The philosophy of chemistry considers the methodology and underlying assumptions of the science of chemistry. It is explored by philosophers, chemists, and philosopher-chemist teams. For much of its history, philosophy of science has been dominated by the philosophy of physics, but the philosophical questions that arise from chemistry have received increasing attention since the latter part of the 20th century.^[1][2]

Foundations of chemistry[link]

Major philosophical questions arise as soon as one attempts to define chemistry and what it studies. Atoms and molecules are often assumed to be the fundamental units of chemical theory,^[3] but traditional descriptions of molecular structure and chemical bonding fail to account for the properties of many substances, including metals and metal complexes^[4] and aromaticity.^[5]

Additionally, chemists frequently use non-existent chemical entities like resonance structures^[4][5] to explain the structure and reactions of different substances; these explanatory tools use the language and graphical representations of molecules to describe the behavior of chemicals and chemical reactions that in reality do not behave as straightforward molecules.

Some chemists and philosophers of chemistry prefer to think of substances, rather than microstructures, as the fundamental units of study in chemistry. There is not always a one-to-one correspondence between the two methods of classifying substances.^[3] For example, many rocks exist as mineral complexes composed of multiple ions that do not occur in fixed proportions or spatial relationships to one another.^[4]

A related philosophical problem is whether chemistry is the study of substances or reactions.^[3] Atoms, even in a solid, are in perpetual motion and under the right conditions many chemicals react spontaneously to form new products. A variety of environmental variables contribute to a substance's properties, including temperature and pressure, proximity to other molecules and the presence of a magnetic field.^[3][4][5] As Schummer puts it, “Substance philosophers define a chemical reaction by the change of certain substances, whereas process philosophers define a substance by its characteristic chemical reactions.”^[3]

Philosophers of chemistry discuss issues of symmetry and chirality in nature. Organic (i.e., carbon-based) molecules are those most often chiral. Amino acids, nucleic acids and sugars, all of which are found exclusively as a single enantiomer in organisms, are the basic chemical units of life. Chemists, biochemists, and biologists alike debate the origins of this homochirality. Philosophers debate facts regarding the origin of this phenomenon, namely whether it emerged contingently, amid a lifeless racemic environment or if other processes were at play. Some speculate that answers can only be found in comparison to extraterrestrial life, if it is ever found. Other philosophers question whether there exists a bias toward assumptions of nature as symmetrical, thereby causing resistance to any evidence to the contrary.

One of the most topical issues is determining to what extent physics, specifically, quantum mechanics, explains chemical phenomena. Can chemistry, in fact, be reduced to physics as has been assumed by many, or are there inexplicable gaps? Some authors^[who?] have recently suggested that a number of difficulties exist in the reductionist program, notwithstanding our increasing knowledge of the microcosmic realm. The noted philosopher of science, Karl Popper, among others, predicted as much.

Methodology[link]

Chemistry is in a sense the paradigmatic laboratory science, one that predates both experimental and theoretical physics. While astronomers have to get along without experimenting directly on the distant objects of their attention, and biologists have to experiment within ethical and legal restraints on more available objects, chemistry conforms to, and indeed gave rise to, textbook explanations of what constitutes the scientific method.

One theme arising from chemical experiments is the value of ambiguity as a spur to the type of science that chemists do. Emily R. Grosholz and Roald Hoffmann, for example, have argued that equivocations in chemistry have helped bridge the gap between experiment and theory, thereby advancing the field. Such an argument challenges preconceptions to the effect that the more fully concepts are clarified, the more useful they will prove.

Philosophers of chemistry[link]

	Philosophy of science portal
	Chemistry portal

Several philosophers and scientists have focused on the philosophy of chemistry in recent years, notably, the Dutch philosopher Jaap van Brakel, who wrote The Philosophy of Chemistry in 2000, and the Maltese philosopher-chemist Eric Scerri, editor of the journal "Foundations of Chemistry" and author of Normative and Descriptive Philosophy of Science and the Role of Chemistry in Philosophy of Chemistry, 2004, among other articles. Scerri is especially interested in the philosophical foundations of the periodic table, and how physics and chemistry intersect in relation to it, which he contends is not merely a matter for science, but for philosophy.^[6]

Although in other fields of science students of the method are generally not practitioners in the field, in chemistry (particularly in synthetic organic chemistry) intellectual method and philosophical foundations are often explored by investigators with active research programmes. Elias James Corey developed the concept of "retrosynthesis" published a seminal work "The logic of chemical synthesis" which deconstructs these thought processes and speculates on computer-assisted synthesis. Other chemists such as K. C. Nicolaou (co-author of Classics in Total Synthesis).

