José Francisco de San Martín (c. 1778 – 17 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín (Spanish pronunciation: [xoˈse ðe sam marˈtin]), was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire.
Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes, in modern Argentina, he left his mother country at the early age of seven and studied in Málaga, Spain.
In 1808, after joining Spanish forces in the Peninsular War against the French, San Martín started making contact with South American supporters of independence from Spain. In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires from England and offered his services to the United Provinces of South America, present-day Argentina. After the Battle of San Lorenzo of 1813, and some time on command of the Army of the North (Spanish: Ejército del Norte) during 1814, he began to put into action his plan to defeat the Spanish forces that menaced the United Provinces from Upper Peru, making use of an alternative path to the Viceroyalty of Peru. This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of the Andes, in Cuyo Province, Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile, and prevailed over the Spanish forces at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maipú (1818), thus liberating Chile from royalist rule. Then he set sail to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru, by sea.
On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martín was appointed Protector of Peru (Protector del Perú), and Peruvian independence was officially declared on 28 July. On 22 July 1822, after a closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil, Ecuador, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martín unexpectedly left the country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moved to France in 1824. The details of the 22 July meeting would be a subject of debate by later historians.
San Martín is regarded as a national hero of Argentina and, together with Simon Bolívar, one of the liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Orden del Libertador General San Martín), created in his honor, is the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government.
José de San Martín was the fifth and last son of Juan de San Martín, an unsuccessful Spanish soldier, and Gregoria Matorras del Ser. He was born in Yapeyú, Corrientes. The exact year of his birth is disputed,[1] as there are no records of his baptism. Later documents formulated during his life, such as passports, military career records, and wedding documentation, gave him varying ages. Most of these documents point to his year of birth as either 1777 or 1778.[2] The family moved to Buenos Aires in 1781, when San Martín was three or four years old.
Juan requested to be transferred to Spain, leaving the Americas in 1785. The family settled in Madrid, but as Juan was unable to earn a promotion, they moved to Málaga. Once in the city, San Martín enrolled in Málaga's school of temporalities, beginning his studies in 1785.[3] It is unlikely that he finished the six-year long elementary education, before he enrolled in the Regiment of Murcia in 1789,[4] when he reached the required age of 11. He began his military career as a cadet in the Murcian Infantry Unit.
San Martín took part in several Spanish campaigns in Africa, fighting in Oran against the Moors in 1791, among others.[5] Later, by the end of the First Coalition of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1797, his rank was raised to Sub-Lieutenant for his actions against the French in the Pyrenees. On August of the same year, after several engagements, his regiment surrendered to British naval forces in 1798. Soon afterward, he continued to fight in southern Spain, mainly in Cadiz and Gibraltar with the rank of Second Captain of light infantry. He continued to fight Portugal on the side of Spain in the War of the Oranges in 1801, and was soon after promoted to captain in 1804.
When the Peninsular War started in 1808, San Martín was assigned ayudante (adjutant) of the First Regiment Voluntarios de Campo Mayor. After his actions against the French, he became captain in the Regiment of Borbon. On 19 July 1808, Spanish and French forces engaged in the Battle of Bailén, in which Spanish forces prevailed, allowing the Army of Andalusia to attack and seize Madrid. For his actions during this battle, San Martín was decorated with a gold medal,[6] and his rank raised to lieutenant colonel.[7] On 16 May 1811, he participated in the Battle of Albuera under the command of general William Carr Beresford. By this time, the French armies held most of the Iberian Peninsula under their control, with the exception of Cádiz. San Martín resigned from the Spanish army, by controversial reasons, and moved to South America, where he joined the Spanish American wars of independence.
With the help of Lord MacDuff, San Martín obtained a passport to England where he met several criollos, American-born Spaniards like himself, who were part of the Lautaro Lodge (Logia Lautaro) founded by the Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda. According to Argentine historian Felipe Pigna, San Martín was introduced to the Maitland Plan by members of the lodge founded by Miranda and Lord MacDuff.
In 1812, San Martín set sail for Buenos Aires aboard the British frigate George Canning.[8]
Following his arrival in Buenos Aires on 9 March 1812, his rank of lieutenant colonel was recognized by the Triumvirate and he was thus entrusted with the creation of the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers (Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo),[9] which would become the best-trained military unit of the revolution.
During 1812, he focused on training troops by following the modern warfare techniques he had acquired during the Peninsular War. With Carlos María de Alvear and José Matías Zapiola, he also established the Lodge of Rational Knights, an offspring in Buenos Aires of the independence lodge in Cadiz. On September of the same year, he married María de los Remedios de Escalada, a young woman from one of the local wealthy families.
