History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet)

Proto-Greek (c. 3000–1600 BC)

Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC)

Ancient Greek (c. 800–330 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian, Homeric Greek, Macedonian

Koine Greek (c. 330 BC–330)

Medieval Greek (330–1453)

Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic This box: view talk edit *Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) from Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

Koine Greek (Greek: Ελληνιστική Κοινή^[1] "Hellenistic common [language]", or ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, "the common dialect", also simply called koine "common [language]", or "Alexandrian dialect", "common Attic" or "Hellenistic Greek") is the universal dialect of the Greek language spoken throughout post-Classical antiquity (c. 300 BC – AD 300), developing from the Attic dialect, with admixture of elements especially from Ionic.

Koine, the first supra-regional Greek dialect, came to serve as the lingua franca of the Western world following the conquests of Alexander the Great.^[2] Although superseded in the West Roman Empire by Vulgar Latin, it retained its dominance in the East, forming the basis of medieval Greek. By way of the latter, it is also the main ancestor of modern Greek.^[3]

Koine's religious significance is exemplified by its status as the language of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and of the Christian New Testament.^[4] As the language of the New Testament and of the Church Fathers, Koine Greek is also known as biblical, patristic or New Testament Greek.^[5][6]

Name[link]

Koinḗ (Κοινή), Greek for "common", is a term which had been previously applied by ancient scholars to several forms of Greek speech. A school of scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus and Aelius Herodianus maintained the term Koine to refer to the Proto-Greek language, while others would use it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from the literary language.^[4] But when Koine Greek became a language of literature by the first century B.C. some people distinguished it into two forms: Hellenic (Greek) as the literary post-classical form, and vernacular as the day to day spoken form.^[4] Others chose to refer to Koine as the Alexandrian dialect (περὶ τῆς Ἀλεξανδρέων διαλέκτου) or the dialect of Alexandria, or even the universal dialect of its time. The former was often used by modern classicists.

Origins and history[link]

Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great.^[4] Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common dialect was spoken from Egypt to Mesopotamia.^[4] Though elements of Koine Greek took shape during the Classical Era, the post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Hellenistic sway in turn began to influence the language. The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek, dates from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine I in 330. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages.^[4]

The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic age, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, "ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα" (the composition of the Four). This view was supported in the early 20th century by Paul Kretschmer in his book "Die Entstehung der Koine" (1901), while Ulrich Wilamowitz and Antoine Meillet, based on the intense Ionic elements of the Koine — such as σσ instead of ττ and ρσ instead of ρρ (θάλασσα — θάλαττα, ἀρσενικός — ἀρρενικός) — considered Koine to be a simplified form of Ionic.^[4] The final answer which is academically accepted today was given by the Greek linguist G. N. Hatzidakis, who proved that, despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World.^[4] In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor (e.g. Pontus) would have more intense Ionic characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcado-Cypriot characteristics, respectively etc. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is often mentioned as Common Attic.^[4]

Sources[link]

The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and contemporary times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic language of the Classical period, and would frown upon any other kind of Hellenic speech. Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention.^[4] The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in the early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman period which it covered. The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and the papyri, for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly.^[4] Other significant sources are the Septuagint, the somewhat literal Greek translation of the Old Testament, and the New Testament. The teaching of the Testaments was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason they use the most popular language of the era. Information can also be derived from some Atticist scholars of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, who, in order to fight the evolution of the language, published works which compared the supposedly "correct" Attic against the "wrong" Koine by citing examples. For example, Phrynichus Arabius during the 2nd century AD wrote:

Βασίλισσα οὐδείς τῶν Ἀρχαίων εἶπεν, ἀλλὰ βασίλεια ἢ βασιλίς.
Basilissa (Queen) none of the Ancients said, but Basileia or Basilis.

Διωρία ἑσχάτως ἀδόκιμον, ἀντ' αυτοῦ δὲ προθεσμίαν ἐρεῖς.
Dioria (deadline) is badly illiteral, instead use Prothesmia.

Πάντοτε μὴ λέγε, ἀλλὰ ἑκάστοτε καὶ διὰ παντός.
Do not say Pantote (always), but Hekastote and Dia pantos.

Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of pure Attic, or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of the Roman period,^[7] e.g.:

Καλήμερον, ἦλθες;
Bono die, venisti?
Good day, you came?

Ἐὰν θέλεις, ἐλθὲ μεθ' ἡμῶν.
Si vis, veni mecum.
If you want, come with us (The Latin actually says with me, not us).

Ποῦ;
Ubi?
Where?

Πρὸς φίλον ἡμέτερον Λεύκιον.
Ad amicum nostrum Lucium.
To our friend Lucius.

Τί γὰρ ἔχει;
Quid enim habet?
Indeed, what does he have?
What is it with him?

Ἀρρωστεῖ.
Aegrotat.
He's sick.

Finally, a very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own Koine form, which have preserved some of the ancient language's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example the Pontic and Cappadocian dialects preserved the ancient pronunciation of η as ε (νύφε, συνέλικος, τίμεσον, πεγάδι etc.), while the Tsakonic preserved the long α instead of η (ἁμέρα, ἀστραπά, λίμνα, χοά etc.) and the other local characteristics of Laconic.^[4] Dialects from the Southern part of the Greek-speaking regions (Dodecanese, Cyprus etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants (ἄλ-λος, Ἑλ-λάδα, θάλασ-σα), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms (κρόμμυον — κρεμ-μυον, ράξ — ρώξ etc.). Linguistic phenomena like the above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek-speaking world.^[4]

Types[link]

Biblical Koine[link]

"Biblical Koine" refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in the Christian Bible and related texts. Its main sources are:

• the Septuagint, a 3rd century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible which included the Deuterocanon. Most of the texts are translations, but there are some portions and texts composed directly in Greek. Sirach, for instance, has not been found in Hebrew;
• the New Testament, compiled originally in Greek.

Septuagint Greek[link]

There has been some debate to what degree biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features (cf. Aramaic primacy). These could have been induced either through the practice of translating closely from Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by the originally Aramaic-speaking Jews. Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint's normative absence of the particles μέν and δέ, and the use of ἐγένετο to denote "it came to pass." Some features of biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into the main of the Greek language.

New Testament Greek[link]

The Greek of the New Testament is less distinctively Semitic than that of the Septuagint, partly because it appeared 300 years later and partly because it is largely a de novo composition in Greek, not primarily a translation from biblical Hebrew and biblical Aramaic.^[8]

Patristic Greek[link]

The term patristic Greek is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Church Fathers, the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire, more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used.^[9]

Differences between Attic and Koine Greek[link]

The study of all sources from the six centuries which are symbolically covered by Koine reveals linguistic changes from ancient Greek on elements of the spoken language including:

• grammar - accidence and syntax,
• morphology - word formation
• vocabulary
• phonology - pronunciation

Most new forms start off as rare and gradually become more frequent until they are established. As most of the changes between modern and ancient Greek were introduced via Koine, Koine is largely familiar though still unintelligible to most writers and speakers of Modern Greek.

Differences in grammar[link]

Phonology[link]

During the period generally designated as "Koine" Greek, a great deal of phonological change occurred: at the start of the period, the pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology, whereas in the end it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology.

The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by a stress accent system, and the monophthongization of several diphthongs:

• The ancient distinction between long and short vowels was gradually lost, and from the 2nd century BC all vowels were isochronic.^[4]

• Since the 2nd century BC, the means of accenting words changed from pitch to stress, meaning that the accented syllable is not pronounced in a musical tone but louder and/or stronger.^[4]

• The aspirate breathing (aspiration), which was already lost in the Ionic varieties of Asia Minor and the Aeolic of Lesbos, stopped being pronounced and written in popular texts.^[4]

• The ι in long diphthongs (those with the long vowels: ᾱͅ, ῃ, ῳ) stopped being pronounced and written in popular texts.^[4]

• The diphthongs αι, ει, and οι became single vowels. In this manner 'αι', which had already been converted by the Boeotians into a long ε since the 4th century BC and written η (e.g. πῆς, χῆρε, μέμφομη), became in Koine, too, first a long ε and then short. The diphthong 'ει' had already merged with ι in the 5th century BC in regions such as Argos or in the 4th c. BC in Corinth (e.g. ΛΕΓΙΣ), and it acquired this pronunciation also in Koine. The diphthong 'οι' acquired the pronunciation of the modern French 'U' ([y]), which lasted until the 10th century AD. The diphthong 'υι' came to be pronounced [yj], and remained pronounced as a diphthong. The diphthong 'ου' had already acquired the pronunciation of Latin 'U' since the 6th century BC and preserved it in modern times.^[4]

• The diphthongs αυ and ευ came to be pronounced [av] and [ev] (via [aβ], [eβ]), but are partly assimilated to [af], [ef] before the voiceless consonants θ, κ, ξ, π, σ, τ, φ, χ, and ψ.^[4]

• Simple vowels have preserved their ancient pronunciations, except η which is pronounced as ι, and υ, which retained the pronunciation [y] of modern French 'U' only until the 10th c. AD, and was later also pronounced as ι. With those changes in phonology there were common spelling mistakes between υ and οι, while the sound of ι was multiplied (iotacism).^[4]

• The consonants also preserved their ancient pronunciations to a great extent, except β, γ, δ, φ, θ, χ and ζ. Β, Γ, Δ (Beta, Gamma, Delta), which were originally pronounced [b, ɡ, d], acquired the sounds of v, gh, and dh ([v] (via [β]), [ɣ], [ð]), which they still have today, except when preceded by a nasal consonant (μ, ν); in that case, they retain their ancient sounds (e.g. γαμβρός [ɣambros], άνδρας [andras], άγγελος [aŋɡelos]). The latter three (Φ, Θ, Χ), which were initially pronounced as aspirates (/pʰ/, /tʰ/ and /kʰ/ respectively), developed into the fricatives [f] (via [ɸ]), [θ], and [x]. Finally the letter Ζ, which is still categorised as a double consonant with ξ and ψ, because it was initially pronounced as σδ (sd), later acquired the sound of Z as it appears in Modern English and Greek.^[4]

New Testament Greek Phonology The Koine Greek in the table represents a reconstruction of New Testament Koine Greek, deriving to some degree from the dialect spoken in Judaea and Galilaea during the 1st century and similar to the dialect spoken in Alexandria, Egypt. Note the realizations of certain phonemes differ from the more standard Attic dialect of Koine. Note the soft fricative "β" in intervocalic position, the preservation of the aspirated plosive value of "ph", "th" and "kh", the preservation of a distinction between the four front vowels "i", "ē", "e", and "y" (which is still rounded), and other features.

Sample Koine texts[link]

The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects - grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology.

The following comments illustrate the phonological development within the period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative, and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects.

Sample 1 - A Roman Decree[link]

The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Hellenistic era.^[10] The transcription shows partial, but not yet completed raising of η and ει to /i/, retention of pitch accent, fricativization of γ to /j/^{[clarification needed]} but no fricativisation of the other stops as yet, and retention of word-initial /h/.

περὶ ὧν Θισ[β]εῖς λόγους ἐποιήσαντο· περὶ τῶν καθ᾿αὑ[τ]οὺς πραγμάτων, οἵτινες ἐν τῇ φιλίᾳ τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ ἐνέμειναν, ὅπως αὐτοῖς δοθῶσιν [ο]ἷς τὰ καθ᾿ αὑτοὺς πράγματα ἐξηγήσωνται, περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγματος οὕτως ἔδοξεν· ὅπως Κόιντος Μαίνιος στρατηγὸς τῶν ἐκ τῆς συνκλήτου [π]έντε ἀποτάξῃ οἳ ἂν αὐτῷ ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων πρα[γμ]άτων καὶ τῆς ἰδίας πίστεων φαίνωνται.
[ˈperì hôːn tʰizbîːs lóɡuːs epojéːsanto; perì tôːn katʰ hautùːs praɡmátoːn, hoítines en tîː pʰilíaːi tîː heːmetéraːi enémiːnan, hópoːs autoîs dotʰôːsin hoîs tà katʰ hautùːs práɡmata ekseːɡéːsoːntai, perì túːtuː tûː práɡmatos húːtoːs édoksen; hópoːs ˈkʷintos ˈmainios strateːɡòs tôːn ek têːs syŋkléːtuː pénte apotáksiː, hoì àn autôːi ek tôːn deːmosíoːn praɡmátoːn kaì têːs idíaːs písteoːs pʰaínoːntai]
Concerning those matters about which the citizens of Thisbae made representations. Concerning their own affairs: the following decision was taken concerning the proposal that those who remained true to our friendship should be given the facilities to conduct their own affairs; that our governor Quintus Maenius should delegate five members of the senate who seemed to him suitable in the light of their public actions and individual good faith.

Sample 2 - Greek New Testament[link]

The following excerpt, the beginning of the Gospel of John, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a progressive popular variety of Koiné in the early Christian era, with vowels approaching those of Modern Greek.^[11]

Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν, καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος. οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν θεόν. πάντα δι᾽ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν. ὃ γέγονεν. ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων. καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλαβεν.
[ˈen arˈkʰi in o ˈloɣos, ke o ˈloɣos in bros to(n) tʰeˈo(n), ke tʰeˈos in o ˈloɣos. ˈutos in en arˈkʰi pros to(n) tʰeˈo(n). ˈpanda di aɸˈtu eˈjeneto, ke kʰoˈris aɸˈtu eˈjeneto ude ˈen o ˈjeɣonen. en aɸˈto zoˈi in, ke i zoˈi in to pʰos ton anˈtʰropon; ke to pʰos en di skoˈtia ˈpʰeni, ke i skoˈti(a) a(ɸ)ˈto u kaˈtelaβen]
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not anything made that was made. In him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not.

Sample 3 - Greek Old Testament[link]

This is from the LXX version of Joshua, dating to c. 150 BC. This Greek is the "biblical Greek" discussed above. Note that because of literalness this text in many ways does not fit the Hellenistic Greek of the time, full of semiticisms.

Καὶ ἐγένετο μετὰ τὴν τελευτὴν Μωυσῆ εἶπεν κύριος τῷ ᾿Ιησοῖ υἱῷ Ναυη τῷ ὑπουργῷ Μωυσῆ λέγων. Μωυσῆς ὁ θεράπων μου τετελεύτηκεν· νῦν οὖν ἀναστὰς διάβηθι τὸν Ιορδάνην, σὺ καὶ πᾶς ὁ λαὸς οὗτος, εἰς τὴν γῆν, ἣν ἐγὼ δίδωμι αὐτοῖς. πᾶς ὁ τόπος, ἐφ᾽ ὃν ἂν ἐπιβῆτε τῷ ἴχνει τῶν ποδῶν ὑμῶν, ὑμῖν δώσω αὐτόν, ὃν τρόπον εἴρηκα τῷ Μωυσῇ, τὴν ἔρημον καὶ τὸν ᾿Αντιλίβανον ἕως τοῦ ποταμοῦ τοῦ μεγάλου, ποταμοῦ Εὐφράτου, καὶ ἕως τῆς θαλάσσης τῆς ἐσχάτης ἀφ᾽ ἡλίου δυσμῶν ἔσται τὰ ὅρια ὑμῶν. οὐκ ἀντιστήσεται ἄνθρωπος κατενώπιον ὑμῶν πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας τῆς ζωῆς σου, καὶ ὥσπερ ἤμην μετὰ Μωυσῆ, οὕτως ἔσομαι καὶ μετὰ σοῦ καὶ οὐκ ἐγκαταλείψω σε οὐδὲ ὑπερόψομαί σε. ἴσχυε καὶ ἀνδρίζου· σὺ γὰρ ἀποδιαστελεῖς τῷ λαῷ τούτῳ τὴν γῆν, ἣν ὤμοσα τοῖς πατράσιν ὑμῶν δοῦναι αὐτοῖς. ἴσχυε οὖν καὶ ἀνδρίζου φυλάσσεσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν καθότι ἐνετείλατό σοι Μωυσῆς ὁ παῖς μου, καὶ οὐκ ἐκκλινεῖς ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν εἰς δεξιὰ οὐδὲ εἰς ἀριστερά, ἵνα συνῇς ἐν πᾶσιν, οἷς ἐὰν πράσσῃς. καὶ οὐκ ἀποστήσεται ἡ βίβλος τοῦ νόμου τούτου ἐκ τοῦ στόματός σου, καὶ μελετήσεις ἐν αὐτῷ ἡμέρας καὶ νυκτός, ἵνα συνῇς ποιεῖν πάντα τὰ γεγραμμένα· τότε εὐοδωθήσῃ καὶ εὐοδώσεις τὰς ὁδούς σου καὶ τότε συνήσεις. ἰδοὺ ἐντέταλμαί σοι· ἴσχυε καὶ ἀνδρίζου, μὴ δειλιάσῃς μηδὲ φοβηθῇς, ὅτι μετὰ σοῦ κύριος ὁ θεός σου εἰς πάντα, οὗ ἐὰν πορεύῃ. Καὶ ἐνετείλατο ᾿Ιησοῦς τοῖς γραμματεῦσιν τοῦ λαοῦ λέγων. Εἰσέλθατε κατὰ μέσον τῆς παρεμβολῆς τοῦ λαοῦ καὶ ἐντείλασθε τῷ λαῷ λέγοντες ῾Ετοιμάζεσθε ἐπισιτισμόν, ὅτι ἔτι τρεῖς ἡμέραι καὶ ὑμεῖς διαβαίνετε τὸν Ιορδάνην τοῦτον εἰσελθόντες κατασχεῖν τὴν γῆν, ἣν κύριος ὁ θεὸς τῶν πατέρων ὑμῶν δίδωσιν ὑμῖν. καὶ τῷ Ρουβην καὶ τῷ Γαδ καὶ τῷ ἡμίσει φυλῆς Μανασση εἶπεν ᾿Ιησοῦς. Μνήσθητε τὸ ῥῆμα κυρίου, ὃ ἐνετείλατο ὑμῖν Μωυσῆς ὁ παῖς κυρίου λέγων Κύριος ὁ θεὸς ὑμῶν κατέπαυσεν ὑμᾶς καὶ ἔδωκεν ὑμῖν τὴν γῆν ταύτην. αἱ γυναῖκες ὑμῶν καὶ τὰ παιδία ὑμῶν καὶ τὰ κτήνη ὑμῶν κατοικείτωσαν ἐν τῇ γῇ, ᾗ ἔδωκεν ὑμῖν· ὑμεῖς δὲ διαβήσεσθε εὔζωνοι πρότεροι τῶν ἀδελφῶν ὑμῶν, πᾶς ὁ ἰσχύων, καὶ συμμαχήσετε αὐτοῖς, ἕως ἂν καταπαύσῃ κύριος ὁ θεὸς ὑμῶν τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς ὑμῶν ὥσπερ καὶ ὑμᾶς καὶ κληρονομήσωσιν καὶ οὗτοι τὴν γῆν, ἣν κύριος ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν δίδωσιν αὐτοῖς· καὶ ἀπελεύσεσθε ἕκαστος εἰς τὴν κληρονομίαν αὐτοῦ, ἣν δέδωκεν ὑμῖν Μωυσῆς εἰς τὸ πέραν τοῦ Ιορδάνου ἀπ᾽ ἀνατολῶν ἡλίου. καὶ ἀποκριθέντες τῷ ᾿Ιησοῖ εἶπαν Πάντα, ὅσα ἂν ἐντείλῃ ἡμῖν, ποιήσομεν καὶ εἰς πάντα τόπον, οὗ ἐὰν ἀποστείλῃς ἡμᾶς, πορευσόμεθα· κατὰ πάντα, ὅσα ἠκούσαμεν Μωυσῆ, ἀκουσόμεθα σοῦ, πλὴν ἔστω κύριος ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν μετὰ σοῦ, ὃν τρόπον ἦν μετὰ Μωυσῆ. ὁ δὲ ἄνθρωπος, ὃς ἐὰν ἀπειθήσῃ σοι καὶ ὅστις μὴ ἀκούσῃ τῶν ῥημάτων σου καθότι ἂν αὐτῷ ἐντείλῃ, ἀποθανέτω. ἀλλὰ ἴσχυε καὶ ἀνδρίζου.

Further reading[link]

• Stevens, Gerald L. New Testament Greek Primer. ISBN 0-7188-9206-2
• Stevens, Gerald L. New Testament Greek Intermediate. From Morphology to Translation. ISBN 0-7188-9200-3
• Easterling, P & Handley, C. Greek Scripts: An illustrated introduction. London: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 2001. ISBN 0-902984-17-9

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Abel, F.-M. Grammaire du grec biblique.
• Allen, W. Sidney, Vox Graeca: a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek – 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-521-33555-8
• Andriotis, Nikolaos P. History of the Greek Language
• Buth, Randall, Ἡ κοινὴ προφορά: Koine Greek of Early Roman Period
• Conybeare, F.C. and Stock, St. George. Grammar of Septuagint Greek: With Selected Readings, Vocabularies, and Updated Indexes.
• Smyth, Herbert Weir, Greek Grammar, Harvard University Press, 1956. ISBN 0-674-36250-0

External links[link]

• The Biblical Greek Forum An online community for biblical Greek.
• Greek-Language.com Dictionaries, manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, and tools for applying linguistics to the study of Hellenistic Greek
• New Testament Greek Online
• Polis Koine A method to learn Koine Greek including a video of a class
• Diglot A daily di-glot or tri-glot (Vulgate) reading

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Andy Sheppard
Andy Sheppard (r) in Monaco with Carla Bley and Paolo Fresu
Background information
Born	(1957-01-20) 20 January 1957 (age 55)
Origin	Warminster, U.K.
Genres	Post bop
Instruments	Tenor sax Soprano sax
Associated acts	Sphere, Gil Evans, Carla Bley, George Russell, Steve Lodder, Kathryn Tickell, John Parricelli, Joanna MacGregor, Dave Buxton and Steve Swallow
Website	www.andysheppard.co.uk/

Andy Sheppard (born 20 January 1957) is a British jazz saxophonist and composer. He has been awarded several prizes at the British Jazz Awards, and has worked with some notable figures in contemporary jazz, including Gil Evans, Carla Bley, George Russell and Steve Swallow.

Biography[link]

Sheppard was born in Warminster, Wiltshire, England, in 1957.^[1] At the age of 19 he emerged as a musician in the Salisbury-based contemporary quartet Sphere in the late 1970s, gigging only three weeks after picking up the saxophone.^[1][2] He honed his skills in the wine bars and jazz clubs of the UK and Europe in the early 1980s. He also played with world music groups^[3][4][5] and with more established improvisers such as Keith Tippett. While still with Sphere, Sheppard moved to Paris, working with French bands Lumière and Urban Sax.

In the mid-1980s Sheppard returned to the UK, playing often on Ki Longfellow-Stanshall's and Vivian Stanshall's Bristol, England-based Old Profanity Showboat, and released his self-titled debut solo album, featuring Randy Brecker and Steve Swallow, who also produced the album. The record was well received and led to Sheppard being awarded the Best Newcomer prize at the 1987 British Jazz Awards, followed by the Best Instrumentalist Award in 1988.^[6] '87 also saw Sheppard join George Russell's Living Time Orchestra and tour with Gil Evans.^[2]

Second solo album, Introductions In The Dark, was released in 1989. Unusually for a jazz record the album entered the UK pop charts. Off the back of this Sheppard was awarded Best Album and Best Instrumentalist in 1989's British Jazz Awards,^[6] became the subject of television documentaries for both the BBC and HTV, and toured the world, taking the first Western jazz group to play in Outer Mongolia.^[6]

Sheppard formed his first big band, the Soft On The Inside Band, in 1990 for an album of the same name. The band featured many notable players, including drummer Han Bennick, trumpet player Claude Deppa and trombonist Gary Valente. This band morphed into In Co-Motion, which included keyboardist Steve Lodder and bassist Sylvan Richardson, who released an eponymous album in 1991. After this Sheppard signed a deal with Blue Note Records, who issued Rhythm Method in 1993. The In Co-Motion band was expanded for this release and dubbed Big Co-Motion. Big Co-Motion recorded a live album at London jazz club Ronnie Scott's, Delivery Suite, which was released by Blue Note in 1994.

Discography[link]

Albums as leader

• Andy Sheppard (1987), with Randy Brecker, Dave Buxton, Dave Defries, Paul Dunmall, Nick Evans, Simon Gore, Mamadi Kamara, Pete Maxfield, Orphy Robinson, Rick Smith, Jerry Underwood
• Introductions in the Dark (1989), with David Adams, Dave Buxton, Simon Gore, Mamadi Kamara, Steve Lodder, Pete Maxfield, Orphy Robinson, Chris Watson
• Soft on the Inside (1990), with Han Bennink, Chris Biscoe, Dave Buxton, Claude Deppa, Simon Gore, Pete Hurt, Mamadi Kamara, Steve Lodder, Pete Maxfield, Ernst Reijseger, Kevin Robinson, Orphy Robinson, Gary Valente, Mano Ventura
• 66 Shades of Lipstick (1990), with Keith Tippett, produced by Robert Fripp
• Bright Moments (1990), with Dolly James, Island Records
• In Co-Motion (1991), with Claude Deppa, Steve Lodder, Sylvan Richardson, Jr., David Adams
• Rhythm Method (1993), with David Adams, Julian Argüelles, Claude Deppa, Steve Lodder, Sylvan Richardson Jr., Kevin Robinson, Ashley Slater, Jerry Underwood, Gary Valente
• Delivery Suite (1994), with David Adams, Julian Argüelles, Claude Deppa, Steve Lodder, Sylvan Richardson Jr., Kevin Robinson, Ashley Slater, Jerry Underwood, Gary Valente
• Inclassifiable (1995) - Andy Sheppard, Steve Lodder and Nana Vasconcelos
• Moving Image (1996) - Andy Sheppard and Steve Lodder, with Dudley Philips, Mark Mondesir, Johnny Taylor, Richard Ajileye, Bosco d'Olivera
• Learning to Wave (1998), with Paul Clarvis, Chris Laurence, Steve Lodder, John Parricelli, Sharda Sahai
• Dancing Man & Woman (2000), with Kuljit Bhamra, Paul Clarvis, Steve Lodder, Chris Laurence, John Parricelli, Steve Swallow
• Nocturnal Tourist (2001), with John Parricelli
• Music for a New Crossing (2001) - Andy Sheppard & Kathryn Tickell
• PS (2003) - Andy Sheppard & John Parricelli
• Movements in Colour (ECM, 2009) with John Parricelli, Eivind Aarset, Arild Andersen & Kuljit Bhamra

As sideman[link]

With Carla Bley

• Fleur Carnivore‎ (Watt, 1988)
• The Very Big Carla Bley Band‎ (Watt, 1990)
• Big Band Theory‎ (Watt, 1993)
• Songs with Legs (Watt, 1994)
• The Carla Bley Big Band Goes to Church‎ (Watt, 1996)
• 4 x 4‎ (Watt, 1999)
• Looking for America‎ (Watt, 2002)
• The Lost Chords‎ (Watt, 2003)
• Appearing Nightly‎ (Watt, 2006)
• The Lost Chords find Paolo Fresu (Watt, 2007)

With Joanna MacGregor

• Deep River (2006)

With George Russell

• The London Concert‎ (Label Bleu, 1989)
• The 80th Birthday Concert‎ (Concept, 2003)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website