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1941 Odessa massacre
Coordinates: 46°27′58″N 30°43′59″E / 46.466°N 30.733°E / 46.466; 30.733
The Odessa massacre is the name given to the mass murder of Jews in Odessa and surrounding towns in Transnistria during the autumn of 1941 and winter of 1942 while under Romanian control.
Depending on the accepted terms of reference and scope, the Odessa massacre refers either to the events of October 22–24, 1941 in which some 25,000 to 34,000 Jews were shot or burned, or to the murder of well over 100,000 Ukrainian Jews in the town and the areas between the Dniestr and Bug rivers, during Romanian and German occupation.
Odessa had a large Jewish population of approximately 180,000, or 30% of the total, before the war. By the time Romanians had taken the city, between 80,000 and 90,000 Jews remained, the rest having fled or been evacuated by the Soviets. As the massacres occurred, Jews from surrounding villages would be concentrated in Odessa and Romanian concentration camps set up in surrounding areas.
On October 16, the Germans and the Romanians captured Odessa following a two-month siege. On October 22, a delayed bomb set by the Soviets detonated in the Romanian headquarters, killing 67 people including General Ioan Glogojeanu, the Romanian commander, 16 other Romanian officers, and four German naval officers.
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Aktion Erntefest
Aktion Erntefest (German for "Operation Harvest Festival") was a code phrase used by the Nazi German occupation forces to kill all Jews remaining in the Lublin District and the Lublin Ghetto of the General Government in two days on November 3-4, 1943. Approximately 42,000 Jews were killed during the Aktion Erntefest.
The timing of the operation was apparently in response to several efforts by surviving Jews to resist the Nazis (for example, the uprisings at the Sobibor and Treblinka extermination camps, and armed resistance in the Warsaw, Białystok, and Vilna ghettos). The SS feared additional Jewish-led revolts in the General Government. To prevent further resistance the SS decided to kill most of the remaining Jews, who were employed in forced-labor projects and were concentrated in the Trawniki, Poniatowa, and Majdanek camps.
"Erntefest" began at dawn on November 3, 1943. The Trawniki and Poniatowa labor camps were surrounded by SS and police units. Jews were then taken out of the camps in groups and shot in nearby pits dug for this purpose. At Majdanek, Jews were first separated from the other prisoners. They were then taken in groups to nearby trenches and shot. Jews from other labor camps in the Lublin area were also taken to Majdanek and shot. Music was played through loudspeakers at both Majdanek and Trawniki to drown out the noise of the mass shooting. The killing operation was completed in a single day at Majdanek and Trawniki. At Poniatowa the shootings took two days.
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Alsace
Alsace (French: Alsace [alzas]; Alsatian: Elsàss [ˈɛlsɑs]; German: Elsass, pre-1996: Elsaß, IPA: [ˈɛlzas]; Latin: Alsatia) is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area (8,280 km²), and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km² (total population in 2006: 1,815,488; 1 January 2008 estimate: 1,836,000). Alsace is located on France's eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany and Switzerland. The political, economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg. Because that city is the seat of dozens of international organizations and bodies, Alsace is politically one of the most important regions in the European Union.
The name "Alsace" can be traced back to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, meaning "foreign domain". An alternative explanation derives it from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning "seated on the Ill", a river in Alsace. The region was historically part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was gradually annexed by France in the 17th century under kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV and made one of the provinces of France. Alsace is frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because German possession of parts of these two régions (as the imperial province Alsace-Lorraine, 1871–1918) was contested in the 19th and 20th centuries, during which Alsace changed hands four times between France and Germany in 75 years.
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Babi Yar
Babi Yar (Russian: Бабий Яр; Ukrainian: Бабин Яр, Babyn Yar) is a ravine in the Ukrainian capital Kiev and a site of a series of massacres carried out by the Nazis during their campaign against the Soviet Union.
The most notorious and the best documented of these massacres took place on September 29–30, 1941, wherein 33,771 Jews were killed in a single operation. The decision to kill all the Jews in Kiev was made by the military governor, Major-General Kurt Eberhard, the Police Commander for Army Group South, SS-Obergruppenführer Friedrich Jeckeln, and the Einsatzgruppe C Commander Otto Rasch. It was carried out by Sonderkommando 4a soldiers, along with the aid of the SD and SS Police Battalions. The massacre was the largest single mass killing for which the Nazi regime and its collaborators were responsible during its campaign against the Soviet Union and is considered to be "the largest single massacre in the history of the Holocaust".
Victims of other massacres at the site included thousands of Soviet POWs, communists, Gypsies (Romani people), Ukrainian nationalists and civilian hostages. It is estimated that between 100,000 and 150,000 more lives were taken at Babi Yar.
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Baltic states
The term Baltic states (also Baltics, Baltic nations or Baltic countries) refers to the Baltic territories which gained independence from the Russian Empire in the wake of World War I: primarily the contiguous trio of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (from north to south); Finland also fell within the scope of the term from the 1920s to 1939.Estonia is only considered Baltic geographically, not linguistically or culturally, as Estonians and Finns are descendants of the Baltic Finns.
The term in the indigenous languages of the Baltic states is:
The term "Baltic" stems from the name of the Baltic Sea – a hydronym dating back to the 11th century (Adam of Bremen mentioned Latin: Mare Balticum) and earlier.
The Latvian and Lithuanian term Baltija most likely originates from the Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. In modern Baltic languages, namely, Lithuanian language, baltas literally means white, and in Latvian language balts means white also.
Beginning in the Middle Ages and through the present day, the Baltic Sea appears on the maps subscribed in Germanic languages as German: Ostsee, Danish: Østersøen, Dutch: Oostzee, Swedish: Östersjön, etc. In English "Ost" is "East", and in fact, the Baltic Sea mostly lies to the east for Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Clearly, part of the Baltic Sea lies to the east of Germany and Sweden, and due north of parts of Germany.
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Battle of Stalingrad
Coordinates: 48°42′N 44°31′E / 48.7°N 44.517°E / 48.7; 44.517
The Battle of Stalingrad was a major and decisive battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in southwestern Russia. The battle took place between 23 August 1942 to 2 February 1943 and was the largest battle on the Eastern Front, marked by brutality and disregard for military and civilian casualties. It is among the bloodiest battles in the history of warfare, with the higher estimates of combined casualties amounting to nearly two million. The heavy losses inflicted on the German army made it a significant turning point in the whole war. After the Battle of Stalingrad, German forces never recovered their earlier strength, and attained no further strategic victories in the East.
The German offensive to capture Stalingrad commenced in late summer 1942, and was supported by intensive Luftwaffe bombing which reduced much of the city to rubble. The German offensive eventually became mired in building-to-building fighting; and despite controlling nearly all of the city at times, the Wehrmacht was unable to dislodge the last Soviet defenders clinging tenaciously to the west bank of the Volga River.
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Beer Hall Putsch
The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch,German: Hitlerputsch or German: Hitler-Ludendorff-Putsch) was a failed attempt at revolution that occurred between the evening of 8 November and the early afternoon of 9 November 1923, when Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff, and other heads of the Kampfbund unsuccessfully tried to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.
Beer halls in the early 20th century existed in most larger southern German cities, where hundreds or even thousands of people were able to gather during the evenings, drink beer and often engage in political or social debate. They were also places where political rallies could be held, a tradition still alive today. One of the largest beer halls in Munich was the "Bürgerbräukeller", where the Beer Hall Putsch was launched.
German power and prestige were destroyed in the aftermath of World War I. Like many other German nationalists, Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian leaders and Marxists back on the home front, later dubbed the November Criminals. In Munich, Hitler took part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Reichswehr under Captain Karl Mayr. Thereafter, Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an Army corporal, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated DAP (German Workers Party). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. Hitler rose to its top post in the chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler was given the political leadership of several Bavarian "patriotic associations" (revanchist) which collectively were known as the Kampfbund. With this political base, Hitler could call on about 15,000 brawlers, mostly ex-soldiers.
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Bogdanovka
Bogdanovka was a concentration camp for Jews that was established by the Romanian authorities during World War II as part of the Holocaust, during the 1941 Odessa massacre which saw the extermination of Jews in Odessa and surrounding towns in Transnistria during the autumn of 1941 and the winter of 1942 in a series of massacres and killings during the Holocaust by Romanian forces, under German control, encouragement and instruction.
Three concentration camps were situated near the villages of Bogdanovka, Domanovka and Acmecetca on the Southern Bug river, in Golta district, Transnistria with Bogdanoka holding 54,000 people by the end of 1941.
In December 1941, a few cases of typhus which is a disease spread by lice and fleas broke out in the camp. A decision was made by the German adviser to the Romanian administration of the district and the Romanian District Commissioner to murder all the inmates. The Aktion began on December 21, and was carried out by Romanian soldiers and gendarmes, Ukrainian police and civilians from Golta, and local ethnic Germans under the commander of the Ukrainian regular police, Kazachievici. Thousands of disabled and ill inmates were forced into two locked stables, which were doused with kerosene and set ablaze, burning alive all those inside. Other inmates were led in groups to a ravine in a nearby forest and shot in the neck. The remaining Jews dug pits with their bare hands in the bitter cold, and packed them with frozen corpses. Thousands of Jews froze to death. A break was made for Christmas, but the killing resumed on December 28. By December 31, over 40,000 Jews had been killed.
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Bolzano Transit Camp
The Bolzano transit camp (German: Polizei- und Durchgangslager Bozen) was a Nazi concentration camp active in Bolzano between 1944 and the end of the Second World War. It was one of the largest Nazi Lager on Italian soil, along with those of Fossoli, Borgo San Dalmazzo and Trieste.
After the Allies signed the Armistice with Italy on September 8, 1943, Bolzano became the headquarters of the Prealpine Operations Zone and came under the control of the Nazi army. When the internment camp in Fossoli became vulnerable to Allied attack, it was dismantled, and a transit camp for prisoners headed for Mauthausen, Flossenbürg, Dachau, Ravensbrück and Auschwitz was set up in Bolzano.
Operative as of the summer of 1944 and located in buildings previously occupied by the Italian Army, the transit camp hosted about 11,000 prisoners from middle and northern Italy in its ten months of activity. Although the camp's population consisted mostly of political opponents, Jewish and gypsy deportees also passed through its barracks.
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Budapest Ghetto
The Budapest Ghetto was a ghetto where Jews were forced to live in Budapest, Hungary during the Second World War.
The area consisted of several blocks of the old Jewish quarter of the city surrounding the main synagogue, and was surrounded by a high fence and stone wall that was guarded so that contraband could not be sneaked in, and people could not get out. The Nazi occupation of Budapest (Operation Margarethe) started on March 19, 1944. The ghetto was established in November, 1944, and lasted for less than three months, until the liberation of Budapest on January 17, 1945 by the Soviet Army during the Battle of Budapest.
As with other ghettos that had been set up in other parts of Nazi-occupied Europe the area was completely cut off from the outside world: no food was allowed in, rubbish and waste were not collected, the dead lay on the streets and piled up in the bombed-out store fronts and the buildings were overcrowded, leading to the spread of diseases such as typhoid.
More than half of those that were forced into the ghetto in 1944 were sent to concentration camps, starting almost immediately from the establishment of the ghetto. From occupation to liberation the Jewish population of Budapest was reduced from 200,000 to 70,000 in the ghetto, and about 20,000 housed in specially marked houses outside the ghetto having been granted diplomatic protection by neutral politicians, including Raoul Wallenberg, who issued Protective Passports on behalf of the Swedish Legation, and Carl Lutz, who did the same via the Swiss Government. Of those that were deported (most of them to a concentration camp on the Austrian border), the vast majority were liberated by the advancing Red Army.
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East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik [ˈdɔʏtʃə demoˈkʀaːtɪʃə ʀepuˈbliːk] or DDR), informally known as East Germany (German: Ostdeutschland), was a socialist state established by the USSR in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, including East Berlin of the Allied-occupied capital city. The GDR had an area of 107,771 km2 (41,610 mi2), bordering Czechoslovakia to the south, West Germany to the south and west, Poland to the east, and the Baltic Sea to the north. East Germany was dissolved upon joining the institutions of West Germany in the German reunification, on 3 October 1990.
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Einsatzgruppen
Einsatzgruppen (German: "task forces"; singular Einsatzgruppe; official full name Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD) were SS paramilitary death squads that were responsible for mass killings, typically by shooting, of Jews in particular, but also significant numbers of other population groups and political categories. The Einsatzgruppen operated throughout the territory occupied by the German armed forces following the German invasions of Poland, in September, 1939, and later, of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. The Einsatzgruppen carried out operations ranging from the murder of a few people to operations which lasted over two or more days, such as the massacres at Babi Yar (33,771 killed in two days) and Rumbula (25,000 killed in two days). The Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the murders of over 1,000,000 people, and they were the first Nazi organizations to commence mass killing of Jews as an organized policy.
The Einsatzgruppen were formed under the direction of SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich (deputy to Heinrich Himmler) and operated by the Schutzstaffel (SS) before and during World War II. From September 1939 forward the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA - Reich Main Security Office) had overall command of the Einsatzgruppen. Their principal task during the war (according to SS General Erich von dem Bach at the Nuremberg Trials) "... was the annihilation of the Jews, Gypsies, and Soviet political commissars". The Einsatzgruppen had a leading role in the implementation of the final solution of the Jewish question (Die Endlösung der Judenfrage) in the conquered territories.
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Estonia
Estonia
i/ɨsˈtoʊniə/ (Estonian: Eesti), officially the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariik), is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and the Russian Federation (338.6 km). Across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia covers 45,227 km2 (17,462 sq mi), and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. The Estonians are a Finnic people, and the official language, Estonian, is closely related to Finnish.
Estonia is a democratic parliamentary republic divided into 15 counties. The capital and largest city is Tallinn. With a population of 1.29 million, it is one of the least-populous members of the European Union, Eurozone and NATO. Estonia has the highest GDP per person among former Soviet republics. Estonia is listed as a "High-Income Economy" by the World Bank and as an "advanced economy" by the International Monetary Fund; the country is an OECD member. The United Nations lists Estonia as a developed country with a Human Development Index of "Very High". The country is also ranked highly for press freedom, economic freedom, democracy and political freedom and education.
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Fort Breendonk
Fort Breendonk is a fortification built in 1906 as part of the second ring of defenses of the Réduit national around the city of Antwerp, Belgium. Originally one in a chain of fortresses constructed to defend Belgium against a German attack, Breendonk was near the town of the same name, about 12 miles southwest of Antwerp. It was covered by a five metre thick layer of soil for defense against bombings, a water-filled moat and measured 656 by 984 feet. The fort was used as a prison camp by the German occupiers during World War II. Today, the site is a national memorial (Nationaal Gedenkteken Fort van Breendonk in Dutch) and can be visited.
Belgium was invaded in August 1914 by the German army after refusing its request of unhindered passage to northern France.
The invasion began on August 4, 1914. Eager to reach Paris as soon as possible, the German army concentrated all its efforts towards the south, ignoring Antwerp.
Continued Belgian resistance from the north forced German command to attack Antwerp. On September 9, General Beseler was ordered to attack Antwerp. Siege artillery was sent north, having precipitated the fall of Namur and Maubeuge.
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German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
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Germany
Germany (
i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] (
listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Gestapo
The Gestapo (German pronunciation: [ɡeˈstaːpo, ɡəˈʃtaːpo] ( listen); abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, "Secret State Police") was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police (Chef der Deutschen Polizei). From September 1939 forward it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("Security Service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) ("Security Police").
As part of the deal in which Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Hermann Göring—future commander of the Luftwaffe and an influential Nazi Party official—was named Interior Minister of Prussia. This gave him command of the largest police force in Germany. Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (German: Geheimes Polizeiamt), but discovered the German initials "GPA" would be too similar to the Soviet GPU.
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Gurs internment camp
Camp Gurs was an internment and refugee camp constructed in 1939 in Gurs, a town in southwestern France near Pau. The camp was originally set up by the French government after the fall of Catalonia at the end of the Spanish Civil War to control those who fled Spain out of fear of retaliation from Francisco Franco's regime. At the start of World War II, the French government interned Germans and citizens of other Axis Powers, as well as French nationals who were considered to have dangerous political ideas or who were imprisoned for ordinary crimes.
After the Vichy government signed an armistice with the Nazis in 1940, it became an Internment camp for Jews of any nationality except French, as well as people considered dangerous by the government. After France's liberation, Gurs housed German prisoners of war and French collaborators. Before its final closure in 1946, the camp also held former Spanish Republican fighters who participated in the Resistance against the German occupation, because their decided will to end the fascist dictatorship imposed by Franco made them threatening in the eyes of the Allies.
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Jedwabne pogrom
The Jedwabne pogrom (pronounced [jɛdˈvabnɛ]) of July 1941 during German occupation of Poland, was a massacre (pogrom) of at least 340 Polish Jews of all ages. These are the official findings of the Institute of National Remembrance, "confirmed by the number of victims in the two graves, according to the estimate of the archeological and anthropological team participating in the exhumation," wrote prosecutor Radosław J. Ignatiew, who headed an investigation in 2000-2003 ordered by the Polish government.
A treason and murder trial was launched by Poland's communist regime in 1949, which was later condemned as a miscarriage of justice. After a fresh investigation concluded in 2003, the Polish Institute of National Remembrance stated the crime was committed by Polish inhabitants of the town, with the complicity of Nazi German Ordnungspolizei. The involvement of German paramilitary forces of the SS and Gestapo remains the subject of debate, especially the role of Nazi German Einsatzgruppe Zichenau-Schroettersburg. According to some later commentators, many people were shocked by the findings, which contrast with the rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust.
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Kovno Ghetto
The Kovno ghetto was a ghetto established by Nazi Germany to hold the Lithuanian Jews of Kaunas during the Holocaust. At its peak, the Ghetto held 40,000 people, most of whom were later sent to concentration and extermination camps, or were shot at the Ninth Fort. About 500 Jews escaped from work details and directly from the Ghetto, and joined Soviet partisan forces in the distant forests of southeast Lithuania and Belarus.
The Nazis established a civilian administration under SA Major General Hans Kramer to replace military rule in place from the invasion of Lithuania on June 22, 1941. The Lithuanian Provisional Government was officially disbanded by the Nazis after only a few weeks, but not before approval for the establishment of a ghetto under the supervision of Lithuanian military commandant of Kaunas Jurgis Bobelis, extensive laws enacted against Jews and the provision of auxiliary police to assist the Nazis in the genocide. Between July and August 15, 1941, the Germans concentrated Jews who survived the initial pogroms, some 29,000 people, in a ghetto established in Vilijampolė (Slabodka). It was an area of small primitive houses and no running water which had been cleared of its mainly Jewish population in pogroms by Lithuanian activists beginning on June 24.
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Kraków Ghetto
The Kraków Ghetto was one of five major, metropolitan Jewish ghettos created by Nazi Germany in the General Government (Generalgouvernement) territory for the purpose of persecution, terror, and exploitation of Polish Jews during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. It was a staging point to begin dividing "able workers" from those who would later be deemed unworthy of life. The Ghetto was liquidated between June 1942 and March 1943, with most of its inhabitants sent to Belzec and Płaszów, and exterminated at Auschwitz concentration camp.
