Gulf of Finland
Coordinates	59°50′N 26°00′E / 59.833°N 26°E / 59.833; 26Coordinates: 59°50′N 26°00′E / 59.833°N 26°E / 59.833; 26
Basin countries	Russia, Finland, Estonia
Max. length	400 km (250 mi)
Max. width	130 km (81 mi)
Surface area	30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi)
Average depth	38 m (125 ft)
Max. depth	115 m (377 ft)
Settlements	Saint Petersburg, Helsinki, Tallinn

The Gulf of Finland (Finnish: Suomenlahti; Estonian: Soome laht; Russian: Финский залив, tr. Finskiy zaliv; IPA: [ˈfʲinskʲɪj zɐˈlʲif]; Swedish: Finska viken) is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It extends between Finland (to the north) and Estonia (to the south) all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn. The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia, and some of Russia's most important oil harbors are located farthest in, near Saint Petersburg (including Primorsk). As the seaway to Saint Petersburg, the Gulf of Finland has been and continues to be of considerable strategic importance to Russia. Some of the environmental problems affecting the Baltic Sea are at their most pronounced in the shallow gulf.

Geography[link]

Gulf of Finland

Satellite image showing the gulf entirely frozen over in January 2003.

The area of the gulf is 30,000 km² (12,000 sq mi).^[1] The length (from the Hanko Peninsula to Saint Petersburg) is 400 km (250 mi) and the width varies from 70 km (43 mi) near the entrance to 130 km (81 mi) on the meridian of the island Moshnyi; in the Neva Bay, it decreases to 12 km (7.5 mi). The gulf is relatively shallow with the depth decreasing from the entrance to the gulf to the continent. The sharpest change occurs near Narva-Jõesuu, which is why this place is called Narva wall. The average depth is 38 m (125 ft) with the maximum of 100 m (330 ft). The depth of the Neva Bay is less than 6 metres (20 ft); therefore, a channel was dug at the bottom for safe navigation. Because of the large influx of fresh water from rivers, especially from the Neva River (two thirds of the total runoff), the gulf water has very low salinity – between 0.2 and 5.8 ‰ at the surface and 0.3–8.5 ‰ near the bottom. The average water temperature is close to 0 °C in winter; in summer, it is 15–17 °C (59–63 °F) at the surface and 2–3 °C (36–37 °F) at the bottom. The gulf is usually frozen from late November to late April; the freezing starts in the east and gradually proceeds to the west. Complete freezing is usually reached by late January, and it might not occur in mild winters.^[2] There are frequent strong western winds causing waves, surges of water and floods.^[3][4] (see Floods in Saint Petersburg).

The northern coast of the gulf is high and winding, with abundant small bays and skerries only a few large bays (Vyborg) and peninsulas (Hanko and Porkkala). The coast is mostly sloping; there are abundant sandy dunes, with occasional pine trees.^[3] The southern shores are smooth and shallow, but along the entire coast runs the Baltic Klint with the height up to 55 m (180 ft).^[5][6] In the east, the gulf ends with Neva Bay and on the west merges with the Baltic Sea.

The gulf contains numerous banks, skerries and islands. The largest include Kotlin Island with the city of Kronstadt (population 42,800), Beryozovye Islands, Lisiy Island, Maly Vysotsky Island with the nearby city of Vysotsk (population 1706), Hogland (Suursaari), Moshnyi Island, Bolshoy Tyuters (Tytärsaari), Sommers, Naissaar, Kimitoön, Kökar, Seskar, Lavansaari, Grachevo (Seiskari), Pakri Islands and others.^[7]

Starting from 1700, nineteen artificial islands with fortresses were built in the gulf by Russia. Their purpose was defense from attacks from water and their construction was urged by the Great Northern War of 1700–1721. Those include Fort Alexander, Krasnaya Gorka, Ino, Totleben, Kronshlot and others.^[8]

The largest rivers flowing into the gulf are Neva (from the east), Narva (from the south), and Kymi (from the north). Keila, Pirita, Jägala, Kunda, Luga, Sista and Kovashi flow into the gulf from the south. From the north flow Sestra River, Porvoo, Vantaa and several other small rivers. Saimaa Canal connects the gulf with the Saimaa lake.^[7]

Extent[link]

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the western limit of the Gulf of Finland as a line running from Spithami (59°13'N), in Estonia, through the island of Osmussaar from SE to NW and on to the SW extreme of Hanko Peninsula (22°54'E) in Finland.^[9]

Geological history[link]