In October, when news of the victory of the Army of the North (Ejército del Norte) commanded by Manuel Belgrano reached Buenos Aires, the Lautaro Lodge initiated political pressure, backed by San Martín's armed forces and popular demand, to impose its candidates into government, thus forcing the First Triumvirate to an end and initiating the Second Triumvirate with members Juan José Paso, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Antonio Álvarez Jonte, the latter two being members of the lodge. This new government strengthened the position held by the army, and decided to lay siege to Montevideo, which was controlled by loyalists to the Spanish Crown. On 7 December 1812, San Martín was promoted to Colonel.
Although not technically a battle (in Spanish the battle is referred to as Combate de San Lorenzo, Combat of San Lorenzo), references in English language refer to the event as the Battle of San Lorenzo.
On 28 January 1813, San Martín with his Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers was sent to protect the Paraná River shore from the Spanish Fleet's ships under command of General José Zavala. On the morning of 3 February,[10] the Spanish forces disembarked and fought against San Martín in the Battle of San Lorenzo.
During the fight, San Martín's horse was shot dead. The horse fell, trapping one of San Martín's legs underneath it. This made him an easy target, but Sergeant Juan Bautista Cabral helped him extricate himself. While he was helping the Colonel, Cabral was attacked himself, and died from his wounds after the battle.[11] After the battle, San Martín was promoted to General. This was San Martín's first military action in South America.
After the victories of Tucumán and Salta, the Army of the North, commanded by Manuel Belgrano, lost much ground after serious defeats at Vilcapugio (1 October) and Ayohuma (14 November 1813). The triumvirate then decided to send San Martín to the north with a small infantry army and his cavalry regiment.[12]
After joining the defeated Army of the North in Yatasto, he took command of it on January 1814, and Belgrano became second in command. During his command, the army camped in Tucumán, where he started instructing the troops, created a new military school, and sent Colonel Martín Miguel de Güemes to fight against loyalists coming from Peru to gain time. However, after minor struggles in Salta and Jujuy, news of the victory of Commander William Brown against the royalists' navy, and the resulting blockade of Montevideo, made the loyalist forces from Peru retreat to regroup.
During his command of the Army of the North, San Martín confirmed one of the reasons behind the Maitland Plan's scheme: royalist forces that came down from Upper Peru were easily defeated by the independentist forces in the valleys of Salta and Jujuy. But because of the geographical advantage, forces attacking Upper Peru were easily defeated by the royalists for the very same reasons.
In Córdoba, San Martín continued preparing his plan of attacking Lima, the capital city of the Viceroyalty of Peru, through Chile. He realized that it would be impossible to enter the large city without having conquered the land to the south. To this end, he requested to be appointed governor of Cuyo Province. Later, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón was sent by the provisional government of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, and gave San Martín full support on his Campaña Libertadora (Liberating Campaign).
One month after he took office, royalist forces defeated rebel forces under the command of Bernardo O'Higgins, who then fled to the Andes. San Martín strengthened his espionage network with the so-called Guerra de Zapa (War of Zapa), a pun on the expression trabajo de zapa, which means hidden work done slyly towards some particular aim. He kept his troops in Mendoza to train and prepare them.
On this behalf, San Martín sent his aide-de-camp and amateur cartographer José Antonio Álvarez Condarco (carrying a copy of the Declaration of Independence of the United Provinces of South America, today Argentina, to Chile as an excuse) through Los Patos pass (the longest path), and returned through the Uspallata (the shortest one), to perform reconnaissance of several locations, mainly the Chacabuco area. Other measures included a disinformation campaign in Chile by sending fake information on the possible attack routes, and information gathering of the situation in Chile in order to prevent a possible attack from there.
Army of the Andes monument at Cerro de la Gloria, near the Argentine city of
Mendoza.
During his governorship of Cuyo, he organized the Army of Cuyo and on 8 November 1814 he created the 11th Infantry Battalion (Batallón Número 11 de Infantería) which included the Argentine Corps of Chile (Cuerpo de Auxiliares Argentinos or Cuerpo de Chile), which was under command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Gregorio de las Heras. By October 1815, after contributions of several provinces, the army had 1,600 infantry soldiers, 1,000 men in cavalry, 200 men in artillery, and 10 cannons. However many problems arose, such as low supplies of powder, iron, and uniforms. Because existing local industries were not enough to supply the army, San Martín handled the problem by creating local industries in Cuyo to meet the requirements of it.