Before the German invasion of Poland, Kraków (Cracow) was an influential cultural centre for the 60,000–80,000 Polish Jews who had lived there since the 13th century. Persecution of the Jewish population of Kraków began soon after the German troops entered the city on 7 September 1939, in the course of their invasion of Poland. Jews were obliged to take part in forced labor from September on. In November 1939, all Jews 12 years or older were required to wear identifying armbands. Throughout Kraków, synagogues were ordered closed and all their relics and valuables turned over to the Nazi authorities.
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Kriminalpolizei
Kriminalpolizei (help·info) (English: Criminal Police) is the standard term for the criminal investigation agency within the police forces of Germany, Austria and the German-speaking cantons of Switzerland. In Nazi Germany during 1936, the Kripo became the Criminal Police Department for the entire Reich. In September 1939, the Kripo became Amt V (Department V), the Criminal Police in the RSHA; which was also known as the Reichskriminalpolizeiamt (Reich Criminal Police Department or RKPA). Today, in the Federal Republic of Germany, the state police or Landespolizei perform the majority of investigations. Its Criminal Investigation Department is known as the Kriminalpolizei or, more colloquially, the Kripo.
In 1799, six police officers were assigned to the Prussian Kammergericht (superior court of justice) in Berlin to investigate more prominent crimes. They were given permission to work in plainclothes, when necessary. Their number increased in the following years.
In 1811, their rules of service were written into the Berliner Polizeireglement (Berlin Police Regulations) and in 1820 the rank of Kriminalkommissar was introduced for criminal investigators. In 1872 the new Kriminalpolizei was made a separate branch of police service distinguishing it from the uniformed police called Schutzpolizei.
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Latvia
Latviai/ˈlætviə/ (Latvian: Latvija), officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Republika), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia (border length 343 km), to the south by Lithuania (588 km), to the east by the Russian Federation (276 km), to the southeast by Belarus (141 km), and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden. With 2,067,887 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) it is one of the least populous and least densely populated countries of the European Union. The capital of Latvia is Riga. The official language is Latvian and the currency is called Lats (Ls). The country has a temperate seasonal climate.
The Latvians are a Baltic people, culturally related to the Lithuanians. Together with the Finno-Ugric Livs (or Livonians), the Latvians are the indigenous people of Latvia.Latvian is an Indo-European language and along with Lithuanian the only two surviving members of the Baltic branch. Indigenous minority languages are Latgalian and the nearly extinct Finno-Ugric Livonian language. In terms of geography, territory and population Latvia is the middle of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Latvia and Estonia share a long common history: historical Livonia, times of German (Teutonic Order), Polish-Lithuanian, Swedish, Russian, Nazi German and Soviet rule, 13th century Christianization and 16th century Protestant Reformation. Both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians (26.9% in Latvia and 25.5% in Estonia) of whom some are non-citizens. Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant, except for the region of Latgalia in the southeast which is historically predominantly Roman Catholic.
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Ležáky
Ležáky (German: Lezaky) was a village in Czechoslovakia. In 1942 it was razed to the ground by Nazis during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia.
Ležáky was a settlement inhabited by poor stone-cutters and little cottagers. It was composed of eight houses concentrated near the mill; this mill had created the basis for the village named after the rivulet Ležák.
In December 1941 several paratroopers were dropped into the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia, some of them were sent to assassinate Reinhard Heydrich (see Operation Anthropoid for details). Another group were part of Operation Silver A and several people from Ležáky helped them, providing a hiding place for their radio station. After the assassination of Heydrich (May 27, 1942) the revenge of the Nazis started with martial law.
On June 10 the village of Lidice was razed to the ground and its male inhabitants shot. On June 24 over 500 armed Germans surrounded Ležáky, took away all the inhabitants and set the village on fire. In Pardubice 32 villagers (both men and women) were shot and burned in local crematorium; 13 children were separated. On June 26 a press release announced the event publicly. Before the Christmas of 1943, the débris of Ležáky was pulled down.
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Lithuania
Lithuania (i/ˌlɪθuːˈeɪniə/ or /ˌlɪθjuːˈeɪniə/; Lithuanian: Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika) is a country in Northern Europe, the largest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and a Russian exclave (Kaliningrad Oblast) to the southwest. Lithuania has an estimated population of 3.2 million as of 2011, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The Lithuanians are a Baltic people, and the official language, Lithuanian, is one of only two living languages (together with Latvian) in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family.
For centuries, the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first Lithuanian state, on 6 July 1253. During the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.
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Lower Saxony
Lower Saxony (German: Niedersachsen [ˈniːdɐzaksən], Low German: Neddersassen) is a German state situated in northwestern Germany and is second in area and fourth in population among the sixteen states of Germany. In rural areas Northern Low Saxon, a dialect of Low German, is still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining.
Lower Saxony borders on (from north and clockwise) the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In fact, Lower Saxony borders more neighbours than any other single federal state. The state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other, its seaport city of Bremerhaven. The state's principal cities include Hanover, Brunswick, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, and Göttingen.
The northwestern area of Lower Saxony, which lies on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia and the seven East Frisian Islands offshore are popular with tourists. In the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the gentle hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Uplands: the Weser Uplands and the Harz mountains. Between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges.
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Lublin Ghetto
The Lublin Ghetto was a World War II ghetto created by Nazi Germany in the city of Lublin in occupied Poland, on the Nazi-administered territory of the General Government. Its inhabitants were mostly Polish Jews, although a number of Roma were also present. The Lublin Ghetto, set up in March 1941, was one of the first Nazi-era ghettos in occupied Poland to be "liquidated". In November 1942 around 30,000 inmates were delivered to their deaths in cattle trucks at the Bełżec extermination camp and additional 4,000 at Majdanek.
Already in 1940, before the actual ghetto was opened, the SS and Police Leader Odilo Globocnik (the SS district-commander who also set up the nearby Jewish reservation), began to move the Lublin Jews away from his staff headquarters and into a new area set up for this purpose. Ten thousand Jews had been expelled from Lublin to the rural surroundings of the town in early March.
The Ghetto, referred to as the Jewish quarter or Wohngebiet der Juden, was opened on March 24, 1941. The expulsion and ghettoization of Jews was decided in early March when the Wehrmacht troops, preparing for the invasion of the Soviet Union, needed housing close to the Nazi-Soviet demarcation line. The Ghetto, the only one in the Lublin district in 1941, was located around the area of Podzamcze, from the Grodzka Gate (at the time called the "Jewish Gate", as it demarcated the boundary between the Jewish and non-Jewish quarters of the city), along the Lubartowska and Unicka streets, until the boundary of the Franciszkańska Street. Various members of Jewish political parties, such as the Bund, were imprisoned in the Lublin Castle and continued to carry out their activities underground.
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Lvov Ghetto
The Lviv Ghetto or the Lwów Ghetto (also known as Lvov or Lemberg Ghetto, Polish: getto lwowskie) was a World War II ghetto set up in the city of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine) on the territory of Nazi-administered General Government in German-occupied Poland. It was one of the largest Jewish ghettos established by Nazi Germany after the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland. The city was a home to over 120,000 Jews before the outbreak of World War II in 1939, and by the time the Nazis occupied the city in 1941 that number had increased to over 220,000 Jews, since Jews fled for their lives from Nazi-controlled western Poland into the then relative safety of Soviet-controlled eastern Poland, which included Lviv (Lwow). The ghetto, set up in the second half of 1941 after the Germans arrived, was liquidated in June 1943 with all its inhabitants who survived prior killings, sent to their deaths in cattle trucks at Bełżec extermination camp and the Janowska concentration camp.
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Minsk Ghetto
The Minsk Ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest in Eastern Europe, and the largest in the German-occupied territory of the Soviet Union. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust.
The Soviet census of 1926 showed 53,700 Jews living in Minsk (constituting close to 41% of the city's inhabitants).
The ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city of Minsk, capital of the Belorussian SSR, on 28 June 1941. On the fifth day after the occupation, 2,000 Jewish intelligentsia were massacred by the Germans; from then on, murders of Jews became a common occurrence. About 20,000 Jews were murdered within the first few months of the German occupation, mostly by the Einsatsgruppen squads.
On 17 July 1941 the German occupational authority, the Reichskommissariat Ostland, was created. On the 20th, the Minsk Ghetto was established. A Jewish Council (Judenrat) was established as well. The total population of the ghetto was about 80,000 (over 100,000 according to some sources), of which about 50,000 were pre-war inhabitants, the remainder (30,000 or more), refugees and Jews were forcibly resettled by the Germans from nearby settlements.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Ninth Fort
The Ninth Fort (Lithuanian: Devintas Fortas) is a stronghold in the northern part of Šilainiai elderate, Kaunas, Lithuania. It is a part of the Kaunas Fortress, which was constructed in the late 19th century. During the occupation of Kaunas and the rest of Lithuania by the Soviet Union, the fort was used as a prison and way-station for prisoners being transported to labour camps. After the occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany, the fort was used as a place of execution for Jews, captured Soviets, and others.
At the end of 19th century, the city of Kaunas was fortified, and by 1890 it was encircled by eight forts and nine gun batteries. The construction of the Ninth Fort (its numerical designation having stuck as a proper noun) began in 1902 and was completed on the eve of World War I. From 1924 on, the Ninth Fort was used as the Kaunas City prison.
During the years of Soviet occupation, 1940-1941, the Ninth Fort was used by the NKVD to house political prisoners on their way to the labour camps in Siberia.
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Nuremberg Trials
Coordinates: 49°27.2603′N 11°02.9103′E / 49.4543383°N 11.048505°E / 49.4543383; 11.048505 The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany, in 1945–46, at the Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 25 of the most important captured leaders of the Third Reich, though several key architects of the war (such as Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels) had committed suicide before the trials began.
The initial trials were held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on those trials.
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Operation Nordwind
Operation North Wind (Unternehmen Nordwind) was the last major German offensive of World War II on the Western Front. It began on 31 December 1944 in Alsace and Lorraine in northeastern France, and it ended on 25 January.
In a briefing at his military command complex at Adlerhorst, Adolf Hitler declared in his speech to his division commanders on 28 December 1944 (three days prior to the launch of Operation North Wind):
"This attack has a very clear objective, namely the destruction of the enemy forces. There is not a matter of prestige involved here. It is a matter of destroying and exterminating the enemy forces wherever we find them. The question of liberating all of Alsace at this time is not involved either. That would be very nice, the impression on the German people would be immeasurable, the impression on the world decisive, terrific psychologically, the impression on the French people would be depressing. But that is not important. It is more important, as I said before, to destroy his manpower."
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Ordnungspolizei
The Ordnungspolizei or Orpo (English: Order Police) were the uniformed regular police force in Nazi Germany between 1936 and 1945. It was increasingly absorbed into the Nazi police system. Owing to their green uniforms, they were also referred to as Grüne Polizei (green police). The Orpo was established as a centralized organisation uniting the municipal, city, and rural uniformed forces that had been organised on a state-by-state basis. Eventually the Orpo embraced virtually all of the Third Reich's law-enforcement and emergency response organizations, including fire brigades, coast guard, civil defense, and even night watchmen.
On 17 June 1936, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was named Chef der Deutschen Polizei im Reichsministerium des Innern (Chief of German Police in the Interior Ministry) after Hitler announced a decree that was to "unify the control of Police duties in the Reich". Traditionally, law enforcement in Germany had been a state and local matter. In this role, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick. However, the decree effectively subordinated the police to the SS, making it virtually independent of Frick's control. Himmler gained authority as all of Germany's uniformed law enforcement agencies were amalgamated into the new Ordnungspolizei, whose main office became populated by officers of the SS.
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Pomerania
Pomerania - Polish: Pomorze, Kashubian: Pòmòrze or Pòmòrskô, (German: Pommern, Latin: Pomerania or Pomorania) is a historical region on the south shore of the Baltic Sea. Divided between Germany and Poland, it stretches roughly from the Recknitz River near Stralsund in the West, via the Oder River delta near Szczecin, to the mouth of the Vistula River near Gdańsk in the East. Pomerania was strongly affected by 20th century, post-World War I and II border and population shifts.
Pomerania belongs to the lowlands of the North European Plain. Outside its few urban centers − most notably the Szczecin and Tricity metropolitan areas − the poor soil is mostly used as farmland, dotted with numerous lakes, forests, and small towns. Agriculture primarily consists of raising livestock, forestry, fishery and the cultivation of cereals, sugar beets, and potatoes. Since the late 19th century, tourism has become an important sector of the economy, primarily in the numerous seaside resorts along the coast. Of the limited industrial zones, the most important products are ships, metal products, refined sugar, and paper.
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Ponary massacre
The Ponary massacre (or Paneriai massacre, Polish: zbrodnia w Ponarach) was the mass-murder of 100,000 people, mostly Polish Jews, by German SD and SS and Lithuanian Nazi collaboratorsSonderkommando collaborators (Special SD and German Security Police Squad Ypatingasis būrys units) during World War II and the Holocaust in Reichskommissariat Ostland. The executions took place between July 1941 and August 1944 near the railway station of Paneriai (Polish: Ponary), then in Poland and now a suburb of Vilnius, Lithuania. Some 70,000 Jews were murdered in Ponary, along with estimated 20,000 Poles and 8,000 Russians, many from nearby Vilnius.
Following the incorporation of the Republic of Central Lithuania into Poland, the town of Ponary became part of the Wilno Voivodship, (Kresy region). In September 1939, the region was taken over by the Soviets, and after about a month transferred to Lithuania. After the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union, in June 1940, the Soviets began constructing an oil storage facility near Ponary in conjunction with a military airfield. That project was never completed, as in 1941 the area was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Nazis decided to take advantage of the large pits dug for the oil warehouses to dispose of bodies of unwanted locals. Their policy was to kill every Jewish individual in Lithuania, and the Baltic countries became the first place Nazis would mass execute Jews. Out of 70,000 Jews living in Vilnius, only 7,000 would survive the war; the Jewish culture in Vilnius, one of the greatest in Europe, ceased to exist.
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Poznań
Poznań [ˈpɔznaɲ] ( listen) (Latin: Posnania; German: Posen; Yiddish: פוזנא or פּױזן Poyzn) is a city on the Warta river in west-central Poland, with a population of 556,022 in June 2009. It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral. It is sometimes claimed to be the first capital of the kingdom of Poland.
Poznań is now Poland's fifth largest city. It is the historical capital of the Wielkopolska ("Greater Poland") region, and is currently the administrative capital of the province called Greater Poland Voivodeship.
Poznań is an important centre of trade, industry, and education, and hosts regular international trade fairs. It was the host city for the United Nations Climate Change Conference in December 2008, a key stage in the creation of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. Poznań was a candidate city for European Capital of Culture in 2016. Poznań is currently bidding to host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics. The local football team has been responsible for the spread of the eponymous goal celebration to Manchester City and to a lesser extent throughout the United Kingdom. Poznań is one of the host cities for UEFA Euro 2012.
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Prague
Prague ( /ˈprɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha pronounced [ˈpraɦa] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and fourteenth largest city in European Union. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of nearly 2.0 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100 year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic and Renaissance eras, Prague was the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus then also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in modern history generally as the principal conurbation in Bohemia and Moravia whose second city is Brno.
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Reich Chancellery
The Reich Chancellery (German: Reichskanzlei) was the traditional name of the office of the Chancellor of Germany (then called Reichskanzler) in the period of the German Reich from 1871 to 1945. Its seat from 1875 was the former city palace of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł (1775–1833) on Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin.
Today the office of the German chancellor is usually called Kanzleramt (Chancellor's Office), or more formally Bundeskanzleramt (Federal Chancellor's Office).
When the military alliance of the North German Confederation was reorganised as a federal state with effect from July 1, 1867, the office of a Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) was implemented at Berlin and staffed with the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck. After the unification of Germany on January 18, 1871 by accession of the South German states, Bismarck became Reich Chancellor of the new German Empire.
In 1869 the Prussian state government had acquired the Rococo city palace of late Prince Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße No. 77 (former "Palais Schulenburg"), which from 1875 was refurbished as the official building of the Chancellery. It was inaugurated with the meetings of the Berlin Congress in July 1878, followed by the Congo Conference in 1884.
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Riga Ghetto
The Riga Ghetto was a small area in Maskavas Forštate, neighborhood of Riga, Latvia, designated by the Nazis where Jews from Latvia, and later from Germany, were forced to live during World War II. On October 25, 1941, the Nazis relocated all Jews from Riga and the vicinity to the ghetto while the non-Jewish inhabitants were evicted. Most of the Latvian Jews (about 24,000) were killed on November 30 and December 8, 1941 in the Rumbula massacre. The Nazis transported a large number of German Jews to the ghetto; most of them were later killed in massacres.
While the Riga Ghetto is commonly referred to as a single entity, in fact there were several "ghettos". The first was the large Latvian ghetto. After the Rumbula massacre, the surviving Latvian Jews were concentrated in a smaller area within the original ghetto, which became known as the "small ghetto". The small ghetto was divided into men's and women's sections. The area of the ghetto not allocated to the small ghetto was then reallocated to the Jews being deported from Germany, and became known as the German ghetto.
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Schutzstaffel
The Schutzstaffel (German pronunciation: [ˈʃʊtsʃtafəl] ( listen), translated to Protection Squadron or defence corps, abbreviated SS—or 
with stylized "Armanen" sig runes) was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Built upon the Nazi ideology, the SS under Heinrich Himmler's command was responsible for many of the crimes against humanity during World War II (1939–1945). After 1945, the SS was banned in Germany, along with the Nazi Party, as a criminal organization.
The SS began as a small permanent guard unit made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for Nazi Party meetings in Munich. Formed at the end of 1920, they were known as the "Saal-Schutz" (Hall-Protection). Later under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler between 1929 and 1945, the SS was renamed the "Schutz-Staffel" and grew from a small paramilitary formation to one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the Third Reich.
The SS grew from a small paramilitary unit to a powerful force that served as the Führer's "Praetorian Guard", the Nazi Party's "Protection Squadron" and a force that, fielding almost a million men (both on the front lines and as political police), managed to exert as much political influence in the Third Reich as the Wehrmacht (Germany's regular armed forces).
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Sicherheitsdienst
Sicherheitsdienst (English: Security Service), full title Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsführers-SS, or SD, was the intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany. The organization was the first Nazi Party intelligence organization to be established and was often considered a "sister organization" with the Gestapo, which the SS had infiltrated heavily after 1934. Between 1933 and 1939, the SD was administered as an independent SS office, after which it was transferred to the authority of the Reich Main Security Office (Reichssicherheitshauptamt, or RSHA), as one of its seven departments/offices.
The SD was one of the oldest security organizations of the SS and was first formed in 1931 as the Ic-Dienst, operating out of a single apartment and reporting directly to Heinrich Himmler. Himmler appointed a former naval officer, Reinhard Heydrich, to organise the small agency. The office was renamed Sicherheitsdienst (SD) in the summer of 1932. The SD became more powerful after the Nazis took control of Germany and the SS started infiltrating all leading positions of the security apparatus of the Reich. It was in some competition with the Sturmabteilung (SA), but the SD was made the sole "Party information service" on 9 June 1934. In 1938 it was made the intelligence organization for the State as well as for the Party, supporting the Gestapo and working with the General and Interior Administration. As such, the SD came into immediate, fierce competition with German military intelligence arm, the Abwehr, headed by Admiral Wilhelm Canaris.