In Paleozoic, 300–400 million years ago, the entire territory of the modern Gulf of Finland was covered by a sea. Modern relief was formed as a result of the glacier activities. Its retreat formed Littorina Sea, which water level was some 7–9 meters higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea. Some 4,000 years ago the sea receded and shoals in the gulf have become its islands.^[10][11] Later uplifting of the Baltic Shield skewed the surface of the gulf; for this reason, its northern shores are significantly higher than the southern ones.^[3]

Gulf Coast near Komarovo	Islands near Helsinki	View on the bay from the St. Olaf's church, Tallinn	Fishermen on the Gulf of Finland

Kronstadt in winter	Panorama of Neva River from the Gulf	View on the island of Hogland by Kotka

Flora and fauna[link]

Most of the gulf coast is covered with taiga consisting of forests, meadows and marshes. The major forest trees are pine, spruce, birch, willows, rowan, aspen, common and gray alder. In the far eastern part of the gulf vegetation of the marshy areas consists mainly of bulrush and reeds, as well as fully aquatic plants, such as white and yellow waterlilies and acute sedge. Aquatic plants in the shallow waters of the gulf include Ruppia and spiny naiad.^[12]

Fish species of the gulf include Atlantic salmon, viviparous eelpout, gobies, belica, loach, European chub, minnow, silver bream, common dace, ruffe, Crucian carp, stickleback, European smelt, common rudd, brown trout, tench, pipefish, burbot, perch, gudgeon, lumpsucker, roach, lamprey, vendace, garfish, common whitefish, common bream, zander, orfe, pike, spined loach, sprat, Baltic herring, sabre carp, common bleak, European eel and Atlantic cod.^[13] Commercial fishing is carried out in spring and autumn. Gray seal and ringed seal are met in the gulf, but the latter is very rare.^[12]

Pollution[link]

The ecological condition of the Gulf of Finland, Neva Bay and Neva River is unsatisfactory. There is significant contamination by ions of mercury and copper, organochlorine pesticides, phenols, petroleum products and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Cleaning of waste water in Saint Petersburg was started in 1979 and by 1997 about 74% of wastewater was purified. This number rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and is expected to reach 100% by 2011 with the completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant.^[14] Nevertheless, in 2008, the Federal Service of Saint Petersburg announced that no beach of Saint Petersburg is fit for swimming.^[15]

Fish catchment decreased 10 times between 1989 and 2005. Apart from pollution, another reason for that is hydraulic and engineering works. For example, construction of new ports in Ust-Luga and Vysotsk and on Vasilievsky Island adversely affected the spawning of fish. Extraction of sand and gravel in the Neva Bay for the land reclamation destroy spawning sites of European smelt.^[16]

Construction of the Saint Petersburg Dam reduced water exchange of the Neva Bay with the eastern part of the gulf by 10–20% that increased the contamination level of Neva Bay. The largest changes occur within 5 km from the dam. Some shallow areas between Saint Petersburg and the dam are turning into swamps. Waterlogging and the associated rotting of plants may eventually lead to eutrophication of the area.^[17] Also worrying is expansion of oil ports in the gulf^[17] and the construction of a treatment center for spent fuel from the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant.^[18]

The port of Kronstadt is currently serving as a transit point for the import in Russia of radioactive waste through the Baltic Sea. The waste, mostly depleted uranium hexafluoride, is further transported through Saint Petersburg to Novouralsk, Angarsk and other cities of eastern Russia. This transit point will be moved from Saint Petersburg to the port Ust-Luga within the Border Security Zone of Russia, as decided by the Russian government in 2003 (Order No. 1491-r of 14 October 2003). This step should reduce the ecological risks for Saint Petersburg.^[19]

Important historical events[link]

Before 1700[link]

Many ancient sites were discovered on the shores of the gulf dated to up to nine thousand years old. Humans began to inhabit these places soon after the ice age glaciers have retreated and the water level of the Littorina Sea lowered to reveal the land. Remains of about 11 Neolithic settlements were found since 1905 in the mouth of the river Sestra River (Leningrad Oblast). They contain arrow tips and scrapers made of quartz, numerous food utensils and traces of firecamps – all indicative of hunting rather than agricultural or animal husbandry activities.^[6]

Overseas Guests by Nicholas Roerich, 1899

The gulf coast was later populated by Finno-Ugric peoples. Eesti (or Chud) inhabited the region of the modern Estonia, Votes were living on the south of the gulf and Izhorians to the south of Neva River. Korela tribes settled to the west of Lake Ladoga.^[20] In the 8–9th centuries, the banks of Neva and of the Gulf of Finland was populated by East Slavs, in particular by Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs. They were engaged in slash and burn agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and fishing. During the 8–13th centuries, the Gulf of Finland and Neva were parts of the waterway from Scandinavia, through by Eastern Europe to the Byzantine Empire.