Further reading[link]

Review Articles[link]

• Philosophy of Chemistry article on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Journals[link]

• Foundations of Chemistry, an international peer-reviewed journal for History and Philosophy of Chemistry as well as Chemical Education published by Springer.
• Hyle: International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry, an English-language peer-reviewed journal associated with the University of Karlsruhe, Germany.

Books[link]

• Philosophy of Chemistry, J. van Brakel, Leuven University Press, 2000. ISBN 90-5867-063-5
• Philosophy of Chemistry : Synthesis of a New Discipline, Davis Baird, Eric Scerri, Lee McIntyre (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, 2006. ISBN 1-4020-3256-0
• The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, E.R. Scerri, Oxford University Press, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-19-530573-6
• Of Minds and Molecules: New Philosophical Perspectives on Chemistry, 'Nalini Bhushan and Stuart Rosenfeld (eds.), Oxford University Press, 2000, Reviewed by Michael Weisberg

Academic Events[link]

The International Society for the Philosophy of Chemistry - Summer symposium 2011 will be held during August 9-11, 2011, in Bogota, Colombia, at the campus of the Universidad de los Andes. The conference is being sponsored by the Universidad de los Andes (Colombia). This event is the continuation of the International Society for the Philosophy of Chemistry - Summer symposium 2010, organised in Oxford at the University College during August 9-11, 2010.

See also[link]

• The central science

References[link]

External links[link]

• Philosophy of Chemistry entry by Michael Weisberg, Paul Needham, and Robin Hendry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• International Society for the Philosophy of Chemistry
• International Society for the Philosophy of Chemistry Summer symposium 2011

William "Bill" Condon (born October 22, 1955) is an American screenwriter and director. Condon is best known for directing and writing the critically acclaimed films Gods and Monsters, Chicago, Kinsey, Dreamgirls and "Breaking Dawn". In 1998, Condon debuted as a screenwriter in Gods and Monsters, which won him his first Academy Award. He was also nominated for Chicago. In 2006, Condon won a Golden Globe for his film Dreamgirls, which he wrote and directed. Condon's films have been both commercial and critical successes.

Personal life[link]

Condon was born in New York City, the son of a detective,^[1] and was raised in an Irish Catholic family.^[2][3] He attended Regis High School and Columbia College of Columbia University, where he studied philosophy.^[4] He is also openly gay.^[5]

Career[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)

At the age of twelve, Condon found himself drawn to screenplay writing with his first viewing of Bonnie and Clyde:

Part of the pleasure of it was a completely instinctual thing that drew me into the world of writing about movies. Suddenly it became all of your senses—your mind was engaged by it. The most pleasurable thing was that you felt as if you were part of the movement and part of that fun.^[6]

After earning his Bachelor of Arts degree, Condon began to work as a journalist for film magazines including American Film and Millimeter. He got his start writing the indie feature Strange Behavior (1981) and the big budget sci-fi romp Strange Invaders (1983) starring Nancy Allen and Wallace Shawn. His directorial debut was Sister, Sister (1987), an eerie Southern Gothic mystery starring Eric Stoltz and Jennifer Jason Leigh. Following this, Condon made a series of made-for-TV thrillers, including Murder 101 (1991), which starred Pierce Brosnan and earned Condon and co-writer Roy Johansen a 1992 Edgar Award for their screenplay. During this period he also wrote the screenplay for the thriller F/X2 (1991), which was directed by Australian director Richard Franklin.

In 1994, he re-teamed with Nancy Allen to direct the movie of the week The Man Who Wouldn't Die, which also starred Roger Moore. After directing Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995), a sequel to Bernard Rose's horror film, Condon came to prominence with his film Gods and Monsters, which he both wrote and directed.^[7] The screenplay was based on a novel written by Christopher Bram. For his efforts, he won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. He would also be nominated for the same award for the Oscar-winning 2002 adaptation of the musical Chicago, which also brought him a second Edgar Award.^[8]

He received further accolades in 2004 for writing and directing the film Kinsey, chronicling the life of the controversial sex researcher Alfred Kinsey. In 2005, he was given the Stephen F. Kolzak Award at the GLAAD Media Awards.

In 2005, it was announced that Condon would write the screenplay for, and direct, the film adaptation of Dreamgirls, the acclaimed Broadway musical loosely based on the career of the musical group The Supremes with Motown Records. It was his second adaptation of a musical. The production was filmed at CBS Studios in Los Angeles, with a cast including Jamie Foxx, Eddie Murphy, Beyoncé Knowles, Jennifer Hudson, Anika Noni Rose, and Danny Glover. Dreamgirls was released in December 2006, having finished shooting in April. Condon received Directors Guild of America and Broadcast Film Critics Association nominations for Directing but while the film led the nominations count with eight, neither Condon nor the film received nominations in their categories at the Academy Awards.