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Sicherheitspolizei
The Sicherheitspolizei (English: Security Police), often abbreviated as SiPo, was a term used in Nazi Germany to describe the state political and criminal investigation security agencies. It was made up by the combined forces of the Gestapo (secret state police) and the Kripo (criminal police) between 1936 and 1939. As a formal agency, the SiPo was folded into the RSHA in 1939, but the term continued to be used informally until the end of the Third Reich.
The term originated in the early years of the Nazi power in Germany. Germany, as a federal state, had a myriad of local and centralised police agencies, which often were un-coordinated and had overlapping jurisdictions. Himmler and Heydrich's grand plan was to fully absorb all the police and security apparatus into the structure of the Schutzstaffel (SS). To this end, Himmler took command first of the Gestapo (itself developed from the Prussian Secret Police) and later of all the regular and criminal investigation police, assuming the title Chef der Deutschen Polizei (Chief of the German Police). As such he was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, but in practice Himmler answered to no-one but Hitler.
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Sturmabteilung
The Sturmabteilung (SA) (German pronunciation: [ˈʃtʊʁmʔapˌtaɪlʊŋ] ( listen);Storm Detachment or Assault Division) or Brownshirts) functioned as the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s. Their main assignments were providing protection for Nazi rallies and assemblies; the disruption of opposing political parties and the fight against their paramilitary units (esp. the Rotfrontkämpferbund); and the intimidation of Jewish citizens (eg. the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses).
The SA was the first Nazi paramilitary group to develop pseudo-military titles for bestowal upon its members. The SA ranks were adopted by several other Nazi Party groups, chief amongst them the SS, itself originally a branch of the SA. SA men were often called "brownshirts" for the colour of their uniforms (similar to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts). Brown-coloured shirts were chosen as the SA uniform because a large batch of them were cheaply available after World War I, having originally been ordered during the war for colonial troops posted to Germany's former African colonies.
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Tykocin pogrom
The Tykocin massacre (pogrom), of August 25, 1941, was the mass murder of Jewish residents of Tykocin in occupied Poland during World War II, soon after Nazi German attack on the Soviet Union.
The town of Tykocin was conquered by Nazi Germany during the Soviet and German invasion of Poland pursuant to their secret agreement known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. At the end of September 1939, the area was transferred by the Nazis to the Soviet Union in accordance with the German–Soviet Boundary Treaty.
In their attack, the Red Army overrun 52.1% of territory of interwar Poland with over 13,700,000 inhabitants. The Soviet occupation zone included also 336,000 new refugees who escaped from Polish lands invaded by Germany, most of them Polish Jews numbering at around 198,000. Spreading terror throughout the region, the Soviet secret police (NKVD) accompanying the Red Army massacred Polish prisoners of war, and in less than two years, deported up to 1.5 million ethnic Poles to Siberia. Twenty-one months after the Soviet invasion of Poland, during the German Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the town was overrun again, this time by Wehrmacht followed closely behind by Einsatzgruppen. The Germans installed Jan Fibich, a local ethnic German, as mayor. Fibich, aided by Edmund Wiśniewski, prepared a list of Jews collaborating with the Soviet NKVD, which included almost all of Jewish youth.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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Vilna Ghetto
The Vilna Ghetto or Vilnius Ghetto was a Jewish ghetto established by Nazi Germany in the city of Vilnius in the occupied Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (now Vilnius, Lithuania), during the Holocaust in World War II. During roughly two years of its existence, starvation, disease, street executions, maltreatment and deportations to concentration camps and extermination camps reduced the population of the ghetto from an estimated 40,000 to zero. Only several hundred people managed to survive, mostly by hiding in the forests surrounding the town, joining the Soviet partisans, or finding shelter among sympathetic locals.
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Vistula
The Vistula ( /ˈvɪstʃələ/; Polish: Wisła [ˈvʲiswa], German: Weichsel) is the longest and the most important[citation needed] river in Poland, at 1,047 km (651 miles) in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is 194,424 km2 (75,068 sq mi), of which 168,699 km2 (65,135 sq mi) lies within Poland (splitting the country in half).
The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in the south of Poland, 1220 meters above sea level in the Silesian Beskids (western part of Carpathian Mountains) where it begins with the White Little Vistula (Biała Wisełka) and the Black Little Vistula (Czarna Wisełka). It then continues to flow over the vast Polish plains, passing several large Polish cities along its way, including Kraków, Sandomierz, Warsaw, Płock, Włocławek, Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Świecie, Grudziądz, Tczew and Gdańsk. It empties into the Vistula Lagoon or directly into the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea with a delta and several branches (Leniwka, Przekop, Śmiała Wisła, Martwa Wisła, Nogat and Szkarpawa).
The name was first recorded by Pliny in AD 77 in his Natural History. He uses Vistula (4.52, 4.89) with an alternative spelling, Vistillus (3.06). The Vistula River ran into the Mare Suebicum, which is today known as the Baltic Sea. The root of the name Vistula is Indo-European ultimately from proto-Indo-European. The diminutive endings -ila, -ula, were used in many Indo-European language groups, including Latin (see Ursula).
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Wallonia
Wallonia (French: Wallonie [wa.lɔ.ni], German: Wallonie(n), Dutch: Wallonië [wɐˈloːnɪə] ( listen) or [βɐˈloːnɪə], Walloon: Walonreye) is the predominantly French-speaking southern region of Belgium. It is governed as the Walloon Region, which makes up 55% of the territory of Belgium but with only a third of its population. Contrary to the situation in Flanders, the Walloon Region was not merged with the French Community of Belgium, a political level responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education. The small German-speaking minority in the east forms the German-speaking Community of Belgium, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues. The demonym for Wallonia is Walloon.
During the industrial revolution, Wallonia trailed only the United Kingdom in industrialization, capitalizing on its extensive deposits of coal and iron. This brought the region wealth, and, from the beginning of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries, Wallonia was the more prosperous half of Belgium. Since World War II, however, the importance of heavy industry has greatly declined, and the Flemish Region surpassed Wallonia in wealth as Wallonia economically declined. Wallonia now suffers from high unemployment and has a significantly lower GDP per capita than Flanders. The economic inequalities and linguistic divide between the two are major sources of political conflict in Belgium.
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Wannsee Conference
The Wannsee Conference was a meeting of senior officials of the Nazi German regime, held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee on 20 January 1942. The purpose of the conference was to inform administrative leaders of Departments responsible for various policies relating to Jews that Reinhard Heydrich had been appointed as the chief executor of the "Final solution to the Jewish question". In the course of the meeting, Heydrich presented a plan, presumably approved by Adolf Hitler, for the deportation of the Jewish population of Europe and French North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) to German-occupied areas in eastern Europe, and the use of the Jews fit for labour on road-building projects, in the course of which they would eventually die according to the text of the Wannsee Protocol, the surviving remnant to be annihilated after completion of the projects. Instead, as Soviet and Allied forces gradually pushed back the German lines, most of the Jews of German-occupied Europe were sent to extermination or concentration camps, or killed where they lived. As a result of the efforts of historian Joseph Wulf, the Wannsee House, where the conference was held, is now a Holocaust Memorial.
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Warsaw Ghetto
The Warsaw Ghetto (pol. "Getto Warszawskie" ) was the largest of all Jewish Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe during World War II. It was established in the Polish capital between October and November 15, 1940, in the territory of General Government of the German-occupied Poland, with over 400,000 Jews from the vicinity residing in an area of 1.3 square miles (3.4 km2). From there, about 254,000 Ghetto residents were sent to Treblinka extermination camp during the three months of summer 1942.
The sheer death-toll among the Jewish inhabitants of the Ghetto during the Großaktion Warschau would have been difficult to compare even with the liquidation of the Ghetto in spring of next year during and after the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising which meant annihilation of an additional 50,000 people followed by the actual razing of the ghetto. With the inclusion of the Ghetto falling at least 300,000 Polish Jews lost their lives there.
The Warsaw Ghetto was established by the German Governor-General Hans Frank on October 16, 1940. Frank ordered Jews in Warsaw and its suburbs rounded up and herded into the Ghetto. At this time, the population in the Ghetto was estimated to be 400,000 people, about 30% of the population of Warsaw; however, the size of the Ghetto was about 2.4% of the size of Warsaw.
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Warsaw Uprising
Coordinates: 52°13′48″N 21°00′39″E / 52.23°N 21.01083°E / 52.23; 21.01083
The Warsaw Uprising (Polish: powstanie warszawskie) was a major World War II operation by the Polish resistance Home Army (Polish: Armia Krajowa), to liberate Warsaw from Nazi Germany. The rebellion was timed to coincide with the Soviet Union's Red Army approaching the eastern suburbs of the city and the retreat of German forces. Controversially, the Soviet advance stopped short, enabling the Germans to regroup and literally demolish the city in crushing the Polish resistance, which fought for 63 days with little outside support.
The uprising began on 1 August 1944, as part of a nationwide plan, Operation Tempest, when the Soviet Army approached Warsaw. The main Polish objectives were to drive the German occupiers from the city and help with the larger fight against Germany and the Axis powers. Secondary political objectives were to liberate Warsaw before the Soviets, to underscore Polish sovereignty by empowering the Polish Underground State before the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation could assume control. Also, short-term causes included the threat of a German round-up of able-bodied Poles, and Moscow radio calling for the Uprising to begin.
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Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic (Weimarer Republik [ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk] (
listen)) is the name given by historians to the federal republic and parliamentary representative democracy established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It was named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. Its official name was German Reich (Deutsches Reich)
Following World War I, the republic emerged from the German Revolution in November 1918. In 1919, a national assembly convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the German Reich was written, then adopted on 11 August of that same year. The ensuing period of liberal democracy lapsed in the early 1930s, leading to the ascent of the nascent Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler in 1933. The legal measures taken by the Nazi government in February and March 1933, commonly known as Gleichschaltung ("coordination") meant that the government could legislate contrary to the constitution. The republic nominally continued to exist until 1945, as the constitution was never formally repealed. However, the measures taken by the Nazis in the early part of their rule rendered the constitution irrelevant. Thus, 1933 is usually seen as the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of Hitler's Third Reich.
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Wewelsburg
For the village of Wewelsburg see Village of Wewelsburg
Wewelsburg (German pronunciation: [ˈveːvəlsˌbʊɐ̯k]) is a Renaissance castle located in the northeast of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in the village of Wewelsburg which is a quarter of the city Büren, Westphalia, in district of Paderborn in the Alme Valley. The castle has the outline of a triangle (aerial photo). After 1934 it was used by the SS under Heinrich Himmler and was to be expanded to the central SS-cult-site. After 1941 plans were developed to enlarge it to the so-called "Center of the World".
In its current form the Wewelsburg was built from 1603 to 1609 as secondary residence for the prince-bishops of Paderborn namely Fürstbischof Dietrich von Fürstenberg (also see Bishopric of Paderborn). Its location is near what was then believed to be the site of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
Predecessor buildings existed: One used during the 9th and 10th century against the Hungarians named Wifilisburg, another one was built in 1123 by Earl Friedrich von Arnsberg. After his death in 1124 the building was demolished by farmers that he oppressed. In 1301 earl von Waldeck sold the Wewelsburg to the prince-bishop of Paderborn. A document about this acquisition proves that two fortress-like buildings stood on the hill: the "Bürensche-" and the "Waldecksche-house".
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Wola massacre
The Wola massacre (Polish: Rzeź Woli, "Wola slaughter") (5 – 8 August 1944 in Wola, Warsaw) was the systematic killing of 40,000 to 100,000 people by Nazi German troops during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. Polish civilians along with captured resistance fighters were indiscriminately shot or killed in organised mass executions throughout Wola in Warsaw. The action was designed to crush the Poles' will to fight and put the uprising to an end without having to commit to heavy city fighting.
However the Germans soon found that the atrocities in Wola only stiffened Polish resistance. Germans authority over the city was only achieved after more than two months of heavy fighting and the total destruction of Warsaw.
On 2 August, two days after the start of the fighting in Warsaw, SS General Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski was placed in command of all German forces in Warsaw. By then several parts of the city were now held by units from the Polish Home Army. Following direct orders from SS-Reichfuhrer Heinrich Himmler to show no mercy, his strategy was to use terror tactics against all inhabitants of Warsaw to decisively end the uprising and destroy the Poles will to fight. No distinction would be made between Polish insurgents and civilians.
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Złocieniec
Złocieniec [zwɔˈt͡ɕeɲet͡s] (German: Falkenburg) is a city in Middle Pomerania, in north-western Poland with some 12,000 inhabitants. Located in Drawsko County in West Pomeranian Voivodeship since 1999, previously a town in Koszalin Voivodeship (1950–1998).
The city official webpage states that between VII and VI century B.C the area of the city was the site of a village and the area of Western Pomerania was settled by Slavs in VI and VIII century; when the city rights were established the Złocieniec webpage informs that its highly probable that among German inhabitants of the city were also Slavs from Budów i Strzebłów-villages that were disbanded. City laws were established by brothers von Wedel on 13 December 1333. In 1668 the city was almost completely destroyed by a fire. During the era of Nazi Germany the Ordensburg Krössinsee was built near the town in 1934. The SA attacked Jewish population here during Kristallnacht, later, during Second World War a forced labour camp was established near the city, from which 31 Poles managed to escape. After World War II the city was handed over to Poland by the Allies, with Poles being transferred from the East while Germans were expelled to the west.
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Heinrich Boere
Heinrich Boere (born 27 September 1921) is a convicted German-Dutch war criminal and former member of the Waffen-SS. He was on the Simon Wiesenthal Center's list of most wanted Nazi war criminals.
Boere was born in Eschweiler, Germany, to a Dutch father and a German mother, but his parents moved to Maastricht when he was two years old. He volunteered for the Waffen-SS in September 1940, only months after the German occupation of the Netherlands. In June 1941 at the age of 19 he left to fight on the Eastern Front including, in 1942, service in the Caucasus. In December 1942, he contracted pyelonephritis and was sent back to Maastricht.
In 1943, Boere became a member of a 15 man Waffen-SS squad of Dutch volunteers, the Sonderkommando Feldmeijer, tasked with killing members of the Dutch resistance and anti-German citizens in retaliation for acts of resistance against the Nazi occupation of their country. Following attacks on German occupational forces and Dutch collaborators, the SS and Police Leader for the Netherlands, Hanns Albin Rauter, ordered the Sonderkommando to retaliate by assassinating civilians presumed to be in some way connected to the resistance. This operation, codenamed Silbertanne (Silver Fir), was responsible for probably 54 known killings, three of which Boere admitted to committing.
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Heinrich Böll
Heinrich Theodor Böll (December 21, 1917 – July 16, 1985) was one of Germany's foremost post-World War II writers. Böll was awarded the Georg Büchner Prize in 1967 and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.
Böll was born in Cologne, Germany, to a Catholic, pacifist family that later opposed the rise of Nazism. He refused to join the Hitler Youth during the 1930s. He was apprenticed to a bookseller before studying German at the University of Cologne. Conscripted into the Wehrmacht, he served in France, Romania, Hungary and the Soviet Union, and was wounded four times before he was captured by Americans in April 1945 and sent to a prisoner-of-war camp.
Böll became a full-time writer at the age of 30. His first novel, Der Zug war pünktlich (The Train Was on Time), was published in 1949. Many other novels, short stories, radio plays and essay collections followed, and in 1972 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was the first German-born author to receive this award since Nelly Sachs in 1966. His work has been translated into more than 30 languages, and he is one of Germany's most widely read authors. His best-known works are Billiards at Half-past Nine, The Clown, Group Portrait with Lady, The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum, and The Safety Net, apart from many short stories.
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Heinrich Dusemer
Heinrich Dusemer von Arfberg (died 1353 in Bratian) was the 21st Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, serving from 1345 to 1351.
Dusemer hailed from Swabia and joined the Teutonic Order in 1311. As a young knight he fought against the Lithuanians. Legend has it that he frequently would duel with Grand Duke Vytenis. Owing to his bravery and fighting prowess, he advanced in the Order's hierarchy quickly.
In 1318 he becomes a member of a convent on a castle in Labiau and in 1329 Komtur of Ragnit. In 1333 he became the Vogt of Sambia and in 1334 the Komtur of Brandenburg (Frisches Haff). A year later, Dusemer became the Grand Marshal and the Komtur of Königsberg. In 1339 he came into conflict with Grand Master Dietrich von Altenburg and as a punishment was degraded. He was sent to Strasburg where he took over the komturship. He was reinstated by the next Grand Master, Ludolf König.
On December 13, 1345, the Order's capitulum in Marienburg chose Dusemer as the next Grand Master, as after several defeats the Order needed someone with battlefield experience. Shortly after being chosen the Grand Master, Dusemer retaliated and attacked Lithuania in a campaign which ended with a total victory over the Lithuanian army by the Strawa River on February 2, 1348.
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Heinrich George
Heinrich George (9 October 1893 – 25 September 1946), born Georg August Friedrich Hermann Schulz, was a German stage and film actor.
George is noted for having spooked the young Bertolt Brecht in his first directing job, a production of Arnolt Bronnen's Parricide (1922), when he refused to continue working with the director.
He played in Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) and Dreyfus (1930). In 1931, he starred in Berlin Alexanderplatz (1931).
George was an active member of the Communist party during the Weimar Republic. He worked with noted left-wing dramatists Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht. He had also starred in the lead role of the 1931 film Berlin-Alexanderplatz.
After the Nazi takeover, George was initially classified as a "non-desirable" actor because of his earlier political affiliations and was thus barred from working in cinematic productions. However, he was able to reach an accommodation with the Nazi regime. In 1937, George was designated as a Staatsschauspieler (i.e. an actor of national importance) and in 1938 was appointed director of the Schiller Theater in Berlin. George actively collaborated with the Nazis and agreed to star in Nazi propaganda films such as Hitlerjunge Quex, Jud Süß, and Kolberg as well as appearing in numerous newsreels.
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Heinrich Heine
Christian Johann Heinrich Heine (13 December 1797 – 17 February 1856) was one of the most significant German poets of the 19th century. He was also a journalist, essayist, and literary critic. He is best known outside Germany for his early lyric poetry, which was set to music in the form of Lieder (art songs) by composers such as Robert Schumann and Franz Schubert. Heine's later verse and prose is distinguished by its satirical wit and irony. His radical political views led to many of his works being banned by German authorities. Heine spent the last 25 years of his life as an expatriate in Paris.
Heine was born in Düsseldorf, Rhineland, into a Jewish family. He was called "Harry" as a child, but became "Heinrich" after his conversion to Christianity in 1825. Heine's father, Samson Heine (1764–1828), was a textile merchant. His mother Peira (known as "Betty"), née van Geldern (1771–1859), was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of the four children; his siblings were Charlotte, Gustav - who later became Baron Heine-Geldern and publisher of the Viennese newspaper Das Fremdenblatt - and Maximilian, later a physician in Saint Petersburg.
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Heinrich Hertz
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who clarified and expanded James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light, which was first demonstrated by David Edward Hughes using non-rigorous trial and error procedures. Hertz is distinguished from Maxwell and Hughes because he was the first to conclusively prove the existence of electromagnetic waves by engineering instruments to transmit and receive radio pulses using experimental procedures that ruled out all other known wireless phenomena. The scientific unit of frequency — cycles per second — was named the "hertz" in his honor.
