elam
- Emmer wheat
- England
- Epipaleolithic
- Erlitou culture
- Ertebølle culture
- Europe
- Famine
- Farm
- Farming
- Fertile Crescent
- Ficus
- Formative stage
- Franchthi Cave
- Frédéric Abbès
- Funnelbeaker culture
- Ganj Dareh
- Gaudo Culture
- Geoglyph
- Ggantija
- Goad
- Goat
- Goats
- Gorneşti culture
- Goseck circle
- Gozo
- Gozo Island
- Graeme Barker
- Granaries
- Grave
- Great house
- Greece
- Greek language
- Grinding slab
- Grinding stone
- Grooved ware people
- Ground stone
- Göbekli Tepe
- Hafting
- Halaf culture
- Halafian
- Hamangia culture
- Hammerstone
- Hand axe
- Hatchet
- Hearth
- Heavy Neolithic
- Hembury
- Hemudu culture
- Henge
- Henges
- Herxheim
- Holocene
- Homo floresiensis
- Homo sapiens sapiens
- Hongshan culture
- Horgen
- Houli culture
- Human migration
- Hunter-gatherer
- Hunting hypothesis
- Hut (dwelling)
- Ideograms
- India
- Iran
- Ireland
- Iron Age
- Irrigation
- Italy
- Jacal
- Jacques Cauvin
- Jar-burials
- Jerf el Ahmar
- Jericho
- Jhusi
- Jiahu
- Jordan
- Jōmon period
- Karanovo
- Khiamian
- Kiva
- Knap of Howar
- Knife
- Knossus
- Konya
- Lahuradewa
- Lajia
- Lean-to
- Lengyel culture
- Levant
- Liangzhu culture
- Linearbandkeramik
- Linen
- Lithic core
- Lithic reduction
- Lithic technology
- Lombardy
- Long barrow
- Longhouse
- Longshan culture
- Loom
- Lough Gur
- Majiabang culture
- Majiayao culture
- Malta
- Manos (stone)
- Marxist
- Material goods
- Megalith
- Megalithic art
- Megalithic tomb
- Mehrgarh
- Mesolithic
- Mesolithic Europe
- Mesopotamia
- Metallurgy
- Metate
- Midden
- Millet
- Millstone
- Mnajdra
- Moldova
- Mortar and pestle
- Mudbrick
- Mummy
- Mureybet
- Music archaeology
- Natufian
- Natufian culture
- Navajo pueblitos
- Necropolis
- Neolithic
- Neolithic China
- Neolithic Europe
- Neolithic long house
- Neolithic religion
- Neolithic Revolution
- Neolithic South Asia
- Neolithic Tibet
- Neolithic tomb
- Neologism
- Nevali Cori
- Nomad
- Oldowan
- Orkney
- Pacific
- Padah-Lin Caves
- Pakistan
- Paleo-Indians
- Paleolithic
- Paleolithic burial
- Palestine
- Palisade
- Paola, Malta
- Peiligang culture
- Pengtoushan culture
- Pest control
- Peter Bellwood
- Petnica
- Petreşti culture
- Petroform
- Petroglyph
- Petrosomatoglyph
- Pfyn culture
- Philippines
- Pictogram
- Pictograms
- Pit-house
- Pizzo di Bodi
- Plaster
- Polynesia
- Porodin
- Potter's wheel
- Pottery
- PPNA
- Prehistoric
- Prehistoric art
- Prehistoric Britain
- Prehistoric music
- Prehistoric Scotland
- Prehistoric weapons
- Primitive communism
- Projectile point
- Pueblo
- Pyramid
- Pyre
- Quern-stone
- Quezon, Palawan
- Qujialing culture
- R.F. Mazurowski
- Radiocarbon dating
- Reservoir
- Rhine
- Roadway
- Rock art
- Rock shelter
- Romania
- Rope
- Salt
- Sanitation
- Sanxingdui
- Scientific evidence
- Selective breeding
- Serbia
- Sesclo
- Sesklo
- Sesklo culture
- Sheep
- Shijiahe culture
- Sickle
- Skara Brae
- Snare trap
- South Asia
- Spear
- Spelt
- Spindle (textiles)
- Starčevo culture
- Starčevo-Körös
- State (polity)
- Statuette
- Stilt house
- Stitching awl
- Stone Age
- Stone axe
- Stone box grave
- Stone circle
- Stone tool
- Stonehenge
- Striking platform
- Subsistence
- Sumer
- Sumerian cuneiform
- Sweet Track
- Syria
- Tabon Cave
- Tahunian
- Taihang Mountains
- Talk Neolithic
- Tamil Nadu
- Technology
- Tell Aswad
- Tell Qaramel
- Tell Zeidan
- Template Neolithic
- Temple
- Tent
- Three-age system
- Tisza culture
- Tiszapolgár culture
- Tomb
- Tool
- Tool stone
- Town
- Transhumance
- Tribal chief
- Tribe
- Trypillian culture
- Tumba Madžari
- Tumulus
- Turkey
- Tuzla
- Ubaid period
- Ukraine
- Uruk culture
- Usatovo culture
- Varna culture
- Vashtëmi
- Vere Gordon Childe
- Vinča culture
- Vinča signs
- Vučedol culture
- Water well
- Wattle and daub
- Weaving
- West bank
- West Bank
- West Papua (region)
- Wheel
- Woolen
- WP NPOVD
- Xia Dynasty
- Xinglongwa culture
- Xinle culture
- Xishuipo
- Yangshao culture
- Yi County, Hebei
- Younger Dryas
- Zhaobaogou culture
- Çatal Hüyük
- Çatalhöyük
- Ötzi the Iceman
- Ġgantija
-
Albania
Albania (
i/ælˈbeɪniə/ al-BAY-nee-ə, Albanian: Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë pronounced Albanian pronunciation: [ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs]), is a country in Southern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.
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Aleppo
Aleppo (Arabic: حلب Ḥalab [ˈħalæb], other names) is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,132,100 (2004 census), it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant. For centuries, Aleppo was Greater Syria's largest city and the Ottoman Empire's third, after Constantinople and Cairo. Although relatively close to Damascus in distance, Aleppo is distinct in identity, architecture and culture, all shaped by a markedly different history and geography.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world; it has been inhabited since perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC. Excavations at Tell as-Sawda and Tell al-Ansari, just south of the old city of Aleppo, show that the area was occupied since at least the latter part of the 3rd millennium BC; and this is also when Aleppo is first mentioned in cuneiform tablets unearthed in Ebla and Mesopotamia, in which it is noted for its commercial and military proficiency. Such a long history is probably due to its being a strategic trading point midway between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia.
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Americas
The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World.
In the English language, the Americas refers to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, whereas America, in current usage, usually refers to the United States of America.
The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.
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Anatolia
Coordinates: 39°N 32°E / 39°N 32°E / 39; 32
Anatolia (from Greek Ἀνατολή Anatolē — "east" or "(sun)rise"; also Asia Minor, from Greek: Μικρὰ Ἀσία Mikrá Asía "small Asia"; in modern Turkish: Anadolu) is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Iskenderun and the Black Sea, approximately corresponding to the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. However, since Anatolia is now often considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, its eastern and southeastern borders are widely taken to be the Turkish borders with the neighboring countries, which are Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq and Syria, in clockwise direction.
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British Museum
Coordinates: 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.519459°N 0.126931°W / 51.519459; -0.126931
The British Museum, in London, is widely considered to be one of the world's greatest museums of human history and culture. Its permanent collection, numbering some eight million works, is amongst the finest, most comprehensive, and largest in existence and originates from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.
The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. The museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759 in Montagu House in Bloomsbury, on the site of the current museum building. Its expansion over the following two and a half centuries was largely a result of an expanding British colonial footprint and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the British Museum (Natural History) in South Kensington in 1887. Some objects in the collection, most notably the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, are the objects of intense controversy and of calls for restitution to their countries of origin.
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Brú na Bóinne
Brú na Bóinne (Irish: [ˈbˠɾˠuː n̪ˠə ˈbˠoːn̪ʲə], Palace of the Boyne) is a World Heritage Site in County Meath, Ireland and is the largest and one of the most important prehistoric megalithic sites in Europe.
The site is a complex of Neolithic chamber tombs, standing stones, henges and other prehistoric enclosures, some dating from as early as 35th century BC - 32nd century BC. The site predates the Egyptian pyramids and was built with sophistication and a knowledge of science and astronomy, which is most evident in the passage grave of Newgrange. The site is often referred to as the "Bend of the Boyne" and this is often (incorrectly) taken to be a translation of Brú na Bóinne (Palace of the Boyne).
The site covers 780 ha and contains around 40 passage graves, as well as other prehistoric sites and later features. The majority of the monuments are concentrated on the north side of the river. The most well-known sites within Brú na Bóinne are the impressive passage graves of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, all famous for their significant collections of megalithic art. Each stands on a ridge within the river bend and two of the tombs, Knowth and Newgrange, appear to contain stones re-used from an earlier monument at the site. There is no in situ evidence for earlier activity at the site, save for the spotfinds of flint tools left by Mesolithic hunters.
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Burma
Burma
i/ˈbɜrmə/ BUR-mə, also known as Myanmar i/ˌmjɑːnˈmɑr/ MYAHN--MAR, is a country in South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand. One-third of Burma's total perimeter of 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. At 676,578 km2 (261,227 sq mi), it is the 40th largest country in the world and the second largest country in Southeast Asia. Burma is also the 24th most populous country in the world with over 60.28 million people.
Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of Southeast Asia including the Pyu and the Mon. In the 9th century, the Burmans of the Kingdom of Nanzhao, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Empire in the 1050s, the Burmese language and culture slowly became dominant in the country. During this period, Theravada Buddhism gradually became the predominant religion of the country. The Pagan Empire fell due to the Mongol invasions (1277–1301), and several warring states emerged. In the second half of the 16th century, the country was reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty which for a brief period was the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Burma as well as Manipur and Assam. The country was colonized by Britain following three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885).
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Byblos
Byblos is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (Greek: Βύβλος; Hebrew: גְבַל; earlier Gubla, Phoenician: 𐤂𐤁𐤋). It is a Mediterranean city in the Mount Lebanon Governorate of present-day Lebanon under the current Arabic name of Jubayl (جبيل) and was also referred to as Gibelet during the Crusades. It is believed to have been occupied first around 5000 BC, and according to fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-Trojan war Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, it was built by Cronus as the first city in Phoenicia. Today it is believed by many to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The name Byblos is Greek; papyrus received its early Greek name (byblos, byblinos) from its being exported to the Aegean through Byblos. Hence the English word Bible is derived from byblos as "the (papyrus) book." The city's Canaanite/Phoenician name "GB'L" derived from "gb", meaning well or origin, and El the supreme god of Byblos's pantheon. The present day city is now known by the Arabic name Jubayl or Jbeil (جبيل), a direct descendant of the Canaanite name.
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Chengtoushan
Chengtoushan (Chinese: 城頭山; pinyin: Chéngtóushān) was a Neolithic settlement located on the northwestern edge of Dongting Lake in Lixian County, Changde, Hunan, China.
The site contains the earliest dated rice field in China (dating from 4500 to 3000 BC). The settlement spanned three separate cultures: the Daxi culture, the Qujialing culture and the Shijiahe culture. The site was abandoned around the middle period of the Shijiahe culture.
Chengtoushan was a round settlement surrounded by a moat and rammed earth wall, which was first built during the Daxi culture. The remains of human sacrifices were discovered under the foundation of the wall. The remains of a gravel road, a river bridge and a river-control gate were also discovered at Chengtoushan.
Coordinates: 29°41′30″N 111°39′20″E / 29.69167°N 111.65556°E / 29.69167; 111.65556
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Chogha Bonut
Chogha Bonut (Iranian; ČOḠĀ BONUT) (alternatively, sometimes, Choga Bonut) is an archaeological site in southwestern Iran, located in the Khuzistan Province (Susiana Plain).
It is believed that the site was settled as early as 7200 BCE, making it the oldest lowland village in southwestern Iran. The site was accidentally discovered in 1976 when the mound was in the process of being levelled for agribusiness development. Helene Kantor, then working at Chogha Mish nearby, hurried to the site and received a permit to investigate it.
Kantor remained for two seasons (1976/77 and 1977/78), but was unable to return in 1979 due to the political situation.Abbas Alizadeh continued investigations at the site in 1996. His findings were published in 2003. It is one of the few Neolithic sites excavated since the Iranian revolution.
Coordinates: 32°13′20″N 48°30′18″E / 32.222222°N 48.505°E / 32.222222; 48.505
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Crete
Crete (Greek: Κρήτη; [kriti]) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own dialect, poetry, and music). Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization (c. 2700–1420 BC), the earliest civilization in Europe, comprising the first palaces in Europe.
The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting some form similar to both was the Minoan name for the island.
The Mycenaean Greek name for Crete is unknown; it is not mentioned in extant Linear B texts. The name Crete (Κρήτη) first appears in Homer's Odyssey. Its etymology is unknown. One speculative proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luvian word *kursatta (cf. kursawar "island", kursattar "cutting, sliver"). In Latin, it became Creta.
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Dadiwan culture
The Dadiwan culture (Chinese: 大地灣文化; 5800-5400 BC) was a Neolithic culture found primarily in Gansu and western Shaanxi, China. The culture takes its name from the earliest layer found at the type site at Dadiwan. The remains of millet and pigs were found in sites associated with the culture. The culture shared several similarities with the Cishan and Peiligang cultures.