Condon is a member of the Independent Feature Projects (IFP) in Los Angeles, a non-profit organization which supports independent films, as well as the Independent Writers Steering Committee, which was initiated by the Writers Guild of America (WGA). He gained a lot of attention in 2010 when it was announced that he would direct both parts of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn adapted from the fourth and final novel in The Twilight Saga by Stephenie Meyer.

Filmography[link]

Director[link]

• Sister, Sister (1987)
• Dead in the Water (1991, TV)
• Murder 101 (1991, TV)
• White Lie (1991, TV)
• The Man Who Wouldn't Die (1994, TV)
• Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995)
• Gods and Monsters (1998)
• The Others (2000, TV: 1 episode)
• Kinsey (2004)
• Dreamgirls (2006)
• The Big C (2010, TV: 2 episodes)
• The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011)
• The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)

Writer[link]

• Strange Behavior (1982)
• Strange Invaders (1983)
• Sister, Sister (1988)
• F/X2 (1991)
• Murder 101 (1991) (TV) (written by)
• Gods and Monsters (1998) (screenplay)
• Chicago (2002) (screenplay)
• Shortcut to Happiness (2003) (screenplay)
• Kinsey (2004) (written by)
• Dreamgirls (2006) (screenplay)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Bill Condon at the Internet Movie Database
• Works by Bill Condon on Open Library at the Internet Archive

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011)

Arshad Khan

Personal information
Batting style	Right-hand bat
Bowling style	Right-arm offbreak
Career statistics
Competition	Tests	ODIs
Matches	9	58
Runs scored	31	133
Batting average	5.16	12.09
100s/50s	-/-	-/-
Top score	9*	20
Balls bowled	2538	2823
Wickets	32	56
Bowling average	30.00	34.78
5 wickets in innings	1	-
10 wickets in match	-	n/a
Best bowling	5/38	4/33
Catches/stumpings	-/-	10/-
Source: [1], 19 February 2006

Arshad Khan (Urdu: ارشد خان) (born March 22, 1971 in Peshawar) is a Pakistani cricketer. He is a right-handed batsman and a right-arm off break bowler.

Arshad was first picked to play against the West Indies during the 1997-98 season, and the following year, was part of the team which won the Asian Test Championship at Dhaka against Sri Lanka. He was a regular inclusion in the Pakistani side until 2001, at which point the selectors dropped him and he went back to domestic cricket.

Four years later, a strong performance in the Pakistani domestic championship meant that Arshad earned a recall for Pakistan's 2005 tour of India. He performed credibly, particularly in the Bangalore Test, which Pakistan won in the last session to draw the series.

He toured the Caribbean in May 2005, and has retained his place for the upcoming England series.

During the 2005 One Day International series against England, Arshad was used in the second and fifth matches and proved effective at repressing the England batsmen, allowing very few runs to be scored off him and also taking wickets. During the fifth match, his economy was just over 3 runs per over - a very good figure for any bowler, especially a spinner.

A tall man at 6'4, Arshad bowls in a classical off-spinner's mould, preferring a nagging line to any great variation. Picked under a "horses for courses" policy, he has failed to establish himself as a permanent member of the Pakistani team.

References[link]

• BBC scorecards Results of the 2005 Pakistan versus England tour.

This Pakistani biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

The Holidays
The Holidays
Background information
Origin	Sydney, Australia
Genres	Indie rock, Pop rock, Soul
Years active	2006 - present
Labels	Liberation (Australia), Rallye Label (Japan)
Website	Official Website Myspace
Members
Simon Jones Will Magnus Alex Kortt Andrew Kerridge

The Holidays are an Australian indie pop/soul band. Formed in Sydney in 2006, the band consists of Simon Jones, Will Magnus, Alex Kortt and Andrew Kerridge. The band is most notably known for their Australian Music Prize nominated debut album Post Paradise.

Biography[link]

The Holidays formed in late 2006 and quickly established themselves in the Sydney music scene as an upbeat, energetic addition. Simon Jones & Will Magnus had attended high school together, previously playing in cover bands in their schools' band competition. They were often up against the band Roger Explosion in these competitions, who went on to become the Australian electro-pop band Art vs. Science.

Within their first year as a band together, The Holidays toured with Jamie T,^[1] with The View,^[2] with Ben Kweller,^[3] and recorded an EP of demos which quickly sold out at gigs and received regular airplay on radio stations both in Australia^[4] and in the USA. In November 2007 The Holidays were featured on the Next Crop segment of national youth radio station Triple J,^[5] soon followed by their signing with independent Australian record label Liberation Music, in early 2008.