Hertz was born in Hamburg, then a sovereign state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family. His father, David Gustav Hertz, was a writer and later a senator. His mother was the former Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. His paternal great-grandfather, David Wolff Hertz (1757–1822), fourth son of Benjamin Wolff Hertz, moved to Hamburg in 1793, where he made his living as a jeweller; he and his wife Schöne Hertz (1760–1834) were buried in the former Jewish cemetery in Ottensen. Their first son, Wolff Hertz (1790–1859), was chairman of the Jewish community. Hertz' paternal grandfather, Heinrich David Hertz (1797–1862), was a respected businessman, and his paternal grandmother, Betty Oppenheim, was the daughter of the banker Salomon Oppenheim, from Cologne. Hertz's father and paternal grandparents converted from Judaism to Christianity. His mother's family was Lutheran.
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Heinrich Himmler
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (pronounced [ˈhaɪnʁɪç ˈluˑɪtˌpɔlt ˈhɪmlɐ] ( listen) 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (SS), a military commander, and a leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). As Chief of the German Police and the Minister of the Interior from 1943, Himmler oversaw all internal and external police and security forces, including the Gestapo (Secret State Police). Serving as Reichsführer and later as Commander of the Replacement (Home) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the entire Reich's administration (Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung), Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and one of the persons most directly responsible for the Holocaust.
As overseer of the concentration camps, extermination camps, and Einsatzgruppen (literally: task forces, often used as death squads operating to the rear of frontline troops to murder Jews, communists and 'untermensch' in occupied territories), Himmler coordinated the killing of some six million Jews, between 200,000 and 500,000 Roma, many prisoners of war, and possibly another three to four million Poles, as well as other groups whom the Nazis deemed unworthy to live, including people with physical and mental disabilities, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Confessing Church, and homosexuals. Shortly before the end of the war, he offered to surrender both Germany and himself to the Western Allies if he were spared prosecution. After being arrested by British forces on 22 May 1945, he committed suicide the following day before he could be questioned.
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Heinrich Hoffmann
Heinrich Hoffmann (September 12, 1885 in Fürth – December 11, 1957 in Munich) was a German photographer best known for his many published photographs of Adolf Hitler.
Hoffmann worked in his father's photographic shop and as a photographer in Munich from 1908. He joined the NSDAP in 1920 and was chosen by its new leader Hitler as his official photographer. A photograph taken by Hoffman in Munich's Odeonsplatz on 2 August 1914 purports to show a young Hitler among the crowds cheering the outbreak of World War I and was used in Nazi propaganda; its authenticity has been questioned. Hitler and Hoffman became close friends. Hoffmann's photographs were published as postage stamps, postcards, posters and picture books. Following Hoffmann's suggestion, both he and Hitler received royalties from all uses of Hitler's image (even on postage stamps), which made the photographer wealthy. In 1933 he was elected to the Reichstag and in 1938 Hitler appointed him a 'Professor'.
Hoffmann married Therese "Lelly" Baumann, who was very fond of Hitler, in 1911, their daughter Henriette ("Henny") was born on February 3, 1913 and followed by a son, Heinrich ("Heini") on October 24, 1916. Henriette married Reichsjugendführer (National Hitler Youth commander) Baldur von Schirach, who provided introductions to many of Hoffmann's picture books, in 1932. Therese Hoffmann died a sudden and unexpected death in 1928. Hoffmann and his second wife Erna introduced his Munich studio assistant Eva Braun to Hitler. Braun later became Hitler's mistress and ultimately, his wife on April 29, 1945 and partner in suicide the following day.
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Heinrich Schliemann
Heinrich Schliemann (German pronunciation: [ˈʃliːman]; (January 6, 1822 – December 26, 1890) was a German businessman and amateur archaeologist, and an advocate of the historical reality of places mentioned in the works of Homer. Schliemann was an archaeological excavator of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. His work lent weight to the idea that Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid reflect actual historical events.
Schliemann was born in Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin in 1822. His father, Ernst Schliemann, was a Protestant minister. The family moved to Ankershagen in 1823 (today in their house is the museum of Heinrich Schliemann). Heinrich's mother, Luise Therese Sophie, died in 1831, when Heinrich was nine years old. After his mother's death, his father sent Heinrich to live with his uncle. When he was eleven years old, his father paid for him to enroll in the Gymnasium (grammar school) at Neustrelitz. Heinrich's later interest in history was initially encouraged by his father, who had schooled him in the tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey and had given him a copy of Ludwig Jerrer's Illustrated History of the World for Christmas in 1829. Schliemann later claimed that at the age of 8, he had declared he would one day excavate the city of Troy.
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Heinrich von Brühl
Heinrich, count von Brühl (August 13, 1700 – October 28, 1763), was a German statesman at the court of Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The incumbency of the ambitious politician went along with the decline of both states.
Heinrich was born in Gangloffsömmern the son of Johann Moritz von Brühl, a noble who held the office of the Oberhofmarschall at the court of Saxe-Weissenfels (ruled by a cadet branch of the Albertine House of Wettin), by his first wife Erdmuth Sophie v. d. Heide. His father was ruined and compelled to part with his family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince. Under Duke Christian of Saxe-Weissenfels von Brühl was first placed as page with the dowager duchess, and was then received at her recommendation into the court of Electoral Saxony at Dresden as a Silberpage on April 16, 1719. He rapidly acquired the favour of the Elector Frederick Augustus I of Wettin, surnamed the Strong, who, in 1697, had been elected King of Poland (as Augustus II). Brühl was largely employed in procuring money for his extravagant master. He became Chief Receiver of Taxes and Minister of the Interior of Saxony in 1731.
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Heinrich von Gagern
Heinrich Wilhelm August Freiherr von Gagern (20 August 1799 – 22 May 1880) was a statesman who argued for the unification of Germany.
The third son of Hans Christoph Ernst, Baron von Gagern, a liberal statesman from Hesse, Heinrich von Gagern was born at Bayreuth, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo.
Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Göttingen and Jena, where he became a member of the Urburschenschaft, and in 1819 went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the Burschenschaft, and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative tiny a farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally publishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation of a united Germany.
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Heinrich von Herford
Heinrich von Herford (also Heinrich von Hervord, Henricus de Hervordia), anglicized Henry of Herford (~1300 - † 9th October 1370) was a Dominican friar, chronicler, historian, and theologian.
Born around 1300 in Herford, Westphalia in the Holy Roman Empire, he probably attended the Latin school of the Imperial Abbey (today Friedrichs-Gymnasium Herford). He was then professed in the Dominican friary at Minden. There he wrote his chronicle Liber de rebus memorabilioribus (Book of Memorable Things), in which he summarizes the work of older historians from Eusebius down to the writers of his own age. The work, which is continued down to the coronation of the Emperor Charles IV in 1355, was one of the chief sources of historical information in fourteenth-century literature. It was reprinted under the editorship of August Potthast in Göttingen in 1859. He also composed the Catena aurea in decem partes distincta, a summary of theology, and a treatise, De Conceptione Virginis gloriosae.
Heinrich von Herford died on 9 October 1370 in the Dominican monastery of St. Pauli in Minden, where he had spent most of his life. Shortly after his death, Heinrich's writings must have earned him a relative fame as Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, prompted Heinrich's reburial to a more honorable tomb and hosted a large funeral attended by a number of people of secular and spiritual significance.
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Heinrich von Kleist
Bernd Heinrich Wilhelm von Kleist (18 October 1777 – 21 November 1811) was a poet, dramatist, novelist and short story writer. The Kleist Prize, a prestigious prize for German literature, is named after him.
Kleist was born into the von Kleist family in Frankfurt an der Oder in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian Army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign of 1796, and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of lieutenant. He studied law and philosophy at the Viadrina University and in 1800 received a subordinate post in the Ministry of Finance at Berlin.
In the following year, Kleist's roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. Here he found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke and Ludwig Friedrich August Wieland (d. 1819), son of the poet Christoph Martin Wieland; and to them he read his first drama, a gloomy tragedy, The Schroffenstein Family (1803, originally entitled The Ghonorez Family).
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Heinrich von Melk
Heinrich von Melk was a German satirist of the twelfth century; of knightly birth and probably a lay brother in the convent of Melk, in Styria.
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Heinrich von Sybel
Heinrich Karl Ludolf von Sybel (December 2, 1817–August 1, 1895), German historian, came from a Protestant family which had long been established at Soest, in Westphalia.
He was born in Düsseldorf, where his father held important posts in the public service under both the French and the Prussians; in 1831 he was raised to the hereditary nobility. His home was one of the centres of the vigorous literary and artistic life for which Düsseldorf was renowned at that time. Sybel was educated at the local Gymnasium, and then at the University of Berlin, where he came under the influences of Friedrich Karl von Savigny and Leopold von Ranke, whose most distinguished pupil he was to become.
After taking his degree, he settled down in 1841 as a Privatdozent in history at the university of Bonn. He had already made himself known by critical studies on the history of the Middle Ages, of which the most important was his Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (History of the First Crusade) (Düsseldorf, 1841; new ed., Leipzig, 1881), a work which, besides its merit as a valuable piece of historical investigation employing the critical methods he had learnt from Ranke, was also of some significance as a protest against the vaguely enthusiastic attitude encouraged by the Romantic school towards the Middle Ages. In 1861 Lady Duff-Gordon published an English translation of a part of this book, to which were added lectures on the crusades delivered in Munich in 1858, under the title History and Literature of the Crusades. This was followed by a study of the growth of German kingship (Die Entstehung des deutschen Königtums, Frankfurt, 1844, and again 1881), after which he was appointed professor.
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Heinrich, Don Filmography
Heinrich, Will Filmography
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Interpol - The Heinrich Maneuver
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:36
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
Music video by Interpol performing The Heinrich Maneuver.
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Music video by Interpol performing The Heinrich Maneuver.
The Heinrich Maneuver on Letterman
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- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
The Heinrich Maneuver perfomed on the Late Show
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The Heinrich Maneuver perfomed on the Late Show
- published: 12 Jul 2007
- views: 192329
- author: adrianmdrtto
Green Day - Waiting (Video)
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- Duration: 3:17
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
© 2005 WMG Waiting (Video)
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HEINRICH HIMMLER - ANATOMIA MASOWEGO MORDERCY
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- Duration: 51:54
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
Dossier Heinricha Luitpolda Himmlera - jednego z głównych przywódców Niemiec hitlerowskich, współtwórcy i szefa kolejno: SS (od 1929), Gestapo (od 1934), policji (od 1936) i ministra spraw wewnętrznych III Rzeszy (od 1943). Himmler był członkiem okultystycznego Towarzystwa Thule. Scenariusz i Reżyseria: Michael Kloft, Współpraca: Julia Driesen, Frank Gensthaler, Konsulatcje naukowe: Michael Wildt, Zdjecia: Jan Kerhart, Wydawca: Monika Finneisen, Muzyka: Kolja Erdmann. Produkcja: Spiegel TV GmbH, 2008, Niemcy
http://wn.com/HEINRICH_HIMMLER_ANATOMIA_MASOWEGO_MORDERCY
Dossier Heinricha Luitpolda Himmlera - jednego z głównych przywódców Niemiec hitlerowskich, współtwórcy i szefa kolejno: SS (od 1929), Gestapo (od 1934), policji (od 1936) i ministra spraw wewnętrznych III Rzeszy (od 1943). Himmler był członkiem okultystycznego Towarzystwa Thule. Scenariusz i Reżyseria: Michael Kloft, Współpraca: Julia Driesen, Frank Gensthaler, Konsulatcje naukowe: Michael Wildt, Zdjecia: Jan Kerhart, Wydawca: Monika Finneisen, Muzyka: Kolja Erdmann. Produkcja: Spiegel TV GmbH, 2008, Niemcy
- published: 25 Jan 2012
- views: 56168
- author: ZbigniewJuzkow
Green Day - Letterbomb lyrics [Kinetic Typography]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
Artist: Green Day Song: Letterbomb Album: American Idiot This is my first video in Adobe After Effects and it took me a whole month to make it. Hope you like it... enjoy :) Official Facebook page: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Green_Day_Letterbomb_lyrics_Kinetic_Typography_
Artist: Green Day Song: Letterbomb Album: American Idiot This is my first video in Adobe After Effects and it took me a whole month to make it. Hope you like it... enjoy :) Official Facebook page: www.facebook.com
- published: 14 Apr 2011
- views: 217333
- author: SrpskiStevieG
Heinrich V. deutsch/german 1/14
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
Verfilmung des Shakespeare-Klassikers "Heinrich V." aus dem Jahr 1989 Kenneth Branagh: Henry V Derek Jacobi: Chor Simon Shepherd: Gloucester James Larkin: Bedford Brian Blessed: Exeter Ian Holm: Fluellen Emma Thompson: Katherine Paul Scofield: Charles VI Dame Judi Dench: Mistress Quickly Robbie Coltrane: Falstaff Robert Stephens: Pistol Christian Bale: Junge Alec McCowen: Ely Patrick Doyle: Court Geraldine McEwan: Alice
http://wn.com/Heinrich_V_deutsch_german_1_14
Verfilmung des Shakespeare-Klassikers "Heinrich V." aus dem Jahr 1989 Kenneth Branagh: Henry V Derek Jacobi: Chor Simon Shepherd: Gloucester James Larkin: Bedford Brian Blessed: Exeter Ian Holm: Fluellen Emma Thompson: Katherine Paul Scofield: Charles VI Dame Judi Dench: Mistress Quickly Robbie Coltrane: Falstaff Robert Stephens: Pistol Christian Bale: Junge Alec McCowen: Ely Patrick Doyle: Court Geraldine McEwan: Alice
- published: 31 Oct 2009
- views: 36176
- author: onkelazele
Heinrich Schlusnus - Erlkonig (Schubert)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:16
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
Heinrich Schlusnus singing the Erlkonig (Schubert) for Grammophon in 1933. He does well by this song.
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Schlusnus_Erlkonig_Schubert
Heinrich Schlusnus singing the Erlkonig (Schubert) for Grammophon in 1933. He does well by this song.
- published: 23 Oct 2007
- views: 13638
- author: Roger York
Gulda Cello Concerto performed by Heinrich Schiff
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:29
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
From the video titled SO WHAT?! FRIEDRICH GULDA
http://wn.com/Gulda_Cello_Concerto_performed_by_Heinrich_Schiff
Heinrich Maneuver By Interpol
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:41
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
Just the track but i'll upload the video when i get it. Great first track from the new album Our Love To Admire and i'm sure just the tip of the ice berg. Great sound from a great band.
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Maneuver_By_Interpol
Just the track but i'll upload the video when i get it. Great first track from the new album Our Love To Admire and i'm sure just the tip of the ice berg. Great sound from a great band.
- published: 15 May 2007
- views: 170083
- author: Jason Ford
Green Day - Static Age lyrics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
Artist: Green Day Song: Static Age Album: 21st Century Breakdown If you like the video than rate, comment and subscribe :D Official Facebook page: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Green_Day_Static_Age_lyrics
Artist: Green Day Song: Static Age Album: 21st Century Breakdown If you like the video than rate, comment and subscribe :D Official Facebook page: www.facebook.com
- published: 18 Apr 2010
- views: 253319
- author: SrpskiStevieG
The Best of Heinrich Brussow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
This is a tribute vid to Heinrich Brussouw.Powerful Springbok Flanker.He has already shown he has what it takes to be the best 6 in the world.this is only my 4th vid so im still learning all the basics of making vids.Please leave a comment.Thanx and enjoy.
http://wn.com/The_Best_of_Heinrich_Brussow
This is a tribute vid to Heinrich Brussouw.Powerful Springbok Flanker.He has already shown he has what it takes to be the best 6 in the world.this is only my 4th vid so im still learning all the basics of making vids.Please leave a comment.Thanx and enjoy.
- published: 24 Oct 2009
- views: 92956
- author: Grayditch
Heinrich Walcher - Gummizwerg - Show-Chance 1972
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:05
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Walcher_Gummizwerg_Show-Chance_1972
BFD: Interpol "Heinrich Maneuver" Live105.com
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:49
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
BFD: Interpol "Heinrich Maneuver" Live105.com. SEE more video @ Live105.com
http://wn.com/BFD_Interpol_Heinrich_Maneuver_Live105com
BFD: Interpol "Heinrich Maneuver" Live105.com. SEE more video @ Live105.com
- published: 14 Jun 2007
- views: 64289
- author: Livemorningshow
![Green Day - Macy's Day Parade [Official Music Video]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121226123826im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/N9iYkJGyj-w/default.jpg "Green Day - Macy's Day Parade [Official Music Video]")
Green Day - Macy's Day Parade [Official Music Video]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
© 2011 WMG "Macy's Day Parade" by Green Day from 'Warning,' available now. Directed by Mark Kohr. Download on Itunes: wbr.fm Download on Amazon: wbr.fm Links: Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com Website: www.greenday.com "Macy's Day Parade" Lyrics: Today's the Macy's Day Parade The night of the living dead is on its way With a credit report for duty call It's a lifetime guarantee Stuffed in a coffin 10% more free Red light special at the mausoleum Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed to you What's the consolation prize? Economy sized dreams of hope When I was a kid I thought I wanted all the things that I haven't got Oh. I learned the hardest way Then I realized what it took To tell the difference between Thieves and crooks A lesson learned to me and you Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed Because I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known Cause now I know It's all that I wanted What's the consolation prize? Economy sized dreams of hope Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed Because I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known And where it goes And I'm thinking about The only road The one I've never known And where it goes And I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known Cause now I know It's all that I wanted
http://wn.com/Green_Day_Macy's_Day_Parade_Official_Music_Video_
© 2011 WMG "Macy's Day Parade" by Green Day from 'Warning,' available now. Directed by Mark Kohr. Download on Itunes: wbr.fm Download on Amazon: wbr.fm Links: Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com Website: www.greenday.com "Macy's Day Parade" Lyrics: Today's the Macy's Day Parade The night of the living dead is on its way With a credit report for duty call It's a lifetime guarantee Stuffed in a coffin 10% more free Red light special at the mausoleum Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed to you What's the consolation prize? Economy sized dreams of hope When I was a kid I thought I wanted all the things that I haven't got Oh. I learned the hardest way Then I realized what it took To tell the difference between Thieves and crooks A lesson learned to me and you Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed Because I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known Cause now I know It's all that I wanted What's the consolation prize? Economy sized dreams of hope Give me something that I need Satisfaction guaranteed Because I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known And where it goes And I'm thinking about The only road The one I've never known And where it goes And I'm thinking about A brand new hope The one I've never known Cause now I know It's all that I wanted
- published: 27 Oct 2009
- views: 439876
- author: greenday
Return to Castle Wolfenstein: map 26 - Heinrich
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:50
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
Part of a series of videos that show the game Return to Castle Wolfenstein. Each map is featured by a video, and the map transitions are consistant, meaning health, armor, weapons, and ammo are carried over. The set difficulty is Death Incarnate.
http://wn.com/Return_to_Castle_Wolfenstein_map_26_Heinrich
Part of a series of videos that show the game Return to Castle Wolfenstein. Each map is featured by a video, and the map transitions are consistant, meaning health, armor, weapons, and ammo are carried over. The set difficulty is Death Incarnate.
- published: 01 Sep 2007
- views: 154533
- author: lmsAlucard
Nazi Hunters: Heinrich Himmler 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:00
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Nazi_Hunters_Heinrich_Himmler_1
Heinrich Neuhaus plays Brahms Intermezzo, Op.118, No.2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:28
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Simply Neuhaus...