The type site at Dadiwan was discovered at Qin'an County, Gansu and excavated from 1975 to 1984. Dadiwan was built on a mountain slope south of the Qingshui River near the Wei River. The oldest layer of the site is from the Dadiwan culture, the middle layer is from the Yangshao culture and the youngest layer is from the Longshan culture.
The foundation of a large building, measuring 290 m² and 420 m² when including the outer courtyard, was discovered at Dadiwan. The building, known as F901, is described by Chinese archaeologists as a communal meeting hall. The building was built on an elevated rammed earth foundation, which was then layered with burnt clay.
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Elam
Elam was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province, as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam is a transcription from Biblical Hebrew, corresponding to the Sumerian elam(a), the Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the ancient near east. In classical literature, Elam was more often referred to as Susiana, a name derived from its capital, Susa.
Situated just to the east of Mesopotamia, Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Mesopotamian history where writing was used slightly earlier. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire, especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally treated as an isolate language.
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England
Englandi/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, while the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. England's Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.
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Erlitou culture
Coordinates: 34°42′6.33″N 112°41′49.48″E / 34.7017583°N 112.6970778°E / 34.7017583; 112.6970778
The Erlitou culture (simplified Chinese: 二里头文化, traditional Chinese: 二里頭文化, pinyin: èrlǐtóu wénhuà) is a name given by archaeologists to an Early Bronze Age urban society that existed in China from 1880 BCE to 1520 BCE. The culture was named after the site discovered at Erlitou (二里頭村) in Yanshi, Henan Province. The culture was widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi Province, and later appeared in Shaanxi and Hubei provinces. Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia Dynasty, while most Western archaeologists remain unconvinced of the connection between the Erlitou culture and the Xia Dynasty[citation needed] since there are no extant written records linking Erlitou with the official history.
The Erlitou culture may have evolved from the matrix of Longshan culture. Originally centered around Henan and Shanxi Province, the culture spread to Shaanxi and Hubei Province. After the rise of the Erligang culture, the site at Erlitou diminished in size but remained inhabited.
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Franchthi Cave
Franchthi cave (or Frankhthi cave, Greek: Σπήλαιον Φράγχθη) in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern Argolid, is a cave overlooking the Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village of Koilada.
The cave was occupied from the Palaeolithic circa 20,000 BCE (and possibly earlier) through the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, being abandoned about 3000 BCE (Middle Neolithic). It is one of the very few settlements in the world that shows continuous human occupation for more than 20,000 years.
It also contains some of the earliest evidence for agriculture in Greece. The first inhabitants were probably hunter gatherers, but from around 11,000 BCE almonds, pistachios, bitter vetch, and lentils all appear at the same time, while wild oats and wild barley appear from 10,500 BCE, while from 7,300 BCE peas and wild pears also appear. None appear to be native to the region, while two are certainly from Asia Minor. This would seem to indicate that the farming of legumes and nuts preceded that of grain in Greece, if not in Asia Minor at least. This would make this area the oldest known agricultural site in Greece.
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Ganj Dareh
Coordinates: 34°27′N 48°07′E / 34.45°N 48.117°E / 34.45; 48.117
Ganj Dareh (Persian: تپه گنج دره)("Treasure Valley" in Persian, or "Treasure Valley Hill" if tepe/tappeh (hill) is appended to the name) is a Neolithic settlement in the Iranian Kurdistan portion of Iran. It is located in the east of Kermanshah, in the central Zagros Mountains.
First discovered in 1965, it was excavated by Canadian archaeologist, Philip Smith during the 1960s and 1970s, for four field seasons.
The oldest settlement remains on the site date back to ca. 10,000 years ago, and have yielded the earliest evidence for goat domestication in the world.
The remains have been classified into five occupation levels, from A, at the top, to E.
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Goseck circle
The Goseck circle is a Neolithic structure in Goseck in the Burgenlandkreis district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It consists of a set of concentric ditches 75 metres (246 feet) across and two palisade rings containing gates in defined places. It is considered the earliest sun observatory currently known in the world. Interpretations of the ring suggest that European Neolithic and Bronze Age people measured the heavens far earlier and more accurately than historians have thought. The site was made public in August 2003. German media have called the site "German Stonehenge," although the use of the term henge for structures outside Britain and Ireland is disputed and it apparently has no earth bank.
The circle at Goseck is one of more than 250 ring-ditches in Germany, Austria and Croatia identified by aerial surveys, though archaeologists have investigated barely 10% of them. Goloring near Koblenz in western Germany is a similar, if later, example. Previously archaeologists thought that the enclosures might have been fortifications and were puzzled by the fact that there was no sign of buildings inside the circles.
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Gozo
Gozo (Maltese: Għawdex) is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago. Compared to its southeastern neighbour, Gozo is more rural and known for its scenic hills, which are featured on its coat of arms.
The island of Gozo has long been identified as Ogygia, the domain of the nymph Calypso in Homer's Odyssey. Calypso, possessed of great supernatural powers, holds Odysseus captive for a number of years because of her love for him before releasing him to continue his journey home.
The island itself has a population of around 31,000 people (all of Malta combined has 402,000), and its inhabitants are known as Gozitans (Maltese: Għawdxin). It is rich in historical locations such as the Ġgantija temples which, along with the Megalithic Temples of Malta, are the world's oldest free-standing structures and also among the world's oldest religious structures.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] (
listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Hembury
Hembury is a Neolithic causewayed enclosure near Honiton in Devon. It dates from the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC onwards to the Roman invasion. The fort is situated on a promontory to the north of and overlooking the River Otter valley at approx 178 metres above sea level. It has given its name to some of the earliest Neolithic pottery in southern Britain. An Iron Age hill fort was later built on the same site. There has been archaeological evidence found on the site of Roman military occupation, suggesting a fort within the existing Iron Age site.
It was excavated between 1930 and 1935 by Dorothy Liddell. She identified a timber framed entrance to the causeway-ed enclosure and an oval arrangement of postholes in the middle which she interpreted as being a building destroyed by fire before the enclosure earthworks were built.
Hembury pottery was generally round bottomed bowls with lug handles, much of it was made further west, around The Lizard and it was traded throughout the British Isles.
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Hemudu culture
The Hemudu culture (河姆渡文化) (5000 BC to 4500 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao, Zhejiang, China. The site at Hemudu, 22 km north-west of Ningbo, was discovered in 1973. Hemudu sites were also discovered on the islands of Zhoushan.
The Hemudu culture co-existed with the Majiabang culture as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two. Two major floods caused the nearby Yaojiang River to change its course and inundated the soil with salt, forcing the people of Hemudu to abandon its settlements. The Hemudu people lived in long, stilt houses.
The Hemudu culture was one of the earliest cultures to cultivate rice. Recent excavations at the Hemudu period site of Tianluoshan has demonstrated rice was undergoing evolutionary changes recognized as domestication. Most of the artifacts discovered at Hemudu consist of animal bones, exemplified by hoes made of shoulder bones used for cultivating rice.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia (
/ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Ireland
Coordinates: 53°20′N 08°00′W / 53.333°N 8°W / 53.333; -8
Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɪrlənd] ( listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann or Airlan) is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth. To its east is the larger island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea.
Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.4 million. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 17th century. Today, it is one of the most deforested areas in Europe. There are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jericho
Jericho ( /ˈdʒɛrɪkoʊ/; Arabic: أريحا ʼArīḥā [ʔæˈriːħɑː] ( listen)); Hebrew: יְרִיחוֹ Yeriẖo [jeʁiˈħo] ( listen) is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently inhabited site on earth. It is also believed to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.
Described in the Old Testament as the "City of Palm Trees", copious springs in and around Jericho have made it an attractive site for human habitation for thousands of years. It is known in Judeo-Christian tradition as the place of the Israelites' return from bondage in Egypt, led by Joshua, the successor to Moses. Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of more than 20 successive settlements in Jericho, the first of which dates back 11,000 years (9000 BCE), almost to the very beginning of the Holocene epoch of the Earth's history.
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Jhusi
Jhusi (or Jhunsi) is a town and a nagar panchayat in Allahabad district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It was formerly called Andhernagri and Pratishthan Pur or Puri.
Jhusi has an average elevation of 76 metres (249 ft). Jhusi is the biggest town area in Allahabad district. There is a Birla guest house and Harish-Chandra Research Institute near the bank of Ganges. This area also hosts the international headquarter of a famous spiritual organization, Vihangam Yoga on Chatnag road. This center is of great importance for meditation training apart many other things like ayurveda, acupressure etc. People come here from more than 40 countries to know more about spirituality and the path of God realization. GB Pant Social Science research center, Vishnu Temple, Ulta Kila (an old fort) are also here. The town has a huge religious importance, being at the bank of river Ganges and lying in the Kumbh Mela area
As of 2001[update] India census, Jhusi had a population of 13,633. Males constitute 57% of the population and females 43%. Jhusi has an average literacy rate of 53%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 60%, and female literacy is 43%. In Jhusi, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.
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Jiahu
Jiahu (賈湖 pinyin: Jiǎhú) was the site of a Neolithic Yellow River settlement based in the central plains of ancient China, modern Wuyang, Henan Province. Archaeologists consider the site to be one of the earliest examples of the Peiligang culture. Settled from 7000 to 5800 BC, the site was later flooded and abandoned. The settlement was surrounded by a moat and covered an area of 55,000 square metres. Discovered by Zhu Zhi in 1962, extensive excavation of the site did not occur until much later. Most of the site still has not been excavated.
Archaeologists have divided Jiahu into three distinct phases. The oldest phase ranges from 7000 to 6600 BC. The middle phase ranges from 6600 to 6200 BC. The last phase ranges from 6200 to 5800 BC. The last two phases correspond to the Peiligang culture, while the earliest phase is unique to Jiahu.
The inhabitants of Jiahu cultivated foxtail millet and rice. While millet cultivation is common among the Peiligang culture, rice cultivation at Jiahu is unique. Jiahu rice cultivation is one of the earliest found, and the most northerly found at such an early stage in history.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Knap of Howar
At Knap of Howar on the island of Papa Westray in Orkney, Scotland, a Neolithic farmstead may be the oldest preserved stone house in northern Europe. Radiocarbon dating shows that it was occupied from 3700 BC to 2800 BC, earlier than the similar houses in the settlement at Skara Brae on the Orkney Mainland.
The farmstead consists of two adjacent rounded rectangular thick-walled buildings with very low doorways facing the sea. The larger and older structure is linked by a low passageway to the other building, which has been interpreted as a workshop or a second house. They were constructed on an earlier midden, and were surrounded by midden material which has protected them. There are no windows; the structures were presumably lit by fire, with a hole in the roof to let out smoke. Though they now stand close to the shore, they would have originally lay inland. The shore shows how the local stone splits into thin slabs, giving a ready source of construction material.
The walls still stand to an eaves height of 1.6m, and the stone furniture is intact giving a vivid impression of life in the house. Fireplaces, partition screens, beds and storage shelves are almost intact, and post holes were found indicating the roof structure.
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Konya
Konya (Turkish pronunciation: [ˈkon.ja]) is a city in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The metropolitan area in the entire Konya Province had a population of 1,036,027 as of 2010, making the city the seventh most populous in Turkey.
Konya, also spelled in some historic English texts as Konia or Koniah, was known in classical antiquity and during the medieval period as Iconium in Latin, and Ἰκόνιον (Ikónion) in Greek. The name Konya is a cognate of icon, as an ancient Greek legend ascribed its name to the "eikon" (image), or the "gorgon's (Medusa's) head", with which Perseus vanquished the native population before founding the city.
Excavations have shown that the region was inhabited during the Late Copper Age, around 3000 BC. The city came under the influence of the Hittites around 1500 BC. These were overtaken by the Sea Peoples around 1200 BC. The Phrygians established their kingdom in central Anatolia in the 8th century BC. Xenophon describes Iconium, as the city was called, as the last city of Phrygia. The region was overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC. It was later part of the Persian Empire, until Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great in 333 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death and the town came under the rule of Seleucus I Nicator. During the Hellenistic period the town was ruled by the kings of Pergamon. As Attalus III, the last king of Pergamon, was about to die without an heir, he bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Under the rule of emperor Claudius, the city's name was changed to Claudioconium, and during the rule of emperor Hadrianus to Colonia Aelia Hadriana.
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Lajia
Lajia (Chinese: 喇家; Pinyin: Lǎjiā) is an archaeological site located in Minhe County, Haidong Prefecture in Northwest China's Qinghai province. Lajia is associated with the Qijia culture and was discovered by archaeologists in 2000. The site covers an area of around 200,000 square meters. Archaeologists believe the site was abandoned after being devastated by an earthquake and subsequent flood.
In 2002, the oldest intact noodles yet discovered were located at Lajia, estimated at over 4,000 years old. The noodles were made from foxtail and broom millet.
Coordinates: 35°49′40″N 102°51′15″E / 35.82778°N 102.85417°E / 35.82778; 102.85417
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Majiabang culture
The Majiabang culture (馬家浜文化) was a Neolithic culture that existed at the mouth of the Yangtze River, primarily around the Taihu area and north of Hangzhou Bay in China. The culture was spread throughout southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. Initially, archaeologists had considered the Majiabang sites and sites in northern Jiangsu to be part of the same culture, naming it the Qingliangang culture. Archaeologists later realized that the northern Jiangsu sites were of the Dawenkou culture and renamed the southern Jiangsu sites as the Majiabang culture. The Majiabang culture coexisted with the Hemudu culture for over a thousand years as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two cultures.