The Holidays released their debut EP on 19 April 2008 to positive reviews^[6] which was followed by a substantial national tour to promote the release. They released their second EP "When The Ship Goes Down" in October 2008, which showed the band's natural progression with song-writing. Recorded with Wayne Connolly of The Vines and Josh Pyke fame, this EP was followed by a 20 date national tour, co-headlining with Brisbane band Yves Klein Blue.

The Holidays' debut album Post Paradise soon followed, after several months of writing and experimenting. Drawn away from the simplicity of their earlier indie guitar manifestation, Post Paradise showed the bands development with both the groove and layers of a song, combined with their recognizable pop hooks. This album differed from previous recordings by The Holidays' in that it was self-produced and recorded in various locations around Sydney and New South Wales.

"Moonlight Hours", the first single from their debut album was taken to radio in November 2009, and added to high rotation on national youth radio station Triple J. "Golden Sky" was the second single from The Holidays debut album, released in May 2010, which was followed by an east coast tour of Australia to promote the release. There is a music video for both these singles, made by Melbourne company Moop Jaw.

"Post Paradise" was released in Australia on 24 September 2010, in conjunction with third single, Broken Bones, which was added to radio nationally. The album has received very positive reviews since its release, which included amongst other reviews, being shortlisted for the Australian Music Prize and winning the Red Bull Award for Best Debut Album. Post Paradise also received "Album of the Week" in Drum Media, Beat Magazine, BMA Mag & The Brag,^[7] 4.5 stars in The Herald Sun, The Daily Telegraph & The Courier Mail, as well as positive reviews in The Age & The Sydney Morning Herald. Post Paradise won The Age Readers Choice Best Album of 2010,^[8] and was the Triple J Feature Album for the week commencing 26 December 2010.

The Holidays toured Post Paradise substantially in 2010 and 2011, including shows at SXSW in Austin, Texas, The Great Escape Festival in Brighton, UK, and Australian festivals including Groovin' the Moo, Laneway Festival and Splendour in the Grass. The Holidays' current live show incorporates a fifth touring member, David Zucker as percussionist, as well occasional backing vocalists.

Members[link]

• Simon Jones - Vocals, Guitar, Keys, Production
• Will Magnus - Lead Guitar, Keys
• Alex Kortt - Bass Guitar
• Andrew Kerridge - Drums, Percussion, Supreme Aficionado

Touring[link]

• Toured with Jamie T in May 2007
• Toured with The View in June 2007
• Toured with Ben Kweller in October 2007
• Played nationally at the 2008 St Jerome's Laneway Festival
• Toured with The Wombats in March 2008
• Toured with Lightspeed Champion in July 2008
• Played at Homebake 2008
• Played at Falls Festival 2008
• Toured with Bluejuice in April 2010
• Played at St Jerome's Laneway Festival 2011 across Australia
• Played at SXSW in Austin, Texas in March 2011
• Played at the Groovin' the Moo Festival across Australia in May 2011
• Toured with Cut Copy in Australia in May 2011
• Played at The Great Escape Festival in Brighton, and Dot to Dot Festival across the UK in May 2011
• Played at Splendour In The Grass in August 2011.
• Played at the inaugural Harvest Festival in Melbourne, Sydney & Brisbane in November 2011 along with The Flaming Lips, Portishead and Tv on the Radio.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Post Paradise (Australia - 24 September 2010, Japan - January 2011)

EPs[link]

• The Holidays (19 April 2008)
• When The Ship Goes Down (11 October 2008)
• Golden Sky (Australia - May 2010, UK - August 2010 )

Singles[link]

• Moonlight Hours (December 2009)
• Golden Sky (May 2010)
• Broken Bones (September 2010)
• 2 Days (February 2011)

Awards & Nominations[link]

• 2010 The Age EG Award - Readers Choice Best Album of 2010 - Won
• 2010 Australian Music Prize - Nominated
• 2010 Australian Music Prize - Red Bull Award for Best Debut Album - Won
• 2011 Jägermeister Independent Music Awards - Breakthrough Independent Artist of the Year - Nominated

Further information[link]

• The Holidays song 'Telephone' was featured on an Australian television advertising campaign for Clearasil in late 2007.
• The Holidays song 'Golden Sky' was used in the Channel 7 summer 2010/2011 advertising campaign.
• Simon Jones collaborated & sung vocals with Australian dance duo Bag Raiders on the track 'Not Over' from their eponymous debut album.

References[link]