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Neuhaus_plays_Brahms_Intermezzo,_Op118,_No2
Interpol - Heinrich Maneuver (Live)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:59
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
Ripped from the bonus DVD that comes with the Tour Edition of Our Love To Admire.
http://wn.com/Interpol_Heinrich_Maneuver_Live
Ripped from the bonus DVD that comes with the Tour Edition of Our Love To Admire.
- published: 28 Mar 2008
- views: 102220
- author: santagraus
Interpol Letterman Live 2007
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:09
- Updated: 25 Nov 2012
Late Show With David Letterman
http://wn.com/Interpol_Letterman_Live_2007
Heinrich Biber - Battalia a 10 in D major, C. 61 (Jordi Savall / Le Concert des Nations)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:55
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644~1704) Battalia à 10 D-dur, C.61 (1673) (für 3 Violinen, 4 Bratschen [oder Viola da braccio], 2 Violonen, Basso Continuo) 00:00 - 1. Allegro: Sonata 01:43 - 2. Allegro: "Die liederliche Gesellschaft von allerey Humor" 02:31 - 3. Presto 03:19 - 4. "Der Mars" 04:25 - 5. Presto 06:00 - 6. Aria 09:51 - 7. "Die Schlacht" 10:35 - 8. Adagio: "Lamento der Verwundten Musquetirer" - Le Concert des Nations - Manfredo Kraemer (Baroque Violin, I) Pablo Valetti (Baroque Violin, II) Mauro Lopes (Baroque Violin, III) Angelo Bartoletti (Viola da braccio, part I) Natan Paruzel (Viola da braccio, part II) Sergi Casademunt (Viola da gamba, part III) Imke David (Viola da gamba, part IV) Maya Amrein (Bass Violin) Xavier Puertas (Violone, I) Michele Zeoli (Violone, II) Xavier Díaz (Theorbo) Eduardo Egüez (Baroque Guitar) Luca Guglielmi (Harpsichord) Carlos García-Bernalt (Organ) Performed by Le Concert des Nations Conducted by Jordi Savall - Biber's Battalia a 10 in D major - Heinrich Biber (1644-1704) was born in Prague and later spent 24 years in Salzburg serving as Kapellmeister for the Court of the archbishop of Salzburg. Biber was described by noted violinmaker Jacob Stainer as "the outstanding virtuoso Herr Biber". Well known as a great violinist, he became best known as a composer of violin works, many of which employ scordatura (unconventional tunings of the violin strings). His "Rosary Sonatas" consisting of 16 sonatas, had each movement with a ...
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Biber_Battalia_a_10_in_D_major,_C_61_Jordi_Savall_Le_Concert_des_Nations
Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644~1704) Battalia à 10 D-dur, C.61 (1673) (für 3 Violinen, 4 Bratschen [oder Viola da braccio], 2 Violonen, Basso Continuo) 00:00 - 1. Allegro: Sonata 01:43 - 2. Allegro: "Die liederliche Gesellschaft von allerey Humor" 02:31 - 3. Presto 03:19 - 4. "Der Mars" 04:25 - 5. Presto 06:00 - 6. Aria 09:51 - 7. "Die Schlacht" 10:35 - 8. Adagio: "Lamento der Verwundten Musquetirer" - Le Concert des Nations - Manfredo Kraemer (Baroque Violin, I) Pablo Valetti (Baroque Violin, II) Mauro Lopes (Baroque Violin, III) Angelo Bartoletti (Viola da braccio, part I) Natan Paruzel (Viola da braccio, part II) Sergi Casademunt (Viola da gamba, part III) Imke David (Viola da gamba, part IV) Maya Amrein (Bass Violin) Xavier Puertas (Violone, I) Michele Zeoli (Violone, II) Xavier Díaz (Theorbo) Eduardo Egüez (Baroque Guitar) Luca Guglielmi (Harpsichord) Carlos García-Bernalt (Organ) Performed by Le Concert des Nations Conducted by Jordi Savall - Biber's Battalia a 10 in D major - Heinrich Biber (1644-1704) was born in Prague and later spent 24 years in Salzburg serving as Kapellmeister for the Court of the archbishop of Salzburg. Biber was described by noted violinmaker Jacob Stainer as "the outstanding virtuoso Herr Biber". Well known as a great violinist, he became best known as a composer of violin works, many of which employ scordatura (unconventional tunings of the violin strings). His "Rosary Sonatas" consisting of 16 sonatas, had each movement with a ...
- published: 15 Nov 2010
- views: 23756
- author: protestant7
Conker: Live & Reloaded Walkthrough Part 31 - Heinrich!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:20
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Part 31 - Heinrich! Chapter-9 /\ Heist (Left-trigger= Defend; Right-trigger=Attack; A/Click the Left Thumbstick = Jump) Available on www.gameanyone.com with tons of other game walkthroughs.
http://wn.com/Conker_Live_Reloaded_Walkthrough_Part_31_Heinrich!
Part 31 - Heinrich! Chapter-9 /\ Heist (Left-trigger= Defend; Right-trigger=Attack; A/Click the Left Thumbstick = Jump) Available on www.gameanyone.com with tons of other game walkthroughs.
- published: 23 Jun 2009
- views: 56209
- author: Grouter05
Carl Heinrich Graun : Harpsichord Concerto in C Minor (Complete) - Rare Baroque Music
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:12
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Wonderful treasure of german baroque music . Rare masterpiece for harpsichord and strings composed by Carl Heinrich Graun , opera composer. 1 ) Allegro 2)Larghetto 3)Allegro Paintings by Peter Rubens , baroque artist . Good Listening
http://wn.com/Carl_Heinrich_Graun_Harpsichord_Concerto_in_C_Minor_Complete_Rare_Baroque_Music
Wonderful treasure of german baroque music . Rare masterpiece for harpsichord and strings composed by Carl Heinrich Graun , opera composer. 1 ) Allegro 2)Larghetto 3)Allegro Paintings by Peter Rubens , baroque artist . Good Listening
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 30975
- author: NEWKINGOFWALZER
Heinrich Neuhaus plays Chopin Concerto Op. 11 E-minor
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:52
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
Piano Concerto No. 1 in E Minor, Op. 11 II Larghetto Heinrich Neuhaus All-Union Radio Orchestra Alexander Gauk 1955
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Neuhaus_plays_Chopin_Concerto_Op_11_E-minor
Piano Concerto No. 1 in E Minor, Op. 11 II Larghetto Heinrich Neuhaus All-Union Radio Orchestra Alexander Gauk 1955
- published: 03 Feb 2008
- views: 25608
- author: truecrypt
photo: Creative Commons / Giorgione
24 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. A deadly silence immediately followed after a bullet penetrated the calf's skull. Against my wishes, Vic had decided against either amputating its leg or contacting a veterinarian-something he reasoned would have been too expensive. The unfortunate calf had slid down into a ravine where its hind leg, which was mangled and torn, became wrapped in barbed wire ... But it was more than a bellow ... 9....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Axou
24 Dec 2012
Steve Jobs was controversial in life, and now his high-tech mega-yacht is associated with a controversy long after his death. The former Apple CEO's ship was impounded in Amsterdam in the middle of a financial battle over a disputed bill. Phillippe Starck, a French product designer and architect, has alleged that Jobs' heirs owe him 3 million euros for his work on Venus, the 256-foot yacht Jobs commissioned before his death ... ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Musadeq Sadeq
24 Dec 2012
KABUL, Afghanistan (AP) — An Afghan policewoman shot and killed an American adviser outside the police headquarters in Kabul on Monday, the latest in a rising tide of insider attacks by Afghans against their foreign allies, senior Afghan officials said. The woman, identified as Afghan police Sgt ... The woman was taken into Afghan custody shortly after the attack ... As many Afghans, the policewoman uses only one name ... Air Force Lt. Col ... Gen ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
photo: AP / Muhammed Muheisen
24 Dec 2012
Zeenews Bureau. Moscow. A deadly air strike by Syrian government on a bakery in Halfaya of Syria’s Hama on Monday killed more than 60, even as international envoy Lakhdar Barhimi is in the country to negotiate the solutions to the ongoing civil war. "Dozens of people were killed in an air strike on Halfaya," Lebanon's Naharnet said citing the British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights ... His trip appeared troubled from the start ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)
The New York Times
26 Dec 2012
Mann rhapsodized to his older brother, Heinrich, about yogurt, “tasty and lightly laxative,” and fretted over the healthiness of decaffeinated coffee ... A batch of the postcards, written between 1901 and 1928 and found by Heinrich’s grandchildren among his daughter’s effects, scroll down a giant flat-screen monitor here at the Buddenbrookhaus museum, set in the speech-bubble shape familiar from text messages....(size: 10.3Kb)
Indian Express
26 Dec 2012
Seeking Alpha
26 Dec 2012
Early 2013 may be pivotal for gold stocks. Many of the smaller gold mining stocks have seen heavy tax loss selling during the past 2-3 months ... (click to enlarge) ... 1. Vista Gold (VGZ) is focused on the development of the Mt ... 2 ... Shaun Heinrichs purchased 23,075 shares on December 18-21 and currently holds 145,075 shares or 0.1% of the company. Shaun Heinrichs is Co-Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer and Director of the company ... ....(size: 8.9Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
26 Dec 2012
One band of unlikely heroes fight to reclaim humanity in new book. ORLANDO, Fla. (PRWEB) December 26, 2012 As in Suzanne’s Collin’s “Hunger Games” trilogy, author D. Michael Battey pens a new book with young, resilient, resourceful individuals overcoming terrible odds ... Ruthie Yoder, her mother Rachel, and her father Heinrich are the Amish family who bring healing and prosperity to a struggling farm in North Carolina ... About the Author. D ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
Canada Dot Com
26 Dec 2012
Larry Balkwill of the Windsor Selects was named a first-team catcher by the Canadian Baseball Network ... In three seasons with Siena, he has a .263 average in 138 games, including 65 RBIs, 57 walks and seven homers ... AHL ROUNDUP ... YOGAN SCORES ... SOUTHERN HOCKEY ... 18 ... In intermediate competition, Moncur, Kerrigan, Willoughby and Jen Nugent beat Bethany Heinrichs of Ilderton 8-1 in the A final to advance to provincials in Brantford in January. ....(size: 3.3Kb)
MSNBC
24 Dec 2012
RENO, Nev. (KRNV & MyNews4.com) -- The victims of the Friday deadly crash on SR-431 have been identified. On Dec ... Heinrichs, 36, of Reno ... She and Heinrichs were both transported to Renown Regional Medical Center by REMSA personnel ... Troopers say Heinrichs was treated for his injuries and was discharged from the hospital later that evening ... Advertise . AdChoices. Advertise . AdChoices. Advertise . AdChoices. ....(size: 2.3Kb)
Reuters
24 Dec 2012
ANKARA (Reuters) - Turkey has given approval for Israel to participate in non-military NATO activities in 2013, withdrawing an earlier objection driven by an ongoing dispute between the former regional allies, a Turkish official said on Monday ... The rift has continued despite U.S ... But after a U.N ... (Reporting by Gulsen Solaker; Writing by Jonathon Burch; Editing by Mark Heinrich) ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Reuters
24 Dec 2012
SKOPJE (Reuters) - Government and opposition deputies brawled inside Macedonia's parliament and their supporters hurled stones and bottles at each other outside on Monday in an escalating dispute over the proposed 2013 state budget. Thousands of pro- and anti-government demonstrators clashed in the centre of the capital Skopje outside parliament ... Parliament has 120 members ... (Writing by Aleksandar Vasovic; Editing by Mark Heinrich) ....(size: 2.3Kb)
The Examiner
24 Dec 2012
The first day of Christmas is upon us, making this the perfect time to start thinking about Valentine’s Day ... One who did not make that cut, Heinrich von Meissen, was called “Frauenlob” for his use of the noun “Frau” (lady), rather than “Weib” (woman) in his praise of the “eternal feminine” (as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe would put it several centuries later). Location. Seventh Avenue Presbyterian Church ... Suggested by the author. ... ....(size: 2.5Kb)
Sun Sentinel
24 Dec 2012
SANAA/ADEN (Reuters) - At least five people were killed in two drone strikes in south Yemen on Monday in what security and local officials said were attacks on suspected al Qaeda-linked insurgents ... A Yemeni al Qaeda militant of that name narrowly escaped a U.S ... sailors were killed ... (Reporting by Mohammed Ghobari and Mohammed Mukhashaf; Writing by Rania El Gamal and Mahmoud Habboush; Editing by William Maclean and Mark Heinrich). ....(size: 3.7Kb)
The Star
24 Dec 2012
SANAA/ADEN (Reuters) - At least five people were killed in two drone strikes in south Yemen on Monday in what security and local officials said were attacks on suspected al Qaeda-linked insurgents ... A Yemeni al Qaeda militant of that name narrowly escaped a U.S ... sailors were killed ... (Reporting by Mohammed Ghobari and Mohammed Mukhashaf; Writing by Rania El Gamal and Mahmoud Habboush; Editing by William Maclean and Mark Heinrich). ....(size: 2.5Kb)
The Star
24 Dec 2012
SKOPJE (Reuters) - The opposition in Macedonia was ejected from parliament on Monday for brawling, prompting it to pledge to boycott the chamber and initiate a campaign of civil disobedience after a rancorous disagreement over the size of next year's budget ... REUTERS/Ognen Teofilovski ... Parliament has 120 members ... It put growth next year at 2 percent of GDP ... ... (Writing by Aleksandar Vasovic; Editing by Mark Heinrich and Andrew Osborn). ....(size: 3.4Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
24 Dec 2012
MOSCOW (Reuters) - Russian prosecutors on Monday dropped their accusations against the only person being tried in connection with the prison death of anti-corruption lawyer Sergei Magnitsky, asking a court to find a former prison official not guilty. The surprise move in the trial of Dmitry Kratov came in the midst of a row between Moscow and Washington over U.S ... U.S ... banks ... ROLE REVERSAL ... law ... (Editing by Mark Heinrich). ....(size: 3.8Kb)
This article is about the given name Heinrich. For the surname, see Heinrich (surname). For other uses, see Heinrich (disambiguation).
 |
This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) |
| Heinrich | |
|---|---|
| Pronunciation | German pronunciation: [ˈhaɪnʁɪç] |
| Gender | Masculine |
| Language(s) | German |
| Origin | |
| Region of origin | German-speaking countries |
| Other names | |
| Variant form(s) | Hinnerk, Hendrik |
| Short form(s) | Heike, Heiko, Heiner, Heinz |
| Nickname(s) | Heinie |
| Cognate(s) | Henry |
| See also | Heinrich (surname) |
| Popularity | see popular names |
Heinrich is a given name of Germanic origin and cognate of "Henry". Female forms are Henrike and Henriette. The most famous patron saint is Henry († 1024), as the German Emperor Henry II. Notable persons with this given name include:
Contents |
Monarchs and royalty[link]
- Heinrich I der Vogler (876–936), first German King
- Heinrich II (972–1024), Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich III (1017–1056), Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich IV (1050–1106), King of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich V (1086–1125), King of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich VI (1165–1197), King of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich VII (1275–1313), King of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor
- Heinrich I, Duke of Bavaria (919/921-955)
- Heinrich II, Duke of Bavaria (951–995)
- Heinrich III, Duke of Bavaria and Carinthia (940-989)
- Heinrich IV, Prince Reuss of Köstritz (born 1919), head of the German Princely House of Reuss
- Heinrich, Count of Bellegarde (1756– 1845), Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, Austrian Generalfeldmarschall
- Heinrich of Bavaria (1884–1916), member of the House of Wittelsbach, WWI officer
- Heinrich of Saxe-Weissenfels, Count of Barby (1657-1728), German prince of the House of Wettin
Archbishops[link]
- Heinrich I, Archbishop of Cologne (1190–1238)
- Heinrich II, Archbishop of Cologne (1244–1332)
- Heinrich I, Archbishop of Mainz (1142–1153)
- Heinrich I, Archbishop of Trier (d. 964)
Other persons[link]
- Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), German astrologer and alchemist
- Heinrich Dusemer (d. 1353), 21st Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights
- Heinrich George (1893–1946), a German stage and film actor
- Heinrich Boere (born 1921), German-Dutch war criminal
- Heinrich Böll (1917–1985), German writer
- Heinrich von Brühl (1700–1763), German statesman
- Heinrich von Gagern (1799–1880), German statesman
- Heinrich von Handel-Mazzetti (1882–1940), Austrian botanist
- Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945), Nazi Party leader, commander of the SS
- Heinrich Heine (1797–1856), significant German poet of the 19th century
- Heinrich von Herford (~1300-1370), Dominican friar, historian, and theologian
- Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), German physicist
- Heinrich von Herzogenberg (1843–1900), Austrian composer and conductor
- Heinrich Hoffmann (1885–1957), German photographer
- Heinrich Hoffmann (author) (1809–1894), German psychiatrist
- Heinrich von Kittlitz (1799–1874), German artist, naval officer and explorer
- Heinrich von Kleist (1777–1811), German poet, dramatist, and novelist
- Heinrich von Lüttwitz (1896-1969), German Panzer General in World War II
- Heinrich von Melk (1163-?), German satirist of the 12th century
- Heinrich Müller (disambiguation), several people
- Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), German businessman and amateur archaeologist
- Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895), German historian
- Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896), German historian and political writer
- Heinrich von Tschirschky (1858–1916), German diplomat and politician
- Heinrich Thyssen (1875–1947), German-Hungarian entrepreneur and art collector
- Heinrich von Vietinghoff (1887–1925), a German Colonel-General in World War II
- Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst (1813–1814), Moravian-Jewish violinist and composer
Fictional characters[link]
- Heinrich, a character in the Conker series
- Heinrich Zemo, a character in the Marvel Comics universe
See also[link]
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"Himmler" redirects here. For other uses, see Himmler (disambiguation).
| Heinrich Himmler | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Reichsführer-SS | |
| In office 6 January 1929 – 29 April 1945 |
|
| Leader | Adolf Hitler |
| Preceded by | Erhard Heiden |
| Succeeded by | Karl Hanke |
| Chief of German Police in the Reich Ministry of the Interior | |
| In office 17 June 1936 – 29 April 1945 |
|
| Leader | Adolf Hitler |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | None |
| Reich Commissioner for the Strengthening of German Nationhood | |
| In office 7 October 1939 – 29 April 1945 |
|
| Leader | Adolf Hitler |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | None |
| Director of the Reich Main Security Office (acting) | |
| In office 4 June 1942 – 30 January 1943 |
|
| Preceded by | Reinhard Heydrich |
| Succeeded by | Ernst Kaltenbrunner |
| Reich Minister of the Interior | |
| In office 24 August 1943 – 29 April 1945 |
|
| Chancellor | Adolf Hitler |
| Preceded by | Wilhelm Frick |
| Succeeded by | Wilhelm Stuckart |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Heinrich Luitpold Himmler 7 October 1900 Munich, Bavaria, Germany |
| Died | 23 May 1945(1945-05-23) (aged 44) Lüneburg, Lower Saxony, Germany |
| Political party | National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) |
| Spouse(s) | Margarete Bode |
| Children | Gudrun, Helge, Nanette Dorotha |
| Alma mater | Technical University Munich |
| Profession | Agronomist |
| Cabinet | Cabinet Hitler |
| Religion | Roman Catholic (early) |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  German Empire |
| Service/branch | Heer |
| Years of service | 1917–1918 |
| Rank | Fahnenjunker |
| Unit | 11th Bavarian Infantry Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War I |
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (pronounced [ˈhaɪnʁɪç ˈluˑɪtˌpɔlt ˈhɪmlɐ] ( listen) 7 October 1900[1] – 23 May 1945) was Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (SS), a military commander, and a leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). As Chief of the German Police and the Minister of the Interior from 1943, Himmler oversaw all internal and external police and security forces, including the Gestapo (Secret State Police). Serving as Reichsführer and later as Commander of the Replacement (Home) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the entire Reich's administration (Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung), Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and one of the persons most directly responsible for the Holocaust.[2][3][4]
As overseer of the concentration camps, extermination camps, and Einsatzgruppen (literally: task forces, often used as death squads operating to the rear of frontline troops to murder Jews, communists and 'untermensch' in occupied territories), Himmler coordinated the killing of some six million Jews, between 200,000 and 500,000 Roma,[5][6] many prisoners of war,[7] and possibly another three to four million Poles, as well as other groups whom the Nazis deemed unworthy to live, including people with physical and mental disabilities, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Confessing Church, and homosexuals. Shortly before the end of the war, he offered to surrender both Germany and himself to the Western Allies if he were spared prosecution. After being arrested by British forces on 22 May 1945, he committed suicide the following day before he could be questioned.