Majiabang people cultivated rice. At Caoxieshan and Chuodun, sites of the Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields, indicating the centrality of rice to the economy . In addition faunal remains excavated from Majiabang archaeological sites indicated that people had domesticated pigs. However, the remain of sika and roe deer have been found, showing that people were not totally reliant on agricultural production. Archaeological sites also bear evidence that Majiabang people produced jade ornaments.
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh (Brahui: Mehrgaŕh, Urdu: مہرگڑھ), one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) sites in archaeology, lies on the "Kachi plain" of now Balochistan, Pakistan. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."
Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the now Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi. The site was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean-François Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986, and again from 1997 to 2000. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh—in the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.00 km2) site—was a small farming village dated between 7000 BCE to 5500 BCE and the whole area covers a number of successive settlements. Archaeological material has been found in six mounds, and about 32,000 artifacts have been collected.
Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BCE to 2600 BCE) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BCE. Mehrgarh is probably the earliest known center of agriculture in South Asia.
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Moldova
Moldovai/mɒlˈdoʊvə/, officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/Romanian: Republica Moldova pronounced [reˈpublika molˈdova]) is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 29 July 1994, the new constitution of Moldova was adopted. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.
The nation is a parliamentary republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, Council of Europe, WTO, OSCE, GUAM, CIS, BSEC and other international organizations. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union, and has implemented the first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP).
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Mureybet
Mureybet is a tell, or ancient settlement mound, located on the west bank of the Euphrates in Ar-Raqqah Governorate, northern Syria. The site was excavated between 1964 and 1974 and has since disappeared under the rising waters of Lake Assad. Mureybet was occupied between 10,200 and 8,000 BC and is the eponymous type site for the Mureybetian culture, a subdivision of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA). In its early stages, Mureybet was a small village occupied by hunter-gatherers. Hunting was important and crops were first gathered and later cultivated, but they remained wild. During its final stages, domesticated animals were also present at the site.
The first archaeological investigation of the site was carried out in 1964. In that year, the site was noted during an archaeological survey of the region directed by Maurits N. van Loon of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, and a small sounding was made. In 1965, a more extensive excavation was carried out, again under the direction of Van Loon. Between 1971 and 1974, work on the site was resumed by a team of the French Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) directed by Jacques Cauvin. All excavations were part of the larger international – and eventually UNESCO-coordinated – effort to investigate as many archaeological sites as possible in the area that would be flooded by Lake Assad, the reservoir of the Tabqa Dam, which was being built at that time. The filling of Lake Assad eventually led to the flooding of Mureybet in 1976. Although the site is now submerged and no longer accessible, the material that has been retrieved during the excavations continues to generate new research. This material is currently stored at the National Museum of Aleppo and the Institute de Préhistoire Orientale in Jalès-Berrias in France.
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Nomad
Nomadic people (Greek: νομάδες, nomádes, "those who let pasture herds"), commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world.
Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but traditional nomadic behavior is increasingly rare in industrialized countries. Nomadic cultures are discussed in three categories according to economic specialization: hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads, and "peripatetic nomads".
Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method. Pastoralists raise herds, driving them or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Peripatetic nomads, who offer the skills of a craft or trade to those with whom they travel, are most common in industrialized nations.
Many groups of 'nomadic' hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) moved from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were hunter-gatherers until around 10,000 years ago.
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Orkney
Orkney (Scottish Gaelic: Arcaibh) also known as the Orkney Islands (and sometimes "the Orkneys", a name which locals disparage), is an archipelago in northern Scotland, 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the coast of Caithness. Orkney comprises approximately 70 islands of which 20 are inhabited. The largest island, known as the "Mainland" has an area of 523.25 square kilometres (202.03 sq mi) making it the sixth largest Scottish island and the tenth-largest island in the British Isles. The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall.
The name "Orkney" dates back to the 1st century BC or earlier, and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8,500 years. Originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by the Picts, Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse. It was subsequently annexed to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James III's bride, Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, and the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Petnica
Petnica (Serbian pronunciation: [pětnitsa]) is a small village near Valjevo, Serbia. According to the census of 2002, there were 614 inhabitants (according to the census of 1991, there were 483 inhabitants).
Petnica was founded at the beginning of the 15th century. The oldest known written document is Petnica Psalms from 1488, which mentions not only the existence of the village of Petnica, but also the monastery and school there. The Turks burned the monastery in the 18th century, but the church, last renovated in 1864, is still standing. When digging foundations for building stations, excavators discovered the remains of the old cemetery in Petnica ("Bobija") that were transferred to today's church. Today, in the back yard of a large research station in Petnica, there are still two of the three school buildings raised in 1925.
The village is notable for:
Petnica
Petnica cave
Weekend cottage in Petnica
Petnica Science Centre
Coordinates: 44°14′50″N 19°55′51″E / 44.24722°N 19.93083°E / 44.24722; 19.93083
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Philippines
The Philippinesi/ˈfɪlɨpiːnz/ FI-lə-peenz (Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas) is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 98 million people, the Philippines is the 7th most populated Asian country and the 12th most populated country in the world. An additional 12.5 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic societies. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences which remain to this day.
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Porodin
Porodin is a village in the municipality of Žabari, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 2036 people.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Sanxingdui
Sanxingdui (Chinese: 三星堆; pinyin: Sānxīngduī; literally "three stars mound") is the name of an archaeological site and its deduced culture in China, now believed to be the site of an ancient Chinese city. The previously unknown Bronze Age culture was re-discovered in 1987 when archaeologists excavated remarkable artifacts, that radiocarbon dating dated as being from the 12th-11th centuries BCE. Leaving behind nothing in the historical record, not even in myth, the unknown culture that produced these artifacts is now known as the Sanxingdui Culture. A museum housing the artifacts is located near the city of Guanghan.
The Sanxingdui archaeological site is located about 4 km northeast of Nanxing Township, Guanghan County, Chengdu Prefecture, Sichuan Province. The site is a walled city belonging to the Sanxingdui Culture founded c 1600 BCE. The trapizoidal city has an east wall 2000 m, south wall 2000 m, west wall 1600 m enclosing 3.6 km2. The city was built on the banks of the Yazi River (Chinese: 涧河; pinyin: Jiān Hé), and enclosed part of its tributary, Mamu River, within the city walls. The city is equal to the Shang capital Ao (Chinese: 隞; pinyin: Aó) in scale and development. The city wall were 40 m at the base and 20 m at the top and varied in height from 8–10 m. There was a smaller set of inner walls. The walls were surrounded by canals 25–20 m wide and 2–3 m deep. These canals were used for irrigation, inland navigation, defense, and flood control. The city was divided into residential, industrial and religious districts organized around a dominant central axis. It is along this axis that most of the pit burial have been found on four terraces. The structures were timber framed adobe rectangular halls. The largest was a meeting hall about 200 m2.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Skara Brae
Skara Brae ( /ˈskɑrə ˈbreɪ/) is a large stone-built Neolithic settlement, located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of Mainland, Orkney, Scotland. It consists of ten clustered houses, and was occupied from roughly 3180 BCE–2500 BCE. Europe's most complete Neolithic village, Skara Brae gained UNESCO World Heritage Site status as one of four sites making up "The Heart of Neolithic Orkney." Older than Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids, it has been called the "Scottish Pompeii" because of its excellent preservation.
In the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, known in Scottish as a howe, which had been a local landmark. When the storm cleared, local villagers found in place of the howe an intact village, albeit without roofs. For about the next 75 years there were no serious scientific investigations of Skara Brae. In one weekend in 1913, the site was plundered by a party with shovels taking away an unknown quantity of artifacts. In 1924 another storm swept away part of one of the houses and it was determined the site should be made secure and more seriously investigated. The job was given to University of Edinburgh professor Vere Gordon Childe. In mid-1927 Childe traveled to Skara Brae for the first time.
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Stonehenge
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 2.0 miles (3.2 km) west of Amesbury and 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones set within earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds.
Archaeologists believe the iconic stone monument was constructed anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC, as described in the chronology below. Radiocarbon dating in 2008 suggested that the first stones were erected in 2400–2200 BC, whilst another theory suggests that bluestones may have been erected at the site as early as 3000 BC (see phase 1 below).
The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury Henge monument. It is a national legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage, while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.
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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
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Taihang Mountains
The Taihang Mountains (Chinese: 太行山; pinyin: Tàiháng Shān) are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei provinces. The range extends over 400 km from north to south and has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 meters. The principal peak is Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres). Cangyan Shan in Hebei forms the eastern tip of the Taihang range.
The name of Shanxi Province, meaning "west of the mountains", derives from its location west of the Taihang Mountains, as does the name of Shandong Province (east of the mountains).
The Red Flag Canal is located on the edge of the Taihang Mountains.
The Shitai Passenger Railway crosses under the Taihang Mountains in Taihang Tunnel which, at almost 28 km, is the longest railway tunnel in China.
Coordinates: 38°N 113°E / 38°N 113°E / 38; 113
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Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu /ˈtæmɨl ˈnɑːduː/ (Tamiḻ Nāṭu [t̪amɨɭ naːɖɯ] ( listen)) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai, the largest city. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the fourth largest contributor (as of 2010) to India's GDP and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India, compared to the population share of about 6%.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Tell Aswad
Tell Aswad (Arabic: تل أسود), Su-uk-su or Shuksa, is a large prehistoric, Neolithic Tell, about 5 hectares (540,000 sq ft) in size, located around 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Damascus in Syria, on a tributary of the Barada River at the eastern end of the village of Jdeidet el Khass.
It was discovered in 1967 by Henri de Contenson who led excavations in 1971-1972. The Aswadian culture found by de Contenson was far too advanced for its calibrated dating than anything else found in the region, and the only example ever found of this culture. Further technical investigation of the lithic series by Frédéric Abbès revealed inconsitencies so it was recently decided to re-excavate in six seasons by the French Permanent Archaeological Mission El Kowm-Mureybet under the co-direction of Danielle Stordeur and Bassam Jamous between 2001-2006. Investigations into the materials found are ongoing at the National Museum of Damascus.
The fieldwork at Tell Aswad has changed the dating system at this site, abolishing the Aswadian period in the PPNA (9500-8700 cal BC). The latest research has split the PPNB period into 3; PPNB Ancien from 8700 to 8200 cal BC and the PPNB Moyen from 8200 to 7500 BC. PPNB Récent has been equated with Dunand's "Néolithique ancien de Byblos".
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Tell Qaramel
Tell Qaramel (also Tel Qaramel or Tel al-Qaramel, Arabic: تل القرامل) is a tell, or archaeological mound, located in the north of present-day Syria, 25 km north of Aleppo and about 65 km south of the Taurus mountains, adjacent to the river Quweiq.
A survey in the late 1970s found evidence of settlement at the site from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period through to the Hellenistic period. The later phases of occupation are closely associated with the mound of the tell itself; however, the pre-pottery Neolithic phase is associated with a wider area of about 3 hectares, extending to the south and south-west of the tell. It is this area that has been the focus of detailed investigation since 1999 by a joint Polish-Syrian team led by Prof. Ryszard F. Mazurowski of Warsaw University.
Before the excavations began, it was assumed that permanent sedentary settlements would occur only in combination with the first farming of cereals, and the first domestication and keeping of animals such as sheep and goats, marking the start of the Neolithic period, part of a transition between the proto-Neolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A cultures. However the remains of the structures uncovered at Tell Qaramel appear to be older than this, giving the first evidence of permanent stone-built settlement without signs of animal domestication or organised farming. Particularly striking are the remains of a succession of five round, stone-built towers, each over 6 metres in diameter, with stone walls over 1.5m thick. These have been carbon-dated to between the eleventh millennium and 9650 BC. This dating makes the towers roughly two thousand years older than the stone tower found at Jericho, which was previously believed to be the oldest known tower structure in the world.
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Tell Zeidan
Coordinates: 35°57′0.41″N 39°05′39.29″E / 35.9501139°N 39.0942472°E / 35.9501139; 39.0942472 Tell Zeidan is an archaeological site of the Ubaid culture in northern Syria, from about 5500 to 4000 BC. The dig consists of three large mounds on the east bank of the Balikh River, slightly north of its confluence with the Euphrates River, and is located about 5 km (3.1 mi) east of the modern Syrian city of ar-Raqqah (or Raqqa). This site is included within the historical region known as Mesopotamia and the Tigris-Euphrates river system, often called the Cradle of Civilization.
An international archaeological project, the Joint Syrian-American Archaeological Research Project at Tell Zeidan, is surveying and excavating the Tell Zeidan site. The project started in 2008, two seasons are completed, and the third season is scheduled to start in July 2010. Muhammad Sarhan, director of the Raqqa Museum, and Gil Stein, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, are co-directors of the project.
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Tumba Madžari
Tumba (Macedonian: Тумба Маџари) is a Neolithic settlement located in the north-eastern part of Skopje, Macedonia and it is the most significant Neolithic settlement in Skopje valley. It was discovered in 1961/2 in the course of the archaeological trial excavations related to the construction of the motorway.
The first archaeological excavations were conducted in 1978 by the Museum of Macedonia, under the leadership of Voislav Sanev. The stratigraphic of the settlement has a cultural layer reviled that life here was continuously taking place in the period between year 6000 and 4300 BC.
Coordinates: 42°00′05″N 21°30′18″E / 42.00139°N 21.505°E / 42.00139; 21.505
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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Tuzla
Tuzla is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the time of the 2011 census, it had an estimated population of 120,000 inhabitants, while the municipality had 200,000. After Sarajevo, and Banja Luka, Tuzla is the third largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the seat of the Tuzla Canton and Tuzla Municipality. The name "Tuzla" is the Turkish word for salt mine, and refers to the extensive salt deposits found underneath the city.
The city of Tuzla is home to Europe's only salt lake as part of its central park and also has around 100,000 people visiting its shores every year. The history of the town Tuzla goes back to 1510 when Tuzla was a Turkish garrison town.
The city was first mentioned in 950 by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio as a fort named Salines (Σαληνέζ). Soli means "salts" in the Bosnian language and the city's present name means "place of salt" in Turkish. However, there is enough archaeologic evidence to suggest that Tuzla was a rich Neolithic settlement, and hence inhabited continuously for more than 6,000 years which makes Tuzla one of the oldest European settlements with sustained living. An open-air museum at Solni Trg, opened in 2004, tells the story of salt production in Tuzla.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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West bank
The West Bank (Arabic: الضفة الغربية aḍ-Ḍaffah l-Ġarbiyyah, Hebrew: הגדה המערבית, HaGadah HaMa'aravit also known as Hebrew: יהודה והשומרון Yehuda ve-Ha'Shomron (Judea and Samaria)) of the Jordan River is the landlocked geographical eastern part of the Palestinian territories located in Western Asia. To the west, north, and south, the West Bank shares borders with the state of Israel. To the east, across the Jordan River, lies the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The West Bank also contains a significant coastline along the western bank of the Dead Sea. Since 1967, most of the West Bank has been under Israeli military occupation and is referred to as Judea and Samaria Area by Israel. A smaller part of the West Bank is administered by the Israeli civilian authorities as part of Jerusalem District.
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West Bank
The West Bank (Arabic: الضفة الغربية aḍ-Ḍaffah l-Ġarbiyyah, Hebrew: הגדה המערבית, HaGadah HaMa'aravit also known as Hebrew: יהודה והשומרון Yehuda ve-Ha'Shomron (Judea and Samaria)) of the Jordan River is the landlocked geographical eastern part of the Palestinian territories located in Western Asia. To the west, north, and south, the West Bank shares borders with the state of Israel. To the east, across the Jordan River, lies the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The West Bank also contains a significant coastline along the western bank of the Dead Sea. Since 1967, most of the West Bank has been under Israeli military occupation and is referred to as Judea and Samaria Area by Israel. A smaller part of the West Bank is administered by the Israeli civilian authorities as part of Jerusalem District.
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Yangshao culture
The Yangshao culture (Chinese: 仰韶文化; pinyin: Yǎngsháo wénhuà) was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the central Yellow River in China. It is dated from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. The culture is named after Yangshao, the first excavated representative village of this culture, which was discovered in 1921 in Henan Province by the Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson (1874–1960). The culture flourished mainly in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi and Shanxi.
The subsistence practices of Yangshao people were varied. They cultivated millet extensively; some villages also cultivated wheat or rice. The exact nature of Yangshao agriculture—small-scale slash-and-burn cultivation versus intensive agriculture in permanent fields, is currently a matter of debate. However, Middle Yangshao settlements such as Jiangzhi contain raised floor buildings that may have been used for the storage of surplus grains. They kept such animals as pigs, chickens and dogs, as well as sheep, goats, and cattle, but much of their meat came from hunting and fishing. Their stone tools were polished and highly specialized. The Yangshao people may also have practiced an early form of silkworm cultivation.
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Çatalhöyük
Çatalhöyük (Turkish pronunciation: [tʃaˈtaɫhøjyc]; also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without diacritics; çatal is Turkish for "fork", höyük for "mound") was a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date.
Çatalhöyük is located overlooking wheat fields in the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of Konya (ancient Iconium) in Turkey, approximately 140 km (87 mi) from the twin-coned volcano of Mount Hasan. The eastern settlement forms a mound which would have risen about 20 m (66 ft) above the plain at the time of the latest Neolithic occupation. There is also a smaller settlement mound to the west and a Byzantine settlement a few hundred meters to the east. The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the Bronze Age. A channel of the Çarşamba river once flowed between the two mounds, and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favourable for early agriculture.
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Ġgantija
Ġgantija (English pronunciation: /ɡænˈtiːə/, Maltese: [dʒɡɐnˈtiːjɐ], "Giants' Tower") is a Neolithic, megalithic temple complex on the Mediterranean island of Gozo. The Ġgantija temples are the earliest of a series of megalithic temples in Malta. Their makers erected the two Ġgantija temples during the Neolithic Age (c. 3600-2500 BC), which makes these temples more than 5500 years old and the world's second oldest manmade religious structures, after Göbekli Tepe. Together with other similar structures, these have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Megalithic Temples of Malta.
The temples were possibly the site of a Fertility cult; archeologists believe that the numerous figurines and statues found on site are connected with that cult. According to local Gozitan folklore, a giantess built these temples and used them as places of worship.
The Ġgantija temples stand at the end of the Xagħra plateau, facing towards the south-east.
This megalithic monument is in fact two temples, built side by side and enclosed within a boundary wall. The southerly one is the larger and elder, dating back to approximately 3600 BC. It is also better preserved. The plan of the temple incorporates five large apses, with traces of the plaster that once covered the irregular wall still clinging between the blocks.
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Ancient Hawaii
Ancient Hawaii refers to the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great in 1810. After being first settled by Polynesian long-distance navigators sometime between 300–800 CE, a unique culture developed. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance. Tropical materials were adopted for housing, and elaborate temples (called heiau) were constructed from the lava rocks available. A social system with religious leaders and a ruling class organized a substantial population. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. Many people traveled with him to the Hawaiian Islands.
Hawaiian history is inextricably tied into a larger Polynesian phenomenon. Hawaiʻi is the Northern apex of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean with three island groups at its corners: the Hawaiʻi islands, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand). The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions, such as religion, social organization, myths, and material culture. Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended from a South Pacific proto-culture created by an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) people that had migrated from Southeast Asia.
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Cliff dwelling
Cliff dwelling is the general archaeological term for the habitations of prehistorical peoples, formed by using niches or caves in high cliffs, with more or less excavation or with additions in the way of masonry.
Two special sorts of cliff-dwelling are distinguished by archaeologists;
Some of the most famous of these are the North American cliff-dwellings, particularly among the canyons of the southwest, in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado and Chihuahua in Mexico, some of which are still used by Native Americans. There has been considerable discussion as to their antiquity, but modern research finds no definite justification for assigning them to a distinct primitive race, or farther back than the ancestors of the modern Pueblo people. The area in which they occur coincides with that in which other traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches which were used are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs to a thousand feet in height, and approached by rock steps or log ladders.
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Danielle Stordeur
Danielle Stordeur is a French Archaeologist and Directeur de Recherche at the CNRS. She is also Director of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs permanent mission to El Kowm-Mureybet (Syria), replacing Jacques Cauvin in 1993 until 2010, when Frédéric Abbès is due to take over this position.
(Principal Publications)
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Frédéric Abbès
Frédéric Abbès is a French Archaeologist working on postdoctoral research, specialising in the stone or lithic industry of the Near East and Mediterranean. He has worked on important archaeological sites such as Tell Aswad and El Kowm.
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Graeme Barker
Graeme W. W. Barker (born 23 October 1946) is a British archaeologist, notable for his work on the Italian Bronze Age, the Roman occupation of Libya, and landscape archaeology.
Barker was educated at St John's College, Cambridge. He began lecturing in archaeology at the University of Sheffield in 1972, moving to become Director of the British School at Rome in 1984.
In 1988 he was appointed Professor of Archaeology in the Department of Archaeology at the University of Leicester, which became the School of Archaeological Studies in 1990 and the School of Archaeology and Ancient History in 2001. Barker was elected to the Disney Professorship of Archaeology at the University of Cambridge in 2004.
In 2005 Barker was, with Israel Finkelstein, joint winner of the Dan David Prize. He is a Fellow of the British Academy.
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Great house
A great house is a large and stately residence; the term encompasses different styles of dwelling in different countries. The name refers to the makeup of the household rather than to any particular architectural style. It particularly refers to large households of times past in Anglophone countries (especially those of the turn of the 20th century, i.e., the late Victorian or Edwardian era in the United Kingdom and the Gilded Age in the United States), such as the English country house, the "stately homes of England" and the homes of various "millionaires' row" (or "millionaires' mile") in some U.S. cities such as Newport, Rhode Island, with luxurious appointments and great retinues of indoor and outdoor staff. By some reports, the summer homes of the wealthy at Newport averaged four servants per family member. There was often an elaborate hierarchy among staff, domestic workers in particular. In Ireland, the term big house is usual for the houses of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy.
It was considered declassé to refer to one's own townhouses, estates or villas (or those of friends) as mansions and modern etiquette books still advise that the terms house, big house or great house be used instead.
wn.com/Great_house -
Jacal
The jacal is an adobe style housing structure historically found throughout parts of the south-western United States and Mexico. The structure was employed by some Native people of the Americas prior to European colonization and was later employed by both Hispanic and Anglo settlers in Texas and elsewhere.
Typically, a jacal would consist of slim close-set poles tied together and filled out with mud, clay and grasses. More sophisticated structures, such as those constructed by the Anasazi, incorporated adobe bricks—sun-baked mud and sandstone.
Jacal construction is similar to wattle and daub. However, the "wattle" portion of jacal structures consists mainly of vertical poles lashed together with cordage and sometimes supported by a pole framework, as in the pit-houses of the Basketmaker III period of the Ancestral Puebloan (aka Anasazi) Indians of the American Southwest. This is overlain with a layer of mud/adobe (the "daub"), sometimes applied over a middle layer of dry grasses or brush which functions as insulation.
wn.com/Jacal -
Jacques Cauvin
Professor Jacques Cauvin (1930 – 26 December 2001) was a French archaeologist who specialised in the prehistory of the Levant and Near East.
Cauvin started his work in France at Oullins and Chazelles Caves in 1959 and 1960 and then Chandolas in 1965. He began to specialise in archaeology of the Middle East in 1958 when Maurice Dunand invited him to assist with excavations and studies of the stone tool industries at Byblos in Lebanon. He carried out seven seasons there until 1967, which included surveys extendeding to Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Cauvin's extensive typological studies of this fully excavated site are still used as references for students of lithics today. Also at this time he began studies in Syria at Horan in 1962, in the Jezireh in 1969 and excavations at Taibe in 1965 and Tell Aswad in 1972. Because of his experience in this area, he was chosen to lead excavations at the major site of Mureybet, originally discovered and surveyed by Maurits van Loon. Mureybet was a large-scale rescue operation and had at the time the longest stratigraphic sequence seen since the excavation at Tell es-Sultan to the south. Excavations and multidisciplinary studies were conducted from 1971 to 1974. Flooding of the site prevented further work. Another season was carried out at the neighbouring and partly contemporary site of Sheikh Hassan in 1976.
wn.com/Jacques_Cauvin -
Jōmon period
The Jōmon period (縄文時代, Jōmon jidai?) is the time in Japanese prehistory from about 14,000 BC to 300 BC.
The term jōmon means "cord-patterned" in Japanese. This refers to the pottery style characteristic of the Jōmon culture, and which has markings made using sticks with cords wrapped around them. This period was rich in tools, jewelry, figures and pottery. Recent Y-DNA haplotype testing[when?] has led to the popularly accepted (though untested) hypothesis that haplogroup D2 Y-DNA, which has been found in some percentages of samples of modern Japanese, Ryukyuan, and Ainu males, may reflect patrilineal descent from members of a Jōmon period culture of the Japanese Archipelago. A study based from the Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Jomon skeletons from the Funadomari show the fact that haplogroups N9b and M7a were observed in Hokkaido Jomons bore out the hypothesis that these haplogroups are the (pre-) Jomon contribution to the modern Japanese mtDNA pool, In the study of " Mitochondrial Genome Variation in Eastern Asia and the Peopling of Japan " shows the combined frequency of M7a and N9b in Mainland Japanese average at 9.5%, in Okinawan at 14%, and in the Ainu at 17.7%
wn.com/Jōmon_period -
Kiva
A kiva is a room used by modern Puebloans for religious rituals, many of them associated with the kachina belief system. Among the modern Hopi and most other Pueblo peoples, kivas are square-walled and underground, and are used for spiritual ceremonies.
Similar subterranean rooms are found among ruins in the American southwest, indicating ritual or cultural use by the ancient peoples of the region including the Ancient Pueblo Peoples, the Mogollon and the Hohokam. Those used by the ancient Pueblos of the Pueblo I Era and following, designated by the Pecos Classification system developed by archaeologists, were usually round, and generally believed to have been used for religious and other communal purposes.
When designating an ancient room as a kiva, archaeologists make assumptions about the room's original functions and how those functions may be similar to or differ from kivas used in modern practice. The kachina belief system appears to have emerged in the Southwest at approximately AD 1250, while kiva like structures occurred much earlier. This suggests that the room's older functions may have been changed or adapted to suit the new religious practice.
wn.com/Kiva -
Navajo pueblitos
The term Navajo Pueblitos, also known as Dinétah Pueblitos, refers to a class of archaeological sites that are found in the northwestern corner of the American state of New Mexico. The sites generally consist of relatively small stone and timber structures which are believed to have been built by the Navajo people in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
The sites are located within the cultural area known as the Dinétah, the traditional homeland of the Navajo tribe of Native Americans. Pueblitos are generally found in defensible locations along mesa rims and on isolated outcrops and boulders. The structures themselves can consist of from one to six rooms, and take the form of multi-storied towers, cliff dwellings, and fort-like enclosures.
The majority of pueblito sites are located on lands administered by the United States Bureau of Land Management in Rio Arriba and San Juan counties, New Mexico. Pueblitos, as well as a large number of other early Navajo sites are clustered in the Largo and Gobernador canyons, which drain in a north and westerly direction to the San Juan River.
wn.com/Navajo_pueblitos -
Palisade
A palisade (sometimes called a stakewall) is typically a fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive structure.
Typical construction consisted of small or mid sized tree trunks aligned vertically, with no spacing in between. The trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were driven into the ground and were sometimes reinforced with additional construction. The height of a palisade ranged from a few feet to nearly ten feet. As a defensive structure, palisades were often used in conjunction with earthworks.
Palisades were an excellent option for small forts or other hastily constructed fortifications. Since they were wood, they could be quickly and easily built from materials readily available. They proved to be effective protection for short-term conflicts, and were an effective deterrent against small forces. However, due to their wooden construction, they were also vulnerable to fire and siege weapons.
Often, a palisade would be constructed around a castle as a temporary wall until a permanent stone wall could be erected. They were frequently used in New France.
wn.com/Palisade -
Peter Bellwood
Peter Bellwood is a Professor of Archaeology at the School of Archaeology and Anthropology of the Australian National University (ANU) in Canberra. His areas of specialization include prehistory of Southeast Asia and the Pacific from archaeological, linguistic and biological perspectives; origins of agriculture and resulting cultural, linguistic and biological developments (worldwide); interdisciplinary connections between archaeology, linguistics and human biology. He is currently[update] involved in archaeological fieldwork projects in the Philippines and Vietnam.
Professor Bellwood is the Secretary-General of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association and editor of the Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, a member of the following editorial boards: Asian Perspectives; Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory; Journal of Austronesian Studies; Journal of World Prehistory; Review of Archaeology; Sarawak Museum Journal. He is a fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities.
wn.com/Peter_Bellwood -
Starčevo culture
The Starčevo culture, sometimes included within a larger grouping known as the Starčevo–Kőrös–Criş culture, is an archaeological culture of Southeastern Europe, dating to the Neolithic period between c. 5500 and 4500 BCE (according to other source, between 6200 and 5200 BCE).
Starčevo, the type site, is located on the north bank of the Danube in Serbia (Vojvodina province), opposite Belgrade. It represents the earliest settled farming society in the area, although hunting and gathering still provided a significant portion of the inhabitants' diet.
The pottery is usually coarse but finer fluted and painted vessels later emerged. A type of bone spatula, perhaps for scooping flour, is a distinctive artifact. The Kőrös is a similar culture in Hungary named after the River Kőrös with a closely related culture which also used footed vessels but fewer painted ones. Both have given their names to the wider culture of the region in that period.
Parallel and closely related cultures also include the Karanovo culture in Bulgaria, Criş in Romania and the pre-Sesklo in Greece.
wn.com/Starčevo_culture -
Tumulus
A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, Hügelgrab or kurgans, and can be found throughout much of the world. A cairn (a mound of stones built for various purposes), might also be originally a tumulus. A long barrow is a long tumulus, usually for numbers of burials.
The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, a mortuary house or a chamber tomb. Examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe.
The word tumulus is Latin for 'mound' or 'small hill', from the PIE root *teuh2- with extended zero grade *tum-, 'to bulge, swell' also found in tumor, thumb, thigh and thousand.
The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad. Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre. Achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing.
wn.com/Tumulus -
Vučedol culture
The Vučedol culture (Croatian: Vučedolska kultura) was an Indo-European culture that flourished between 3000 and 2200 BC (the Eneolithic period of earliest copper-smithing), centered in Syrmia and eastern Slavonia on the right bank of the Danube river, but possibly spreading throughout the Pannonian plain and western Balkans and southward. Sometimes called the Vučedol civilization, though apparently illiterate, it was contemporary with the Sumer period in Mesopotamia, the Early Dynastic period in Egypt and the earliest settlements of Troy (Troy I and II).
Following the Baden culture, another wave of Indo-European people came to the banks of the Danube. One of the major places they occupied is present-day Vučedol ("Wolf's Valley"), a location six kilometers downstream from the center of the town of Vukovar, Croatia. It is estimated that the site had once been home to about 3000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest and most important European centers of its time.Coordinates: 45°21′N 19°00′E / 45.35°N 19°E / 45.35; 19 According to some opinions, proto-Illyrians descended from this wave of Indo-European settlers. According to other opinions, this culture might be a predecessor of the Mycenaean Greeks.[citation needed]
wn.com/Vučedol_culture
- Neolithic - Nocturnus
- Undesirable Return - Neolithic
- Nightly Friends - Neolithic
- Pledge - Neolithic
- A Fire Inside - Neolithic
- Rebel - Neolithic
- Wickedness Of The World - Neolithic
- Unupdate Museum - Neolithic
- Sunshine Of Your Love - Neolithic
- My Beautiful Enemy - Neolithic
- Love Sex Desire - Neolithic
- Landscape - Neolithic
- Falling Down - Neolithic
- Darkness - Neolithic
Years of development
Destroyed in day's
Beings the genocide
A great fire
Has affected
The earth, Moon and seas
As the earth
Began to tilt
All polar caps
Had started to melt
Then the seas
Began to over flow
ripping the continents
Aparts
(Chorus 2 Times)
Neolithic
As the sky
Began to turn dark
And the sun
Faded away
All the climates
Had begun to drop
And the ground
Started to freeze
As the land
Began to freeze
All the animals
Were trapped inside
Some animals
Had Moved to the sea
Creating a new
Form Of life
Stranded on the Rivers shore
Fossilized in time
As continents ripped apart
Lands forms moved to the sea
(Repeat 3 times)
Monotony in life
Act and greed
Separate illusion as memory
Born from hope in four walls
Deep and hidden into ghost
So easy all these things to destroy
The corner of time is a line
In the beginning and end
Denote the reality and eternity
So when they cut my hands
They hang me from neck
They hang me because of lying and truth
I want to hug the earth and sky
Because I'll not learn
They open the door
When I go away my world will burn
And will stay only the conscience
I thing I saw their faces
They stood behind the window
They stared deep at my dark room
The faces become clearer
I open and closed my mouth
Helpless I more my hands
But my voice in isn't mine
My movement isn't mine
Peace miniature
Huge war
Spare time
Sunrise to sunset
So spare time like a huge black hole
The silence in the universe
There are know faces and nights
Slowly and wordless
They absorb the rest of my defeat
Ash has bitter flavour when life
Without saveword
The nights call me to them
The nights give me knife
The nights rip my hands
All the nights are secret friends
Like a moonmessenger
Like a hungry locust
You have become the one I hate
I have become the one who hates
So feared and despised
I commit murder one by one
My success is your death
I feed on the ones I left lifeless
I erase you right now I promise
I condemn you right now I feel alive
They've cried on their knees
Tears and blood flow like streams
Unknown face show disgrace
Killing time the pleasure is mine
I erase you right now I promise
I condemn you right now I feel alive
You've become the one I hate
I've become the one who hates
You've my pray
I'll hunt you down
Until you die
Until you die
Until you fuckin' die
Annihilate you
Bitch
Until you fuckin' die
You are mine
I know you are so scared
You know that I'm insane
I know you are alone
You know what I adore
You know I bleed inside
I know that you are mine
You don't have any clue
I'm always inside you
Release your anger,
I hope you enjoy that
I hope you like it.
IT WAS DARK IT WAS COLD THE SHADOWS I WAS LEFT FOR LONG
DESPERATE TO CONTROL UNSTABLE MIND TRYING TO GET OUT
NO ONE CAN LIVE WITHOUT A FIRE INSIDE
I LIVE BECAUSE I HAVE GOT A FIRE INSIDE
I WAS WEAK NOW I'M STRONG
IN THE DEPTHS OF HELL WHERE I BELONG
WITHOUT HOPE YOU HAVE SEEN ME
I STILL REMEMBER MY OWN MISERY
NO ONE CAN LIVE WITHOUT A FIRE INSIDE
I LIVE BECAUSE I HAVE GOT A FIRE INSIDE
IT STILL GROWS IN MY HEART
MY ONLY WISH IS TO KEEP IT NOW
ITS SO GOOD TO FEEL IT AGAIN
DONT HAVE TO SAY THE WORD TO UNDERSTAND
NO ONE CAN LIVE WITHOUT A FIRE INSIDE
I LIVE BECAUSE I HAVE GOT A FIRE INSIDE
NOW! I CAN LOVE AGAIN NOW! I CAN FEEL THAT WAY
Stand up together
Create, create the new world
We are the new breed
We will burn the old world down...
Now!
Hell on earth
Liars on fire
Feeding the fire
Rebel angels unite!
Stand up and leave your graves
Burn your enemies
Take the pleasure
From their pain...
Create
Truth for the truth
Ashes to ashes
Dust to dust
Rebel angels unite!
Don't give up without the fight
Lie for a lie
And truth for a truth
Back to the primitive
Make them suffer
Let them scream
For destroy the appearance
For the new better time
Born from objects of the wickedness
We are looking for beauty inside
The rubbish bin from our feeling
It doesn't matter what we'll find
For destroy the arrogance
For the new technology
Space, sky as skill and down the winners
The people hang in fiction circle
And enjoy the degeneration
Whether hidden eye with curtain
Still is our sun
Because that isn't our love
That's money and tolerance or hidden hate
Endeed it's all the same
For destroy the lament
Somewhere on the street
Slides the real light of love
That's hope for the crazy people
In Memory of Bruno Shultz
The green eyes showed the tiredness
Although without name
Looking for a new form
Through the cloudy night
There was the brilliance
Mute expouding the wordless
As personal fragment of life
Wonderful and handsome
Prosperity although meaning ruin
Who knows how many old and
intelligent martyrdom is in the martyr
And how many cruel idea
Horrible transplant
Hate between strange races and
Species although all prisoners
In unluky life without solution
Ho can uncover in people the
Old faces, lough and glances?
Questions without answer
Illusion without reason
Infancy without happiness
It's getting near dawn,
When lights close their tired eyes.
I'll soon be with you my love,
To give you my dawn surprise.
I'll be with you darling soon,
I'll be with you when the stars start falling.
I've been waiting so long
To be where I'm going
In the sunshine of your love.
I'm with you my love,
The light's shining through on you.
Yes, I'm with you my love,
It's the morning and just we two.
I'll stay with you darling now,
I'll stay with you till my seas are dried up.
Chorus
Repeat Second Verse
I've been waiting so long
I've been waiting so long
I've been waiting so long
To be where I'm going
I SENSE YOU IN THE AIR
I FELL YOU AROUND ME
I HEAR YOUR VOICE CALLING ME
I REMEMBER YOUR LOVELINESS
DESIRE IN YOUR EYES
WARM BODY IN MY ARMS
YOUR PERVERTED SOUL IS
HAUNTING ME POSSESING ME
I CAN FELL YOU DOMINATE
I REGRET THE PAST I DIDN'T WANT TO END UP YOUR LIFE
I REGRET THE PAST I DIDN'T WANT TO HURT YOU BUT ...
I HOPE I WILL SEE YOU SOON
I KNOW I WILL SEE YOU SOON
I WILL WAIT FOR YOU TO CALL ME UP
CALL ME ANYTIME
I WILL WAIT FOR YOU TO CALL ME UP
CALL ME ANYWHERE
I'M DREAMING CONSTANTLY
IT HAS GONE A WAY TO FAR
I HEAR YOU LAUGH
AGAIN I'M TRAPPED
I SENSE YOU IN THE AIR
I FEEL YOU AROUND ME
HEAR YOUR VOICE CALLING ME
I REGRET THE PAST
I DIDN'T WANT TO END UP YOUR LIFE
I REGRET THE PAST
I DIDN'T WANT TO HURT YOU BUT....
I CAN ONLY TRY TO STOP YOU
BUT YOU STILL KEEP ON COMING
I HOPE I WILL SEE YOU SOON
I KNOW I WILL SEE YOU SOON
I WILL WAIT FOR YOU TO CALL ME UP
CALL ME ANYTIME
I WILL WAIT FOR YOU TO CALL ME UP
I'm so stupid
I let you in my heart
I'm suffering,
Your thorns are wounding me
I don't deserve don't deserve
Deserve none of this
Wild rose lies sex and blood
So beautiful, so violent, my love
Torture, you xxxx me dry when I'm down
So much pain, you xxxx me dry
When I cry
Wild rose you are better
Than anything I have had so violent
I don't need
I don't need none of your lies
I don't need
I don't need none of your lies
I don't believe
What you say to me
None of your words
Can make me trust in you
My beautiful enemy
Fake smile and everything you do
Is just to show me
Torture! You xxxx me dry
When I'm down
So much pain you xxxx me dry
When I cry
I don't need
I don't need none of your lies
I don't need
I don't need none of your lies
I don't believe what you say to me
None of your words
Can make me trust in you
Lies
I don't believe what you say to me
None of your words
Numb view meens to expect
Face like wither lenf
The running of the river will break
That's alread the end of unguilt
New country, new wave
Trip without return
Never wait and everything will be
Travel by ship is lasting
The sails of life are brocken
You need help but it's senseless
Because the alchemist is gone
Turning face to the sea
And looking at the twisted figure
You look at the twisted real life
The reality is grey and confused
Inhuman like bed wish
New dignity..., old reality
It is said that are infinite things
It is said that sth is destroyed
In pieces
Do you know what in cost?
Look at yourself
That's crazy building
Destroy and put in order
The last day and the blue intelligence
The faithful will resuscitate
Weaken shows the end of horizon
Going down, down, down
Sinking deeper and deeper
Moving faster straight down
Like an angel with two broken wings
Falling down with your morality
Its really easy if you try to tell
Another hundred lies
I believe you will hide in the dark
And you will never fly up on the sky
There is no turning back there is no way out
You can't stop from falling you can't stop falling down
Your eyes are black and your hart is so dark
And your soul is dead
I've had a dream about my life
I've had a wish to stay alive
I cannot sleep because of what
They've done to me again this time
Curse the sunlight
Damn the sunlight
Make all my sins so visible
So I remember all the good things that i've done
They call me lonely wolf
The truth I can't deny
And for a really long time I miss
Everything that i've had
I hold it in my hands
The fate I must confront alone
I can't blew up this time
This is my last chance to survive
I'm against all of you
I stand against all the rules
I spread the sickness everyday
And I laugh straight in your face
Curse the sunlight
Damn the sunlight
Make all my sins so visible so I remember
All the good things that i've done
They call me ....
I hold it in my hands
The fate I must confront alone
I cant blew up this time
That is my last chance to survive
I hold it in my heart the hate I must release again
I died many years ago
And I'll rise above again
Curse the sunlight
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- 1970 Avenue
- Night Insane City
- Nowhen, Nowhere
- Every Sunday People
- Newborn - Reborn
- The Short Human Story
- Sunshine of Your Love
- [...]
- For Destroy the Lament
- Oddity
- Gardens of Phantasms
- Szacunek Dla Zmarlego
- Last Fix
- Chattles
- Choreografia
- Stained Glass Window
- Intro
- Wickedness of the Objects
- Nightly Friends
- Unupdate Museum (In Memory of Bruno Schulz)
- Undesirable Return
- Landscape
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Neolithic part I
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:39
- Updated: 28 Jan 2013
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_part_I
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
Mathematics in Neolithic Scotland - Professor Tony Mann
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:17
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
What is the mathematical significance of certain prehistoric objects that have been unearthed in northern Scotland? This lecture is given by Tony Mann, Head of Mathematical Sciences at the University of Greenwich. The transcript and downloadable versions of the full conference are available from the on the Gresham College website: www.gresham.ac.uk GreshamCollege has been giving free public lectures since 1597. This tradition continues today with all of our five or so public lectures a week being made available for free download from our website. www.gresham.ac.uk
http://wn.com/Mathematics_in_Neolithic_Scotland_Professor_Tony_Mann
What is the mathematical significance of certain prehistoric objects that have been unearthed in northern Scotland? This lecture is given by Tony Mann, Head of Mathematical Sciences at the University of Greenwich. The transcript and downloadable versions of the full conference are available from the on the Gresham College website: www.gresham.ac.uk GreshamCollege has been giving free public lectures since 1597. This tradition continues today with all of our five or so public lectures a week being made available for free download from our website. www.gresham.ac.uk
- published: 27 Aug 2011
- views: 2375
- author: GreshamCollege
Early Paleolithic and Neolithic Cultures
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
"Early Man to Neolithic Communities"
http://wn.com/Early_Paleolithic_and_Neolithic_Cultures
The Neolithic Revolution (part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
part 2 - www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/The_Neolithic_Revolution_part_1
The Neolithic Revolution and Beginnings of Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:04
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
This is a screen cast video lecture for Howell High School's World History class.
http://wn.com/The_Neolithic_Revolution_and_Beginnings_of_Civilization
This is a screen cast video lecture for Howell High School's World History class.
- published: 25 Jun 2012
- views: 2221
- author: Chase Moore
A Neolithic Landscape - The 1st Farmers
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
For almost 30 years archaeologist & historian James Balme has been walking the ancient landscape close to his home in Cheshire. During that time he has revealed and recovered ancient stone and flint implements and weapons left behind by the people of the Neolithic ( the new stone age ) from almost 8000 years ago. The landscape has provided evidence from the hunter gatherers and the first farmers to reach Britain. The landscape that we see in the countryside today is a legacy that has developed from the earliest farmers who cultivated vast areas of land across the United Kingdom providing grazing for cattle and large areas of open land for the cultivation of the first domestic crops to be grown in the rich and fertile soils of Britain. This was truly the first time that humans had become self sufficient providing food and shelter year on year.
http://wn.com/A_Neolithic_Landscape_The_1st_Farmers
For almost 30 years archaeologist & historian James Balme has been walking the ancient landscape close to his home in Cheshire. During that time he has revealed and recovered ancient stone and flint implements and weapons left behind by the people of the Neolithic ( the new stone age ) from almost 8000 years ago. The landscape has provided evidence from the hunter gatherers and the first farmers to reach Britain. The landscape that we see in the countryside today is a legacy that has developed from the earliest farmers who cultivated vast areas of land across the United Kingdom providing grazing for cattle and large areas of open land for the cultivation of the first domestic crops to be grown in the rich and fertile soils of Britain. This was truly the first time that humans had become self sufficient providing food and shelter year on year.
- published: 07 Jul 2009
- views: 16565
- author: Tvpresenter4history
Neolithic Temples Tarxien Malta
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:01
- Updated: 11 Feb 2013
Tarxien Neolithic Temples in Malta is a World Heritage Site older then the Pyramids and the stonehenge. Music Deuter East of the full moon
http://wn.com/Neolithic_Temples_Tarxien_Malta
Tarxien Neolithic Temples in Malta is a World Heritage Site older then the Pyramids and the stonehenge. Music Deuter East of the full moon
- published: 01 May 2009
- views: 8529
- author: MoniksIsland
African Neolithic Arrowheads
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:21
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Short documentary I created about African Neolithic arrowheads.
http://wn.com/African_Neolithic_Arrowheads
Short documentary I created about African Neolithic arrowheads.
- published: 03 Sep 2010
- views: 3676
- author: korrelics
Neolithic part II
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:09
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_part_II
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
- published: 26 Jun 2009
- views: 23237
- author: worldhistoryclass
Neolithic part III
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_part_III
shows the change in lifestyle brought about by the neolithic revolution.
- published: 26 Jun 2009
- views: 11346
- author: worldhistoryclass
NEOLITHIC - Szacunek Dla Zmarlego
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:36
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/NEOLITHIC_Szacunek_Dla_Zmarlego
NOCTURNUS - NEOLITHIC (Remastered)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:52
- Updated: 09 Feb 2013
Years of development destroyed in days Begins the genocide A great fire has affected the earth, moon and seas As the earth began to tilt All polar caps had started to melt All the seas began to over flow Ripping the continents apart Neolithic As the sky began to turn dark And the sun faded away All the climates had begun to drop And the ground started to freeze As the land began to freeze All the animals were trapped inside Some animals had moved to the sea Creating a new form of life Stranded on the river's shore fossilized in time As continents ripped apart Lands formed and moved to the sea Rising, soaring, devastating, annihilation
http://wn.com/NOCTURNUS_NEOLITHIC_Remastered
Years of development destroyed in days Begins the genocide A great fire has affected the earth, moon and seas As the earth began to tilt All polar caps had started to melt All the seas began to over flow Ripping the continents apart Neolithic As the sky began to turn dark And the sun faded away All the climates had begun to drop And the ground started to freeze As the land began to freeze All the animals were trapped inside Some animals had moved to the sea Creating a new form of life Stranded on the river's shore fossilized in time As continents ripped apart Lands formed and moved to the sea Rising, soaring, devastating, annihilation
- published: 12 Sep 2011
- views: 4405
- author: MrCockyRob
Winter Solstice at Newgrange - Neolithic Art
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
Watch a live feed from Newgrange from 8:50am on Friday 21st December on www.rte.ie RTÉ's Richard Dowling speaks to Muiris O Suilleabhain, Professor of Archeology at UCD about Neolithic Art at Newgrange.
http://wn.com/Winter_Solstice_at_Newgrange_Neolithic_Art
Watch a live feed from Newgrange from 8:50am on Friday 21st December on www.rte.ie RTÉ's Richard Dowling speaks to Muiris O Suilleabhain, Professor of Archeology at UCD about Neolithic Art at Newgrange.
- published: 20 Dec 2011
- views: 2269
- author: RTENewsNow
China Neolithic Era Banpo and Longshan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:59
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
Ohlone College Art 103A Professor Kenney Mencher (Art History Stone Age Technology through the Early Renaissance) www.kenney-mencher.com An analysis of the timelines concerning the history and art created during the Neolithic Period in China. Primarily at Banpo and Longshan
http://wn.com/China_Neolithic_Era_Banpo_and_Longshan
Ohlone College Art 103A Professor Kenney Mencher (Art History Stone Age Technology through the Early Renaissance) www.kenney-mencher.com An analysis of the timelines concerning the history and art created during the Neolithic Period in China. Primarily at Banpo and Longshan
- published: 14 Aug 2011
- views: 1811
- author: Kenney Mencher
Neolithic M11
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Updated: 28 Mar 2012
Toshi Sato on Neo in Haffner Creek, BC,Canada.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_M11
Toshi Sato on Neo in Haffner Creek, BC,Canada.
- published: 23 Mar 2007
- views: 6506
- author: climbingm12
Bryn Celli Ddu - Neolithic Burial Chamber on the Isle of Anglesey in North Wales
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:35
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
NOTICE: Music had to been changed, information at end of video is wrong now. Bryn Celli Ddu is a prehistoric site on the Welsh island of Anglesey located near Llanddaniel Fab. Its name is difficult to translate directly but means either 'the mound in the dark grove' or possibly 'the mound in the grove of the deity'. It was plundered in 1699 and archaeologically excavated between 1928 and 1929. During the Neolithic period a stone circle and henge stood at the site. An area of burnt material containing a small human bone from the ear, covered with a flat stone, was recovered. The stones were removed in the early Bronze Age when an archetypal passage grave was built over the top of the centre of the henge. A carved stone with a twisting, serpentine design stood in the burial chamber. It has since been moved to the National Museum of Wales and replaced with a replica standing outside. An earth barrow covering the grave is a twentieth century restoration; the original was probably much bigger. Norman Lockyer, who in 1906 published the first systematic study of megalithic astronomy, had argued that Bryn Celli Ddu marked the summer solstice. This was ridiculed at the time, but recent research by Steve Burrow, curator of Neolithic archaeology at Amgueddfa Cymru (National Museum of Wales) has proven his theory to be true. This alignment links Bryn Celli Ddu to a handful of other sites, including Maes Howe and Newgrange, both of which point to the midwinter solstice. It has also ...
http://wn.com/Bryn_Celli_Ddu_Neolithic_Burial_Chamber_on_the_Isle_of_Anglesey_in_North_Wales
NOTICE: Music had to been changed, information at end of video is wrong now. Bryn Celli Ddu is a prehistoric site on the Welsh island of Anglesey located near Llanddaniel Fab. Its name is difficult to translate directly but means either 'the mound in the dark grove' or possibly 'the mound in the grove of the deity'. It was plundered in 1699 and archaeologically excavated between 1928 and 1929. During the Neolithic period a stone circle and henge stood at the site. An area of burnt material containing a small human bone from the ear, covered with a flat stone, was recovered. The stones were removed in the early Bronze Age when an archetypal passage grave was built over the top of the centre of the henge. A carved stone with a twisting, serpentine design stood in the burial chamber. It has since been moved to the National Museum of Wales and replaced with a replica standing outside. An earth barrow covering the grave is a twentieth century restoration; the original was probably much bigger. Norman Lockyer, who in 1906 published the first systematic study of megalithic astronomy, had argued that Bryn Celli Ddu marked the summer solstice. This was ridiculed at the time, but recent research by Steve Burrow, curator of Neolithic archaeology at Amgueddfa Cymru (National Museum of Wales) has proven his theory to be true. This alignment links Bryn Celli Ddu to a handful of other sites, including Maes Howe and Newgrange, both of which point to the midwinter solstice. It has also ...
- published: 15 Dec 2008
- views: 6011
- author: Juergen Kandzia
Neolithic - Oddity
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:59
- Updated: 22 Jan 2013
Polish progressive gothic metal band Neolithic. Song is Oddity from the album For Destroy the Lament (1996). Check out my radio stream at s5.myradiostream.com Only asmall fraction of my music collection can be on Youtube due to copyright issues so tune into the broadcast to hear much more! All types of metal, some industrial and dark ambient too. If you like this video, please check out my channel for many other similar songs. New ones uploaded almost daily. Subscribe, add as friend, comment or whatever.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_Oddity
Polish progressive gothic metal band Neolithic. Song is Oddity from the album For Destroy the Lament (1996). Check out my radio stream at s5.myradiostream.com Only asmall fraction of my music collection can be on Youtube due to copyright issues so tune into the broadcast to hear much more! All types of metal, some industrial and dark ambient too. If you like this video, please check out my channel for many other similar songs. New ones uploaded almost daily. Subscribe, add as friend, comment or whatever.
- published: 15 Jan 2011
- views: 1828
- author: Skelletona
02. The Neolithic Revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 30:38
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
Publisher: TTC (The Teaching Company) Release Date: 2007 Lecturer: Peter N. Stearns, Ph. D. Think of the construction of the great pyramids of Egypt, or the development of democratic rule in ancient Greece. Recall the innovations of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment—the remarkable flowering of drama and the arts, and revolutionary breakthroughs in science and philosophy. These are intriguing and important episodes, familiar to students of history. But haven't you also wondered: What else was going on in the world? Consider the enthralling tales of Venetian trader Marco Polo. He introduced the Western world to mysterious and exotic Asian cultures never before imagined. Those alien civilizations he visited had existed for centuries, even millennia. What do we know about that part of the story? We know of the glories of ancient Rome, the commanding empire that ruled the known world—but what about the lands that were not "known"? What, for example, of the Han dynasty in China? It existed alongside the Roman Empire but developed a more enduring legacy than that of the emperors of the Eternal City. How does that imperial saga relate to the more familiar story of Roman domination? And in the Dark Ages that came after the fall of the Roman Empire, we know that the era following Rome's glory days brought great political and social turmoil to the peoples of Europe. But at that time the Muslims of the Middle East and North Africa were experiencing remarkable cultural ...
http://wn.com/02_The_Neolithic_Revolution
Publisher: TTC (The Teaching Company) Release Date: 2007 Lecturer: Peter N. Stearns, Ph. D. Think of the construction of the great pyramids of Egypt, or the development of democratic rule in ancient Greece. Recall the innovations of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment—the remarkable flowering of drama and the arts, and revolutionary breakthroughs in science and philosophy. These are intriguing and important episodes, familiar to students of history. But haven't you also wondered: What else was going on in the world? Consider the enthralling tales of Venetian trader Marco Polo. He introduced the Western world to mysterious and exotic Asian cultures never before imagined. Those alien civilizations he visited had existed for centuries, even millennia. What do we know about that part of the story? We know of the glories of ancient Rome, the commanding empire that ruled the known world—but what about the lands that were not "known"? What, for example, of the Han dynasty in China? It existed alongside the Roman Empire but developed a more enduring legacy than that of the emperors of the Eternal City. How does that imperial saga relate to the more familiar story of Roman domination? And in the Dark Ages that came after the fall of the Roman Empire, we know that the era following Rome's glory days brought great political and social turmoil to the peoples of Europe. But at that time the Muslims of the Middle East and North Africa were experiencing remarkable cultural ...
- published: 16 Jul 2012
- views: 1024
- author: HonoredVilIage
River Archaeology - A Neolithic Discovery
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Archaeologist & Historian James Balme is well known for his work and discoveries of ancient artefacts left behind in the soils and rivers that surround us by our ancestors here in Britain. James discovered an ancient settlement in a village close to his home almost 12 years ago where he found evidence dating back over 8000 years of human occupation. Recently James turned his attentions to serarching a river that has run through the settlement for thousands of years and the results of his new investigations are to say the least stunning with a Roman bronze bracelet and flint tools already recovered. During the making of this short film James recovered a Neolithic flint tool as the cameras were present. See for yourself this wonderful flint implement as it sees the light of day for the first time in over 6000 years. Buried deep in the river bed James recovered it with nothing more technical than a spade and a sand sieve and plenty of determination and belief in what he researches. This find is yet another important piece in the historical jigsaw of the area that James is slowly but surely putting back together.
http://wn.com/River_Archaeology_A_Neolithic_Discovery
Archaeologist & Historian James Balme is well known for his work and discoveries of ancient artefacts left behind in the soils and rivers that surround us by our ancestors here in Britain. James discovered an ancient settlement in a village close to his home almost 12 years ago where he found evidence dating back over 8000 years of human occupation. Recently James turned his attentions to serarching a river that has run through the settlement for thousands of years and the results of his new investigations are to say the least stunning with a Roman bronze bracelet and flint tools already recovered. During the making of this short film James recovered a Neolithic flint tool as the cameras were present. See for yourself this wonderful flint implement as it sees the light of day for the first time in over 6000 years. Buried deep in the river bed James recovered it with nothing more technical than a spade and a sand sieve and plenty of determination and belief in what he researches. This find is yet another important piece in the historical jigsaw of the area that James is slowly but surely putting back together.
- published: 04 Jun 2009
- views: 4212
- author: Tvpresenter4history
Neolithic Hyperspace on Audiosurf Visualiser - HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:11
- Updated: 14 Feb 2013
This video took five hours to upload; I had to leave my computer on overnight. Still, I think it's worth it to show off these stunning visuals in beautiful HD, and what batter way to do so than with my very own mix, Neolithic Hyperspace (the original of which can be found on my channel). Hope you like it!
http://wn.com/Neolithic_Hyperspace_on_Audiosurf_Visualiser_HD
This video took five hours to upload; I had to leave my computer on overnight. Still, I think it's worth it to show off these stunning visuals in beautiful HD, and what batter way to do so than with my very own mix, Neolithic Hyperspace (the original of which can be found on my channel). Hope you like it!
- published: 19 Jun 2009
- views: 46563
- author: majugarzett
Neolithic MREs Part 1 (1 of 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:52
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
Maybe a bit late for Y2K, but you don't know when Armageddon might happen, or when you might be propelled back in time a few millenia in a time machine. How to make your own Neolithic MREs. Part 1 of 2. Music: "The A-Team" theme, Mike Post and Pete Carpenter, 1983.
http://wn.com/Neolithic_MREs_Part_1_1_of_2
Maybe a bit late for Y2K, but you don't know when Armageddon might happen, or when you might be propelled back in time a few millenia in a time machine. How to make your own Neolithic MREs. Part 1 of 2. Music: "The A-Team" theme, Mike Post and Pete Carpenter, 1983.
- published: 29 Mar 2009
- views: 5209
- author: TheDerelictEpistle
Interactive Neolithic Vinca House Reconstruction
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
3D Reconstruction of typical Late Vinca culture house excavated by MM Vasic in 1912. Reconstruction is done according to Vasic's old plans, drawings and journals.
http://wn.com/Interactive_Neolithic_Vinca_House_Reconstruction
3D Reconstruction of typical Late Vinca culture house excavated by MM Vasic in 1912. Reconstruction is done according to Vasic's old plans, drawings and journals.
- published: 18 May 2007
- views: 7411
- author: Vitomir Jevremovic
photo: AP / Nasha gazeta, www.ng.kz
15 Feb 2013
A meteor streaked across the sky above Russia's Ural Mountains today morning, causing sharp explosions and injuring more than 400 people, many of them hurt by broken glass. "There was panic. People had no idea what was happening ... Fragments of the meteor fell in a thinly populated area of the Chelyabinsk region, the Emergency Ministry said in a statement ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: AP / Dennis Passa
13 Feb 2013
This past Sunday the priest of my church--that is, the priest who celebrates the Spanish Mass at the Episcopal Church of St. Michael and All Angels in Tucson--mentioned that someone had asked him why the Bible doesn't mention dinosaurs. We talked about it, and he said that he was going to look into it ... But what I have to say is this. the answer to the question is simple. the Bible is not a scientific textbook ... Tweet. 1 Email. PrintReport ... ....(size: 8.6Kb)
photo: AP / Antonio Calanni
14 Feb 2013
South African Paralympic athlete Oscar Pistorius has been charged with murder after he allegedly shot and killed his girlfriend in the early hours of the morning, reportedly thinking she was an intruder. Reeva Steenkamp with Oscar Pistorius at an awards ceremony in November Photo. Rex Features/Getty Images. By Aislinn Laing, Johannesburg. 8.00AM GMT 14 Feb 2013. Oscar Pistorius 'shoots girlfriend dead'. latest ... Related Articles ... ....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP
14 Feb 2013
In their hurry to flee last month, al Qaeda fighters left behind a crucial document. Tucked under a pile of papers and trash is a confidential letter, spelling out the terror network's strategy for conquering northern Mali and reflecting internal discord over how to rule the region ... Comparing the relationship of al Qaeda to Mali as that of an adult to an infant, he urges them to be more gentle, like a parent ... Ad Feedback ... - AP. ....(size: 12.4Kb)
photo: AP / Antione de Ras - Independent Newspapers Ltd South Africa
15 Feb 2013
PRETORIA, South Africa (AP) — Paralympic superstar Oscar Pistorius openly wept as he appeared in court Friday, charged with the murder of his girlfriend as South Africans closely watched developments in a killing that has stunned the country ... Pistorius solemnly entered court in a gray suit and blue tie. He later broke down in tears ... Police oppose the granting of bail ... Lt. Col ... ___. AP Sports Writer Imray reported from Johannesburg ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
BBC News
14 Feb 2013
Continue reading the main story Timeline of finds at the site. Mesolithic - 10,000 to 4,000 BC. Flint implements from hunter-gatherers Neolithic - 4,000 to 2,000 BC ... The most significant find of the dig was a rare Neolithic bowl from about 3,600 BC - when people began to settle down and farm the land ... Continue reading the main story This Neolithic bowl probably contained organic matter such as food, as an offering to appease the gods ... ....(size: 6.9Kb)
South China Morning Post
14 Feb 2013
Retsina, the Greek wine flavoured with pine resin, inspires an immediate love/hate reaction ... A team from the University of Pennsylvania working in Iran discovered jars from the Neolithic period (8,500-4,000 BC) that once held resinated wine, suggesting that neither the Romans nor the Greeks were the original inventors of retsina. ....(size: 1.7Kb)
The Times of India
14 Feb 2013
Women were subject to routine violence even during the Stone Age, a new study has claimed. The analysis discovered that up to 1 in 6 skulls exhumed in Scandinavia from the late Stone Age - between about 6,000 and 3,700 years ago - had nasty head injuries, Discovery News reported ... But looking only at the aftermath of big, bloody conflicts can obscure the day-to-day realities of Neolithic farmers ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Zeenews
14 Feb 2013
New York. Violence against women can be traced back to pre-historic times, according to a new study which found that women were subjected to routine physical assault during the Stone Age ... Mass graves unearthed from that time in Talheim and Eulau, Germany, contained mostly males who had died in violent conflicts ... However, looking only at the aftermath of big, bloody conflicts can obscure the day-to-day realities of Neolithic farmers ... PTI....(size: 2.6Kb)
Huffington Post
14 Feb 2013
By. Tia Ghose, LiveScience Staff Writer. Published. 02/13/2013 07.21 AM EST on LiveScience. Stone Age farmers lived through routine violence, and women weren't spared from its toll, a new study finds ... Ancient pastoralists ... But looking only at the aftermath of big, bloody conflicts can obscure the day-to-day realities of Neolithic farmers. "It would be like only looking at a war zone to assess violence," Fibiger said ... and 1700 B.C ... ....(size: 25.1Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
13 Feb 2013
Stone Age farmers lived through routine violence, and women weren't spared from its toll, a new study finds. The analysis discovered that up to 1 in 6 skulls exhumed in Scandinavia from the late Stone Age — between about 6,000 and 3,700 years ago — had nasty head injuries ... Ancient pastoralists ... But looking only at the aftermath of big, bloody conflicts can obscure the day-to-day realities of Neolithic farmers ... Routine violence ... ....(size: 3.7Kb)
Fox News
13 Feb 2013
Skulls from a forensic anthropology lab.David Hunt, North Carolina State University. Stone Age farmers lived through routine violence, and women weren't spared from its toll, a new study finds ... Ancient pastoralists ... - Linda Fibiger, an archaeologist at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland ... But looking only at the aftermath of big, bloody conflicts can obscure the day-to-day realities of Neolithic farmers ... Routine violence ... and 1700 B.C....(size: 4.0Kb)
noodls
13 Feb 2013
(Source. University of California) Date. 2013-02-12. Contact. Aimee Chang, Berkeley Art Museum. Phone. (510 642-3734. Email ... 12) ... About BAM/PFA ... The museum's collection of over 16,000 works of art includes important holdings of Neolithic Chinese ceramics, Ming and Qing Dynasty Chinese painting, Old Master works on paper, Italian Baroque painting, early American painting, Abstract Expressionist painting, contemporary photography, and video art....(size: 4.6Kb)
Stuff
12 Feb 2013
That transition marks the beginning of the Neolithic period, which started nearly 11,000 years ago, when people of the Near East domesticated plants and animals and settled down in sedentary communities with permanent houses ... The Neolithic apparently first spread from Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) to Greece and the Balkan region sometime after 8500 years ago ... Boric and Price conclude that the nonlocals represent Neolithic migrants....(size: 5.6Kb)
noodls
12 Feb 2013
Neolithic burials such as this in the Danube Gorges region of Romania and Serbia are providing new insight into the movement of people, and the technologies they carried with them thousands of years ago ... Isotopic studies of strontium and other chemicals found in the teeth and bones of Neolithic humans, however, are now helping archaeologists better track the movement of ancient peoples across the landscape....(size: 5.9Kb)
The Examiner
12 Feb 2013
11, 2013, issue of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences offers new insight into how and when culture in Europe changed from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers to Neolithic farmers by examining the strontium content of ancient people’s teeth ... The researchers found the earliest evidence that Neolithic farmers migrated into Europe about 8,000 years ago according to the strontium content of the ancient’s teeth....(size: 6.4Kb)
The Times of India
12 Feb 2013
BHUBANESWAR. Archeologists unearthed the complete human skeleton at Bonga excavation site on Monday, discovered earlier this month along with the remnants of a Chalcolithic age civilization, about 20 kms from Bhubaneswar ... "The skeleton is 5 feet, 7 inches long ... "There could be several interpretations of the missing feet ... "The excavation will continue for some more days as we are looking for signs of Neolithic age here," Basa said. ....(size: 2.2Kb)
noodls
12 Feb 2013
(Source. Forestry Commission) ... FCS Archaeologist, Matt Ritchie, said. ... "It's an exciting find ... Matt added. ... To find out more about the Commission's archaeological conservation work, visit http.//www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy where you can download a publication showcasing the huge range of archaeology on Scotland's national forest estate - from Neolithic stone circles to 20th century coastal defences from WWII. Notes to Editors. 1 ... 3....(size: 4.6Kb)
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The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, νέος (nèos, "new") and λίθος (lithos, "stone"): or New Stone era, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 cal. BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world.[1] It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution", and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on the geographical region. The Neolithic is a measured progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals.[2]
New findings put the beginning of a culture tentatively called Neolithic back to around 10,700 to 9400 BC in Tell Qaramel in northern Syria, 25 km north of Aleppo.[3] Until those findings are adopted within the archaeological community, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 10200-8800 cal. BCE. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12000-10200 cal. BCE and the so called "proto-neolithic" is now included in the PPNA between 10200-8800 cal. BCE. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 10200-8800 cal. BCE, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 6900-6400 cal. BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.[4]
Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery before developing agriculture.[5][6][7]
Unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species (Homo sapiens sapiens) reached the Neolithic. Homo floresiensis may have survived right up to the very dawn of the Neolithic, about 12,200 years ago.