On the other hand, despite having the support of the Supreme Director Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, opinions about his campaign were not as favorable on the national level. His efforts were often undermined by the skepticism of some local leaders about the viability of the campaign against the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Andes. However, on 1 August 1816, Pueyrredón renamed the army to Army of the Andes (Ejército de los Andes), appointed San Martín as its General in Chief, and made it a national priority. By the end of this difficult process, San Martín's army had grown immensely.
In September 1816, San Martín relocated the Army of the Andes to El Plumerillo, in the northern part of Mendoza Province, where he finished the details to start his crossing of the Andes. The army was divided in two main columns and four minor ones, keeping the decided paths in secret.
On 18 January 1817, a main column parted with the artillery to Chile through Uspallata, under command of Brigadier Juan Gregorio de las Heras, reaching Las Cuevas on 1 February 1817. The second main column, led by San Martín, left on 19 January through Los Patos pass, and reached San Andrés de Tártaro on 8 February, where he was later joined by Las Heras, concluding the first part of the crossing. By the time the main columns reunited, both had already had minor skirmishes: the first column had fought royalists in Potrerillos, while the forces led by San Martín had fought the battles of Achupallas and Las Coimas.
Considered a major feat in military history, the crossing of the Andes was extremely difficult and took 21 days due to low temperature and high altitudes. For instance, the army at El Espinacito pass reached a maximum altitude of 4,536 meters.
After crossing the Andes and entering Chile, the Spanish royalist forces were taking positions in Mount Cuesta Vieja, preparing themselves for the confrontation against the Army of the Andes.
The Battle of Chacabuco between the Army of the Andes and Spanish forces in 1817.
By 10 February 1817, the Army of the Andes was in the Aconcagua valley, and the Spanish royalist forces had not still taken full positions. San Martín then took the initiative and hastened preparations for his attack. Despite a severe attack of rheumatoid arthritis, San Martín commanded the battle, and seeing the Spanish forces under numerical inferiority and considering the surprise factor, developed a strategy for the Spanish forces to surrender, avoiding bloodshed. The charge was a stalemate until Soler's division joined the battle, turning the odds in favor of the patriot side.
After the battle, the royalist forces had suffered five hundred casualties and six hundred royalist soldiers had been taken prisoner. On the Army of the Andes side, there were twelve killed and around one hundred wounded. The army also gained new artillery and other weapons, besides restoring the Chilean revolution.
San Martín sent the following message reporting the victory: "The Army of the Andes has attained glory and can report: in twenty-four days we have completed the campaign, passed through the highest mountain range on the globe, defeated the tyrants, and given freedom to Chile".
Statue of José de San Martín in
Santiago, Chile.
On 14 February 1817, San Martín and O'Higgins triumphally entered Santiago, and on 18 February, in a meeting held in the town hall, San Martín was appointed Governor of Chile. San Martín immediately resigned and O'Higgins was elected Supreme Director of the State of Chile (Director Supremo del Estado de Chile). The United Army (Ejército Unido) was created with Argentine and Chilean soldiers. The Chilean soldiers were under O'Higgins command, while San Martín was General in Chief of the whole United Army.
Then San Martín, in order to raise funds for a fleet, left for Buenos Aires. After negotiating with Pueyrredón, a delegation was sent to London to provide ships for a new fleet in the Pacific Ocean. Back in Chile in the last days of 1817, San Martín sent a delegation to Lima under the pretext of proposing to the Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela of Peru the regularization of the war and exchange of prisoners of war. The real purpose was to gain as much information as possible about the enemy's plans. The delegation brought the news that a Spanish army under General Mariano Osorio was about to set sail in four frigates to southern Chile.
Despite the success in the Battle of Chacabuco, and while leaving Santiago and the northern Chile under patriot control, the royalist forces still had strong presence in southern Chile. The men under Osorio's command joined the royalist forces in the south by sea. The royalists also had allied themselves with Mapuche native Americans.
On 19 March 1818, the royalist forces concentrated and fortified in Talca with around five thousand men under General Osorio, while the independent Osorio was not eager to engage in battle, fortifying in Talca. However, after a suggestion from Colonel José Ordóñez an attack was agreed, under Ordoñez' command. In a bold move, Ordoñez made the kind of attack San Martín had feared: circumventing the city and making a surprise attack at night behind the vanguard where the patriot forces were still taking positions. The surprise attack happened before the patriot army had re-positioned itself, and was a directed at the battalion under O'Higgins command, near San Martín's position. Soon, the vanguard soldiers dispersed, leaving O'Higgins in a bad position; his horse was shot dead and he was wounded in one arm. In an uncharacteristic move, instead of ordering retreat San Martín held the position, which made more patriot soldiers flee under enemy fire, leaving weapons and supplies behind. After the initial disorder, however, he ordered retreat. The rear and reserves had already re-positioned, somewhat withstanding the attack, but had no-one in command (Colonel Hilarión de la Quintana had left to headquarters to receive orders after the re-position and had not yet returned). Las Heras took command, and led the men during the retreat, while trying to recover as much artillery and weapons as possible. San Martín and O'Higgins (who were also retreating at full speed) were being closely chased by royalist forces.
By 21 March 1818, the remaining patriot forces of around three and half thousand men reunited in San Fernando, while news of the defeat reached Santiago. Rumors of deaths of O'Higgins and San Martín were spreading, and an exodus from Santiago to Mendoza started.
The battle (which was the only defeat the campaign had suffered) resulted in around 150 killed, and two hundred men taken prisoner. Several hundred had deserted, the whole artillery of the Argentine side was lost along with considerable amounts of horses, mules and weapons from both the Chilean and Argentine parts of the army. Despite the royalist victory, the action proved pyrrhic for their side: an estimated two hundred soldiers had been killed, three hundred men captured and around six hundred had deserted, a total comprising more than half the two thousand men that had charged into the battle. Because of historical records these numbers cannot be completely confirmed.
After the sorpresa de Cancha Rayada (surprise of Cancha Rayada), the royalist forces concentrated and marched towards Santiago. On 4 April 1818, the United Army took positions in Loma Blanca, near the Maipú plains. The army separated into three divisions: Las Heras commanding the column on the right, Colonel Rudecindo Alvarado commanding the column on the left, and Quintana at the rear. O'Higgins (still wounded) was in charge of the reserves.
The royalist forces under General Osorio's command took defensive positions, despite the convictions of some Colonels (among whom was Ordoñez) that taking the offensive as in Cancha Rayada was the best option. According to Irish Mounted Granadier John Thomond O'Brien, San Martín, seeing Osorio's disposition of the forces, exclaimed "Osorio is clumsier than I thought. Today's triumph is ours. The sun as witness!".
Around 11 am on the morning of 5 April 1818, the patriotic forces charged against the royalist forces with devastating resolution: after the sustained six-hour battle, the royalists were defeated. Osorio attempted to retreat to a property called Los Espejos (The Mirrors) but failing to reach it, fled to Talcahuano with around twelve hundred men, although virtually rendered useless as they had lost most, if not all, of their weapons.
The royalist forces suffered two thousand dead, three thousand prisoners taken, and the loss of all its artillery. The patriotic forces, in contrast, suffered one thousand casualties. Historian and Colonel José Luis Picciuolo stated in his book La caballería argentina en la historia del ejército that "this battle was executed as a typical act of annihilation".[13]
As result of the battle, the Spanish control over southern Chile ended, and the independence declared on 12 February 1818 was partially accomplished. Viceroy Pezuela considered southern Chile lost, and Osorio set sail for Peru, leaving Colonel Juan Francisco Sánchez in charge of one thousand men in Talcahuano.
Since the Battle of Chacabuco, San Martín had urged both governments of Santiago and Buenos Aires to build a fleet on the Pacific. Convoys had been sent to the United States and England in order to buy and hire several ships, however, lack of political cohesion in Argentina, a Spanish blockade in Valparaíso, and the Battles of Cancha Rayada and Maipú heavily delayed the project. On the other hand, the mountainous landscape of the region lent itself to a large dependence of the colonial Chilean economy on maritime trade routes and shipping. This meant that there was an abundance of shipyards and a ready supply of sailors.
Right after the Battle of Maipú, San Martín left for Buenos Aires in order to speed up the process (and meet his wife and daughter which he had not seen since the start of the Campaign of the Andes). Once in Buenos Aires, after learning the fact that half a million pesos would not be available for the project from Pueyrredón, San Martín resigned as Commander of the Army under the pretext of being prescribed by his doctor to take rest in Chile's hotsprings. The resignation was not accepted and San Martín was granted a license.
After Supreme Director José Rondeau was defeated in the Battle of Cepeda, San Martín sent his resignation of the army's command from Santiago to Rancagua, where Colonel Las Heras had settled with the army, arguing that the authority to which he had to report had ceased to exist, and thus his own authority had expired. The officials of the army rejected his resignation on the basis that the army's goal was to "hasten the happiness" of the country and the authority was given ultimately by the "health of the people", something that was immutable and could not expire.