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Early life[link]
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler was born in Munich on 7 October 1900 to a conservative Roman Catholic middle-class family. His father was Gebhard Himmler, a teacher, and his mother was Anna Maria Himmler (née Heyder), a devout Roman Catholic. He had an older brother, Gebhard Ludwig Himmler, who was born in July 1898, and a younger brother, Ernst Himmler, born in 1905.[8]
Heinrich was named after his godfather, Prince Heinrich of Bavaria of the royal family of Bavaria, who was tutored by Gebhard Himmler.[1][9] Himmler attended a grammar school in Landshut where his father was deputy principal. It was there that the young Himmler made friends with Karl Gebhardt, a friendship that would last to the end of World War II. While he struggled in athletics, he did well in his schoolwork. Initially at the behest of his father, Himmler kept a diary from age 10, and continued to do so even after his father stopped checking.[10] His health was poor, with lifelong stomach complaints and other ailments.[11] He trained daily with weights as a youth and took other exercise in an attempt to grow stronger.[12]
Himmler's diary entries show that he took a keen interest in the events of World War I.[13] In 1915 he began training with the Landshut Cadet Corps. His father made attempts to get Heinrich accepted as an officer candidate, using his connections with the royal family, and he was finally accepted with the reserve battalion of the 11th Bavarian Regiment in December 1917.[14] His brother, Gebhard, served on the western front and saw combat; he received the Iron Cross and was eventually promoted to lieutenant.[15] In November 1918—while Himmler was still in training—the war ended with Germany's defeat, finishing any chance for Himmler to become an officer or see combat. On 18 December, he was discharged and returned to Landshut.[16]
After the war, Himmler completed his grammar-school education, and was a member of the Freikorps at the time of the defeat of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. Again he missed out on a military career when his unit was not one of those incorporated into the Reichswehr.[17] From 1919–1922, Himmler studied agronomy at the Munich Technische Hochschule (now Technical University Munich) following a short-lived apprenticeship on a farm and a subsequent illness.[18][19] He had still not given up his desire to have a military career, and this field of study enabled Himmler to maintain contacts with former army officers who were attending university as a way to prepare for employment until the next war broke out.[20]
Himmler was antisemitic by the time he went to university, though not yet radically so.[21] He remained a devoted Catholic while a student, but enjoyed drinking with members of his fencing fraternity, the "League of Apollo". He joined a Reichswehr reserve unit.[22] In 1920, when Count Arco—the man who had murdered Bavarian Prime Minister Kurt Eisner—was sentenced to death, Himmler was immediately ready to work with right-wing elements to protest. He was both pleased and disappointed when the sentence was commuted to imprisonment, as a group of students had by then formulated rescue plans and a possible putsch.[23] After the Reichswehr reserves were disbanded in 1920, he joined the Einwohnerwehr (Residents' Reserve) and a rifle club.[24] During his second year at university, Himmler redoubled his attempts to pursue a military career. Although he was not successful, he was able to extend his involvement with the paramilitary scene in Munich. It was at this time, via his rifle club, that he first met Ernst Röhm.[25]
Despite an active social life, Himmler struggled to gain the acceptance he craved. He was unable to fully connect with people, and found his interpersonal relationships unrewarding.[26] While he was able to form good friendships with women, he had little success in terms of relationships and clung to antediluvian, prudish views regarding men, women, sex, and marriage.[27][28] He was critical of himself and his perceived social inadequacies, which included a tendency to talk too much,[25] and made efforts to compensate for them, in part by learning to control his emotions with his strength of will.[29] Nevertheless, these interpersonal problems, and his attempts to counterbalance them, would plague Himmler his whole life,[30] and were the key reasons—along with his craving for order—for his enthusiasm for the military.[29]
Diary entries for 1922 furnish increasing evidence of interest in the 'Jewish question'.[31] After the murder of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau on 24 June, Himmler's political views veered towards the radical right, and he took part in demonstrations against the Treaty of Versailles.[32] Hyperinflation was raging that summer, and his parents could no longer afford to keep all three sons in school.[33] Disappointed by his failure to make a career in the military and his parents' inability to finance his doctoral studies, he was forced to take a low-paying office job after obtaining his agricultural diploma. He remained in this position until September 1923.[34]
Nazi activist[link]
Himmler joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in August 1923.[35] He also joined Röhm's Reichskriegsflagge, a paramilitary unit involved in the event that would set Himmler on a life of politics: the Beer Hall Putsch—an unsuccessful attempt by Hitler and the NSDAP to sieze power in Munich.[36] Himmler was questioned about his role in the putsch, but he was not charged, as there was insufficient evidence.[37] But he lost his job, and had to move in with his parents, then living in Munich; he was unable to find employment as an agronomist.[35][38] Frustrated by these failures in his personal, professional, and political life, he became ever more irritable, aggressive, and opinionated, alienating both friends and family members.[39]
In 1923–24, Himmler began searching for a world view, moving away from Catholicism[40] and furthered his interest in the occult and antisemitism.[41] Germanic mythology, reinforced by occult ideas, would eventually become a kind of substitute religion for him.[42] After the failed putsch, he read about Hitler through two books.[43]
From mid-1924, he became a secretary and propaganda assistant under Gregor Strasser. Himmler traveled all over Bavaria agitating for the Nazi party,[44][45] Possibly as a reward for his work, the commencement of 1925 saw Himmler in charge of Nazi affairs for Lower Bavaria, and for integrating the area's membership with the NSDAP under Hitler when the party was re-founded in February 1925,[46] though Himmler was not swept into Hitler's inchoate Führer cult.[47] In April 1926 he met Joseph Goebbels for the first time.[48] Still with Strasser, Himmler was made his deputy in January 1927 after Strasser had been appointed the NSDAP's propaganda chief in November 1926.[49] His role at Munich HQ was blessed from the outset with considerable freedom of action that increased still further after 1928.[50] As deputy propaganda chief, Himmler's unquenchable thirst for control, his extraordinary arrogance, and his inability to tolerate criticism, opposition or minor deviations from his instructions did not make him a popular figure with Party subordinates and the rank and file.[51] His attitude to superiors, on the other hand, was nothing short of obsequious.[52]
Marriage and family[link]
In 1926, he met his future wife in a hotel lobby while escaping a storm. Margarete Siegroth (née Boden) was seven years his senior, divorced, and Protestant. On 3 July 1928, the two were married. During this time Himmler worked unsuccessfully as a chicken farmer.[53] On 8 August 1929, the couple had their only child, Gudrun. Himmler adored his daughter, and called her Püppi (English: "dolly"). Margarete later adopted a son, in whom Himmler showed no interest. Heinrich and Margarete Himmler separated in 1940 without seeking divorce. At that time, Himmler became friendly with a secretary, Hedwig Potthast, who left her job in 1941 and became his mistress. He fathered two children with her: a son, Helge (born 1942), and a daughter, Nanette Dorothea (born 1944).[54]
Rise in the SS[link]
File:HimmlerOberfhr.jpg
Himmler in early SS uniform (black tie and cap) with rank of Oberführer.
Himmler joined the SS in 1925 as an SS-Führer (SS-Leader). His NSDAP number was 14,303 and his SS number was 168.[55] Himmler's first leadership position was that of SS-Gauführer (District Leader) in Bavaria. In 1927, he became Deputy–Reichsführer-SS, with the rank of SS-Oberführer, and upon the resignation of SS commander Erhard Heiden, in 1929, Himmler was appointed Reichsführer-SS (Reichsführer was, at that time, simply a title for the National Commander of the SS). The SS only had 280 members and was merely an elite battalion of the much larger Sturmabteilung (SA). Over the next year, Himmler began a major expansion of the organization and, in 1930, he was promoted to the rank of SS-Gruppenführer.[citation needed]
Himmler was also very interested in agriculture and the "back to the land" movement.[56] He and his wife, Margarete had romantic ideals of making a farming life. He joined the Artamanen society, a sort of idealistic back-to-the-land youth group, but mixed with racist ideology. He became one of the leaders of this movement. Through this movement, he also apparently met Rudolf Höss,[57] who would later preside over Auschwitz, and Richard Walther Darré, who would later work in the RuSHA (race and resettlement office) of the SS.[58] Darre's views on restoring racial purity to Germany, by breeding programs, were a deep influence on Himmler's view of the SS as a core of breeding men.[59]
By 1933, the SS numbered 52,000 members. The organization at that time enforced strict membership requirements ensuring that all members were of Hitler's Aryan Herrenvolk ("Aryan master race"). Applications had been scrutinized for Nordic qualities, in Himmler's words, "like a nursery gardener trying to reproduce a good old strain which has been adulterated and debased; we started from the principles of plant selection and then proceeded quite unashamedly to weed out the men whom we did not think we could use for the build-up of the SS."[60] (Few dared mention that by his own standards, Himmler did not qualify as an ideal Nordic.)[61]
Himmler and his deputy Reinhard Heydrich began an effort to separate the SS from SA control. Black SS uniforms replaced the SA brown shirts in July 1932 and by 1934 enough quantities were manufactured for general use by all.[62] In 1933, Himmler was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer. This made him an equal of the senior SA commanders, who by this time loathed the SS and envied its power.[citation needed]
Himmler, Hermann Göring, and General Werner von Blomberg agreed that the SA and its leader Ernst Röhm posed a threat to the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) and the Nazi leadership. Röhm had socialist and populist views, and believed that the real revolution had not yet begun. Röhm felt that the SA should become the sole arms-bearing corps of the state with the army being absorbed by the SA under his leadership. This left some Nazi, military and political leaders believing Röhm was intent on using the SA to undertake a coup.[63]
Persuaded by Himmler and Göring, Hitler agreed that Röhm had to be eliminated. He delegated this task to Reinhard Heydrich, Kurt Daluege, and Werner Best, who ordered Röhm's execution (carried out by Theodor Eicke), along with the purge of the entire SA leadership and other political adversaries (including, Gregor Strasser and Kurt von Schleicher). These actions took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934, in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives.[64] The great beneficiaries of the action were the SS and the German Army. They both celebrated the demise of their mutual rival, Röhm's SA. Officially, from 20 July 1934 forward, the SS became an independent organization responsible only to Hitler, and Himmler's title of Reichsführer-SS became the highest formal SS rank.[65]
Consolidation of power[link]
File:Obersalzberg meeting - May 1939.png
From left to right: Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich, Karl Wolff and an unidentified assistant at the Obersalzberg, May 1939
On 20 April 1934, Göring formed a partnership with Himmler and Heydrich. Göring transferred authority over the Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei)—the Prussian secret police—to Himmler, who was also named chief of all German police outside Prussia. On 22 April 1934, Himmler named Heydrich the head of the Gestapo. Heydrich continued as head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD: security service), as well.[66]
On 17 June 1936, Himmler was named Chief of German Police after Hitler announced a decree that was to "unify the control of Police duties in the Reich".[67] Traditionally, law enforcement in Germany had been a state and local matter. In this role, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick. However, the decree effectively merged the police with the SS, making it virtually independent of Frick's control.[68]
Himmler gained authority as all of Germany's uniformed law enforcement agencies were amalgamated into the new Ordnungspolizei (Orpo: "order police"), whose main office became a headquarters branch of the SS. Despite his title, Himmler gained only partial control of the uniformed police. The actual powers granted to him were some that were previously exercised by the ministry of the interior. It was only in 1943, when Himmler was appointed Minister of the Interior, that the transfer of ministerial power was complete.[citation needed]
With the 1936 appointment, Himmler also gained ministerial authority over Germany's non-political detective forces, the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo: crime police), which he merged with the Gestapo into the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo: security police) under Heydrich's command, thus gaining operational control over Germany's entire detective force.[69] This merger was never complete within the Reich, with Kripo remaining mainly under the control of its own civilian administration and later the party apparatus (as the latter annexed the civilian administration). However, in occupied territories not incorporated into the Reich proper, SiPo consolidation within the SS line of command proved mostly effective. In September 1939, following the outbreak of World War II, Himmler formed the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA: Reich Main Security Office) wherein the SiPo (Gestapo and Kripo) along with the SD became departments under Heydrich's command therein.[70]
Himmler oversaw the entire concentration camp system. Once World War II began, however, new internment camps, which were not formally classified as concentration camps, were established over which Himmler and the SS did not exercise control. In 1943, following the outbreak of popular word-of-mouth criticism of the regime as a result of the Stalingrad disaster, the party apparatus, professing disappointment with the Gestapo's performance in deterring such criticism, established the Politische Staffeln (political squads) as its own political policing organ, breaking the Gestapo's monopoly in this field.[citation needed]
The SS during these years developed its own military branch, the SS-Verfügungstruppe (SS-VT), which later evolved into the Waffen-SS. Even though nominally under the authority of Himmler, the Waffen-SS developed a fully militarized structure of command and operations. It grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, and served alongside the Heer (regular army) but was never formally part of it.[71] Its units were involved in a number of notorious incidents of murdering civilians and prisoners of war. This was one of the reasons the International Military Tribunal declared the SS to be a criminal organization.[72]
Himmler and the Holocaust[link]
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Remembrance
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After the Night of the Long Knives, the SS-Totenkopfverbände organized and administered Germany's regime of concentration camps and, after 1941, extermination camps in occupied Poland as well. The SS—through its intelligence arm, the Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst, or SD)—dealt with Jews, Gypsies, communists and those persons of any other cultural, racial, political or religious affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be either Untermensch (sub-human) or in opposition to the regime, and placed them in concentration camps. Himmler opened the first of these camps at Dachau on 22 March 1933. He was the main architect of the Holocaust, using elements of mysticism and a fanatical belief in the racist Nazi ideology to justify the murder of millions of victims. Himmler had similar plans for the Poles; intellectuals were to be killed, and most other Poles were to be only literate enough to read traffic signs. On 18 December 1941, Himmler's appointment book shows he met with Hitler. The entry for that day poses the question "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", and then answers the question "als Partisanen auszurotten" (exterminate them as partisans").[73]
In contrast to Hitler, Himmler inspected concentration camps. As a result of these inspections, the Nazis searched for a new and more expedient way to kill, which culminated in the use of the gas chambers.[citation needed]
Himmler wanted to breed a master race of Nordic Aryans in Germany. His experience as a chicken farmer had taught him the rudiments of animal breeding which he proposed to apply to humans. He believed that he could engineer the German populace, through eugenic selective breeding, to be entirely "Nordic" in appearance within several decades of the end of the war.[74]
Posen speech[link]
Main article: Posen speeches
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An excerpt from the Posen speeches where Himmler discusses the on-going extermination of the Jews.
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File:HLHimmler.jpg
Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler.
On 4 October 1943, Himmler referred explicitly to the extermination of the Jewish people during a secret SS meeting in the city of Poznań (Posen). The following is a translation of an excerpt from a transcription of an audio recording[75] that exists of the speech:
I also want to refer here very frankly to a very difficult matter. We can now very openly talk about this among ourselves, and yet we will never discuss this publicly. Just as we did not hesitate on 30 June 1934, to perform our duty as ordered and put comrades who had failed up against the wall and execute them, we also never spoke about it, nor will we ever speak about it. Let us thank God that we had within us enough self-evident fortitude never to discuss it among us, and we never talked about it. Every one of us was horrified, and yet every one clearly understood that we would do it next time, when the order is given and when it becomes necessary.
I am now referring to the evacuation of the Jews, to the extermination of the Jewish People. This is something that is easily said: 'The Jewish People will be exterminated', says every Party member, 'this is very obvious, it is in our program — elimination of the Jews, extermination, a small matter.' And then they turn up, the upstanding 80 million Germans, and each one has his decent Jew. They say the others are all swine, but this particular one is a splendid Jew. But none has observed it, endured it. Most of you here know what it means when 100 corpses lie next to each other, when there are 500 or when there are 1,000. To have endured this and at the same time to have remained a decent person — with exceptions due to human weaknesses — has made us tough, and is a glorious chapter that has not and will not be spoken of. Because we know how difficult it would be for us if we still had Jews as secret saboteurs, agitators and rabble rousers in every city, what with the bombings, with the burden and with the hardships of the war. If the Jews were still part of the German nation, we would most likely arrive now at the state we were at in 1916 and '17 . . . .
Germanization[link]
As Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood, Himmler was deeply involved in the Germanization program for the East, particularly Poland. Its purpose was to remove all non-Germanic peoples from German Lebensraum and to reclaim any Volkdeutsche (ethnic Germans) living there for Germany, as laid out in the Generalplan Ost. He declared that no drop of German blood would be lost or left behind for an alien race.[76] Himmler continued his plans to colonize the east despite evidence that Germans did not want to relocate there, and that the activities hindered the war effort; several high-ranking Nazi officials found the latter point obvious.[77]
The plans began with the Volksliste, the classification of people deemed of German blood into those Germans who had collaborated before the war; those still regarding themselves as German, but who had been neutral; partially Polonized but Germanizable; and those Germans who had been absorbed into Polish nationality.[78] Any person classified as German who resisted was to be deported to a concentration camp.[79] Himmler oversaw cases of obstinate Germans, and gave orders for concentration camps, or separation of families, or forced labor, in efforts to break down resistance.[80]
His declaration that "it is in the nature of German blood to resist" led to the paradoxical conclusion that Balts or Poles who resisted Germanization measures were regarded as more suitable material than more compliant ones.[81]
This included the kidnapping of Eastern European children by Nazi Germany.[82] Himmler urged:
"Obviously in such a mixture of peoples, there will always be some racially good types, Therefore, I think that it is our duty to take their children with us, to remove them from their environment, if necessary by robbing, or stealing them. Either we win over any good blood that we can use for ourselves and give it a place in our people, or we destroy that blood."