The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νεολιθικός, neolithikos, from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos, "stone", literally meaning "New Stone Age." The term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system.
Contents |
Periods by pottery phase[link]
In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing by in the 10th millennium BC.[1] Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by c. 8000 BC.
The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 5000–6000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.[8]
Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)[link]
Recent findings made by a Syrian-Polish joint excavation team run by Prof. R.F. Mazurowski, in Tell Qaramel, 25 km to the north of Aleppo put the beginning of the Neolithic 1 (PPNA) around 10,700 to 9400 BC or 10200-8800 cal. BCE according to the ASPRO chronology.[3] Previous excavations at that site brought the discovery of four circular towers dating back to between the eleventh millennium and about 9,650 BC[citation needed]. The dates of Tell Qaramel have been brought into question for appearing systematically old and for not correlating with the stratigraphic sequence.[9]
Until the findings in Tell Qaramel are adopted within the archaeological community, sites in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) that go back to around 9500 to 9000 BC. are still considered the beginning of the Neolithic 1 (PPNA). The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by scientists in the British Museum and Philadelphia laboratories[citation needed]. The Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic have caused further problems with the timeline.
An early temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated to 10,000 BCE may be regarded as the beginning of the Neolithic 1. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site may be the oldest known man-made place of worship.[10] At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (100,000 m2), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which may have supported roofs.
The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and selective breeding).
In the 21st century, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains.[11]
Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage.
Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)[link]
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8800 cal. BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine).[1] As with the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era.
Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.
Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN)[link]
The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6400 cal. BCE in the Fertile Crescent.[1] By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia).
The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
Periods by region[link]
Fertile Crescent[link]
Around 10200 BC, the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent.[1] Around 10,700 to 9400 BC, a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 25 kilometers north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9650.[3] Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, the world's first town, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower.[12] Around 6400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.
In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics.[13] In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods. Natufian (1) between 12000 and 10200 cal. BCE, Khiamian (2) between 10200-8800 cal. BCE, PPNA: Sultanian (Jericho), Mureybetian, early PPNB (PPNB ancien) (3) between 8800-7600 cal. BCE, middle PPNB (PPNB moyen) 7600-6900 cal. BCE, late PPNB (PPNB récent) (4) between 7500 and 7000 BC and a PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (PPNB final) (5) where Halaf and dark faced burnished ware begin to emerge between 6900-6400 cal. BCE.[14] They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.[9]
Southern Mesopotamia[link]
Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 6900 BC.
North Africa[link]
Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC[citation needed]. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.[15] Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.[16][17][18]
Europe[link]
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming site of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6,500 BC.[19][20] Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC.[21] and in Central Europe by ca. 5500 BC. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists[who?] that the Sumerian cuneiform script was the earliest true form of writing and the Vinča signs most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing.[citation needed] The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands.
South and East Asia[link]
The earliest Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh, dated to 7500 BC, in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan; the site has evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats).[22]
In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.
In East Asia, the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC.
The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (As of 2008[update] CE) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.
America[link]
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term Formative stage is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.[citation needed]
Social organization[link]
During most of the Neolithic age, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages.[23] There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age.[24] Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian.[23] However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter-gatherer cultures in general[25][26] The domestication of animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced.[27] However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catal Huyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others.
Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life.[citation needed] However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities.
There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch.[28][29] Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at Herxheim,[30] which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups." and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period.[26] This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle."[31]
Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man' or a proto-chief, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age.[32] Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.
Shelter[link]
The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster.[33] The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses.[33] The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept.[citation needed]
Farming[link]
Main article: Neolithic Revolution
A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and state whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was the possibility of producing surplus crop yields, in other words, food supplies in excess of the immediate needs of the community. Surpluses could be stored for later use, or possibly traded for other necessities or luxuries. Agricultural life afforded securities that pastoral life could not, and sedentary farming populations grew faster than nomadic.
However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities.[27] Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.
In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease.
Technology[link]
Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly-won farmland.
Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatal höyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include few copper hatchets and spearheads in the Great Lakes region.
Clothing[link]
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth. However, wool cloth and linen might have become available during the British Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not British and not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).
Early settlements[link]
Neolithic human settlements include:
- Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, c. 11,000–9000 BC
- Tell Qaramel in Syria, 10,700–9400 BC
- Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (c. 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC
- Lahuradewa in India, 7000 BC[34]
- Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
- Nevali Cori in Turkey, c. 8000 BC
- Ganj Dareh in Iran, c. 7000 BC
- Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC
- Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500 – 6100 BC
- 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 7250–5000 BC
- Chogha Bonut in Iran, 7200 BC
- Jhusi in India, 7100 BC
- Karanovo in Bulgaria, 6200 BC
- Petnica in Serbia, 6000 BC
- Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a ±660 year margin of error)
- Dispilio in Greece, c. 5500 BC
- Padah-Lin Caves in Burma, c. 6000 BC
- Jiahu in China, 7000 to 5800 BC
- Mehrgarh in Pakistan, 7000 BC
- Knossus on Crete, c. 7000 BC
- Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC[35]
- Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC[35]
- Pizzo di Bodi (Varese), Lombardy in Italy, c. 6320 ±80 BC
- Sammardenchia in Friuli, Italy, c. 6050 ±90 BC,
- Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, 5500–2750 BC, in Ukraine, Moldova and Romania first salt works
- Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5000 – 2000 BC[citation needed]
- Hemudu culture in China, 5000 – 4500 BC, large scale rice plantation
- around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400 – 2800 BC
- Tell Zeidan in northern Syria, from about 5500 to 4000 BC.
- The Megalithic Temples of Malta, 3600 BC
- Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively
- Brú na Bóinne in Ireland, c. 3500 BC
- Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC
- Lajia in China, 2000 BC
The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BC and the world's oldest free-standing structure is the neolithic temple of Ggantija in Gozo, Malta.
List of cultures and sites[link]
Note: Dates are very approximate, and are only given for a rough estimate; consult each culture for specific pie time periods.
Early Neolithic
Periodization: The Levant: 10,000 to 8500 BC; Europe: 5000 to 4000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
- Beixin culture
- Cishan culture
- Dudeşti culture
- Franchthi Cave people
- Earliest European Neolithic site: 20th to 3rd millennium BC
- Sesclo village culture
- Starcevo-Criş culture
- (also known as the Starčevo-Körös-Criş culture)
Middle Neolithic
Periodization: The Levant: 8500 to 6500 BC; Europe: 4000 to 3500 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
- Baodun culture
- Jinsha settlement and Sanxingdui mound.
- Cardium Pottery culture
- Comb Ceramic culture
- Corded Ware culture
- Cortaillod culture
- Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
- Dadiwan culture
- Dawenkou culture
- Daxi culture
- Grooved ware people
- Skara Brae, et al.
- Erlitou culture
- Ertebølle culture
- Hembury culture
- Hemudu culture
- Hongshan culture
- Houli culture
- Horgen culture
- Liangzhu culture
- Linear Pottery culture
- Longshan culture
- Majiabang culture
- Majiayao culture
- Peiligang culture
- Pengtoushan culture
- Pfyn culture
- Precucuteni culture
- Qujialing culture
- Shijiahe culture
- Trypillian culture
- Vinča culture
- Windmill Hill culture
- Xinglongwa culture
- Xinle culture
- Yangshao culture
- Zhaobaogou culture
Later Neolithic
Periodization: 6500 to 4500 BC; Europe: 3500 to 3000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Eneolithic
Periodization: Middle East: 4500 to 3300 BC; Europe: 3000 to 1700 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region. In the Americas, the Eneolithic ended as late as the 1800s for some people.
- Beaker culture
- Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
- Funnelbeaker culture
- Gaudo Culture
- Lengyel culture
- Varna culture
See also[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ a b c d e Figure 3.3 from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies by Peter Bellwood, 2004
- ^ Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance.
- ^ a b c Yet another sensational discovery by polish archaeologists in Syria. eduskrypt.pl. 21 June 2006
- ^ The potter's wheel was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.
- ^ Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-521-77213-3 (HB), ISBN 0-521-77670-8 (PB).
- ^ Japan Echo, Inc. (June 22, 1999). "Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory". Trends in Japan. http://web-japan.org/trends00/honbun/tj990615.html. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- ^ Keally, Charles T. (2004). "'Fakery' at the Beginning, the Ending and the Middle of the Jomon Period". Bulletin of the International Jomon Culture Conference 1. Archived from the original on 2008-03-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20080316225317/http://www.jomon.or.jp/ebulletin11.html. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- ^ "New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS". Institute of Archaeology — Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=982. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ^ a b PPND – the Platform for Neolithic Radiocarbon Dates – Summary. exoriente. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
- ^ "The World's First Temple", Archaeology magazine, Nov/Dec 2008 p 23.
- ^ Christopher Joyce "Ancient Figs May Be First Cultivated Crops", NPR.org, June 2, 2006, last accessed 28 January 2009.
- ^ "Jericho", Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Haïdar Boustani, M., The Neolithic of Lebanon in the context of the Near East: State of knowledge (in French), Annales d'Histoire et d'Archaeologie, Uinversite Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth, Vol. 12–13, 2001–2002. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
- ^ Stordeur, Danielle., Abbès Frédéric., Du PPNA au PPNB : mise en lumière d'une phase de transition à Jerf el Ahmar (Syrie), Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, Volume 99, Issue 3, pp. 563–595, 2002
- ^ Graeme Barker (25 March 2009). The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why Did Foragers Become Farmers?. Oxford University Press. pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-0-19-955995-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=fkifXu2gx4YC&pg=PA292. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y; RMW Dixon Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics p. 35 [OUP Oxford (2 March 2006) ISBN 978-0-19-928308-8]
- ^ Fekri A. Hassan (2002). Droughts, food and culture: ecological change and food security in Africa's later prehistory. Springer. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-0-306-46755-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=kVJwQsZUwxYC&pg=PA164. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ Kevin Shillington (2005). Encyclopedia of African history: A-G. CRC Press. pp. 521–. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ftz_gtO-pngC&pg=PA521. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ Dawn Fuller (April 16, 2012). "UC research reveals one of the earliest farming sites in Europe". Phys.org. http://phys.org/news/2012-04-uc-reveals-earliest-farming-sites.html. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
- ^ "One of Earliest Farming Sites in Europe Discovered". ScienceDaily. April 16, 2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120416113013.htm. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
- ^ Female figurine, circa 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece. Macedonian-heritage.gr. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
- ^ Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh". Guide to Archaeology
- ^ a b Leonard D. Katz Rigby (2000). Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. United kingdom: Imprint Academic. p. 158. ISBN 0-7190-5612-8. http://books.google.com/?id=inmTyPPdR5oC&pg=RA1-PA158.
- ^ Jonas Langer; Melanie Killen (1998). Piaget, evolution, and development. Psychology Press. pp. 258–. ISBN 978-0-8058-2210-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=haCAIME9vnEC&pg=PA258. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Archived 2009-11-01.
- ^ a b Russell Dale Guthrie (2005). The nature of Paleolithic art. University of Chicago Press. pp. 420–. ISBN 978-0-226-31126-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=3u6JNwMyMCEC&pg=PA420. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ a b Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc
- ^ Idyllic Theory of Goddess Creates Storm. Holysmoke.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
- ^ Krause (1998) under External links, places.
- ^ Orschiedt (2006) under External links, Places.
- ^ Gimbutas (1991) page 143.
- ^ Ian Kuijt (30 June 2000). Life in Neolithic farming communities: social organization, identity, and differentiation. Springer. pp. 317–. ISBN 978-0-306-46122-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=kz79KLC6yLoC&pg=PA317. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ a b Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Küçuk. "The World's First City." Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43–47.
- ^ Davis K. Thanjan (12 January 2011). Pebbles. Bookstand Publishing. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-1-58909-817-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=P9BLBh7XqnkC&pg=PA31. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
- ^ a b Developed Neolithic period, 5500 BC. Eliznik.org.uk. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Bibliography[link]
- Bellwood, Peter (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20566-7.
- Pedersen, Hilthart (2008), "Die jüngere Steinzeit auf Bornholm", München & Ravensburg. ISBN 978-3-638-94559-2
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Neolithic |
- McNamara, John (2005). "Neolithic Period". World Museum of Man. http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- Rincon, Paul (11 May 2006). "Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4757861.stm. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- Current Directions in West African Prehistory – McIntosh & McIntosh (1983)
- Vincha Neolithic Script
- UB Préhistoire — Enseignements sur le Néolithique
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