From the 9th century, the eastern coast of the gulf belonged to Veliky Novgorod and were called Vodskaya Pyatina. As a result of the 1219 crusade and the Battle of Lyndanisse, the Northern Estonia became part of Denmark (Danish Estonia).^[21] In 12 century, the city Reval (Latin: Revalia, Russian: Колывань) was established on the territory of modern Tallinn.^[22] As a result of the Estonian uprising in 1343, the Northern Estonia was taken over by the Teutonic Order and sold by Denmark in 1346. In 1559, during the Livonian war, the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.^[23] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.^[21][24]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Finnish tribes on the north of the gulf were conquered by the Swedes who then proceeded to the Slavs. The first encounter is attributed to 1142 when 60 Swedish ships attacked 3 Russian merchant vessels. After a Swedish attack in 1256, the Russian army of Alexander Nevsky crossed the frozen gulf and raided the Swedish territories in the modern Finland. In 1293, the Vyborg Castle and city of Vyborg was founded by the Swedish marshal Torkel Knutsson. The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Republic of Novgorod. By the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden. It withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo–Swedish War of 1496–1499. The town's trade privileges were chartered by King Eric of Pomerania in 1403. Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture by Peter the Great in the Great Northern War (1710).^[25]

In 1323, the Treaty of Nöteborg set the border between Sweden and Russia along the river Sestra. In 15th century, the Izhorian lands of the Novgorod Republic were attached to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1550, Gustav I of Sweden founded a city on the site of modern Helsinki.^[22] As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War (1610–1617) and the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) the lands on the Gulf of Finland and Neva River became part of the Swedish Ingria. Its capital Nyen was located in the delta of Neva River.^[25]

History since 1700[link]

Russia reclaimed the eastern part of the gulf as a result of the victory in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). On 16 May 1703, Saint Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva River, not far from Nyen, and in 1712 it became Russia's capital. To protect the city from the Swedish fleet, the Kronshlot fortress was built on an artificial island near the Kotlin Island in May 1704. By 1705, five more such forts were built nearby composing the city Kronstadt. These fortifications, nicknamed by the contemporaries "the Russian Dardanelles", were designed to control the gulf waterway.^[26]

In 1710, the cities of Petergof and Oranienbaum were founded on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland. On 27 July 1714, near Cape Gangut, the Russian Navy won its first battle-a decisive victory over the Imperial Swedish Navy.^[20] The Russo-Swedish war ended in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad, by which Russia received all the lands along the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, as well as Estland, Swedish Livonia and western part of the Karelian Isthmus, including Vyborg. However, Finland was returned to Sweden.^[27] The war resumed in (1788–1790), and a major battle occurred on 6 July 1788 near the island Gogland. Both the battle and the war were relatively minor and indecisive, with the outcome of Russia retaining its territories.^[20]

The next Russo-Swedish war was fought in (1808–1809). It ended with the Treaty of Fredrikshamn giving the Russia rights on the territory of Finland and Åland Islands. The newly established in 1809 Grand Duchy of Finland received broad autonomy within the Russian Empire and Western Karelia was returned to Finland.^[28] On 6 December 1917, the Parliament of Finland promulgated the Finnish Declaration of Independence. Western Karelia was annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War.^[20]

Estonia declared independence on 24 February 1918 and fought a war of independence. The republic existed until 1940 and then was annexed by the Soviet Union.^[21] Estonia regained its independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Peter the Great on the frigate "Peter and Paul". Abraham Storck. 1708	Battle of Gangut	Battle of Hogland	Sea battle at Vyborg(1790) Ivan Aivazovsky, 1846

The Gulf of Finland had several major naval operations during World War II. In August 1941, during the evacuation of the Baltic Fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt, German forces sank 15 Russian military boats, (5 destroyers, 2 submarines, 3 guard ships, 2 minesweepers, 2 gunboats and 1 Motor Torpedo Boat) as well as 43 transport and support ships. Several ships still remain on the gulf bottom near Cape Juminda, and a monument was raised there in memory of those lost in the events.^[29][30]

In 1978, construction was started on the Saint Petersburg Dam aiming to protect Saint Petersburg from the frequent floods. The work was halted at 60% completion in the late 1980s, due to the financial problems related to the breakup of the Soviet Union; it was resumed in 2001 and is — as of August 2011 — complete.^[3][31]

Economy[link]

The southern coast of the gulf contains the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant and a network of ports and unique natural and historical places. Navigation has long been the dominant activity in the gulf. The major port cities and their functions are, in Russia: Saint Petersburg (all kinds of goods), Kronstadt (container shipping), Lomonosov (general cargo, containers, metals), Vyborg (general cargo), Primorsk (oil and petroleum products), Vysotsk (oil and coal), Ust-Luga (coal, timber, containers);^[32] in Finland: Helsinki (containers), Kotka (containers, timber, agricultural products; it is the main transhipment cargo port for Russia), Hanko (containers, vehicles), Turku (containers, rail ferry),^[33] Kilpilahti/Sköldvik harbour (oil refinery); in Estonia: Tallinn (grains, refrigerators, oil), Paldiski, Sillamäe. Gulf of Finland is also part of the Volga-Baltic Waterway and White Sea – Baltic Canal. Important goods include apatite from the Kola Peninsula, Karelian granite and greenstone, timber from Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda, ferrous metals from Cherepovets, coal from Donetsk and Kuznetsk Basins, pyrite from Ural, potassium chloride from Solikamsk, oil from Volga region, and grains from many regions of Russia.^[34]

Passenger transport on the gulf includes a number of ferry lines which connect the following ports: Helsinki and Hanko (Finland), Mariehamn (Åland Islands), Stockholm and Kappelsher (Sweden), Tallinn and Paldiski, Rostock (Germany), Saint Petersburg and Kaliningrad (Russia), as well as many other cities.^[35][36][37]

Another major and historical activity in the gulf is fishing, especially on the northern coast near Vyborg, Primorsk and on the southern coast near Ust-Luga.^[4] Commercial fish species are herring, sprats, European smelt, whitefishes, carp bream, roaches, perch, European eel, lamprey and others.^[38] In 2005, the catchment was 2000 tons by the ships of Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast alone.^[16]

In September 2005 the agreement was signed on the construction of the Nord Stream offshore gas pipeline on the Baltic Sea, from Vyborg to the German city of Greifswald. The first line should become operational in 2011.^[39]

Main port of Saint Petersburg	Near the harbor of Tallinn	Aerial view of Helsinki	Saint Petersburg Dam

Archaeology[link]

The bottom of the gulf is one of the world's largest ship cemeteries. Because of the low salinity and cold waters, and no shipworms, the ships are relatively well preserved. Since the 6th century, major waterways were running through the gulf, and from the 8th to the 10th century about 3,000 tonnes of silver was transported there. Later, the gulf was actively used by Sweden and Russia for transport of goods. Every year saw dozens of lost ships. In the fall of 1743, 17 Russian warships returning from Finland sank in just 7 hours, and in the summer of 1747, 26 merchant vessels sank within 4 hours near Narva. A record was set in 1721 when during the evacuation of Russian troops from Finland, more than 100 vessels were lost within 3 months, including 64 in a single night.^[40]

By the end of 1996, about 5000 submerged objects were identified in the Russian part of the gulf, including 2500 ships, 1500 airplanes and small items such as boats, anchor, tanks, tractors, cars, cannons and even naval mines, aerial bombs, torpedoes and other ammunition. The ships belonged to Russia (25%), Germany (19%), United Kingdom (17%), Sweden (15%), Netherlands (8%) and Finland (7%). The remaining 9% are from Norway, Denmark, France, US, Italy, Estonia and Latvia.^[41] These objects present potential hazards to navigation, fishery, coastal construction, laying of submarine pipelines and cables and the environment. Mines were laid in the gulf during World War I (38,932 units), Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Finnish War of (1939–1940) with an estimated total number of 60,000; about 85,000 more mines were set during World War II, and only a fraction of all those were eliminated after the wars.^[42][43]

Major cities[link]

See also[link]

• Kven Sea
• Peter the Great's Naval Fortress

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gulf of Finland

• ESA satellite photograph of the Gulf of Finland

v t e Landing stages of Russian coast in Gulf of Finland North gulf coast (Leningrad Oblast) Miller's pier  · 1875 - 19XX  • Dubkovsky pier · 1847 - before 1870  • Tarkhovka pier • Lisy Nos pier · 1894 - 1928 South gulf coast (Leningrad Oblast) Peterhof landing stage  · 1XXX See also: Sea and river terminals, Yacht-clubs

vep:Suomen laht

Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027

Republic of Finland Suomen tasavalta (Finnish) Republiken Finland (Swedish)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Maamme  (Finnish) Vårt land  (Swedish) "Our Land"
Location of  Finland  (dark green) – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Helsinki 60°10′N 024°56′E / 60.167°N 24.933°E / 60.167; 24.933
Official language(s)		Finnish Swedish
Recognised regional languages		Saami
Ethnic groups (2011)		Finns 90.0% Swedes 5.4% Russians 1.1% Estonians 0.6% Romani 0.1% Sami 0.1%
Demonym		Finns, Finnish
Government		Parliamentary republic[1]
-	President	Sauli Niinistö
-	Prime Minister	Jyrki Katainen (NCP)
-	Speaker of the Parliament	Eero Heinäluoma (SDP)
Legislature		Eduskunta
Independence
-	Autonomy within Russia	29 March 1809
-	Declared from Soviet Russia	6 December 1917
-	First recognized by Soviet Russia	4 January 1918
Area
-	Total	338,424 km2 (64th) 130,596 sq mi
-	Water (%)	10
Population
-	2012 estimate	5,404,956[2] (112th)
-	2000 census	5,180,000
-	Density	16/km2 (201st) 41/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$195.723 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$36,236[3]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$266.553 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$49,349[3]
Gini (2000)		26.9 (low)
HDI (2011)		0.882[4] (very high) (22nd)
Currency		Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Date formats		d.m.yyyy
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		FI
Internet TLD		.fi, .ax ¹
Calling code		358
1	The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. The .ax domain is reserved for the autonomous province of Åland Islands

Finland ⁱ/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland,^[5] is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.

Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region.^[6] It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities,^[7][8] and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.

Finland was a part of Sweden from the 12th to 19th century, and from 1809 to 1917 was an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire. The Finnish Declaration of Independence from Russia in 1917 was followed by a civil war in which the red side was defeated with German support. Finland fought World War II as essentially three separate conflicts: the Winter War (1939–40), the Continuation War (1941–44), and the Lapland War (1944–45). Finland joined the United Nations in 1955, the OECD in 1969, the European Union in 1995, and the eurozone at its inception in 1999.

Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialisation, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. Thereafter, economic development was rapid. Finland built an extensive welfare state and balanced between the East and the West in global economics and politics. With the best educational system in Europe,^[9][10] Finland has recently ranked as one of the world's most peaceful, competitive and livable countries.^{[11][12][13][14]}

Etymology[link]

Finland[link]

Among the first documents to mention Finland are three rune-stones. There are two in the Swedish province Uppland, with the inscriptions finlonti (U 582) and one in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea, with the inscription finlandi (G 319), the latter dating from the 13th century.^[15]

Astuvansalmi rock paintings at Saimaa, the oldest dating from 3000 to 2500 BCE.

Suomi[link]

The name Suomi (Finnish for "Finland") has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a cognate is the Proto-Baltic word *zeme, meaning "land". In addition to the close relatives of Finnish (the Finnic languages), this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian. Alternatively, the Indo-European word *gʰm-on "man" (cf. Gothic guma, Latin homo) has been suggested, being borrowed as *ćoma. The word originally referred only to the province of Finland Proper, and later to the northern coast of Gulf of Finland, with northern lands such as Ostrobothnia still being excluded as late as the 18th century. Earlier theories suggested derivation from suomaa (fen land) or suoniemi (fen cape), and parallels between saame (Sami, a non-Finnish people in Finland) and Häme (a Finnish people and a province) were drawn, but these theories are now considered outdated.^[16]

History[link]

Prehistory[link]

According to archaeological evidence, the area now comprising Finland was settled at the latest around 8500 BCE during the Stone Age as the ice sheet of the last ice age receded. The artifacts the first settlers left behind present characteristics that are shared with those found in Estonia, Russia and Norway.^[17] The earliest people were hunter-gatherers, using stone tools.^[18] The first pottery appeared in 5200 BCE when the Comb Ceramic culture was introduced.^[19] The arrival of the Corded Ware culture in southern coastal Finland between 3000 and 2500 BCE may have coincided with the start of agriculture.^[20] Even with the introduction of agriculture, hunting and fishing continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy.

The Bronze Age (1500–500 BCE) and Iron Age (500 BCE–1200 CE) were characterised by extensive contacts with other cultures in the Fennoscandian and Baltic regions. There is no consensus on when Uralic languages and Indo-European languages were first spoken in the area of contemporary Finland. During the 1st millennium AD early Finnish was spoken at least in agricultural settlements of Southern Finland, whereas Sámi-speaking populations occupied most parts of the country.^{[citation needed]}

Swedish era[link]

The Swedish Empire following the Treaty of Roskilde of 1658. The dark green shows Sweden proper represented in the Riksdag of the Estates, while the other shades of green stand for different dominions and possessions.

Swedish kings established their rule in the Northern Crusades from the 12th century until 1249.^[21] The area of present-day Finland became a fully consolidated part of the Swedish kingdom. Swedish-speaking settlers arrived at the coastal regions during the medieval time. Swedish became the dominant language of the nobility, administration and education; Finnish was chiefly a language for the peasantry, clergy and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas.

During the Protestant Reformation, the Finns gradually converted to Lutheranism.^[22] In the 16th century, Mikael Agricola published the first written works in Finnish. The first university in Finland, The Royal Academy of Turku, was established in 1640. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696–97, during which about one-third of the Finnish population died.^[23] In the 18th century, wars between Sweden and Russia led to the occupation of Finland twice by Russian forces, wars known to the Finns as the Greater Wrath (1714–21) and the Lesser Wrath (1742–43).^[23] By this time Finland was the predominant term for the whole area from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Russian border.

Russian Empire era[link]

On 29 March 1809, having been taken over by the armies of Alexander I of Russia in the Finnish War, Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. In 1811 Alexander I incorporated Russian Vyborg province into the Grand Duchy of Finland. During the Russian era, the Finnish language began to gain recognition. From the 1860s onwards, a strong Finnish nationalist movement known as the Fennoman movement grew. Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland's national epic—the Kalevala—in 1835, and the Finnish language's achieving equal legal status with Swedish in 1892.

The Finnish famine of 1866–68 killed 15% of the population, making it one of the worst famines in European history. The famine led the Russian Empire to ease financial regulations, and investment rose in following decades. Economic and political development was rapid.^[24] The GDP per capita was still half of that of the United States and a third of that of Britain.^[24]

In 1906, universal suffrage was adopted in the Grand Duchy of Finland. However, the relationship between the Grand Duchy and the Russian Empire soured when the Russian government made moves to restrict Finnish autonomy. For example, the universal suffrage was, in practice, virtually meaningless, since the tsar did not have to approve any of the laws adopted by the Finnish parliament. Desire for independence gained ground, first among radical liberals^[25] and socialists.

Civil war and early independence[link]

Soviet approval of Finland's independence in Russian.

After the 1917 February Revolution, the position of Finland as part of the Russian Empire was questioned, mainly by Social Democrats. Since the head of state was the Czar of Russia, it was not clear who the chief executive of Finland was after the revolution. The parliament, controlled by social democrats, passed the so called Power Act^[26] to give the highest authority to parliament. This was rejected by the Russian Provisional Government and by the right-wing parties in Finland. The Provisional Government dissolved the parliament by force, which the social democrats considered illegal, since the right to do so had been stripped from the Russians by the Power Act.^{[citation needed]}

New elections were conducted, in which right-wing parties won a slim majority. Some social democrats refused to accept the result and still claimed that the dissolution of the parliament (and thus the ensuing elections) were extralegal. The two nearly equally powerful political blocs, the right-wing parties and the social democratic party, were highly antagonized.^{[citation needed]}

The October Revolution in Russia changed the game anew. Suddenly, the right-wing parties in Finland started to reconsider their decision to block the transfer of highest executive power from the Russian government to Finland, as radical communists took power in Russia. Rather than acknowledge the authority of the Power Law of a few months earlier, the right-wing government declared independence on 6 December 1917.

On 27 January 1918, the official opening shots of the war were fired in two simultaneous events. The government started to disarm the Russian forces in Pohjanmaa, and the Social Democratic Party staged a coup.^{[not in citation given]} The latter succeeded in controlling southern Finland and Helsinki, but the white government continued in exile from Vaasa. This sparked the brief but bitter civil war. The Whites, who were supported by Imperial Germany, prevailed over the Reds.^[27] After the war, tens of thousands of Reds and suspected sympathizers were interned in camps, where thousands died by execution or from malnutrition and disease. Deep social and political enmity was sown between the Reds and Whites and would last until the Winter War and beyond. The civil war and activist expeditions to the Soviet Union strained Eastern relations.

After a brief flirtation with monarchy, Finland became a presidential republic, with Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg elected as its first president in 1919. The Finnish–Russian border was determined by the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, largely following the historic border but granting Pechenga (Finnish: Petsamo) and its Barents Sea harbour to Finland. Finnish democracy did not see any Soviet coup attempts and survived the anti-Communist Lapua Movement. The relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union was tense. Germany's relations with democratic Finland cooled also after the Nazis' rise to power.^{[citation needed]} Military was trained in France instead, and relations to Western Europe and Sweden were strengthened.

In 1917 the population was 3 million. Credit-based land reform was enacted after the civil war, increasing the proportion of capital-owning population.^[24] About 70% of workers were occupied in agriculture and 10% in industry.^[28] The largest export markets were the United Kingdom and Germany.

World War II[link]

Areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union after the Winter War in 1940 and the Continuation War in 1944. The Porkkala land lease was returned to Finland in 1956. Finland covered an area of approximately 385,000 km² (149,000 sq mi) before the handover.

During World War II, Finland fought the Soviet Union twice: in the Winter War of 1939–40 after the Soviet Union had attacked Finland; and in the Continuation War of 1941–44, following Operation Barbarossa, in which Germany invaded the Soviet Union. For 872 days, the German army besieged Leningrad, the USSR's second largest city.^[29] The siege of Leningrad resulted in the deaths of some one million of the city's inhabitants.^[30] Finnish troops controlled some of the areas around the city but refused to attack or let Germans use those areas for attack; whether they should be said to have helped in the siege or refused to help is controversial. After fighting a major Soviet offensive in June/July 1944 to a standstill, Finland reached an armistice with the Soviet Union. This was followed by the Lapland War of 1944–45, when Finland forced the Germans out of northern Finland.

The treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included Finnish obligations, restraints and reparations—as well as further Finnish territorial concessions begun in the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940. As a result of the two wars, Finland was forced to cede most of Finnish Karelia, Salla and Petsamo, which amounted to ten percent of its land area and twenty percent of its industrial capacity, including the ports of Vyborg (Viipuri) and ice-free Liinakhamari (Liinahamari). Almost the whole population, some 400,000 persons, fled these areas. Finland was never occupied by Soviet forces and retained its independence, however at a loss of about 93 000 soldiers killed, by proportion the third-highest loss rate in World War II.^{[citation needed]}

Finland rejected Marshall aid, in apparent deference to Soviet desires. However, the United States provided secret development aid and helped the still non-communist Social Democratic Party in hopes of preserving Finland's independence.^[31] Establishing trade with the Western powers, such as the United Kingdom, and the reparations to the Soviet Union caused Finland to transform itself from a primarily agrarian economy to an industrialised one. For example, the Valmet corporation was founded to create materials for war reparations. Even after the reparations had been paid off, Finland—poor in certain resources necessary for an industrialized nation (such as iron and oil)—continued to trade with the Soviet Union in the framework of bilateral trade.^{[citation needed]}

Cold War[link]

In 1950 half of the Finnish workers were occupied in agriculture and a third lived in urban areas.^[32] The new jobs in manufacturing, services and trade quickly attracted people to the towns. The average number of births per woman declined from a baby boom peak of 3.5 in 1947 to 1.5 in 1973.^[32] When baby-boomers entered the workforce, the economy did not generate jobs fast enough, and hundreds of thousands emigrated to the more industrialized Sweden, with emigration peaking in 1969 and 1970.^[32] The 1952 Summer Olympics brought international visitors. Finland took part in trade liberalization in the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.

Urho Kekkonen, 8th president of Finland

Officially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. The YYA Treaty (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics. This was extensively exploited by president Urho Kekkonen against his opponents. He maintained an effective monopoly on Soviet relations from 1956 on, which was crucial for his continued popularity. In politics, there was a tendency of avoiding any policies and statements that could be interpreted as anti-Soviet. This phenomenon was given the name "Finlandization" by the German press.

Despite close relations with the Soviet Union, Finland remained a Western European market economy. Various industries benefited from trade privileges with the Soviets, which explains the widespread support that pro-Soviet policies enjoyed among business interests in Finland. Economic growth was rapid in the postwar era, and by 1975 Finland's GDP per capita was the 15th highest in the world.^{[citation needed]} In the 1970s and 1980s, Finland built one of the most extensive welfare states in the world. Finland also negotiated with the EEC (a predecessor of the European Union) a treaty that mostly abolished customs duties towards the EEC starting from 1977, although Finland did not fully join. In 1981, president Urho Kekkonen's failing health forced him to retire after holding office for 25 years.^{[citation needed]}

Miscalculated macroeconomic decisions, a banking crisis, the collapse of its largest single trading partner (the Soviet Union) and a global economic downturn caused a deep recession in Finland in the early 1990s. The depression bottomed out in 1993, and Finland saw steady economic growth for more than ten years.^{[citation needed]}

Recent history[link]

In 2002 Finland introduced the currency of the eurozone, the euro.

Like other Nordic countries, Finland has liberalized its economy since the late 1980s. Financial and product market regulation was loosened. Some state enterprises have been privatized and there have been some modest tax cuts. Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and the Eurozone in 1999.

The population is aging with the birth rate at 10.42 births per 1,000 population, or a fertility rate of 1.8.^[32] With a median age of 41.6 years, Finland is one of the oldest countries;^{[33][dead link]} half of voters are estimated to be over 50 years old. Like most European countries, without further reforms or much higher immigration, Finland is expected to struggle with demographics, even though macroeconomic projections are healthier than in most other developed countries.

The Finnish markka was replaced by the euro in 2002. As a preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 1999; this is why the first euro coins from Finland have the year 1999 on them, instead of 2002 like some of the other countries of the Eurozone. Three different designs (one for €2 coin, one for €1 coin and one for the other six coins) were selected for the Finnish coins. In 2007, in order to adopt the new common map like the rest of the Eurozone countries, Finland changed the common side of its coins.

Geography[link]

Detailed map of Finland. See also atlas of Finland

Lying between latitudes 59° and 71° N, and longitudes 20° and 32° E, Finland is one of the world's northernmost countries. Of world capitals, only Reykjavik lies more to the north than Helsinki. The distance from the southernmost—Hanko—to the northernmost point in the country—Nuorgam—is 1,160 kilometres (720 mi).

Finland is a country of thousands of lakes and islands—187,888 lakes (larger than 500 m²/0.12 acre) and 179,584 islands.^[34] Its largest lake, Saimaa, is the fourth largest in Europe. The greatest number of islands are to be found in the southwest in the Turku archipelago. Further from the coast lies Ahvenanmaa or Åland (in Swedish) Islands.

Much of the geography of Finland is explained by the Ice Age. The glaciers were thicker and lasted longer in Fennoscandia compared to the rest of Europe. Their eroding effects have left the Finnish landscape mostly flat with few hills and fewer mountains. Its highest point, the Halti at 1,324 metres (4,344 ft), is found in the extreme north of Lapland at the border between Finland and Norway. The highest mountain whose peak is entirely in Finland is Ridnitsohkka at 1,316 m (4,318 ft), directly adjacent to Halti.

The retreating glaciers have left the land with morainic deposits in formations of eskers. These are ridges of stratified gravel and sand, running northwest to southeast, where the ancient edge of the glacier once lay. Among the biggest of these are the three Salpausselkä ridges that run across southern Finland.

Due to having been compressed under the enormous weight of the glaciers, terrain in Finland is rising due to the post-glacial rebound. The effect is strongest around the Gulf of Bothnia, where land steadily rises about 1 cm a year. As a result, the old sea bottom turns little by little into dry land: the surface area of the country is expanding by about 7 square kilometres (2.7 sq mi) annually.^[35] In a sense, Finland is rising from the sea.^[36]

Forest covers 86% of the country's area,^[37] the largest forested area in Europe. The forest consists of pine, spruce, birch and other species. Finland is the largest producer of wood in Europe and among the largest in the world.

The landscape is covered mostly (seventy-five percent of land area) by coniferous taiga forests and fens, with little arable land. The most common type of rock is granite. It is a ubiquitous part of the scenery, visible wherever there is no soil cover. Moraine or till is the most common type of soil, covered by a thin layer of humus of biological origin. Podzol profile development is seen in most forest soils except where drainage is poor. Gleysols and peat bogs occupy poorly drained areas.

The Whooper Swan, national bird of Finland

Biodiversity[link]

Phytogeographically, Finland is shared between the Arctic, central European and northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Finland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Scandinavian and Russian taiga, Sarmatic mixed forests and Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and grasslands.

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is the national animal of Finland

Similarly, Finland has a diverse and extensive range of fauna. There are at least sixty native mammalian species, 248 breeding bird species, over seventy fish species and eleven reptile and frog species present today, many migrating from neighboring countries thousands of years ago.^{[citation needed]} Large and widely recognized wildlife mammals found in Finland are the brown bear (the national animal), gray wolf, wolverine and elk (moose). Three of the more striking birds are the Whooper Swan, a large European swan and the national bird of Finland; the Capercaillie, a large, black-plumaged member of the grouse family; and the European Eagle-owl. The latter is considered an indicator of old-growth forest connectivity, and has been declining because of landscape fragmentation.^[38] The most common breeding birds are the willow warbler, chaffinch and redwing.^[39] Of some seventy species of freshwater fish, the northern pike, perch and others are plentiful. Atlantic salmon remains the favourite of fly rod enthusiasts.

The endangered Saimaa Ringed Seal, one of only three lake seal species in the world, exists only in the Saimaa lake system of southeastern Finland, down to only 300 seals today. It has become the emblem of the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation.^[40]

Climate[link]

Pyhä-Luosto National Park, Lapland.

Finland has a humid and cool semi-continental climate, characterized by warm summers and freezing winters. The climate type in southern Finland is north temperate climate. Winters of southern Finland (average day time temperature is below 0 °C/32 °F) are usually 4 months long, and the snow typically covers the land from middle of December to early April. In the southern coast, it can melt many times during early winter, and then come again. The coldest winter days of southern Finland are usually under −20 °C (−4 °F), and the warmest days of July and August can be as high as 35 °C (95 °F).^[41] Arctic tundra proper is not found in Finland; Finland lies almost exactly on the taiga belt, being covered in boreal forest.^[42] Alpine tundra can be found in the mountainous Lapland, and oak grows in the southernmost islands and coast.

Winter scene in Finland

Summer in Koli National Park, Lieksa, Finland