The "racially valuable" children were to be culled, removed from all contact with Poles, and raised as Germans, with German names.[82] Himmler declared, "We have faith above all in this our own blood, which has flowed into a foreign nationality through the vicissitudes of German history. We are convinced that our own philosophy and ideals will reverberate in the spirit of these children who racially belong to us."[82] Acceptable children were to be adopted by German families.[79] Children who passed muster at first but were later rejected were used as slave labor or killed. Himmler ordered that parents who were registered on the Volksliste should lose their children if the parent impeded their Germanization.[83]
The colony of Hegewald was set up in the Reichskommisariat Ukraine at his command.[84] His original plans to recruit settlers from Scandinavia and the Netherlands were unsuccessful, and so it was settled with such ethnic Germans as had not been deported by the Soviet Union.[85]
For the Nazi leaders, the land which would provide sufficient Lebensraum for Germany was the Soviet Union. At the Nuremberg trial, SS-Obergruppenfuhrer Erich von dem Bach testified that at a conference in Wewelsburg in 1941 Himmler told SS leaders that to make room for the Germans,[86] Germany would have to exterminate 30 million Slavs in the Soviet Union.[87]
On July 13, 1941, three weeks after the invasion of the Soviet Union, Himmler told the group of Waffen SS men:
This is an ideological battle and a struggle of races. Here in this struggle stands National Socialism: an ideology based on the value of our Germanic, Nordic blood. ... On the other side stands a population of 180 million, a mixture of races, whose very names are unpronounceable, and whose physique is such that one can shoot them down without pity and compassion. These animals, that torture and ill-treat every prisoner from our side, every wounded man that they come across and do not treat them the way decent soldiers would, you will see for yourself. These people have been welded by the Jews into one religion, one ideology, that is called Bolshevism... When you, my men, fight over there in the East, you are carrying on the same struggle, against the same subhumanity, the same inferior races, that at one time appeared under the name of Huns, another time— 1000 years ago at the time of King Henry and Otto I— under the name of Magyars, another time under the name of Tartars, and still another time under the name of Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Today they appear as Russians under the political banner of Bolshevism.[88]
Anti-Polish measures[link]
For a time, the Polish population would be permitted to remain as slave labor.[82] Himmler forbade that this group, not suitable for Germanization, receive anything above a fourth-grade education.[83] The removal of the racially valuable types would deprive the population of leaders, and ensure that they were available for labor.[83]
He also prescribed that as many ethnic groups as possible be recognized in order to foment disunity.[83]
By this I mean that it is very much in our interest not only not to unite the people of the East but the reverse – to splinter them into as many parts and subdivisions as possible. We should also aim for a situation in which, after a longer period of time has passed, the concept of nationality disappears among the Ukrainians, Górale, and Lemki.
This is partly reflected in his views on blood and soil, where he came the closest of all Nazis to supporting the views of Alfred Rosenberg.[89] His interest in Richard Walther Darré stemmed from Darré's views on repopulating eastern regions with Germans.[90]
This also reflected Nazi policy on non-Germans.[91] The Posen speech also calls for the merciless use of all Slavonic forced labor on this ground:
What happens to a Russian, to a Czech, does not interest me in the slightest. What the nations can offer in good blood of our type, we will take, if necessary by kidnapping their children and raising them with us. Whether nations live in prosperity or starve to death interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; otherwise, it is of no interest to me. Whether 10,000 Russian females fall down from exhaustion while digging an anti-tank ditch interest me only in so far as the anti-tank ditch for Germany is finished. We shall never be rough and heartless when it is not necessary, that is clear. We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude towards animals, will also assume a decent attitude towards these human animals. But it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and give them ideals, thus causing our sons and grandsons to have a more difficult time with them. When someone comes to me and says, "I cannot dig the anti-tank ditch with women and children, it is inhuman, for it will kill them", then I would have to say, "you are a murderer of your own blood because if the anti-tank ditch is not dug, German soldiers will die, and they are the sons of German mothers. They are our own blood".[92]
He also called for sexual relations between German women and Polish slave laborers to be punished by death for the man and a concentration camp for the woman.[92]
World War II[link]
In 1939, Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller, masterminded and carried out Operation Himmler (also known as Operation Konserve or Operation Canned Goods), arguably the first operation of World War II in Europe. It was a false flag project to create the appearance of Polish aggression against Germany, which was subsequently used by Nazi propaganda to justify the invasion of Poland.[93]
Before the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 (Operation Barbarossa), Himmler prepared his SS for a war of extermination against the forces of "Judeo-Bolshevism". Himmler, always glad to make parallels between Nazi Germany and the Middle Ages, compared the invasion to the Crusades. He collected volunteers from all over Europe, especially those of Nordic stock who were perceived to be racially closest to Germans, like the Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, Icelanders, and the Dutch. After the invasion, Ukrainians, Latvians, Lithuanians, and Estonian volunteers were recruited, attracting the non-Germanic volunteers by declaring a pan-European crusade to defend the traditional values of old Europe from the "Godless Bolshevik hordes". Thousands volunteered and later many thousands more were conscripted.[citation needed]
Racial restrictions were relaxed to the extent that Tatars, Arabs, Albanians from Kosovo, Central Asian and Bosnian Muslims, and even Indians and Mongols were recruited.[94]
In the Baltic states, many natives were willing to serve against the Red Army due to their loathing of their oppression after the occupation by the Soviet Union. These men were conscripted into the Waffen-SS. Employed against Soviet troops, they performed acceptably.[95] Waffen-SS recruitment in Western and Nordic Europe collected much less manpower, though a number of Waffen-SS Legions were founded, such as the Wallonian contingent led by Léon Degrelle, whom Himmler planned to appoint chancellor of an SS State of Burgundy within the Nazi orbit once the war was over.[citation needed]
Preceding Operation Barbarossa, Himmler stated openly at a meeting of senior SS officers:
It is a question of existence, thus it will be a racial struggle of pitiless severity, in the course of which 20 to 30 million Slavs and Jews will perish through military actions and crises of food supply.[96]
Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.[97] It is estimated that as many as 500,000 Soviet prisoners of war died or were executed in Nazi concentration camps, most of them by shooting or gassing.[7]
In 1942, Heydrich (Himmler's right hand man) was assassinated in Prague after an attack by British Special Operations Executive (SOE), trained soldiers, Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš of Czechoslovakia’s army-in-exile. Himmler ordered brutal reprisals. Over 13,000 people were arrested, and the village of Lidice was razed to the ground; the male inhabitants there and in the village of Ležáky were murdered. At least 1,300 people were executed by firing squads after Heydrich's death.[98]
Interior Minister[link]
In 1943, Himmler was appointed Reich Interior Minister, replacing Frick, with whom he had engaged in a turf war for over a decade. For instance, Frick had tried to restrict the widespread use of "protective custody" orders that were used to send people to concentration camps, only to be begged off by Himmler. While Frick viewed the concentration camps as a tool to punish dissenters, Himmler saw them as a way to terrorize the people into accepting Nazi rule.[citation needed]
Himmler's appointment effectively merged the Interior Ministry with the SS. Nonetheless, Himmler sought to use his new office to reverse the party apparatus's annexation of the civil service and tried to challenge the authority of the party gauleiters.[citation needed]
This aspiration was frustrated by Martin Bormann, Hitler's private secretary and party chancellor. It also incurred some displeasure from Hitler himself, whose long-standing disdain for the traditional civil service was one of the foundations of Nazi administrative thinking. Himmler made things much worse still when following his appointment as head of the Reserve Army (Ersatzheer, see below) he tried to use his authority in both military and police matters by transferring policemen to the Waffen-SS.[citation needed]
With Himmler threatening his power base, Bormann could not give him the opportunity fast enough, initially acquiescing in the policies, until furious protests broke out. Then, Bormann came out against the scheme, leaving Himmler discredited, especially with the party, whose gauleiters now saw Bormann as their protector.[citation needed]
20 July plot[link]
It was determined that leaders of German Military Intelligence (the Abwehr), including its head, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, were involved in the 20 July 1944 plot to assassinate Hitler. This prompted Hitler to disband the Abwehr and make Himmler's Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst, or SD) the sole intelligence service of the Third Reich. This increased Himmler's personal power.[citation needed]
General Friedrich Fromm, Commander-in-Chief of the Reserve (or Replacement) Army (Ersatzheer), was implicated in the conspiracy. Fromm's removal, coupled with Hitler's suspicion of the army, led the way to Himmler's appointment as Fromm's successor, a position he abused to expand the Waffen-SS even further to the detriment of the rapidly deteriorating German armed forces (Wehrmacht).[citation needed]
Unfortunately for Himmler, the investigation soon revealed the involvement of many SS officers in the conspiracy, including senior officers, which played into the hands of Bormann's power struggle against the SS because very few party cadre officers were implicated. Even more importantly, some senior SS officers began to conspire against Himmler himself, as they believed that he would be unable to achieve victory in the power struggle against Bormann. Among these defectors were Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Heydrich's successor as chief of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt, and Gruppenführer Müller, the chief of the Gestapo.[citation needed]
Commander-in-Chief[link]
In late 1944, Himmler became Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Army Group Upper Rhine (Heeresgruppe Oberrhein). This army group was formed to fight the advancing U.S. 7th Army and French 1st Army in the Alsace region along the west bank of the Rhine. The U.S. 7th Army was under the command of General Alexander Patch and the French 1st Army was under the command of General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny.[citation needed]
On 1 January 1945, Himmler's army group launched Operation North Wind (Unternehmen Nordwind) to push back the Americans and the French. In late January, after some limited initial success, Himmler was transferred east. By 24 January, Army Group Upper Rhine was deactivated after going over to the defensive. Operation North Wind officially ended on 25 January.[citation needed]
Elsewhere, the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) had failed to halt the Red Army's Vistula-Oder offensive, so Hitler gave Himmler command of yet another newly formed army group, Army Group Vistula (Heeresgruppe Weichsel) to stop the Soviet advance on Berlin. Hitler placed Himmler in command of Army Group Vistula despite the failure of Army Group Upper Rhine and despite Himmler's total lack of experience and ability to command troops. This appointment may have been at the instigation of Martin Bormann, anxious to discredit a rival, or through Hitler's continuing anger at the "failures" of the general staff.[citation needed]
As Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula, Himmler established his command centre at Schneidemühl. He used his special train (sonderzug), Sonderzug Steiermark, as his headquarters. Himmler did this despite the train having only one telephone line and no signals detachment. Eager to show his determination, Himmler acquiesced in a quick counter-attack urged by the general staff. The operation quickly bogged down and Himmler dismissed a regular army corps commander and appointed Nazi Heinz Lammerding. His headquarters was also forced to retreat to Falkenburg. On 30 January, Himmler issued draconian orders: Tod und Strafe für Pflichtvergessenheit —"death and punishment for those who forget their obligations", to encourage his troops. The worsening situation left Himmler under increasing pressure from Hitler; he was unassertive and nervous in conferences. In mid-February, the Pomeranian offensive by his forces was directed by General Walther Wenck, after intense pressure from General Heinz Guderian on Hitler. By early March, Himmler's headquarters had moved west of the Oder River, although his army group was still named after the Vistula. At conferences with Hitler, Himmler echoed Hitler's line of increased severity towards those who retreated.[citation needed]
On 13 March, Himmler abandoned his command and, claiming illness, retired to a sanatorium at Hohenlychen. Guderian visited him there and carried his resignation as Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula to Hitler that night. On 20 March, Himmler was replaced by General Gotthard Heinrici.[citation needed]
Peace negotiations[link]
File:Himmler45.jpg
Heinrich Himmler in 1945
In the winter of 1944–45, Himmler′s Waffen-SS numbered 910,000 members, with the Allgemeine-SS (at least on paper) hosting a membership of nearly two million. However, by early 1945 Himmler had lost faith in German victory, likely due in part to his discussions with his masseur Felix Kersten and with Walter Schellenberg.[99] He realized that if the Nazi regime were to survive, it needed to seek peace with Britain and the U.S. He also believed by the middle of April 1945 that Hitler had effectively incapacitated himself from governing by remaining in Berlin to personally lead the defence of the capital against the Soviets.
To this end, he contacted Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden at Lübeck, near the Danish border. He represented himself as the provisional leader of Germany, telling Bernadotte that Hitler would almost certainly be dead within two days. He asked Bernadotte to tell General Dwight Eisenhower that Germany wished to surrender to the West. Himmler hoped the British and Americans would fight the Soviets alongside the remains of the Wehrmacht. At Bernadotte's request, Himmler put his offer in writing. On April 21, 1945, Himmler met with Norbert Masur, a Swedish representative of the World Jewish Congress, in Berlin for a discussion concerning the release of Jewish concentration camp inmates. During the meeting, Himmler stated that he wanted to "bury the hatchet" with the Jews.[100]
On the evening of 28 April, the BBC broadcast a Reuters news report about Himmler's attempted negotiations with the western Allies. When Hitler was informed of the news, he flew into a rage.[101] A few days earlier, Hermann Göring had asked Hitler for permission to take over the leadership of the Reich — an act that Hitler, under the prodding of Bormann, interpreted as a demand to step down or face a coup. However, Himmler had not even bothered to request permission. The news also hit Hitler hard because he had long believed that Himmler was second only to Joseph Goebbels in loyalty; in fact, Hitler often called Himmler "der treue Heinrich" (the loyal Heinrich). Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[102] After Hitler calmed down, he told those who were still with him in the bunker complex that Himmler's act was the worst act of treachery he'd ever known.[103]
Himmler's treachery—combined with reports the Soviets were only 300 m (330 yd) (about a block) from the Reich Chancellery—prompted Hitler to write his last will and testament. In the Testament, completed the day before he committed suicide, he declared Himmler and Göring to be traitors. He also stripped Himmler of all of his party and state offices: Reichsführer-SS, Chief of the German Police, Commissioner of German Nationhood, Reich Minister of the Interior, Supreme Commander of the Volkssturm, and Supreme Commander of the Home Army. Finally, he expelled Himmler from the Nazi Party and ordered his arrest.[citation needed]
Himmler's negotiations with Count Bernadotte failed. However, the negotiations helped secure the release of some 15,000 Scandinavian prisoners from the remaining concentration camps in the White Buses operation. Himmler joined Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, who by then was commanding all German forces within the northern part of the western front, in nearby Plön. Dönitz sent Himmler away, explaining that there was no place for him in the new German government.[citation needed]
Himmler next turned to the Americans as a defector, contacting Eisenhower's headquarters and proclaiming he would surrender all of Germany to the Allies if he were spared from prosecution. He asked Eisenhower to appoint him "minister of police" in Germany's post-war government. He reportedly mused on how to handle his first meeting with the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) commander and whether to give the Nazi salute or shake hands with him. Eisenhower refused to have anything to do with Himmler, who was subsequently declared a major war criminal.[citation needed]
Capture and death[link]
Unwanted by his former colleagues and hunted by the Allies, Himmler wandered for several days around Flensburg near the Danish border. Attempting to evade arrest, he disguised himself as a sergeant-major of the Secret Military Police, using the name Heinrich Hitzinger,[104] shaving his moustache and donning an eye patch over his left eye,[105][106] in the hope that he could return to Bavaria. He had equipped himself with a set of false documents, but someone whose papers were wholly in order was so unusual that it aroused the suspicions of a British Army unit in Bremen. Himmler was arrested on 22 May by Major Sidney Excell and soon recognized while in captivity. Himmler was scheduled to stand trial with other German leaders as a war criminal at Nuremberg, but on 23 May[107] committed suicide in Lüneburg by means of a potassium cyanide capsule before interrogation could begin. His last words were Ich bin Heinrich Himmler! ("I am Heinrich Himmler!"). Another version has Himmler biting into a hidden cyanide pill embedded in one of his teeth, when searched by a British doctor, who then yelled, "He has done it!" Several attempts to revive Himmler were unsuccessful.[108] Shortly afterward, Himmler's body was buried in an unmarked grave near Lüneburg. The precise location of Himmler's grave remains unknown.[108]
Forgeries, fabrications and conspiracy theories[link]
In a 2005 book, Martin Allen claimed that Himmler had secretly negotiated with the UK as early as 1943, and that he may have been killed on Churchill's order to cover up this fact. The book was based on forgeries of documents at the National Archives. In May 2008 a British police investigation identified 29 forgeries that had been slipped into 12 files to support claims in Allen's three World War II books.[109][110]
Historical views[link]
Historians are divided on the psychology, motives, and influences that drove Himmler. Some see him as dominated by Hitler, fully under his influence and essentially a tool carrying Hitler's views to their logical conclusion. Others see Himmler as extremely anti-Semitic in his own right, and even more eager than his boss to commit genocide. Still others see Himmler as power-mad, devoted to the accumulation of power and influence.[citation needed]
According to Robert S. Wistrich, Himmler's decisive innovation was to transform the race question from "a negative concept based on matter-of-course anti-Semitism" into "an organizational task for building up the SS ... It was Himmler's master stroke that he succeeded in indoctrinating the SS with an apocalyptic ‘idealism’ beyond all guilt and responsibility, which rationalized mass murder as a form of martyrdom and harshness towards oneself."[111]
The wartime cartoonist Victor Weisz depicted Himmler as a giant octopus, wielding oppressed nations in each of his eight arms.[112]
Wolfgang Sauer—historian at University of California, Berkeley—felt that "although he was pedantic, dogmatic, and dull, Himmler emerged under Hitler as second in actual power. His strength lay in a combination of unusual shrewdness, burning ambition, and servile loyalty to Hitler."[113]
In an extract of Norman Brook's War Cabinet Diaries,[114] Winston Churchill took a view towards Himmler widely shared during the war, advocating his assassination. According to Brook, responding to a suggestion that Nazi leaders be executed, "this prompted Churchill to ask if they should negotiate with Himmler 'and bump him off later', once peace terms had been agreed. The suggestion to cut a deal for a German surrender with Himmler and then assassinate him met with support from the Home Office. ‘Quite entitled to do so’, the minutes record [ ... Churchill] as commenting."[115]
A main focus of recent work on Himmler has been the extent to which he competed for and craved Hitler's attention and respect. The events of the last days of the war, when he abandoned Hitler and attempted to enter into separate negotiations with the western Allies (an attempt which was rebuffed), are obviously significant in this respect.[citation needed]
Himmler appears to have had a distorted view of how he was perceived by the Allies; he intended to meet with U.S. and British leaders and have discussions "as gentlemen". He tried to buy off their vengeance by last-minute reprieves for Jews and important prisoners. According to British soldiers who arrested him, Himmler was genuinely shocked to be treated as a prisoner.[citation needed]
In 2008, Himmler was named "the greatest mass murderer of all time" by German news magazine Der Spiegel, reflecting his role as architect of the Holocaust.[4]
Summary of SS service[link]
Main article: Service record of Heinrich Himmler
Heinrich Himmler served in the SS for a total of twenty years, sixteen of which as Reichsführer-SS. In contrast to other contemporary Nazis, such as Reinhard Heydrich, Himmler was presented with few decorations and never was awarded a combat medal.[citation needed]
See also[link]
- Ahnenerbe – Nazi anthropologists, some of whom went to Tibet. Partly founded by Himmler.
- Glossary of Nazi Germany
- List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
- List of SS personnel
- Racial policy of Nazi Germany — Himmler's involvement
- Lebensborn – a project under the responsibility of Himmler to raise Nordic children
Notes[link]
- ^ a b Longerich 2011, p. 13.