On 20 August 1820, a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships of the Chilean Navy, under the command of Thomas Cochrane, set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas, southern Peru.
On September 7, the army landed on Paracas and successfully attacked Pisco. On 11 September 1820, San Martín sent a manifesto to the Peruvian people stating: "My announcement is not that of a conqueror that tries to create a new enslavement. I cannot help but be an accidental instrument of justice and agent of destiny. The outcome of victory will make Peru's capital see for the first time its sons united, freely choosing their government and emerging into the face of earth among the rank of nations".
While previous campaigns had been militaristic, San Martín avoided confrontation in Peru and emphasized diplomacy; the reason was that Lima, as the center of the Spanish Empire, would be more against the nationalist cause if its forces used violence and/or threatened to break the established monarchical-style order. Also, San Martín's army was smaller than that of the royalist forces in Peru, and he was wary of attacking the Spanish head on. His strategy consisted of waiting for the Peruvian people to begin the uprising by themselves. This resulted in many diplomatic envoys to Lima, urging Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela to grant the independence of Peru. However, these diplomatic efforts proved fruitless.
After seizing Pisco, the army set sail on 26 October toward the north and landed at Huacho —a better place from a strategic point of view— on 12 November. Huacho was used by San Martín as his main headquarters from thereon. While there, San Martín first heard of the emancipation of Guayaquil under the leadership of Peruvian Gregorio Escobedo. This and other events such as the maritime blockade of Callao by Cochrane and the victories over royalists by Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales in Guacarillo (6 October) and Pasco (20 December) strengthened the position of the main independentist effort led by San Martín.
On 29 January, Pezuela was deposed by José de la Serna e Hinojosa. On 21 February 1821, San Martín promulgated the Provisional Rules (Reglamento Provisional) aimed to provide legal guarantees to the Peruvian citizens, and designed the first flag of Peru. Soon afterwards he started preparing to march on Lima.
In March, 1821 the army set sail and landed in Ancón (near Lima), while dispatching general William Miller to the southern coasts and Álvarez de Arenales toward the eastern hills, furthering Lima's isolation. Diplomatic efforts once again failed, as Viceroy Serna did not agree to declare independence, and San Martín did not accept Serna's proposal of acceptance by the independentists of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the sending emissaries to the Cortes Generales.
On 2 July, San Martín met Viceroy Serna. This time San Martín proposed to create a constitutional monarchy with a European monarch to be appointed later. Serna, arguing that he did not have the power to make such a decision, asked for two days to discuss the issue. However, after discussing the issue with the royalist forces' commanders, the proposition was turned down on the basis that they did not have the power to grant independence, even to create a monarchy. On 8 July, Serna and his forces simply abandoned the city, in order to reinforce in the countryside.
José de San Martín's proclamation of the independence of
Peru on 28 July 1821 in
Lima.
San Martín occupied Lima, the capital of Peru, on 12 July 1821. This was a huge loss for the Spanish forces. Independence from Spain for Peru was finally declared on 28 July 1821 and he was voted the "Protector" of the newly independent nation. During the same year, he founded the National Library of Peru, to which he donated his collection of books, and praised the new library as "... one of the most efficient means to spread our intellectual values". After Peru's parliament had been assembled, he resigned his command.
On 26 July 1822, he met with Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil to plan the future of Latin America. Most of the details of this meeting were secret at the time, and this has made the event a matter of much debate among later historians. Some believe that Bolívar's refusal to share command of the combined forces made San Martín withdraw from Peru and resettle as a farmer in Mendoza, Argentina. Another theory claims that San Martín yielded to Bolívar's energy and avoided a confrontation. Many argue that San Martin was a military genius but not as charismatic a leader, or as politically ambitious, as Bolivar.
General San Martín in Paris, 1848.
In 1824, soon after his return to Argentina, his wife Remedios de Escalada de San Martín died. Then he moved to Europe with his daughter Mercedes, first to England, then to Brussels. To keep a neutral position during the 1830 Belgian Revolution he moved to Paris, where he contracted cholera. Cured but weakened, he bought a house and retired at Grand-Bourg, near Évry. His daughter married Mariano Antonio Severo de Balcarce, illegitimate son of Juan Manuel de Rosas, in Paris on 13 December 1832, and they had two daughters. In 1848, when the revolution started in Paris,[14] he decided to move to London,[15] but settled instead at Boulogne-sur-Mer, where he spent the remainder of his days.[16]
He always excluded himself from every possible meddling at the internecine wars of his native country, and refused several offers he had to do so. He even returned to Buenos Aires, but refused to leave the ship when he learned that Juan Lavalle had deposed and executed governor Manuel Dorrego, and returned to Europe. The only occasion in which he offered himself to return to Argentina was at the time of the French blockades of 1838 and 1845. In recognition of the successful defense of Argentine rights in those conflicts, he handed down his sword to Buenos Aires Province Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas through his will. He died on 17 August 1850 in Boulogne-Sur-Mer, France.[17]
In 1880[18] his remains were taken from Brunoy to Buenos Aires and reinterred in the Buenos Aires Cathedral.[19] The mausoleum also has the remains of Generals Juan Gregorio de las Heras and Tomás Guido, as well as those of the Unknown Soldier of the Independence.
San Martín's tomb in the Buenos Aires Cathedral.
Anthem to the Liberator General San Martín
Music: Arturo Luzzatt Lyrics: Segundo M. Argarañaz
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Yerga el Ande su cumbre más alta,
Dé la mar el metal de su voz,
y entre cielos y nieves eternas
se alce el trono del Libertador.
Suenen claras trompetas de gloria
y levanten un himno triunfal,
que la luz de la historia agiganta
la figura del Gran Capitán.
De las tierras del Plata a Mendoza,
de Santiago à la Lima gentil,
fue sembrando en la ruta laureles
a su paso triunfal San Martín.
San Martín, el señor en la guerra,
por secreto designio de Dios,
grande fue cuando el sol lo alumbraba,
y más grande en la puesta del Sol.
¡Padre augusto del pueblo argentino,
héroe magno de la libertad!
A su sombra la Patria se agranda
en virtud, en trabajo y en paz.
¡San Martín! ¡San Martín! Que tu nombre,
honra y prez de los pueblos del Sur,
asegure por siempre los rumbos
de la Patria que alumbra tu luz.
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Rise the Andes its highest peak;
Give the sea the metal of his voice.
And between skies and everlasting snows,
shall arise the throne of the Liberator.
May trumpets of glory sound clearly
and play a triumphal anthem
because the light of history aggrandize
the figure of the Great Captain.
From the lands of River Plate to Mendoza,
from Santiago to genteel Lima,
he went, planting laurels along the way
in his triumphal journey, San Martín.
San Martín, the lord of war,
by secret choice of God,
was great when the Sun was shining on him,
and even greater in the sunset.
Great father of the Argentine People,
Greatest hero of freedom!
beneath his shadow the fatherland grows
in virtue, in work, and in peace.
San Martín! San Martín! may your name,
the honour and glory of the people of the South,
assure for ever the fates
of the fatherland enlightened by your light.
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- The first appearance of San Martín in a movie was in the El himno nacional silent movie of 1908, being played by Federico López. This was followed by other short shots of specific events in the life of San Martín, which are currently lost. The first big movie was 1939's Nuestra tierra de paz, starring Pedro Tocci.[20]
- Arguably the most famous movie regarding San Martín is El Santo de la Espada from 1970, starred by Alfredo Alcón.[21] A new movie, Revolución: El cruce de los Andes, was previewed in 2010, during the bicentennial of Argentina, and premiered on 7 April 2011.[22]
- José de San Martín is playable as a leader in Sid Meier's Civilization IV: Colonization.
- Camp San Martin was the boot camp for Juan Rico's father in Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers.
- The Republic of San Martin is the name of a world in the Honor Harington series by David Weber.
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "Retorno al país nativo [Return to the native country]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto011.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "25 de febrero de 1778 es la fecha tradicional y oficialmente aceptada, aunque hay desacuerdos al respecto. José Pacífico Otero, por ejemplo, afirma que el Libertador vino al mundo en 1777."
- ^ Galasso, Norberto (2000) (in Spanish). Seamos libres y lo demás no importa nada [Let us be free and nothing else matters]. Buenos Aires: Colihue. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-950-581-779-5.
- ^ Galasso, pp. 22–24.
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "Retorno al país nativo [Return to the native country]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto011.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "En Málaga realizó el aprendizaje elemental -ya en el hogar, como se solía, ya en alguna escuela pública, muy probablemente en una de Temporalidades- y en 1789 sentará plaza de cadete en el Regimiento de Murcia."
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "Retorno al país nativo [Return to the native country]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto011.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Ínterin, ha combatido en África y en Europa, en el desierto de Orán (Norte de África), en el llano, en la montaña pirenaica (Cordillera de los Pirineos, entre Francia y España) y en el mar (a bordo de la fragata "Santa Dorotea"); ha sido vencedor y prisionero."
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "Retorno al país nativo [Return to the native country]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto011.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Fue distinguido por los jefes a cuyas órdenes estuvo -señalemos en particular al marqués de Coupigny, mencionado por la Gaceta de Buenos Aires-, y ostenta como premio la medalla de Bailén."
- ^ Piccinali, Juan. "La vuelta de San Martín [The return of San Martín]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto012.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Exhibe su despacho de teniente coronel graduado de caballería, fechado el 11 de agosto de 1.808, ascenso provocado por su heroico comportamiento en la batalla de Bailén (19 de julio de 1.808), de la que da testimonio para siempre el parte del general Reding, comandante de las fuerzas empeñadas en la acción, al comandante del Ejército de Andalucía, general Castaños, donde sólo se nombra al Regimiento de Caballería de Borbón para mencionar al bizarro capitán José de San Martín, agregado a esa unidad después de su brillante triunfo en el combate de Arjonilla, el 23 de junio de 1.808."
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "Retorno al país nativo [Return to the native country]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto011.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "En su edición correspondiente al viernes 13, un periódico local -"La Gaceta de Buenos Aires"- hace pública la llegada de la fragata inglesa George Canning, salida de Londres cincuenta días atrás. Trae noticias de la desgraciada situación por la que pasa España, donde el invasor francés, con bríos recobrados, tiene grandes probabilidades de dominar todo el territorio. Informa, también, que a su bordo arribaron como pasajeros seis americanos y un europeo, todos oficiales de las armas de la Monarquía. Entre ellos, el teniente coronel José Francisco de San Martín, quien así retorna a su país nativo, al país de su nacimiento."
- ^ Leoni, Luis. "Historia de una epopeya [History of an epic]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/texto036.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "La historia del Regimiento comienza juntamente con la aparición de San Martín en el escenario americano, apenas dos años después del grito de rebeldía de mayo de 1810. Con fecha 16 de marzo el gobierno superior provisional de las Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata, con las firmas de Chiclana, Sarratea y Rivadavia, expide el nombramiento efectivo de José de San Martín como Teniente Coronel de caballería y Comandante del Escuadrón de Granaderos que ha de organizarse, el que sería a lo largo de la tenaz lucha emprendida contra el poder real, el alma y el cuerpo vertebral del éxito del pronunciamiento revolucionario."
- ^ Leoni, Luis. "Historia de una epopeya [History of an epic]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/texto036.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "No había transcurrido un año desde su creación cuando el 3 de febrero de 1813 tocaría al regimiento recibir su bautismo de fuego allá en San Lorenzo, a orillas mismas del Paraná."
- ^ Leoni, Luis. "Historia de una epopeya [History of an epic]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/texto036.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "El otro es el granadero Juan Bautista Cabral, oriundo de Corrientes, que no vacila en echar pie a tierra en medio de aquel entrevero de sables, bayonetas, sangre y polvo, consiguiendo zafar del caballo al Coronel San Martín, recibiendo dos mortales heridas a raíz de las cuales deja de existir poco tiempo después mientras repite en su agonía: "muero contento... hemos batido al enemigo.""
- ^ Leoni, Luis. "Historia de una epopeya [History of an epic]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/texto036.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "La difícil situación en el Norte, agravada por las sucesivas derrotas de Vilcapugio y de Ayohuma, las cuales ponen en peligro toda la frontera de la patria, mueven al gobierno a nombrar, con fecha 3 de diciembre de 1813, al Coronel San Martín como Jefe de la expedición auxiliadora al ejército de Belgrano, que venía retirándose en dirección a Tucumán. Integraron esta división, además del primer batallón del 7 de Infantería y de un piquete de 100 artilleros, el 1º y 2º escuadrón del Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo, los que llegan a Tucumán el 12 de enero de 1814."
- ^ Picciuolo, José Luis (2002) (in Spanish). La caballería argentina en la historia del ejército [Argentine cavalry in the history of the army]. Buenos Aires: Editorial Dunken. ISBN 987-518-846-8.
- ^ Barcia, Pedro Luis. "Final en Boulogne-sur-Mer [Ending in Boulogne-sur-Mer]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto024.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "A comienzos de 1848, San Martín y su familia se hallaban en su casa de la Rue Saint Georges 35, en París. En el mes de febrero se desató el movimiento revolucionario que instauró la Segunda República, entre graves desbordes populares y sangrientas luchas callejeras."
- ^ Barcia, Pedro Luis. "Final en Boulogne-sur-Mer [Ending in Boulogne-sur-Mer]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto024.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Para evitar que mi familia volviese a presenciar las trágicas escenas que desde la revolución de febrero se han sucedido en París y ver si el gobierno que va a establecerse según la nueva constitución de este país ofrece algunas garantías de orden para regresar a mi retiro campestre (Grand Bourg) y, en el caso contrario, es decir, el de una guerra civil -que es lo más probable- pasar a Inglaterra y desde ese punto tomar algún partido definitivo."
- ^ Barcia, Pedro Luis. "Final en Boulogne-sur-Mer [Ending in Boulogne-sur-Mer]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto024.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Elige, pues, para esta etapa transitoria -que será la final- la ciudad de Boulogne Sur-Mer, en el departamento Paso de Caláis, en la costa norte francesa sobre el canal de la Mancha."
- ^ Mitre, Bartolomé. "Muerte de San Martín [Death of San Martín]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte1/texto026.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Trasladóse a Boulogne-sur-Mer, en busca, como Bolívar, de las brisas vivificantes de la mar, y allí tuvo la conciencia de su próximo fin. El 13 de agosto, hallándose de pie en la playa del canal de la Mancha, con la vista apagada, perdida en el nebuloso horizonte, sintió el primer síntoma mortal. Llevó la mano al corazón, y dijo, con una pálida sonrisa, a su hija que le acompañaba como una Antígona: ¡C'est I'ourage qui mène au port! ("Es la tempestad que lleva al puerto") El 17 de agosto de 1850, empezó su agonía. "Ésta es la fatiga de la muerte", exclamó, y expiró en brazos de la hija de su amor, a las tres de la tarde, a la edad de setenta y dos años y seis meses, para renacer a la vida de la inmortalidad."
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "La repatriación de los restos [The repatriation of the remains]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte3/texto094.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Con la llegada de los restos del Libertador a la Argentina el 28 de mayo de 1880 quedaba cumplido el deseo testamentario de que su corazón fuese depositado en Buenos Aires."
- ^ Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "La repatriación de los restos [The repatriation of the remains]" (in Spanish). Sanmartinian National Institute. http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte3/texto094.php. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "Cabe afirmar, sin posibilidad de error, que la decisión de dar sepultura definitiva a los venerados restos en la Catedral estaba tomada desde un año antes y que desde entonces se contaba con el asentimiento del Cabildo Eclesiástico de Buenos Aires para así hacerlo."
- ^ "Nuestra tierra de paz (1939)". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0192382/. Retrieved 11 December 2011. "Credited cast: Pedro Tocci"
- ^ "El santo de la espada (1970)". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064931/. Retrieved 11 December 2011. "Cast overview, first billed only: Alfredo Alcón"
- ^ "Revolución: El cruce de los Andes (2011)". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1576458/. Retrieved 11 December 2011. "Release Date: 7 April 2011"
- (in Spanish) Documentos para la historia del Libertador General San Martín [Documents for the history of Liberator General San Martín]. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano and Museo Histórico Nacional. 1953.
- Crow, John (17 January 1992). The Epic of Latin America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07723-2.
- Dellepiane, Carlos (1965) (in Spanish). Historia militar del Perú [Military history of Peru]. Buenos Aires: Círculo Militar.
- Espíndola, Adolfo (1962) (in Spanish). San Martín en el Ejército Español en la península [San Martín in the Spanish Army in the peninsula]. Buenos Aires: Comisión Nacional Ejecutiva del 150 Aniversario de la Revolución de Mayo.
- Harrison, Margaret (1 March 2007). Captain of the Andes: The Life of José de San Martín, Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4325-1830-1.
- Harvey, Robert (2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence. New York: The Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers. ISBN 1-58567-072-3.
- Levene, Ricardo (1936) (in Spanish). Historia de la Nación Argentina [History of the Argentine Nation]. Buenos Aires: Editorial El Ateneo.
- Luna, Félix (1994) (in Spanish). Historia integral de la Argentina [Integral history of Argentina]. Buenos Aires: Editorial Planeta. ISBN 978-950-742-573-8.
- Lynch, John (12 May 2009). San Martín: Argentine Soldier, American Hero. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12643-3.
- Mitre, Bartolomé (24 August 2010) (in Spanish). Historia de San Martín y de la emancipación sudamericana [History of San Martín and the South American emancipation]. Buenos Aires: Editorial El Ateneo. ISBN 978-950-02-6363-4.
- Montes i Bradley, Ricardo Ernesto (1952) (in Spanish). El agricultor José de San Martín [The farmer José de San Martín]. Mexico: Editorial Perspectivas.
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José de San Martín
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