- ^ Speer, Albert, Inside the Third Reich, Macmillan (New York and Toronto), 1970, ISBN 0-297-00015-2
- ^ Zentner, Christian Ed; Bedürftig, Friedemann Ed (1991). The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. New York: Macmillan. pp. 1150. ISBN 0-02-897502-2.
- ^ a b Source: Der Spiegel, Issue dated 3 November 2008: Hitlers Vollstrecker – Aus dem Leben eines Massenmörders
- ^ cited in Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals, 11 September 2000).
- ^ "Sinti and Roma", United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
- ^ a b The treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, disease, and shootings, June 1941 – January 1942 USHMM
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 12–15.
- ^ Breitman 2004, p. 9.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 17–19.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 22.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2007, p. 3.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 20–21.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 24, 26.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 25, 26.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Breitman 2004, p. 12.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 29.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 28.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 33, 42.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 31, 35, 47.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 32.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 33.
- ^ a b Longerich 2011, p. 54.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 39, 48, 55.
- ^ Breitman 2004, p. 11.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 35–43, 48–54, 56.
- ^ a b Longerich 2011, p. 40.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 41.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 59–61.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 60.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 64.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 64–65.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2007, p. 11.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 66–69.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 72.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 70.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 73–75.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 77.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 78, 79.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 78, 80, 81.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 79.
- ^ Gerwarth 2011, p. 51.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 70, 81–88.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 87.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 88.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 89.
- ^ Longerich 2011, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 94–99.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 98.
- ^ BBC Historic Figures – Heinrich Himmler
- ^ Heinrich Himmler – World War II Database. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
- ^ Biondi, Robert, ed., SS Officers List: SS-Standartenführer to SS-Oberstgruppenführer (As of 30 January 1942), Schiffer Military History Publishing, 2000, p. 7
- ^ Pringle 2006, p. 39.
- ^ Hoess and Paskuly, p. 203
- ^ Höhne 1972, pp. 47–49.
- ^ Pringle 2006, p. 40.
- ^ Pringle 2006, p. 41.
- ^ Pringle 2006, p. 52.
- ^ Lumsden 2002, p. 53.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 306–309.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 309–314.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 316.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 61.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 77.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 204.
- ^ Lumsden 2002, p. 80, 83.
- ^ Lumsden 2002, p. 83.
- ^ McNab 2009, pp. 56, 57, 66.
- ^ "Jewish Virtual Library". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/waffenss.html. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
- ^ Bauer, Yehuda Rethinking the Holocaust Yale University Press, 2000, p. 5
- ^ Pringle 2006.
- ^ Poznań speech
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, p 543, ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology, p 191, ISBN 0-396-06577-5
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, p 544, ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ a b Richard C. Lukas, Did the Children Cry? Hitler's War against Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945. Hippocrene Books, New York, 2001.
- ^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web, p 247, ISBN 0-679-77663-X
- ^ Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology, p 199, ISBN 0-396-06577-5
- ^ a b c d Gitta Sereny (November 1999). "Stolen Children". Talk. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/children.html.
- ^ a b c d "HITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE"
- ^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web, p 336
- ^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web, pp 330–1
- ^ Oscar Pinkus (2005). The war aims and strategies of Adolf Hitler. McFarland. p.262. ISBN 0-7864-2054-5
- ^ William J. Duiker (2009). Contemporary World History. Cengage Learning. p.132. ISBN 0-495-57271-3
- ^ George H. Stein (1984). "The Waffen SS: Hitler's elite guard at war, 1939–1945". Cornell University Press. p.126. ISBN 0-8014-9275-0
- ^ Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology p119 ISBN 0-396-06577-5
- ^ Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology p165 ISBN 0-396-06577-5
- ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Hitler's War p279 ISBN 0-07-030622-2
- ^ a b "Remarks By Heinrich Himmler"
- ^ Zaloga, Steven J. (2002), Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg, p. 39
- ^ Canfield, Robert L. Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective (p. 212) – "The majority of Central Asian soldiers taken prisoner opted for the enemy – a fact still hidden from the Soviet public today – although systematic starvation and cruel treatment in German hands, which resulted in appalling losses, must have been one of the major inducements to change sides. As Turkistanis they joined the so-called "Eastern Legions," which were part of the Wehrmacht and later the Waffen SS, to fight the Red Army (Hauner 1981:339-57). The estimates of their numbers vary between 250,000 and 400,000, which include the Kalmyks, the Tatars and members of the Caucasian ethnic groups (Alexiev 1982:33)."
- ^ Toomas Hiio, Peeter Kaasik (2006). "Estonian Units in the Waffen-SS". in Toomas Hiio, Meelis Maripuu, & Indrek Paavle. Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Tallinn. pp. 927–968
- ^ David Cesarani. Holocaust: From the persecution of the Jews to mass murder, Routledge. 2004 p.366. ISBN 0-415-27511-3
- ^ Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (p. 290) – "2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation ... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs ... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers".
- ^ Burian, Michal; Aleš (2002). "Assassination — Operation Arthropoid, 1941–1942" (PDF). Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic. http://www.army.cz/images/id_7001_8000/7419/assassination-en.pdf. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ Crocker, Harry (13 November 2001). Triumph: A 2,000 Year History of the Catholic Church. Prima Lifestyles. ISBN 0-7615-2924-1.
- ^ Penkower, Monty Noam (1988). The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust. Wayne State University Press. p. 281. ISBN 0-8143-1952-1.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 943, 946.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 943–6.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 946.
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 2.
- ^ Heinrich Himmler – Petty Bourgeois and Grand Inquisitor by Joachim C Fest
- ^ Longerich 2011, p. 1.
- ^ http://www.fpp.co.uk/Himmler/Panton/Man0554.html
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2007, p. 248.
- ^ "Forgeries revealed in the National Archives". The Sunday Times. 4 May 2008. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article3867853.ece.
- ^ Historic Forgery and Fraud
- ^ Robert S. Wistrich, Who's Who in Nazi Germany, Routledge 1997.
- ^ Heinrich Himmler : Nazi Germany
- ^ GI – World War II Commemoration
- ^ News | Cabinet Secretaries´ Notebooks from World War Two at www.nationalarchives.gov.uk
- ^ Doward, Jamie. "Hitler must die without trial — Churchill." The Observer 1 January 2006.
Bibliography[link]
- Breitman, Richard (2004). Himmler and the Final Solution: The Architect of Genocide. Pimlico, Random House, London. ISBN 1-84413-089-4.
- Frischauer, Willi (1953). Himmler: The Evil Genius of the Third Reich. Odhams Press.
- Gerwarth, Robert (2011). Hitler's Hangman: The Life of Heydrich. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11575-8.
- Haiger, Ernst (Summer 2006). "Fiction, Facts, and Forgeries: The 'Revelations' of Peter and Martin Allen about the History of the Second World War". The Journal of Intelligence History 6 (1): 105–117. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pzfTBMsoj6QC&pg=PA105.
- Hale, Christopher (2003). Himmler's Crusade: The true story of the 1938 Nazi expedition into Tibet. Transworld Publishers, London. ISBN 0-593-04952-7.
- Himmler, Katrin (2005). Die Brüder Himmler. Eine deutsche Familiengeschichte. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. ISBN 3-10-033629-1. (in German — Heinrich Himmler was granduncle of the author)
- Höhne, Heinz (1972). The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS. Translated from German by Richard Barry. Penguin Classic. ISBN 0-14-139012-3.
- Höss, Rudolf (2000) [1951]. Commandant of Auschwitz: The Autobiography of Rudolf Hoess. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-84212-024-8.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-06757-2.
- Longerich, Peter (2011). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959232-6.
- Lumsden, Robin (2002). A Collector's Guide To: The Allgemeine — SS. Ian Allan Publishing, Inc.. ISBN 0-7110-2905-9.
- Manvell, Roger; Fraenkel, Heinrich (2007) [1965]. Heinrich Himmler: The Sinister Life of the Head of the SS and Gestapo. London; New York: Greenhill; Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-60239-178-9.
- McNab, Chris (2009). The SS: 1923–1945. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 1906626499.
- Morgan, Ted (1990). An Uncertain Hour: The French, the Germans, the Jews, the Klaus Barbie Trial, and the City of Lyon, 1940–1945. London: The Bodley Head. ISBN 978-0-370-31504-1.
- Padfield, Peter (2001) [1990]. Himmler. Reichsführer-SS. Cassel & Co, London. ISBN 0-304-35839-8.
- Pringle, Heather (2006). The Master Plan: Himmler's Scholars and the Holocaust. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-6886-4.
- Reitlinger, Gerald (1956). The SS: Alibi of a Nation 1922–1945.
- Russell, Stuart (2007). La fortezza di Heinrich Himmler — Il centro ideologico di Weltanschauung delle SS — Cronaca per immagini della scuola-SS Haus Wewelsburg 1934–1945 [Heinrich Himmlers Burg — Das Weltanschauliche Zentrum Der SS — Bildchronick der SS-Schule Haus Wewelsburg 1934–1945]. Roma: Editrice Thule Italia. ISBN 978-88-902781-0-5.
- Sereny, Gitta (1996). Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth. London: Picador. ISBN 0-330-34697-0.
- Thomas, Hugh W., M.D.. Strange Death of Heinrich Himmler: A Forensic Investigation.
- Williams, Max (2001). Reinhard Heydrich: The Biography: Volume 1. Ulric Publishing. ISBN 0-9537577-5-7.
- Zaloga, Steven J. (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-408-6.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Heinrich Himmler |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Heinrich Himmler |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- List of Himmler speeches A very detailed list of Himmler speeches including online sources and material in the U.S. National Archives. Article numbers in the archives are listed for professional scholars.
- Heinrich Himmler at the NNDB
- Die Schutzstaffel als antibolschewistische Kampforganisation An essay by Himmler
- About Heinrich Himmler
- Works by or about Heinrich Himmler in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
| Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler |
Der Führer Adolf Hitler |
| Government offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Erhard Heiden |
Reichsführer-SS 1929–1945 |
Succeeded by Karl Hanke |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by Wilhelm Frick |
Interior Minister of Germany 1943–1945 |
Succeeded by Wilhelm Stuckart |
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by None |
Commander of Army Group Upper Rhine 10 December 1944-24 January 1945 |
Succeeded by None |
| Preceded by None |
Commander of Army Group Vistula 25 January 1945-13 March 1945 |
Succeeded by Generaloberst Gotthard Heinrici (20 March) |
| Awards and achievements | ||
| Preceded by Joseph Stalin |
Cover of Time Magazine 12 February 1945 |
Succeeded by William Hood Simpson |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Himmler, Heinrich |
| Alternative names | Himmler, Heinrich Luitpold |
| Short description | Nazi officer, Commander of the SS |
| Date of birth | 7 October 1900 |
| Place of birth | Munich, Germany |
| Date of death | 23 May 1945 |
| Place of death | Lüneburg, Lower Saxony, Germany |
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Heinrich Schlusnus (August 6, 1888 – June 18, 1952) was Germany's foremost lyric baritone of the period between World War I and World War II. He sang opera and lieder with equal distinction.
Career[link]
A native of Braubach, Schlusnus studied with voice teachers in Berlin and Frankfurt before making his debut at Hamburg's opera house in 1915. Schlusnus sang at Nuremberg from 1915 to 1917 and at the prestigious Berlin State Opera from 1917 until 1951. He was engaged by the Chicago Opera for its 1927-28 season and appeared at the Bayreuth Festival in 1933.
During his highly acclaimed tenure at Berlin, Schlusnus established himself as Germany's greatest performer of Verdi's baritone roles and, according to most critics, no subsequent German-speaking baritone has matched his supremacy in this field. Schlusnus excelled in the lighter Wagnerian parts, too, and in operatic works by other German composers.
Furthermore, Schlusnus earned critical renown as a concert artist and lieder singer despite facing stiff competition on the recital platform (and the operatic stage) from such outstanding rival baritones as Herbert Janssen, Willi Domgraf-Fassbaender, Gerhard Hüsch, Karl Hammes, Rudolf Bockelmann and Karl Schmitt-Walter. As an interpreter of lieder he often performed with the German pianist Sebastian Peschko.
By all accounts, Schlusnus was not a magnetic actor like two famous fellow Verdi baritones of subsequent generations: Lawrence Tibbett and Tito Gobbi. By way of compensation, however, he was blessed with an exceedingly beautiful high baritone voice and an impeccable legato style of singing to go with it. Indeed, Schlusnus' polished bel canto technique, coupled with the prudent management of his vocal resources, enabled him to enjoy an unusually long career. He died in Frankfurt, not long after retiring from the stage, at the age of 63.
Recordings[link]
Schlusnus frequented German recording studios during the 1920s, '30s and '40s—committing to disc an impressive array of lieder and a panoply of standard German and Italian operatic arias and duets. Many of these recordings are available on CD, notably a complete Rigoletto sung in German opposite Erna Berger, Helge Rosvaenge, Margarete Klose and Josef Greindl. He was also heard often on German radio broadcasts made prior to, and during, World War II. The English music critic J.B. Steane writes highly of the baritone's legacy of recordings in his survey of classical singing on disc, "The Grand Tradition". Steane praises him for the fine-grained beauty of his tone, his musicality, and the smoothness of his legato.
References[link]
David Ewen, Encyclopedia of the Opera.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Schlusnus, Heinrich |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | August 6, 1888 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | June 18, 1952 |
| Place of death | |
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Heinrich Schiff (born 18 November 1951, Gmunden, Austria) is an Austrian cellist and conductor. He studied cello with Tobias Kühne and André Navarra and made his solo debut in Vienna and London in 1971. He studied conducting with Hans Swarovsky,[clarification needed] and made his conducting debut in 1986.
Schiff was Artistic Director of the Northern Sinfonia from 1990 to 1996, and recorded with them for the NMC label.[1] He also held chief conductorships with the Copenhagen Philharmonic Orchestra in Copenhagen, Denmark(1996–2000), and the Orchester Musikkollegium Winterthur.
In 2004, he was appointed Chief Conductor of the Vienna Chamber Orchestra and served in the post from 2005 to 2008. He stood down from the post in 2008 for health reasons.[2]
Schiff plays the "Mara" Stradivarius (1711) and "Sleeping Beauty" made by Montagnana in Venice in 1739.[3] His recording of the Bach Cello Suites won prizes, and his recording of the Shostakovich concertos won the Grand Prix du Disque. His recording of the Brahms Double Concerto with Frank Peter Zimmermann and Wolfgang Sawallisch won the Deutscher Schallplattenpreis. Composers who have written cello concertos for Schiff include John Casken[1][3] and Friedrich Cerha.[4] Among his students is Rudi Spring.
References[link]
- ^ a b Andrew Clements (2003-07-04). "Casken: Darting the Skiff; Maharal Dreaming, etc: Schiff/ Northern Sinfonia/ Casken". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2003/jul/04/classicalmusicandopera.shopping. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
- ^ "Stefan Vladar neuer Chefdirigent des Wiener Kammerorchesters". Vienna Online. 2008-05-16. http://www.vienna.at/news/om:vienna:kultur/artikel/stefan-vladar-neuer-chefdirigent-des-wiener-kammerorchesters/cn/news-20080516-12280167. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
- ^ a b Griffiths, Bill, Northern Sinfonia. Northumbria University Press, p. 21 (ISBN 1904794076).
- ^ Andrew Clements (1999-08-10). "Colour and spice: Cerha's Cello Concerto (Royal Albert Hall / Radio 3)". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/1999/aug/10/artsfeatures2. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
External links[link]
| Preceded by Richard Hickox |
Artistic Director, Northern Sinfonia 1990–1996 |
Succeeded by Jean-Bernard Pommier |
| Preceded by János Fürst |
Chief Conductor, Orchester Musikkollegium Winterthur 1995–2001 |
Succeeded by Jac van Steen |
| Preceded by Okko Kamu (first guest conductor) |
Chief Conductor, Copenhagen Philharmonic Orchestra 1996–1999 |
Succeeded by Giordano Bellincampi |
| Preceded by Christoph Eberle |
Chief Conductor, Vienna Chamber Orchestra 2005–2008 |
Succeeded by Stefan Vladar |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Schiff, Heinrich |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1951-11-18 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
 |
This article on a cellist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
 |
This article about an Austrian conductor or bandleader is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
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Heinrich Gustavovich Neuhaus (Russian: Генрих Густавович Нейгауз, Genrikh Gustavovič Nejgauz; 12 April [O.S. 31 March] 1888 – October 10, 1964) was a Soviet pianist and pedagogue of German extraction. He taught at the Moscow Conservatory from 1922 to 1964. He was made a People's Artist of the RSFSR in 1956. His pedagogic book The Art of Piano Playing (1958) is regarded as one of the most authoritative and most widely used treatments on the subject.
He was born in Elisavetgrad (known since 1939 as Kirovohrad), Ukraine. Although both his parents were piano teachers, he was largely self-taught. The biggest influences on his early artistic development came from his cousin Karol Szymanowski (tutored by another relative, Gustav Neuhaus) and especially his uncle Felix Blumenfeld on his visits to his sisters' home. He also received some lessons from Aleksander Michałowski.[1] In 1902 he gave a recital in Elisavetgrad with the 11-year-old Mischa Elman and in 1904 gave concerts in Dortmund, Bonn, Cologne and Berlin. Subsequently he studied with Leopold Godowsky in Berlin and from 1909 until the outbreak of World War I at his master classes in Vienna Academy of Music.
In 1914 Neuhaus started teaching in Elisavetgrad and later Tbilisi (Tiflis) and Kiev (where he befriended Vladimir Horowitz). After having been temporarily paralyzed, Neuhaus was forced to halt his concert career in the interests of his pedagogical activities. In 1922 he began teaching at the Moscow Conservatory where he was also director between 1935 and 1937. When the Germans approached Moscow in 1941, he was imprisoned as a "German spy" but released eight months later under pressure from Dmitri Shostakovich, Emil Gilels and others. His pupils there included Yakov Zak, Sviatoslav Richter, Emil Gilels, Anatoly Vedernikov, Tikhon Khrennikov, Yevgeny Malinin, Lev Naumov, Tamara Guseva, Ryszard Bakst, Teodor Gutman, Vera Gornostayeva, Alexander Slobodyanik, Leonid Brumberg, Igor Zhukov, Oleg Boshniakovich, Anton Ginsburg, Valery Kastelsky, Gérard Frémy, Zdeněk Hnát, Nina Svetlanova, Eliso Virsaladze, Alexei Lubimov, Aleksey Nasedkin, Vladimir Krainev, Evgeny Mogilevsky, Amalya Baiburtyan and Radu Lupu.
He died in Moscow in 1964.
Neuhaus was renowned for the poetic magnetism of his playing and for his artistic refinement. He was a life-long friend of Boris Pasternak, and Osip Mandelshtam expressed his admiration for Neuhaus's playing in a poem. Stanislav Neuhaus, Heinrich's son by his first wife Zinaida (who married Pasternak in 1931), was also a noted pianist; Stanislav Bunin is his grandson.
Notes[link]
- ^ J. Methuen-Campbell, Chopin Playing from the Composer to the Present Day (Gollancz, London 1981), 73.
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Neuhaus, Heinrich |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1888 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | 1964 |
| Place of death | |
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Wiki Summary
Heinrich is a given name of Germanic origin and cognate of "Henry". Female forms are Henrike and Henriette. The most famous patron saint is Henry († 1024), as the German Emperor Henry II. Notable persons with this given name include:
