- published: 24 Feb 2013
- views: 6264
- author: chelseafc
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
Loading...
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- 9-a-side footy
- A Comedy of Errors
- Aberdeen
- Airsoft
- Aldenham
- Alnwick
- American flag rugby
- American football
- Amputation
- Ancient
- Ancient Greece
- Ancient Rome
- Ancient times
- Anecdote
- Antiphanes of Berge
- Archery
- Arena football
- Association football
- Asuka period
- Atherstone
- Attica
- Augusto Turati
- Auskick
- Australian continent
- Austus
- Ba game
- Ball badminton
- Ball hockey
- Bandy
- Barnes R.F.C.
- Baseball
- Basketball
- Basque pelota
- Bat-and-ball games
- Beach basketball
- Beach handball
- Beach rugby
- Beach soccer
- Beach volleyball
- Berwickshire
- Biribol
- Blindness
- Blood Bowl
- Blow football
- Bog
- Bordeaux
- Bossaball
- Boston Game
- Box lacrosse
- British Army
- British baseball
- British Empire
- Broomball
- Brännboll
- Button football
- Buzkashi
- Caid (sport)
- Calcio Fiorentino
- Caledonians
- Cambridge rules
- Cammag
- Camogie
- Camping (game)
- Canadian football
- Canoe polo
- Cerebral palsy
- Cestoball
- Charles Goodyear
- Charterhouse School
- Cheltenham School
- Child labour
- Christianity
- Christmas
- Cicero
- Cloisters
- Cnapan
- College football
- Combination game
- Corfe Castle, Dorset
- Corner kick
- Cornish hurling
- Cornwall
- County Durham
- County Kerry
- County of London
- Cowboy polo
- Crab football
- Cricket
- Croke Park
- Cubbies
- Cuju
- Curling
- Cycle ball
- Cycle polo
- Czech handball
- Danish longball
- Dartmouth College
- Deaf basketball
- Djab Wurrung
- Dodgeball
- Dorset
- Down (football)
- Dribbling
- Duns
- Early modern Europe
- East Anglia
- Easter
- Edinburgh
- Edward II of England
- Eight-man football
- Elephant polo
- England
- Epiphany (feast)
- Eton College
- Eton field game
- Eton wall game
- Europe
- Extreme Baseball
- F. M. Campbell
- Factory Act 1850
- Fair catch
- Fair catch kick
- Fastnet (netball)
- Feast day
- Field handball
- Field hockey
- Field lacrosse
- FIFA
- Fistball
- Five-a-side football
- Flag football
- Flanders
- Floor hockey
- Floorball
- Florence
- Follis (ball game)
- Footbag
- Footbag net
- Football
- Football (ball)
- Football (soccer)
- Football (word)
- Football 7-a-side
- Football Act 1424
- Football Association
- Football Canada
- Football tennis
- Footvolley
- Force ’em backs
- Forward pass
- France
- Francis Willughby
- Francophone
- Freemasons' Tavern
- Freestyle football
- Frisian handball
- Frontenis
- Futsal
- Gaelic football
- Gateball
- Goal (sport)
- Goalball
- Goalposts
- Great Exhibition
- Greenland
- Gridiron football
- Gymnastics
- H C A Harrison
- Hacky sack
- Hamilton Tiger-Cats
- Hamilton, Ontario
- Han Dynasty
- Harpastum
- Harrow football
- Harrow School
- Harvard University
- Haxey
- Haxey Hood
- Headers and Volleys
- Hearing impairment
- Henry IV of England
- Historia Brittonum
- History of FIFA
- Hockey
- Hogmanay
- Horseball
- Huddersfield
- Hunter gatherer
- Hurling
- Hybrid sport
- Ice hockey
- Ice sledge hockey
- Indigenous peoples
- Indoor cricket
- Indoor field hockey
- Indoor netball
- Indoor soccer
- Inline hockey
- Intercrosse
- Inuit
- Iroquois
- Italian fascism
- Jai alai
- James I of England
- Jamestown, Virginia
- Jean Jules Jusserand
- Jianzi
- John Day (dramatist)
- John Norden
- Jokgu
- Juliana Berners
- Kabaddi
- Keepie uppie
- Kemari
- Kho kho
- Ki-o-rahi
- Kick (football)
- Kick-to-kick
- Kickball
- Kin-Ball
- King Lear
- Kirkwall
- Knotty
- Korea
- Korfball
- Kronum
- Kyoto
- La soule
- La Soule
- Lacrosse
- Lagori
- Lancashire
- Lapta (game)
- Latin
- Latin America
- Lawnmower
- Laws of Football
- Leather
- Lekythos
- Lelo burti
- Lent
- Lightning football
- Lincolnshire
- Line of scrimmage
- List of sportspeople
- Madden NFL
- Manchester
- Mark (rugby)
- Marlborough College
- Marn Grook
- Massasoit Convention
- Masters Football
- Masters Rugby League
- Maurice Davin
- McGill University
- Medieval Europe
- Medieval football
- Melbourne
- Melbourne Rules
- Metro footy
- Michael Drayton
- Middle Ages
- Military
- Mini footy
- Mini rugby
- Minivoetbal
- Mob football
- Mod league
- Montreal
- Moscow broomball
- Muggle Quidditch
- Māori people
- National sport
- Netball
- New Hampshire
- New Zealand
- Nine-a-side footy
- Nine-man football
- Norfolk
- Northumberland
- Nottingham Forest
- Nottinghamshire
- Offensive line
- Offside (sport)
- Oină
- Oldest football club
- Orkney
- Over-the-line
- Paintball
- Paper football
- Papi fut
- Paralympic football
- Parish
- Pato
- Peasant
- Penny football
- Penny Scots
- Pesäpallo
- Peteca
- Philip Sidney
- Piazza Santa Croce
- Pig bladder
- Play from scrimmage
- Playing rugby league
- Playing rugby union
- Polo
- Polocrosse
- Possum
- Power hockey
- Powerchair Football
- Prehistoric
- Princeton University
- Professional
- Professional sports
- Public school (UK)
- Puritans
- Pétanque
- Quarterback
- Quebec
- Railway Mania
- Rec footy
- Referee
- Richard Lindon
- Richard Mulcaster
- Ringette
- Rink bandy
- Robert Brough-Smyth
- Robert Guérin
- Rollball
- Roller derby
- Roller hockey (Quad)
- Rossall Hockey
- Rounders
- Royal Engineers AFC
- Ruck (Rugby union)
- Rugby Canada
- Rugby football
- Rugby Football Union
- Rugby League
- Rugby league
- Rugby League 3
- Rugby league nines
- Rugby league sevens
- Rugby pitch
- Rugby rules
- Rugby School
- Rugby sevens
- Rugby tens
- Rugby union
- Rugby Union
- Rugby union gameplay
- Rugby, Warwickshire
- Running back
- Rush goalie
- Rutgers University
- Samoa
- Samoa Rules
- Samoa rules
- Sand
- Saskatchewan
- Scone, Perthshire
- Scone, Scotland
- Score (game)
- Scoring the Hales
- Scotland
- Scrum (rugby)
- Sedgefield
- Sedgefield Ball Game
- Segway polo
- Sepak takraw
- Sheffield
- Sheffield F.C.
- Sheffield rules
- Shinty
- Shouldham
- Shrewsbury School
- Shrove Tuesday
- Shrovetide football
- Silk
- Six-man football
- Skater hockey
- Slamball
- Snap (football)
- Snow rugby
- Softball
- Specky
- Speedball (American)
- Sport
- Sport governing body
- Sprint football
- St Albans
- St Columb Major
- Stoolball
- Street football
- Street hockey
- Street soccer
- Subbuteo
- Sutton Coldfield
- Swamp
- Swamp soccer
- Table football
- Tag Rugby
- Tag rugby
- Talk Football
- Tanzan Shrine
- Tchoukball
- Team
- Team handball
- Team sport
- Telstra Dome
- Template Team sports
- Test cricket
- The Football League
- The Guardian
- The Oval
- Theodore Roosevelt
- Thomas H. Smith
- Three sided football
- Throw-in
- Throwball
- Tom Wills
- Torball
- Touch (rugby)
- Touch Aussie Rules
- Touch rugby
- Town ball
- Tradition
- Trampoline
- Triskelion (sport)
- Try
- Twenty20
- Ulama (game)
- Ulgham
- Ultimate (sport)
- Underwater football
- Underwater hockey
- Underwater rugby
- Unicycle hockey
- United States
- Universal football
- Uppies and Downies
- Uppingham School
- Urinary bladder
- Velcro
- Victoria, Australia
- Victorian gold rush
- Vigoro
- Volata
- Volleyball
- Vulcanized rubber
- Walter Camp
- Warwickshire
- Water basketball
- Water polo
- Wayback Machine
- Westminster School
- Wheelchair netball
- Wheelchair rugby
- Whirlyball
- Wide receiver
- Wikipedia Link rot
- William FitzStephen
- William Hammersley
- William Hone
- William Shakespeare
- William Strachey
- William Webb Ellis
- Winchester College
- Woggabaliri
- Women's lacrosse
- Wood engraving
- Working class
- World War I
- Xare
- Yak polo
- Yale University
- Yard
- Yarra Park
- Youdan Cup
- Yubi lakpi
- Zhan Guo Ce
-
Aberdeen
Coordinates: 57°09′09″N 2°06′36″W / 57.1526°N 2.1100°W / 57.1526; -2.1100
Aberdeen
i/æbərˈdiːn/ (Scots: Aiberdeen 
listen (help·info); Scottish Gaelic: Obar Dheathain [ˈopər ˈʝɛhɪn]) is Scotland's third most populous city, one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas and the United Kingdom's 29th most populous city, with an official population estimate of 220,420.
Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands. During the mid-18th to mid-20th centuries, Aberdeen's buildings incorporated locally quarried grey granite, whose mica deposits sparkle like silver. The city has a long, sandy coastline. Since the discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s, other nicknames have been the Oil Capital of Europe or the Energy Capital of Europe. The area around Aberdeen has been settled since at least 8,000 years ago, when prehistoric villages lay around the mouths of the rivers Dee and Don.
Aberdeen received Royal Burgh status from King David I (1124–53), transforming the city economically. The city's two universities, the University of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, and The Robert Gordon University, which was awarded university status in 1992, make Aberdeen the educational centre of the north-east. The traditional industries of fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding, and textiles have been overtaken by the oil industry and Aberdeen's seaport. Aberdeen Heliport is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world and the seaport is the largest in the north-east of Scotland.
wn.com/Aberdeen -
Aldenham
Coordinates: 51°40′20″N 0°21′17″W / 51.6723°N 0.3546°W / 51.6723; -0.3546
This article is about the village in Hertfordshire. For the London Transport Bus Overhaul Works, see Aldenham Works.
Aldenham is a village and civil parish in Hertfordshire, approx. three miles north-east of Watford and two miles from Radlett. It was mentioned in the Domesday Book and is one of Hertsmere's 14 conservation areas. This secluded little village remains unspoilt and the parish itself is largely unchanged since Saxon times when the majority of the land was owned by the Abbots of Westminster Abbey.
In the Index of Multiple Deprivation, the ward of Aldenham East was ranked the least deprived ward out of 8414 in England, while Aldenham West also featured among the least deprived three per cent in the country.
The Church of St John the Baptist in Aldenham is seven hundred years old and there is good reason to believe that an earlier Saxon church stood on the site. After the Reformation the lands were sold off to the highest bidders and Aldenham is probably smaller today than it was 500 years ago.
wn.com/Aldenham -
Alnwick
Coordinates: 55°24′48″N 1°42′25″W / 55.4134°N 1.7069°W / 55.4134; -1.7069
Alnwick (i/ˈænɨk/ AN-ik) is a small market town in north Northumberland, England. The town's population was just over 8,000 at the time of the 2001 census and Alnwick's district population was 31,029.
According to Country Life, October 2002, "Alnwick is the most picturesque market town in Northumberland, and the best place to live in Britain". The town is situated 32 miles (51 km) south of Berwick-upon-Tweed and the Scottish border, and 5 miles (8 km) inland from the North Sea at Alnmouth.
The town dates back to approximately AD 600, and over the centuries has thrived as an agricultural centre; as the location of Alnwick Castle and home of what were in mediaeval times the most powerful northern barons, the Earls of Northumberland; as a staging post on the Great North Road between Edinburgh and London, and latterly as a modern rural centre cum dormitory town. The fabric of the town centre has changed relatively little and still retains much of its original character; however there has been appreciable growth in size over the last ten years, with a number of housing estates covering what had been pasture, and new factory and trading estate developments along the roads to the south of the town.
wn.com/Alnwick -
Atherstone
Coordinates: 52°34′43″N 1°32′46″W / 52.5787°N 1.5462°W / 52.5787; -1.5462
Atherstone is a town in Warwickshire, England. The town is located near the northernmost tip of Warwickshire, close to the border with Staffordshire and Leicestershire and is the administrative headquarters of the borough of North Warwickshire.
Atherstone has a long history dating back to Roman times. An important defended Roman settlement named Manduessedum existed at Mancetter near the site of modern day Atherstone, and the Roman road, the Watling Street (now known as the A5) ran through the town. It is believed by some historians that the rebel Queen of the Britons, Boudica was defeated at the Battle of Watling Street by the Romans in her final battle near Manduessedum.
The Domesday Book of 1086, records that Atherstone was held by Countess Godiva.
The ancient St. Mary’s Chapel in Atherstone dates from the early 12th century when the monks of Bec made a donation of 12 acres (4.9 ha) to a house of friars and hermits, later referred to as “Austin friars”. According to Nichols the chapel was granted to Henry Cartwright in 1542, then left abandoned and neglected until 1692 when Samuel Bracebridge settled a yearly sum for the parson of Mancetter to preach there every other Sunday in the winter season
wn.com/Atherstone -
Berwickshire
Berwickshire or the County of Berwick is a registration county, a committee area of the Scottish Borders Council, and a lieutenancy area of Scotland, on the border with England. The town after which it is named—Berwick-upon-Tweed—was lost by Scotland to England in 1482. The county was on occasion referred to as Duns-shire or Dunsshire during the Victorian period and after, reflecting the fact that Duns had become the county town.
Berwickshire is one of the ancient counties of Scotland and between 1890 and 1975 had a county council for local government purposes. Its county town, after which it is named, had been Berwick-upon-Tweed, but the royal burgh changed hands in 1482, subsequently becoming part of the county of Northumberland, in England. Thereafter the county's administration was conducted at Duns or Lauder until Greenlaw became the county town in 1596. When a county council was established in 1890 the county town once more became Duns, where the former county's Sheriff Court still sits, and where the Scottish Borders Council still maintains a principal set of offices.
wn.com/Berwickshire -
Bordeaux
Coordinates: 44°50′19″N 0°34′42″W / 44.8386°N 0.5783°W / 44.8386; -0.5783
Bordeaux (French pronunciation: [bɔʁdo]; Gascon: Bordèu; Basque: Bordele) is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France.
The Bordeaux metropolitan area has a population of 1,105,000 and constitutes the sixth-largest urban area in France. It is the capital of the Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department. Its inhabitants are called Bordelais.
Bordeaux is the world's major wine industry capital. It is home to the world's main wine fair, Vinexpo, while the wine economy in the metro area moves 14.5 billion euros each year.Bordeaux wine has been produced in the region since the 8th century. The historic part of the city is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as "an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble" of the 18th century.
Between 30,000 and 20,000 years ago the area of Bordeaux was inhabited by the Neanderthal, whose remains have been found at a famous cave known as Pair-non-Pair, near Bourg sur Gironde, just north of Bordeaux. In historical times, around 300 BC it was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, who named the town Burdigala, probably of Aquitainian origin. The name Bourde is still the name of a river south of the city.
wn.com/Bordeaux -
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
wn.com/British_Empire -
Calcio Fiorentino
Calcio Fiorentino was an early form of football that originated in 16th century Italy. The Piazza Santa Croce of Florence is the cradle of this sport, that became known as giuoco del calcio fiorentino ("Florentine kick game") or simply calcio ("kick").
The official rules of calcio were published for the first time in 1580 by Giovanni de' Bardi, a Florentine count. Just like Roman harpastum, it was played in teams of 27, using both feet and hands. Goals could be scored by throwing the ball over a designated spot on the perimeter of the field. The playing field is a giant sand pit with a goal running the width of each end. There is a main referee, six linesmen and a field master. Each game is played out for 50 minutes with the winner being the team with the most points or 'cacce'.
Originally, calcio was reserved for rich aristocrats, who played every night between Epiphany and Lent. In the Vatican, even Popes, such as Clement VII, Leo XI and Urban VIII were known to play.
The sport was not played for around two hundred years but then revived in the twentieth century when organized games began again in 1930. Today, three matches are played each year in Piazza Santa Croce, in the 3rd week of June. The modern version allows tactics such as head-butting, punching, elbowing, and choking, but forbids sucker punching and kicks to the head.
wn.com/Calcio_Fiorentino -
Charterhouse School
Coordinates: 51°11′48″N 0°37′21″W / 51.196552°N 0.622504°W / 51.196552; -0.622504
Charterhouse School, originally The Hospital of King James and Thomas Sutton in Charterhouse, or more simply Charterhouse or House, is an English collegiate independent boarding school (also referred to as a public school) situated at Godalming in Surrey.
Founded by Thomas Sutton in London in 1611 on the site of the old Carthusian monastery in Charterhouse Square, Smithfield, it is one of the original nine English public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868 which derived from the Clarendon Commission of 1864. Today pupils at Charterhouse are still referred to as Carthusians, and ex-pupils as Old Carthusians or OCs.
In May 1611 the London Charterhouse came into the hands of Thomas Sutton (1532–1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he carried on a commercial career. In 1611, the year of his death, he endowed a hospital on the site of the Charterhouse, calling it the hospital of King James, and in his will he bequeathed moneys to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and school. He died on 12 December and subsequently the will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners (gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have borne arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, or servants in household to the King or Queens Majesty), and to educate forty boys.
wn.com/Charterhouse_School -
Cornwall
Cornwall ( /ˈkɔrnwɔːl/ or /ˈkɔrnwəl/;Cornish: Kernow [ˈkɛrnɔʊ]; Latin: Cornubia or Cornuvia) is a unitary authority and ceremonial county of England, within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, and to the east by the county of Devon, over the River Tamar. Cornwall has a population of 537,400 and covers an area of 3,563 km2 (1,376 sq mi). The administrative centre and only city is Truro.
The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, and later (in the Iron Age) by Brythons with distinctive cultural relations to neighbouring Wales and Brittany. There is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. Cornwall was a division of the Dumnonii tribe—whose tribal centre was in the modern county of Devon—known as the Cornovii, separated from Wales after the Battle of Deorham, often coming into conflict with the expanding English kingdom of Wessex before King Athelstan in AD 936 set the boundary between English and Cornish at the Tamar. From the early Middle Ages, British language and culture was apparently shared by Brythons trading across both sides of the Channel, evidenced by the corresponding high medieval Breton kingdoms of Domnonee and Cornouaille and the Celtic Christianity common to both territories.
wn.com/Cornwall -
County Durham
County Durham /ˈdʌrəm/ is a ceremonial county and (smaller) unitary district in north east England. The county town is Durham. The largest settlement in the ceremonial county (in its own unitary Borough) is the town of Darlington. The county has a mixture of mining and farming heritage, as well as a heavy railway industry, particularity in the southwest of the county in Darlington, Shildon and Stockton. Its economy was historically based on coal and iron mining. It is an area of regeneration and promoted as a tourist destination.
The ceremonial county borders Tyne and Wear, North Yorkshire and Northumberland forms part of the North East England region.
Many counties are named after their principal town, and the expected form here would be Durhamshire. The county is commonly known as County Durham but was officially named Durham until at least 1997. The structural change legislation in 2009, however, referred to the county of County Durham. The former postal county was known as "County Durham" to distinguish it from the post town of Durham. Durham is the only English county name to be prefixed with "County" in common usage - a practice more common in Ireland.
wn.com/County_Durham -
County Kerry
County Kerry (Irish: Contae Chiarraí) is a county in Ireland. It is located in the South-West Region and is also part of the province of Munster. It is named after the pre-Gaelic tribe who lived in part of the present county. Kerry County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county is 145,048 according to the 2011 census.
Kerry is the 5th largest of the 32 counties of Ireland by area and the 13th largest by population. Uniquely, it is bordered by only two other counties: County Limerick to the east and County Cork to the south-east. The county town is Tralee. The diocesan see is Killarney, which is one of Ireland's most famous tourist destinations. The Lakes of Killarney, an area of outstanding natural beauty, are located in Killarney National Park. The tip of the Dingle Peninsula is the most westerly point of Ireland.
There are nine historic baronies in the county. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for many administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, where official Irish names of baronies are listed under "Administrative units".
wn.com/County_Kerry -
Dorset
Dorset (
/ˈdɔrsɨt/) (or archaically, Dorsetshire), is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The county town is Dorchester which is situated in the south. The Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch joined the county with the reorganisation of local government in 1974. The ceremonial county comprises the area covered by the non-metropolitan county, which is governed by Dorset County Council, together with the unitary authorities of Poole and Bournemouth. Dorset covers an area of 2,653 square kilometres (1,024 sq mi); it borders Devon to the west, Somerset to the north-west, Wiltshire to the north-east, and Hampshire to the east. Around half of Dorset's population lives in the South East Dorset conurbation. The rest of the county is largely rural with a low population density.
The county has a long history of human settlement and some notable archaeology, including the hill forts of Maiden Castle and Hod Hill. A large defensive ditch, Bokerley Dyke, delayed the Saxon conquest of Dorset for up to 150 years. In 1348 the black death came ashore at Melcombe Regis and spread throughout England, killing a third of the population. Dorset has seen much civil unrest: the first trade union was formed by farm labourers from Tolpuddle in 1834, the Glorious Revolution was instigated in an ice-house at Charborough Park, and the Duke of Monmouth and his rebels landed at Lyme Regis. During the English Civil War (1642–1651) angry yokels fought with Cromwell's forces near Shaftesbury. The naval base at Portland has had a pivotal role in the nation's defence for many years, and with Weymouth and Poole was one of the main embarkation points on D-Day.
wn.com/Dorset -
Duns
Coordinates: 55°46′42″N 2°20′33″W / 55.77838°N 2.3426°W / 55.77838; -2.3426
Duns ( historically Scots: Dunse, Scottish Gaelic: An Dùn) is the county town of the historic county of Berwickshire, within the Scottish Borders.
Duns law, the original site of the town of Duns, has the remains of an Iron Age hillfort at its summit. Similar structures nearby, such as the structure at Edin's Hall Broch, suggest the area's domestic and defensive use at a very early stage.
The first written mention of Duns is when a 'Hugo de Duns' signed as a witness to a charter before 1214. The town is further mentioned when a 'Robert of Douns' signed the Ragman Roll in 1296. The early settlement was sited on the slopes of Duns Law, close to the original Duns Castle built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray, nephew of Robert the Bruce. The town was frequently attacked by the English in border raids and as they headed north to the Lothians. In 1333 the Guardian of Scotland, Sir Archibald Douglas, mustered an army in Duns to march on Berwick, which at that time was under siege by the English. The Scots troops were heavily defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill.
wn.com/Duns -
East Anglia
East Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of the East Anglian princess Etheldreda, the Isle of Ely also became part of the kingdom. Formerly a standard statistical region, for administrative purposes East Anglia now forms part of the East of England government office region and is defined as a Level 2 Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, comprising the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire including the city of Peterborough unitary authority area.
The Kingdom of the East Angles, formed about the year 520 by the merging of the North and the South Folk (Angles who had settled in the former lands of the Iceni during the previous century) was one of the seven Anglo-Saxon heptarchy kingdoms (as defined in the 12th century writings of Henry of Huntingdon). For a brief period following a victory over the rival kingdom of Northumbria around the year 616, East Anglia was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England, and its king Raedwald was Bretwalda (overlord of the Anglo-Saxons kingdoms). But this did not last: over the next forty years, East Anglia was defeated by the Mercians twice, and it continued to weaken relative to the other kingdoms until in 794, Offa of Mercia had its king Æthelberht killed and took control of the kingdom himself.
wn.com/East_Anglia -
Edinburgh
Edinburgh (i/ˈɛdɪnbʌrə/ ED-in-burr-ə; Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Èideann) is the capital city of Scotland and the seat of the Scottish Parliament. It is the second largest city in Scotland and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The City of Edinburgh Council governs one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. The council area includes urban Edinburgh and a 30 square miles (78 km2) rural area. Located in the south-east of Scotland, Edinburgh lies on the east coast of the Central Belt, along the Firth of Forth, near the North Sea.
The city was one of the historical major centres of the Enlightenment, led by the University of Edinburgh, helping to earn it the nickname Athens of the North. The Old Town and New Town districts of Edinburgh were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 in recognition of the unique character of the Medieval Old Town and the planned Georgian New Town. It covers both the Old and New Towns together with the Dean Village and the Calton Hill areas. There are over 4,500 listed buildings within the city. In May 2010, it had a total of 40 conservation areas covering 23% of the building stock and 23% of the population, the highest such ratios of any major city in the UK. In the 2011 mid-year population estimates, Edinburgh had a total resident population of 495,360.
wn.com/Edinburgh -
England
Englandi/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, while the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. England's Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.
wn.com/England -
Eton College
Coordinates: 51°29′31″N 0°36′29″W / 51.49187°N 0.60792°W / 51.49187; -0.60792
Eton College, usually referred to as Eton, is a British independent boarding school for boys aged 13 to 18. It was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as "The King's College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor".
It is located in Eton, near Windsor in England, and is one of the nine English independent schools, common referred to as "public schools", regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. Following the public school tradition, Eton is a full boarding school, which means all pupils board at the school, and is one of four remaining single-sex public schools (the others being Winchester College, Harrow School and Radley College) to continue this practice.
Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron is the nineteenth British Prime Minister to have attended Eton.
Eton has traditionally been referred to as "the chief nurse of England's statesmen", and has been described as the most famous public school in the world. Early in the 20th century, a historian of Eton wrote, "No other school can claim to have sent forth such a cohort of distinguished figures to make their mark on the world."
wn.com/Eton_College -
Flanders
Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen (help·info)) is the (political) community of the Flemings, one of the communities of Belgium, and also a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands.
"Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp. Over the course of history, the geographical territory that was called "Flanders" has varied. In the second half of the twentieth century, there has been a gradual shift of political and economic power from French-speaking Wallonia (which was industrialized earlier) to the Flemish.
To the English-speaking peoples, Flanders meant historically (from circa 1000 AD) the land situated along the North Sea from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. The southern borders were generally ill-defined. Over the last millennium, it was mostly the southern and western borders that receded to give the present day borders within northern Belgium.
Flanders has figured prominently in European history. Between the early 17th century and 1945, the political outcomes of modern Spain, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany and Austria were often decided by battles on the plains of Flanders. Even earlier in British and Irish history, the Flemings (or Flemish) were important allies of the Normans in their conquest of England (1066) and invasion of Ireland (1169–71).
wn.com/Flanders -
Florence
Florence (Italian: Firenze [fiˈrɛntse] (
listen), alternate obsolete form: Fiorenza; Latin: Florentia) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area.
Florence is famous for its history. A centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time, Florence is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has been called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, and numerous religious and republican revolutions. From 1865 to 1870 the city was also the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy.
The historic centre of Florence attracts millions of tourists each year, and Euromonitor International ranked the city as the world's 72nd most visited in 2009, with 1,685,000 visitors. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, and the city is noted for its history, culture, Renaissance art and architecture and monuments. The city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Pitti Palace, amongst others, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics.
wn.com/Florence -
France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
wn.com/France -
Greenland
Greenland (Kalaallisut: Kalaallit Nunaat, "Land of the Kalaallit";Danish: Grønland) is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and later Denmark) for more than a millennium. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island. With a population of 56,615 (January 2011 estimate) it is the least densely populated dependency or country in the world.
Greenland has been inhabited, though not continuously, by Arctic peoples via Canada for 4500–5000 years. In the 10th century, Norsemen settled on the uninhabited southern part of Greenland. In the 13th century, the Inuit arrived, and in the late 15th century the Norse colonies were abandoned. In the early 18th century, contact between Scandinavia and Greenland was re-established and Denmark established rule over Greenland.
wn.com/Greenland -
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade–Giles: Han Ch'ao; IPA: [xân tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) (206 BCE – 220 CE) was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters".
wn.com/Han_Dynasty -
Harrow School
Coordinates: 51°34′23″N 0°20′02″W / 51.573103°N 0.333792°W / 51.573103; -0.333792
Harrow School, commonly known simply as "'Harrow", is an English independent school for boys situated in the town of Harrow, in north-west London. There is some evidence that there has been a school on the site since 1243 but the Harrow School of today was officially founded by John Lyon under a Royal Charter of Elizabeth I in 1572. Harrow is one of the original nine public schools that were defined by the Public Schools Act 1868.
The school has an enrollment of approximately 850 boys spread across twelve boarding houses, all of whom board full time.
Harrow has many traditions and rich history, which includes the use of Straw Hats, morning suits, top hats and canes as uniform. Its long line of famous alumni include eight former Prime Ministers (including Churchill, Baldwin, Peel, and Palmerston), numerous foreign statesmen, former and current members of both houses of the UK Parliament, two Kings and several other members of various royal families, 20 Victoria Cross and one George Cross holders, and a great many notable figures in both the arts and the sciences. It is widely considered one of the best secondary schools in the world along with its rival Eton. Good Schools Guide said the school "Does well, does the boys well, couldn't do better."
wn.com/Harrow_School -
Harvard University
Harvard University is an American private Ivy League research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation (officially The President and Fellows of Harvard College) chartered in the country. Harvard's history, influence, and wealth have made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world.
Harvard was named after its first benefactor, John Harvard. Although never formally affiliated with a church, the college primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Harvard's curriculum and students became secular throughout the 18th century and by the 19th century had emerged as the central cultural establishment among Boston elites. Following the American Civil War, President Charles W. Eliot's forty year tenure (1869–1909) transformed the college and affiliated professional schools into a centralized research university, and Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900.James Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College. Drew Gilpin Faust was elected the 28th president in 2007 and is the first woman to lead the university. Harvard has the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world, standing at $32 billion as of September 2011.
wn.com/Harvard_University -
Haxey
Coordinates: 53°29′13″N 0°50′46″W / 53.486838°N 0.846189°W / 53.486838; -0.846189
Haxey is a village and civil parish within North Lincolnshire, England. It is situated 21.7 miles (34.9 km) to the northwest of the city of Lincoln and in 2001 had a total resident population of 4,359.
The village of Haxey lies between the villages of Westwoodside and Owston Ferry, forms part of the Isle of Axholme, and is perhaps most notable for Haxey Hood; a local event with over 700 years of history, reputedly making it the United Kingdom's oldest "traditional tussle".
Haxey is situated on one of a series of low-lying hills which reach a maximum height of 200 feet (61 m) out of the surrounding marshland. The River Trent lies to the east, beyond Owston Ferry.
The civil parish of Haxey includes the villages of Haxey and Westwoodside, and the hamlets of High Burnham, Low Burnham, East Lound and Graizelound.
Haxey, previously the capital of the Isle of Axholme, was considerably destroyed by fire in 1741.
The village Grade I listed Anglican parish church, dedicated to St Nicholas, originates from the 12th and 13th century. It is of mainly Perpendicular Gothic style. The tower is of three stages, with an embattled parapet. Piers of the north arcade are Norman, and those of the south, with the chancel arch and chantry chapel, mainly Early English.
wn.com/Haxey -
Huddersfield
Coordinates: 53°38′42″N 1°46′47″W / 53.6450°N 1.7798°W / 53.6450; -1.7798
Huddersfield (i/ˈhʌdərzˌfiːld/) is a large market town within the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees, in West Yorkshire, England, situated halfway between Leeds and Manchester. It lies 190 miles (310 km) north of London, and 10.3 miles (16.6 km) south of Bradford, the nearest city.
Huddersfield is near the confluence of the River Colne and the River Holme. Located within the historic county boundaries of the West Riding of Yorkshire, according to the 2001 Census it was the 10th largest town in the UK and with a total resident population of 146,234. It is the largest urban area in the metropolitan borough of Kirklees and the administrative centre of the borough. The town is well known for its important role in the Industrial Revolution, for being the birthplace of rugby league and for being the birthplace of the late British Prime Minister Harold Wilson.
Huddersfield today is a town of higher education, the media and sports, being home to the rugby league team, Huddersfield Giants, founded in 1895, who currently play in the European Super League and Football League One football team Huddersfield Town F.C., founded in 1908. The town is home to the University of Huddersfield and the sixth form colleges Greenhead College, Kirklees College and Huddersfield New College
wn.com/Huddersfield -
Kirkwall
Coordinates: 58°58′52″N 2°57′36″W / 58.981°N 2.960°W / 58.981; -2.960
Kirkwall is the biggest town and capital of Orkney, off the coast of northern mainland Scotland. The town is first mentioned in Orkneyinga saga in the year 1046 when it is recorded as the residence of Rögnvald Brusason the Earl of Orkney, who was killed by his uncle Thorfinn the Mighty. In 1486, King James III of Scotland elevated Kirkwall to the status of a royal burgh; modern roadsigns still indicate "The City and Royal Burgh of Kirkwall".
The name Kirkwall comes from the Norse name Kirkjuvagr (Church Bay), which was later corrupted to Kirkvoe, Kirkwaa and Kirkwall.
Situated on the northern coast of Mainland Orkney and with a population of about 8,500, Kirkwall is a port with ferry services to Aberdeen and Lerwick, as well as the principal north islands in the group. At the heart of the town stands St. Magnus Cathedral, which was founded in memory of Saint Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney 1108-1117 by Earl (later Saint) Rögnvald Kali. Next to the Cathedral are the ruins of the former Bishop's Palace and Earl's Palace. The town has two museums: Tankerness House Museum, which is contained within one of Scotland's best-preserved sixteenth century town-houses, contains items of local historical interest. The prehistoric, Pictish and Viking collections are of international importance. The other museum is the Orkney Wireless Museum, dealing with the history of radio and recorded sound.
wn.com/Kirkwall -
Korea
Korea (/kəˈriːə/ kə-REE-ə; Korean: 한국 Hanguk [hanɡuːk] or 조선 Joseon [tɕosʌn] – (see etymology) is an East Asian region that is divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea), and separated from Taiwan to the south by the East China Sea.
Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest the origins of the Korean people might have been Altaic language-speaking people from south-central Siberia,[dubious – discuss] who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the Neolithic age to the Bronze Age. The adoption of the Chinese writing system ("Hanja" in Korean) in the 2nd century BC, and Buddhism in the 4th century AD, had profound effects on the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
The Three Kingdoms of Korea was first united during the Silla dynasty under the king Munmu of Silla. The united Silla dynasty fell to Goryeo Dynasty in 935 at the end of Later Three Kingdoms of Korea era. Goryeo was a highly cultural state and created the Jikji in the 14th century, using the world's first movable metal type printing press. The Mongol invasions in the 13th century, however, greatly weakened the nation which was forced to become a tributary state. After the Mongol Empire's collapse, severe political strife followed and Goryeo was replaced by the Joseon Dynasty in 1388.
wn.com/Korea -
Kyoto
Kyoto (京都市, Kyōto-shi?, "Capital City") (Japanese pronunciation: [kʲoːto] ( listen)) is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the imperial capital of Japan, it is now the capital of Kyoto Prefecture, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area.
Although archaeological evidence places the first human settlement on the islands of Japan to approximately 10,000 BC, relatively little is known about human activity in the area before the 6th century AD, around which time the Shimogamo Shrine is believed to have been established. During the 8th century, when powerful Buddhist clergy became involved in the affairs of the Imperial government, the Emperor chose to relocate the capital to a region far from the Buddhist influence. Emperor Kammu selected the village of Uda, at the time in the Kadono district of Yamashiro Province, for this honor.
The new city, Heian-kyō (平安京, "tranquility and peace capital"), a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Chang'an, became the seat of Japan's imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. Although military rulers established their governments either in Kyoto (Muromachi shogunate) or in other cities such as Kamakura (Kamakura shogunate) and Edo (Tokugawa shogunate), Kyoto remained Japan's capital until the transfer of the imperial court to Tokyo in 1869 at the time of the Imperial Restoration. (Some believe that it is still a legal capital: see Capital of Japan.)
wn.com/Kyoto -
Lancashire
Lancashire ( /ˈlæŋkəʃər/ or, less commonly, /ˈlæŋkəʃɪər/) is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston. Lancashire is sometimes referred to by the abbreviation Lancs, as originally used by the Royal Mail. The population of the county is 1,449,700. People from the county are known as Lancastrians.
The history of Lancashire is thought to have begun with its founding in the 12th century. In the Domesday Book (1086), some of its lands had been treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay Inter Ripam et Mersam, "between the Ribble and Mersey", formed part of the returns for Cheshire. Once its initial boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire and Cheshire.
Lancashire emerged during the Industrial Revolution as a major commercial and industrial region. The county encompassed several hundred mill towns and collieries. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire.Preston, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Rochdale, Oldham, Chorley, Darwen, Nelson, Colne and Burnley were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a major centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashire's mill towns, particularly during wakes week.
wn.com/Lancashire -
Lincolnshire
Coordinates: 53°4′N 0°11′W / 53.067°N 0.183°W / 53.067; -0.183
Lincolnshire ( /ˈlɪŋkənʃə/ or /ˈlɪŋkənʃɪə/; abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk to the south east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the northwest, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards (18 m), England's shortest county boundary. The county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters.
The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the non-metropolitan county of Lincolnshire and the area covered by the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North-East Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the ceremonial county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region, and part is in the East Midlands region. The county is the second largest of the English counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including: the Lincolnshire Fens (south Lincolnshire), the Carrs (similar to the Fens but in north Lincolnshire), the Lincolnshire Wolds, and the industrial Humber Estuary and North Sea coast around Grimsby and Scunthorpe.
wn.com/Lincolnshire -
Manchester
Coordinates: 53°28′N 2°14′W / 53.467°N 2.233°W / 53.467; -2.233
Manchesteri/ˈmæntʃɛstər/ is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England with an estimated population of 498,800 in 2010. Manchester lies within one of the United Kingdom's largest urban areas; the Greater Manchester Urban Area which has a population of 2.2 million. The demonym of Manchester is Mancunian and the local authority is Manchester City Council.
Manchester is situated in the south-central part of North West England, fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south and the Pennines to the north and east. The recorded history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium, which was established in c. 79 AD on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell. Historically, most of the city was a part of Lancashire, although areas south of the River Mersey were in Cheshire. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a manorial township, but it began to expand "at an astonishing rate" around the turn of the 19th century. Manchester's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, and resulted in it becoming the world's first industrialised city. An early 19th-century factory building boom transformed Manchester from a township into a major mill town and borough that was granted city status in 1853. In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was built, creating the Port of Manchester.
wn.com/Manchester -
Marlborough College
Coordinates: 51°24′58″N 1°44′13″W / 51.416°N 1.737°W / 51.416; -1.737
Marlborough College is a British co-educational independent school for day and boarding pupils, located in Marlborough, Wiltshire.
Founded in 1843 for the education of the sons of Church of England clergy, the school now accepts both boys and girls of all beliefs. Currently there are just over 800 pupils, approximately one third of whom are female. New pupils are admitted at the ages of 13+ ("Shell entry") and 16 (Lower Sixth).
Marlborough was, in 1968, the first major British independent school to allow girls into the sixth form,[citation needed] setting a trend that many other schools would follow. The College became fully co-educational in 1989. The College has also been pioneering in other fields, making a major contribution to the School Mathematics Project (from 1961) and initiating the teaching of Business Studies at A level (from 1968). Fagging was officially abolished in the 1920s, and Marlborough was one of the first public schools to do so. However, unofficial fagging did persist beyond this change for some time. In 1963 a group of boys, led by the future political biographer Ben Pimlott, wrote a book, "Marlborough, an open examination written by the boys," describing life at the school. The writer and television critic T.C. Worsley wrote about predatory masters at the school in his critically acclaimed autobiography Flannelled Fool: A Slice of a Life in the Thirties.
wn.com/Marlborough_College -
McGill University
McGill University is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. McGill University is one of world's most prestigious universities. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland and alumnus of Glasgow University, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university. Founded in 1821, McGill was chartered during the British colonial era, 46 years before the Canadian Confederation, making it one of the oldest universities in Canada.
As of 2011, McGill ranked 1st in Canada and 17th in the world in the QS World University Rankings. According to the 2011 Emerging/Trendence global employability ranking, McGill was ranked 19th in the world for popularity among major employers. In the Maclean's 21st Annual University Ranking (2011), McGill was ranked 1st in Canada among all institutions offering medical and doctoral degrees, maintaining this ranking for the seventh year in a row.
With almost 215,000 living alumni worldwide, students and professors at McGill have been recognized in fields ranging from the arts and sciences, to business, politics, and sports. Notable alumni include eleven Nobel Laureates, one hundred and thirty-two Rhodes Scholars, three astronauts, two Canadian prime ministers, eleven justices of the Canadian Supreme Court, three foreign leaders, nine Academy Award winners, three Pulitzer Prize winners, and twenty-eight Olympic medalists.
wn.com/McGill_University -
Melbourne
Melbourne ([ˈmelbən, -bn̩, ˈmæl-],rhotically /ˈmɛlbərn/) is the capital and most populous city in the state of Victoria, and the second most populous city in Australia. The Melbourne City Centre is the hub of the greater metropolitan area and the Census statistical division—of which "Melbourne" is the common name. As of June 2010, the greater geographical area had an approximate population of four million. Inhabitants of Melbourne are called Melburnians or Melbournians.
The metropolis is located on the large natural bay known as Port Phillip, with the city centre positioned at the estuary of the Yarra River (at the northernmost point of the bay). The metropolitan area then extends south from the city centre, along the eastern and western shorelines of Port Phillip, and expands into the hinterland. The city centre is situated in the municipality known as the City of Melbourne, and the metropolitan area consists of a further 30 municipalities.
Melbourne was founded in 1835 (47 years after the European settlement of Australia) by settlers from Launceston in Van Diemen's Land. It was named by governor Richard Bourke in 1837, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb—the 2nd Viscount Melbourne. Melbourne was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria in 1847. In 1851, it became the capital city of the newly created colony of Victoria. During the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the world's largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it then served as the interim seat of government of the newly created nation of Australia until 1927.
wn.com/Melbourne -
Montreal
Montreal (
i/ˌmʌntriːˈɒl/;French: Montréal; pronounced [mɔ̃ʁeal] (
listen)) is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the fifteenth largest in North America. Originally called Ville-Marie, or "City of Mary", the city takes its present name from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill located in the heart of the city, or Mont Réal as it was spelled in Middle French (Mont Royal in present French). The city is located on the Island of Montreal, which took its name from the same source as the city, and a few much smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which is Île Bizard.
As of May 10, 2011, Statistics Canada identifies Montreal's Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) (land area 4,259 square kilometres (1,644 sq mi)) as Canada's second most populous with an estimated metropolitan area population of 3,824,221 and a population of 1,886,481 in the urban agglomeration of Montreal, which includes all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal. The city of Montreal proper had a population of 1,649,519.
wn.com/Montreal -
New Hampshire
New Hampshire (i/njuːˈhæmpʃər/) is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. New Hampshire is the 5th least extensive and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States.
It became the first post-colonial sovereign nation in the Americas when it broke off from Great Britain in January 1776, and six months later was one of the original thirteen states that founded the United States of America. In June 1788, it became the ninth state to ratify the United States Constitution, bringing that document into effect. New Hampshire was the first U.S. state to have its own state constitution.
It is known internationally for the New Hampshire primary, the first primary in the U.S. presidential election cycle. Concord is the state capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state. It has no general sales tax, nor is personal income (other than interest and dividends) taxed at either the state or local level.
wn.com/New_Hampshire -
New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.
wn.com/New_Zealand -
Norfolk
Norfolk ( /ˈnɔrfək/) is a low-lying county in the East of England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast and to the north-west the county is bordered by The Wash. The city of Norwich is the county town at Norfolk which is fifth largest ceremonial county in England, with an area of 5,371 km² (2,074 sq mi).
Of the 34 non-metropolitan English counties, Norfolk is the seventh most populous, with a population of 850,800 (mid 2008). However, as a largely rural county it has a low population density, 155 people per square kilometre (or 401 per square mile). Norfolk has about one-thirtieth the population density of central London, the tenth lowest density county in the country, with 38% of the county’s population living in the four major built up areas of Norwich (195,000), Great Yarmouth (67,000), King's Lynn (41,000) and Thetford (22,000).The Broads, a well known network of rivers and lakes, is located towards the county's east coast, bordering Suffolk. The area has the status of a National Park and is protected by the Broads Authority. Historical sites, such as those in the centre of Norwich, also contribute to tourism.
wn.com/Norfolk -
Northumberland
Northumberland ( /nɔrˈθʌmbərlənd/; abbreviated Northumb. or Northd, the latter being preferred by the Royal Mail) is the northernmost ceremonial county and a unitary district in North East England. It borders Cumbria to the west, County Durham to the south and Tyne and Wear to the south east and the Scottish Borders council area to the north. Its North Sea coastline is a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty with a 64 mile (103 km) long distance path. Since 1981, the county council has been located in Morpeth, situated in the east of the county.
The historical boundaries of the county of Northumberland included Newcastle upon Tyne, the traditional county town, as well as Tynemouth and other settlements in North Tyneside, all areas transferred to Tyne and Wear in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The historical county boundaries are sometimes taken to exclude Islandshire, Bedlingtonshire and Norhamshire (collectively North Durham), exclaves of County Durham which were incorporated into Northumberland in 1844. For Eurostat purposes Northumberland is a NUTS 3 region (code UKC21) and is one of three local authority areas that comprise the "Northumberland and Tyne and Wear" NUTS 2 region.
wn.com/Northumberland -
Nottinghamshire
Nottinghamshire ( /ˈnɒtɪŋəmʃər/ or /ˈnɒtɪŋəmʃɪər/; abbreviated Notts) is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, at a site facing Nottingham over the River Trent.
The districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now a unitary authority, remaining part of Nottinghamshire for ceremonial purposes.
As of 2006 the county is estimated to have a population of just over one million. Over half of the population of the county live in the Greater Nottingham conurbation (which continues into Derbyshire). The conurbation has a population of about 650,000, though less than half live within the city boundaries.
wn.com/Nottinghamshire -
Orkney
Orkney (Scottish Gaelic: Arcaibh) also known as the Orkney Islands (and sometimes "the Orkneys", a name which locals disparage), is an archipelago in northern Scotland, 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the coast of Caithness. Orkney comprises approximately 70 islands of which 20 are inhabited. The largest island, known as the "Mainland" has an area of 523.25 square kilometres (202.03 sq mi) making it the sixth largest Scottish island and the tenth-largest island in the British Isles. The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall.
The name "Orkney" dates back to the 1st century BC or earlier, and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8,500 years. Originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by the Picts, Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse. It was subsequently annexed to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James III's bride, Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, and the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.
wn.com/Orkney -
Piazza Santa Croce
Coordinates: 43°46′7.86″N 11°15′41.33″E / 43.76885°N 11.2614806°E / 43.76885; 11.2614806
Piazza Santa Croce is one of the main squares of the centre of Florence, Italy. It is located near piazza della Signoria and the National Central Library, and takes its name by the Basilica of Santa Croce that overlook the square.
The Basilica is the largest Franciscan church in the world. Its most notable features are its sixteen chapels, many of them decorated with frescoes by Giotto and his pupils, and its tombs and cenotaphs. It is the burial place of some of the most illustrious Italians, such as Michelangelo Buonarroti, Niccolò Machiavelli, Enrico Fermi, Galileo Galilei, Ugo Foscolo, Guglielmo Marconi, Luigi Cherubini, Leon Battista Alberti, Vittorio Alfieri, Gioacchino Rossini, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Lorenzo Bartolini, Pier Antonio Micheli, Bartolomeo Cristofori, Giovanni Gentile, thus it is known also as the Temple of the Italian Glories (Tempio dell'Itale Glorie).
On the opposite side to the Basilica of Santa Croce is the Palazzo Cocchi-Serristori, rebuilt in the late 15th century by Giuliano da Sangallo, personal architect of Lorenzo de' Medici. Today it houses the headquarters of the Quarter 1 of Florence.
wn.com/Piazza_Santa_Croce -
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States.
It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture.
Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747, then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896. The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies. Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination and today imposes no religious requirements on its students.
wn.com/Princeton_University -
Quebec
Coordinates: 53°45′N 071°59′W / 53.75°N 71.983°W / 53.75; -71.983 (Quebec)
Quebec /kwəˈbɛk/ or /kəˈbɛk/ (French: Québec [kebɛk] ( listen)) is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level.
Quebec is Canada's largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division; only the territory of Nunavut is larger. It is bordered to the west by the province of Ontario, James Bay and Hudson Bay, to the north by Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay, to the east by the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and New Brunswick. It is bordered on the south by the US states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. It also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.
Quebec is Canada's second most populous province, after Ontario. Most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. English-speaking communities and English-language institutions are concentrated in the west of the island of Montreal but are also significantly present in the Outaouais, Eastern Townships, and Gaspé regions. The Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples.
wn.com/Quebec -
Rugby School
Coordinates: 52°22′03″N 1°15′40″W / 52.36750°N 1.26114°W / 52.36750; -1.26114
Rugby School is a co-educational day and boarding school located in the town of Rugby, Warwickshire, England. It is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain. The influence of Rugby and its pupils and masters in the nineteenth century was enormous and in many ways the stereotype of the English public school is a reworking of Thomas Arnold's Rugby. It is one of the best known schools in the country and seen as an innovator in education (e.g. see its part in developing the Cambridge Pre-U).
Rugby School was founded in 1567 as a provision in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, who had made his fortune supplying groceries to Queen Elizabeth I of England. Since Lawrence Sheriff lived in Rugby and the neighbouring Brownsover, the school was intended to be a free grammar school for the boys of those towns. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity. Its history during that trying period is characterized mainly by a series of lawsuits between descendants of the founder, who tried to defeat the intentions of the testator, and the masters and trustees, who tried to carry them out. A final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favor of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth.
wn.com/Rugby_School -
Rutgers University
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey /ˈrʌtɡərz/, usually referred to as Rutgers University or just Rutgers, is the largest institution for higher education in New Jersey, United States. It was originally chartered as Queen's College in 1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine Colonial colleges founded before the American Revolution. Rutgers was originally a private university affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church and admitted only male students, but evolved into a coeducational public research university. Rutgers is one of only two colonial colleges that later became public universities, the other being The College of William and Mary.
Rutgers was designated The State University of New Jersey by acts of the New Jersey Legislature in 1945 and 1956. The three campuses of Rutgers are in (1) New Brunswick and Piscataway, (2) Newark and (3) Camden. The Newark campus was formerly the University of Newark, which merged into the Rutgers system in 1946, and the Camden campus was created in 1950 from the College of South Jersey and the South Jersey Law School. Rutgers is the largest state university within New Jersey. The university offers more than 100 distinct bachelor, 100 master, and 80 doctoral and professional degree programs across 175 academic departments, 29 degree-granting schools and colleges, 16 of which offer graduate programs of study.
wn.com/Rutgers_University -
Samoa
Samoa (i/səˈmoʊ.ə/; Samoan: Sāmoa, IPA: [ˌsaːˈmoa]), officially the Independent State of Samoa (Samoan: Malo Sa'oloto Tuto'atasi o Sāmoa), formerly known as Western Samoa, is a country encompassing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and one of the biggest islands in Polynesia, Savai'i. The capital city, Apia, and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu.
Samoa was admitted to the United Nations on 15 December 1976. The entire island group, inclusive of American Samoa, was called Navigators Islands by European explorers before the 20th century because of the Samoans' seafaring skills.
The oldest date so far from pre-historic remains in Samoa has been calculated by New Zealand scientists to a likely true age of circa 3,000 years ago from a Lapita site at Mulifanua during the 1970s.
The origins of the Samoans is closely linked to modern research about Polynesia in various scientific disciplines such as genetics, linguistics and anthropology. Scientific research is ongoing although a number of different theories exist; including one proposing that the Samoans originated from Austronesian predecessors during the terminal eastward Lapita expansion period from Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE. The Samoan origins are currently being reassessed due to new scientific evidence and carbon dating findings from 2003 and onwards.
wn.com/Samoa -
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan (i/səˈskætʃɨwən/ or /səˈskætʃɨwɑːn/) is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of 588,276 square kilometres (227,100 sq mi). Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota.
As of April 2011, the population of Saskatchewan was estimated at 1,053,960. Residents primarily live in the southern half of the province. Of the total population, 257,300 live in the province's largest city, Saskatoon, while 210,000 live in the provincial capital, Regina. Other major cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current and North Battleford.
Saskatchewan was first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774, having also been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups. It became a province in 1905. Saskatchewan's current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. Its major industries are agriculture, mining, and energy. "In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a historic land claim agreement with Saskatchewan First Nations. Under the Agreement, the First Nations received money to buy land on the open market. As a result, about 761,000 acres have been turned into reserve land and many First Nations continue to invest their settlement dollars in urban areas", including Saskatoon.
wn.com/Saskatchewan -
Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info))) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital.
wn.com/Scotland -
Sedgefield
Coordinates: 54°39′N 1°27′W / 54.65°N 1.45°W / 54.65; -1.45
Sedgefield is a small town and civil parish in County Durham, England. It has a population of 4,534.
Sedgefield has attracted particular attention as the Member of Parliament for the wider Sedgefield constituency was the former Prime Minister Tony Blair; he was the area's MP from 1983 to 2007, leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007, and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007.
During November 2003, Sedgefield was visited by the American president George W. Bush during a state visit. He visited a local pub, as well as the local secondary school (Sedgefield Community College). This event was preceded by high-intensity security, which included fastening down manhole covers and drains, and closing the centre of the village to all traffic. An anti-war protest coincided with his visit.
St Edmund's church in Sedgefield is noted for its ornate 17th century Cosin woodwork, unique to County Durham: this is especially precious now that the display in Brancepeth has perished through fire.
wn.com/Sedgefield -
Sheffield
Sheffieldi/ˈʃɛfiːld/ is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and with some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its largely industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of Sheffield is 555,500 (2010 est.) and it is one of the eight largest regional English cities that make up the English Core Cities Group.
During the 19th century, Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production. Many innovations were developed locally, including crucible and stainless steel, fuelling an almost tenfold increase in the population during the Industrial Revolution. Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843, becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893. International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in traditional local industries during the 1970s and 1980s, coinciding with the collapse of coal mining in the area.
wn.com/Sheffield -
Shouldham
Coordinates: 52°39′04″N 0°28′46″E / 52.650979°N 0.47945°E / 52.650979; 0.47945
Shouldham is a civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. It covers an area of 16.04 km2 (6.19 sq mi) and had a population of 608 in 246 households as of the 2001 census. For the purposes of local government, it falls within the district of King's Lynn and West Norfolk. It also contains a church(in picture) and a primary school(St Martins At Shouldham).
Media related to Shouldham at Wikimedia Commons
wn.com/Shouldham -
Shrewsbury School
Coordinates: 52°42′14″N 2°45′44″W / 52.7038°N 2.7622°W / 52.7038; -2.7622
Shrewsbury School is a co-educational independent school for pupils aged 13 to 18, founded by Royal Charter in 1552. The present campus to which the school moved in 1882 is located on the banks of the River Severn in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. It is one of the original nine Clarendon Schools (including Eton College, Harrow and Charterhouse School) that were defined by the Public Schools Act 1868 Originally a boarding school for boys, girls have been admitted into the Sixth Form since 2008 and its mixed gender roll of around 720 includes approximately 130 day pupils. Pupils are admitted at the age of 13 by selective examination. For approximately ten per cent of the pupils, English is a second or additional language. The school's old boys – or "Old Salopians" – include naturalist Charles Darwin, poet Sir Philip Sidney, his biographer, Fulke Greville, Astronomer Royal Martin Rees, authors Samuel Butler and Nevil Shute, and broadcasters such as John Peel and Michael Palin.
wn.com/Shrewsbury_School -
St Albans
Coordinates: 51°45′18″N 0°20′10″W / 51.755°N 0.336°W / 51.755; -0.336
St Albans /sɨnt ˈɔːlbənz/ is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles (35 km) north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans.
It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt. Property prices are notoriously high within the district, which is one of the most expensive in the UK.
St Albans has two official demonyms: Verulamian and Old Albanian. St Albans was a settlement of pre-Roman origin named Verlamion (or Verulam) by the Ancient British, Catuvellauni tribe. It became the first major town on the old Roman road of Watling Street for travellers heading north and became the Roman city of Verulamium.
Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, was beheaded in AD 308 by Maximian on the orders of Emperor Diocletian, who denounced the Christian faith and had ordered the deaths of all subjects and allies of the Roman Empire who refused to give up the faith. Saint Alban consequently gave the town its modern name.
wn.com/St_Albans -
St Columb Major
Coordinates: 50°25′55″N 4°56′24″W / 50.432°N 4.940°W / 50.432; -4.940
St Columb Major (Cornish: Synt Colom Veur / Synt Colom gwartha) is a civil parish and town in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. Often referred to locally as St Columb, it is situated approximately seven miles (11 km) southwest of Wadebridge and six miles (10 km) east of Newquay The designation Major distinguishes it from the smaller settlement and parish of St Columb Minor on the coast.
Twice a year the town plays host to "hurling", a medieval game once common throughout Cornwall but now only played in St Columb and St Ives. It is played on Shrove Tuesday and then again on the Saturday eleven days later. The game involves two teams of several hundred people (the 'townsmen' and the 'countrymen') who endeavour to carry a silver ball made of apple wood to goals set two miles (3 km) apart, making the parish the largest pitch for a ball game anywhere in the world.[citation needed]
Monuments that date from this period include: Castle an Dinas, an Iron Age hillfort.; the Nine Maidens stone row, the largest row of standing stones in Cornwall; the Devil's Quoit (sometimes recorded as King Arthur's Quoit); and King Arthur's Stone (this long lost stone is said to be not far from the Devil's Quoit near St. Columb, on the edge of the Goss moor). It was a large stone with four deeply-impressed horseshoe marks. Legend has it that the marks were made by the horse upon which Arthur rode when he resided at Castle An Dinas and hunted on the moors.
wn.com/St_Columb_Major -
Sutton Coldfield
Coordinates: 52°33′47″N 1°49′19″W / 52.563°N 1.822°W / 52.563; -1.822
Sutton Coldfield ( pronunciation (help·info)) is a town within the city of Birmingham, in the West Midlands of England. Sutton (as it is often abbreviated) is located about 8 miles (13 km) from central Birmingham; it has borders with North Warwickshire, Lichfield, Erdington, Kingstanding and Castle Vale. Sutton is in the northeast of Birmingham, with a population of 105,000 recorded in the 2001 census. It forms part of the West Midlands conurbation.
Historically within Warwickshire, the town has a historical connection to the Royal Family, resulting in it receiving the title of Royal Town when it was a municipal borough in its own right and part of Warwickshire. When the Local Government Act 1972 came into force in 1974, Sutton Coldfield became part of Birmingham and the wider West Midlands County.
The Etymology of the name Sutton appears to be from South Town.
The name "Sutton Coldfield" appears to come from this time, being the "south town" (i.e. south of Tamworth and/or Lichfield) on the edge of the "col field". "Col" is usually derived from "charcoal", charcoal burners presumably being active in the area.
wn.com/Sutton_Coldfield -
Tanzan Shrine
Tanzan Shrine (談山神社, Tanzan-jinja?), also known as the Tōnomine Temple (多武峯寺), is a Shinto[citation needed] shrine in Sakurai, Nara, Japan. It was a major Buddhist[citation needed] site before the anti-Buddhist movement of the Meiji Era, which led to the destruction of many Buddhist temples in Japan. The original temple, a 13-story wooden pagoda, was built in 678. The present pagoda was built in 1532. The honden, or main hall, is built in the Kasuga-zukuri style. It is dedicated to Fujiwara no Kamatari, founder of the Fujiwara clan.
Kemari Matsuri ("Kick-ball Festival") is held every year on April 29 and the second Sunday in November. On this day, people in ancient costumes and arranged in a circle play a form of football in which they kick a ball made of deerskin to each other.
Thirteen-storied pagoda
Lanterns
A secondary building at the shrine.
Kemari Matsuri at the shrine
Kemari Matsuri at the shrine
Coordinates: 34°27′57″N 135°51′42″E / 34.46583°N 135.86167°E / 34.46583; 135.86167
wn.com/Tanzan_Shrine -
The Oval
The Oval, referred to as the Kia Oval due to a commercial sponsorship deal, is an international cricket ground in Kennington, in the London Borough of Lambeth. In the past it was also sometimes called the Kennington Oval. In past years it was officially named as the 'Fosters Oval', 'AMP Oval', 'Brit Insurance Oval', due to previous commercial sponsorship deals.
The Oval is the home ground of Surrey County Cricket Club, and also traditionally hosts the final Test match of each English summer season in late August or early September. The Oval was the first ground in the United Kingdom and second in the world (after the Melbourne Cricket Ground) to host Test cricket.
The nearest Tube station is Oval, but Vauxhall is only half a mile away.
In 1844, Kennington Oval was a market garden. The Oval was then (and still is) owned by the Duchy of Cornwall. Surrey County Cricket Club was set up in 1845. The Duchy was willing to grant a lease of the land for the purpose of a cricket ground, and, on 10 March 1845, the club signed a lease with the Otter Trustees, who held the land from the Duchy of Cornwall, 'to convert it into a subscription cricket ground', for 31 years at a rent of £120 per annum plus taxes (£20 more). The original contract for turfing the Oval cost £300; 10,000 grass turfs came from Tooting Common.
wn.com/The_Oval -
Ulgham
Coordinates: 55°13′31″N 1°37′58″W / 55.2252°N 1.6329°W / 55.2252; -1.6329
Ulgham is a small village in Northumberland, England. The name Ulgham is pronounced 'Uffam': [ˈʊfəm] (locally), [ˈʌfəm] (Standard), and the village is also known as the 'village of the owls'.
Ulgham is notable for a reference to football being played there in 1280.[citation needed]
Situated about six miles north of Morpeth, Ulgham is a village combining old with new. The church of St John the Baptist stands at the top of a steep bank above the river Lyne. It looks old, but was rebuilt in the 1800s. However, the site is Saxon and two Norman stone windows are built into the current church walls. In the north aisle is an extraordinary stone relief of a Norman knight on horseback apparently protecting a lady from two birds shown above her shoulder. The churchyard contains tombstones from the 1600s – and one prior to the Spanish Armada!
Opposite the church is a field containing earth mounds from the original village boundary, which are unique in the country. Next to the church the farmhouse has been refurbished and the farm buildings converted into interesting homes of character, which retain the existing charm of the farm.
wn.com/Ulgham -
United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
wn.com/United_States -
Uppingham School
Coordinates: 52°35′16″N 0°43′30″W / 52.58778°N 0.725°W / 52.58778; -0.725
Uppingham School is a co-educational independent school of the English public school tradition, situated in the small town of Uppingham in Rutland, England. The school was founded in 1584 by Robert Johnson, the Archdeacon of Leicester who also established Oakham School.
The school's current Headmaster, Richard Harman MA, is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference and the school is a member of the Rugby Group of independent schools in the United Kingdom.
The Reverend Edward Thring (headmaster 1853–1887) is perhaps the school's best-known headmaster. His many innovative changes to the school's curriculum were later adopted in other English public schools. During his headship the school moved temporarily to Borth in Wales after an outbreak of typhoid ravaged the town. The move to Borth is commemorated in an annual service, held in the school chapel.
Uppingham has a tradition for high musical standards based on the work of Paul David and Robert Sterndale Bennett and has recently opened a new music school, a fusion of new and old buildings named after the first Director of Music, Paul David. The current Director of Music is Stephen Williams.
wn.com/Uppingham_School -
Warwickshire
Warwickshire (i/ˈwɒrɨkʃər/ or /ˈwɒrɨkʃɪər/) is a landlocked non-metropolitan county in the West Midlands region of England. The county town is Warwick, although the largest town is Nuneaton. The county is famous for being the birthplace of William Shakespeare and George Elliot. Commonly used abbreviations for the county are Warks or Warwicks.
The five districts of North Warwickshire, Nuneaton & Bedworth, Rugby, Warwick and Stratford-on-Avon together form the Warwickshire County Council area, and are within the 1974 boundaries. The shape of the administrative area of Warwickshire differs considerably from that of the historic county, which also includes the now autonomous unitary authorities of Coventry and Solihull, as well as a small area around central and northeast Birmingham.
For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region (code UKG13) and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire" NUTS 2 region.
Warwickshire is bounded to the north-west by the West Midlands metropolitan county and Staffordshire, by Leicestershire to the north-east, Northamptonshire to the east, Worcestershire to the west, Oxfordshire to the south and Gloucestershire to the south-west. The northern tip of the county is only 3 miles (5 km) from the Derbyshire border. An average-sized English county covering an area of almost 2,000 km2, it runs some 60 miles (97 km) north to south.
wn.com/Warwickshire -
Westminster School
Coordinates: 51°29′54″N 0°07′42″W / 51.4984°N 0.1284°W / 51.4984; -0.1284
The Royal College of St. Peter in Westminster, better known as Westminster School, is one of Britain's leading independent schools, with the highest Oxford and Cambridge acceptance rate of any secondary school or college in Britain. Standing in the precincts of Westminster Abbey in central London, and with a history stretching back to the 11th century, the school's notable alumni include Ben Jonson, Robert Hooke,Christopher Wren, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham,Edward Gibbon, Henry Mayhew, A. A. Milne, Tony Benn and seven Prime Ministers. The school traditionally encourages independent and individual thinking. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven, and to the senior school at age thirteen; girls are admitted only at sixteen. The school has around 750 pupils; around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends, after Saturday morning school. It is one of the original nine British public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868.
wn.com/Westminster_School -
Winchester College
Coordinates: 51°03′30″N 1°18′45″W / 51.05834°N 1.31259°W / 51.05834; -1.31259
Winchester College is an independent school for boys in the British public school tradition, situated in Winchester, Hampshire, the former capital of England. It has existed in its present location for over 600 years and claims the longest unbroken history of any school in England (see List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom). It is the oldest of the original nine English public schools defined by the Public Schools Act 1868 and is one of four remaining full boarding independent schools, meaning all pupils are boarders, in the United Kingdom (the others are Eton College, Harrow School and Radley College).
According to its statutes, the school is called in Latin Collegium Sanctae Mariae prope Wintoniam, or Collegium Beatae Mariae Wintoniensis prope Winton, which translates into English as St Mary's College, near Winchester, or The College of the Blessed Mary of Winchester, near Winchester. It is sometimes referred to by pupils, former pupils and others as "Win: Coll:", and is more widely known as just "Winchester".
wn.com/Winchester_College -
Yale University
Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
Incorporated as the "Collegiate School," the institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony. In 1718, the College was renamed "Yale College" to honor a gift from Elihu Yale, a governor of the British East India Company. In 1861, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences became the first U.S. school to award the PhD. Yale became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. Yale College was transformed, beginning in the 1930s, through the establishment of residential colleges: 12 now exist and two more are planned. Yale employs over 1,100 faculty to teach and advise about 5,300 undergraduate and 6,100 graduate and professional students. Almost all tenured professors teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually.
wn.com/Yale_University -
Yarra Park
Yarra Park (35.469 hectares) is part of the Melbourne Sports and Entertainment Precinct - the premier sporting precinct of Victoria, Australia. Located in Yarra Park is the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and numerous sporting fields and ovals, including the associated sporting complexes of Melbourne & Olympic Parks. The park and sporting facilities are located in the inner-suburb of East Melbourne. In the late 1850s, many of the earliest games of Australian rules football were played at Yarra Park, which was known at the time as the Richmond Paddock.
Tree-lined paths run parallel to Punt Road and Swan Street, and criss-cross the park. Some of the lawns are used for parking for sporting events. Two footbridges allow pedestrians and cyclists to cross the railway lines to the different sporting venues and easy access to the Yarra River Trail.
Around the MCG are sculptures to several Australian sporting heroes including: Australian rules footballers Ron Barassi and Dick Reynolds; cricketers Sir Donald Bradman and Keith Miller; athletics "golden girl" Betty Cuthbert. Nearby is an old eucalyptus scar tree which shows a big scar caused by harvesting of bark for a canoe by the original inhabitants of the Yarra River Valley, the Wurundjeri people of the Kulin Nation.
wn.com/Yarra_Park
-
Antiphanes of Berge
Antiphanes of Berge (or Antiphanes the Younger, Greek: Ἀντιφάνης ὁ Βεργαῖος, 4th century BC) in Thrace, near Amphipolis, was a Greek writer of the book Ἄπιστα (Apista; "Unbelievable Things"). Strabo mentions him as an impostor, because Antiphanes wished the reader to believed everything in his book when they are falsehood. It was due to Antiphanes, who lived in Athens, that the Attic verb βεργαΐζειν (bergaizein) was used in the sense of telling unbelievable stories. He also wrote a work on courtesans. He is not to be confused with Antiphanes of Argos, which some ancient writer has done.
wn.com/Antiphanes_of_Berge -
Augusto Turati
Augusto Turati (April 16, 1888 — August 27, 1955) was an Italian journalist and Fascist politician.
Born in Parma, after moving to Brescia as a young man, Turati worked on newspapers and became one of the editors at the liberal Provincia di Brescia; he attended law classes, but never graduated. An irredentist and advocate of Italy entering World War I, he volunteered for the front in 1915. In 1918, he returned to Brescia as head editor of the same newspaper.
In 1920, he joined the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento - a year later, the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF). Active in trade unionism for the régime-backed corporatist enterprises, Turati was a secretary for the Brescia Fascio. In 1926-1930, he was secretary of the PNF, helping in the consolidation of Benito Mussolini's rule. He doubled this task with leadership positions in sports: a Federtennis president, a Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera one, and leader of the Italian National Olympic Committee (jobs held in 1928-1930). In 1930-1931, he was a member of the International Olympic Committee. Turati was also the inventor of a short-lived and supposedly uniquely Italian team sport which he called volata.
wn.com/Augusto_Turati -
Caledonians
The Caledonians (Latin: Caledones), or Caledonian Confederacy, is a name given by historians to a group of indigenous peoples of what is now Scotland during the Iron Age and Roman eras. The Romans referred to their territory as Caledonia and initially included them as Britons, but later distinguished as the Picts. The Caledonians were enemies of the Roman Empire, which was the occupying force then administering most of Great Britain as the Roman province called Britannia.
The term Caledones may derive from the Brythonic elements caled "hard, tough" plus the Celtic 'great' suffix, thus *caledonos "great, hard/tough person", *caledoni "great, hard/tough people". Alternatively, it may be derived from the Brythonic calet-donia, again meaning "hard/tough people". It could also derive from the Goidelic element "coille" "forest", i.e. "people of the forest".[citation needed]
The Caledonians, like many Celtic tribes in Britain, were hillfort builders and farmers who defeated and were defeated by the Romans on several occasions. The Romans never fully occupied Caledonia, though several attempts were made. Nearly all of the information that we have about the Caledonians comes from their Roman enemy, and therefore unbiased information may be difficult to obtain.
wn.com/Caledonians -
Charles Goodyear
Charles Goodyear (December 29, 1800 – July 1, 1860) was an American inventor who developed a process to vulcanize rubber in 1839 -- a method that he perfected while living and working in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1844, and for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844
Although Goodyear is often credited with its invention, modern evidence has proven that the Mesoamericans used stabilized rubber for balls and other objects as early as 1600 BC.
Goodyear discovered the vulcanization process accidentally after five years of searching for a more stable rubber.
Charles Goodyear was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Amasa Goodyear, and the oldest of six children. His father was a descendant of Stephen Goodyear, one of the founders of the colony of New Haven in 1638.
In 1814, Charles left his home and went to Philadelphia to learn the hardware business. He worked industriously until he was twenty-one years old, and then, returning to Connecticut, entered into partnership in his father's business in Naugatuck, where they manufactured not only ivory and metal buttons, but a variety of agricultural implements.
wn.com/Charles_Goodyear -
Charterhouse School
Coordinates: 51°11′48″N 0°37′21″W / 51.196552°N 0.622504°W / 51.196552; -0.622504
Charterhouse School, originally The Hospital of King James and Thomas Sutton in Charterhouse, or more simply Charterhouse or House, is an English collegiate independent boarding school (also referred to as a public school) situated at Godalming in Surrey.
Founded by Thomas Sutton in London in 1611 on the site of the old Carthusian monastery in Charterhouse Square, Smithfield, it is one of the original nine English public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868 which derived from the Clarendon Commission of 1864. Today pupils at Charterhouse are still referred to as Carthusians, and ex-pupils as Old Carthusians or OCs.
In May 1611 the London Charterhouse came into the hands of Thomas Sutton (1532–1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he carried on a commercial career. In 1611, the year of his death, he endowed a hospital on the site of the Charterhouse, calling it the hospital of King James, and in his will he bequeathed moneys to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and school. He died on 12 December and subsequently the will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners (gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have borne arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, or servants in household to the King or Queens Majesty), and to educate forty boys.
wn.com/Charterhouse_School -
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( /ˈsɪsɨroʊ/; Classical Latin: [ˈkɪkɛroː]; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as Tully), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, orator, political theorist, Roman consul and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary (with neologisms such as humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia) distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and philosopher.
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance. According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity." The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, David Hume, and Montesquieu was substantial. His works rank among the most influential in European culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.
wn.com/Cicero -
Edward II of England
Edward II (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327), also called Edward of Caernarfon,[citation needed] was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed by his wife Isabella in January 1327. He was the sixth Plantagenet king, in a line that began with the reign of Henry II. Between the strong reigns of his father Edward I and son Edward III, the reign of Edward II was considered by some to be disastrous for England, marked by alleged incompetence, political squabbling and military defeats.
Widely rumoured to have been either homosexual or bisexual, Edward also fathered at least five children by two women. His inability to deny even the most grandiose favours to his male favourites (first a Gascon knight named Piers Gaveston, later a young English lord named Hugh Despenser) led to constant political unrest and his eventual deposition.
Edward I had pacified Gwynedd and some other parts of Wales and the Scottish lowlands, but never exerted a comprehensive conquest. However, the army of Edward II was devastatingly defeated at Bannockburn, freeing Scotland from English control and allowing Scottish forces to raid unchecked throughout the north of England.
wn.com/Edward_II_of_England -
Francis Willughby
Francis Willughby (sometimes spelt Willoughby) (22 November 1635 – 3 July 1672) was an English ornithologist and ichthyologist. He was a student, friend and colleague of the naturalist John Ray at Cambridge University, and shared some of his expeditions and interests. Ray saw Willughby's Ornithologia libri tres through the press after Willughby's sudden death.
Willughby was born at Middleton Hall, Warwickshire to Sir Francis Willoughby and Cassandra Ridgway. He studied at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School, Sutton Coldfield and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he married Emma Barnard, daughter of Sir Henry Barnard of Bridgnorth and London. They had three children. The first child, Francis, died at the age of nineteen, while his daughter Cassandra Willoughby married the Duke Chandos, who was a patron of Mark Catesby. His second son was Thomas, who became Baron Middleton, one of ten peers created by Queen Anne.
wn.com/Francis_Willughby -
H C A Harrison
Henry Colden Antill Harrison (16 October 1836 – 2 September 1929) was a notable early Australian rules football player and administrator.
Harrison was born at 'Jarvisfield', near Picton, New South Wales, the son of John Harrison, a sea captain who had become a grazier, and his wife Jane, née Howe. In about 1837, the family moved to the Port Phillip District, and took up land on the Plenty River about 20 miles (32 km) from Melbourne. Some years later, they moved to the present site of St Arnaud.
In 1850, Harrison's father, being broken in health, moved to Melbourne. Henry had already been sent at the beginning of the year to the Diocesan Grammar School (the forerunner of Melbourne Grammar). After leaving school, he spent a short time in the Victorian goldfields, H. C. A. Harrison entered formal employment at the Victorian Customs Department at the end of 1853. He married his cousin, Emily Wills, in 1864 and they had four daughters.
Harrison remained with Customs for 35 years, before transferring to the Titles Office in 1888. He eventually became Registrar of Titles, before retiring in 1900. His autobiography, The Story of an Athlete, was published in 1923. Harrison died at Kew, in Melbourne, on 2 September 1929, at age of 92.
wn.com/H_C_A_Harrison -
Harrow School
Coordinates: 51°34′23″N 0°20′02″W / 51.573103°N 0.333792°W / 51.573103; -0.333792
Harrow School, commonly known simply as "'Harrow", is an English independent school for boys situated in the town of Harrow, in north-west London. There is some evidence that there has been a school on the site since 1243 but the Harrow School of today was officially founded by John Lyon under a Royal Charter of Elizabeth I in 1572. Harrow is one of the original nine public schools that were defined by the Public Schools Act 1868.
The school has an enrollment of approximately 850 boys spread across twelve boarding houses, all of whom board full time.
Harrow has many traditions and rich history, which includes the use of Straw Hats, morning suits, top hats and canes as uniform. Its long line of famous alumni include eight former Prime Ministers (including Churchill, Baldwin, Peel, and Palmerston), numerous foreign statesmen, former and current members of both houses of the UK Parliament, two Kings and several other members of various royal families, 20 Victoria Cross and one George Cross holders, and a great many notable figures in both the arts and the sciences. It is widely considered one of the best secondary schools in the world along with its rival Eton. Good Schools Guide said the school "Does well, does the boys well, couldn't do better."
wn.com/Harrow_School -
Henry IV of England
Henry IV (possibly 3 April 1366 – 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland (1399–1413). He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry (of) Bolingbroke ( /ˈbɒlɪŋbrʊk/). His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of Edward III, and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Henry's cousin Richard II, whom Henry eventually deposed. Henry's mother was Blanche, heiress to the considerable Lancaster estates, thus he became the first King of England from the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenets, one of the two family branches that were belligerents in the War of the Roses. The other one was the York branch, initiated by his uncle Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York (see section "Seniority in line from Edward III" below).
One of Henry's elder sisters, Philippa of Lancaster, married John I of Portugal, and his younger sister Elizabeth was the mother of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter. His younger half-sister Catherine, the daughter of his father's second wife, Constance of Castile, was queen consort of Castile. He also had four half-siblings by Katherine Swynford, originally his sisters' governess, then his father's longstanding mistress, and later his third wife. These four children were given the surname Beaufort after a castle their father held in Champagne, France.
wn.com/Henry_IV_of_England -
Hunter gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forager society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species.
Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were hunter-gatherers until around 10,000 years ago. Following the invention of agriculture hunter-gatherers have been displaced by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement, sometimes extensively, their foraging activity with farming and/or keeping animals.
The earliest humans probably lived primarily on scavenging, not actual hunting. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in mixed habitats which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals themselves for meat, they used carcasses of large animals killed by other predators or carcasses from animals that died by natural causes.
wn.com/Hunter_gatherer -
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as "indigenous" according to one of the various definitions of the term, though there is no universally accepted definition.
In the late twentieth century, the term began to be used primarily to refer to ethnic groups that have historical ties to groups that existed in a territory prior to colonization or formation of a nation state, and which normally preserve a degree of cultural and political separation from the mainstream culture and political system of the nation state within the border of which the indigenous group is located. The political sense of the term defines these groups as particularly vulnerable to exploitation and oppression by nation states. As a result, a special set of political rights in accordance with international law have been set forth by international organizations such as the United Nations, the International Labour Organization and the World Bank. The United Nations have issued a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to protect the collective rights of indigenous peoples to their culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and natural resources. Depending on which precise definition of "indigenous people" used, and on the census, estimates of a world total population of Indigenous people range from 220 million Indigenous peoples in 1997 to 350 million in 2004.
wn.com/Indigenous_peoples -
Inuit
The Inuit (Inuktitut: ᐃᓄᐃᑦ, "People") are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada, the United States, and Russia. Inuit is a collective noun; the singular is "Inuk". The Inuit language is grouped under the Eskimo-Aleut family.
In the United States, the term Eskimo is commonly used in reference to these groups, because it includes both of Alaska's Yupik and Inupiat peoples while "Inuit" is not proper or accepted as a term for the Inupiat. No collective term exists for both peoples other than "Eskimo". However, natives in Canada and Greenland view the name as pejorative and "Inuit" has become more common. In Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 named the "Inuit" as a distinctive group of aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis.
The Inuit live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic and subarctic in the territory of Nunavut; "Nunavik" in the northern third of Quebec; "Nunatsiavut" and "Nunatukavut" in Labrador; and in various parts of the Northwest Territories, particularly around the Arctic Ocean. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the "Inuit Nunangat". In the United States, Inupiat live on the North Slope in Alaska and on Little Diomede Island. In Russia, they live on Big Diomede Island. The Kalaallit and other natives of Greenland are the descendants of migrations from Canada and are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union.
wn.com/Inuit -
Iroquois
The Iroquois ( /ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/), also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are a league of several nations and tribes of indigenous people of North America. After the Iroquoian-speaking peoples of present-day central and upstate New York coalesced as distinct tribes, by the 16th century or earlier, they came together in an association known today as the Iroquois League, or the "League of Peace and Power". The original Iroquois League was often known as the Five Nations, as it was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca nations. After the Tuscarora nation joined the League in 1722, the Iroquois became known as the Six Nations. The League is embodied in the Grand Council, an assembly of fifty hereditary sachems. Other Iroquian peoples lived along the St. Lawrence River, around the Great Lakes and in the American Southeast, but they were not part of the Haudenosaunee and often competed and warred with these tribes.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as upstate New York west of the Hudson River and through the Finger Lakes region. Today, the Iroquois live primarily in New York, Quebec, and Ontario.
wn.com/Iroquois -
Jean Jules Jusserand
Jean Adrien Antoine Jules Jusserand (18 February 1855 – 18 July 1932) was a French author and diplomat. He was the French ambassador to the United States during World War I.
Born at Lyon, Jusserand entered the diplomatic service in 1876. Two years later, he became consul in London. After an interval spent in Tunis (Tunisia was at that time a French protectorate), he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French Embassy.
In 1890, Jusserand became French minister at Copenhagen. In 1902, he was transferred to Washington, where he remained until 1925 during the Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Warren Harding, and Calvin Coolidge administrations. He was a confidant of President Theodore Roosevelt and part of his "secret du roi" group. During the Polish-Soviet War, Jusserand took part in a diplomatic mission to the Second Polish Republic. In 1919 he was involved with the Treaty of Versailles.
Jusserand was a close student of English literature who produced some lucid and vivacious books on comparatively little-known subjects:
wn.com/Jean_Jules_Jusserand -
John Norden
John Norden (c.1547–1625) was an English cartographer, chorographer and antiquary. He planned (but did not complete) a series of county maps and accompanying county histories of England, the Speculum Britanniae. He was also a prolific writer of devotional works.
Norden is known to have been born in Somerset, to a "genteel" family, but his family background is otherwise obscure. He entered Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1564; and graduated BA in 1568 and MA in 1573. He subsequently led a peripatetic existence, but for much of his life had his home in Middlesex on the outskirts of London: he was living in Walham Green, Middlesex, in 1592; by 1607 he was at Hendon, Middlesex, where he remained until 1619; and in the latter year he moved to the parish of St Giles in the Fields, where he eventually died in 1625. He was married and had at least two sons, John Norden junior, and Josias.
The first instalment of Norden's chorographical project was published in 1593 as the Speculum Britanniae: the First Parte: an Historicall, & Chorographicall Discription of Middlesex. The manuscript in the British Library (Harleian MS 570) has corrections in Lord Burleigh's handwriting.
wn.com/John_Norden -
Juliana Berners
Juliana Berners (or Barnes or Bernes) (born 1388?), English writer on heraldry, hawking and hunting, is said to have been prioress of Sopwell Nunnery near St Albans. Her book on fishing was the first known book on fishing by a woman.
She was probably brought up at court and, after she adopted the religious life, she still retained her love of hawking, hunting and fishing, and her passion for field sports. She is the supposed author of the work generally known as The Boke of Saint Albans, of which the first and rarest edition was printed in 1486 by an unknown schoolmaster at St Albans. It has no title-page. The only clue to the authorship of the Treatise, and the only documentary evidence of her, is an attribution at the end of the original 1486 book which reads: "Explicit Dam Julyans Barnes in her boke of huntyng." Her name was changed by Wynkyn de Worde to "Dame Julyans Bernes." There is no such person to be found in the pedigree of the Berners family, but there is a gap in the records of the priory of Sopwell between 1430 and 1480. De Worde's edition (fol. 1496), also without a title-page, begins: "This present boke shewyth the manere of hawkynge and huntynge: and also of diuysynge of Cote armours. It shewyth also a good matere belongynge to horses: wyth other comendable treatyses. And ferdermore of the blasynge of armys: as hereafter it maye appere." This edition was adorned by three woodcuts, and included a Treatyse of fysshynge wyth an Angle',' not contained in the St Albans edition.
wn.com/Juliana_Berners -
List of sportspeople
There are a variety of articles listing people of a particular sport.
Notes:
wn.com/List_of_sportspeople -
Marlborough College
Coordinates: 51°24′58″N 1°44′13″W / 51.416°N 1.737°W / 51.416; -1.737
Marlborough College is a British co-educational independent school for day and boarding pupils, located in Marlborough, Wiltshire.
Founded in 1843 for the education of the sons of Church of England clergy, the school now accepts both boys and girls of all beliefs. Currently there are just over 800 pupils, approximately one third of whom are female. New pupils are admitted at the ages of 13+ ("Shell entry") and 16 (Lower Sixth).
Marlborough was, in 1968, the first major British independent school to allow girls into the sixth form,[citation needed] setting a trend that many other schools would follow. The College became fully co-educational in 1989. The College has also been pioneering in other fields, making a major contribution to the School Mathematics Project (from 1961) and initiating the teaching of Business Studies at A level (from 1968). Fagging was officially abolished in the 1920s, and Marlborough was one of the first public schools to do so. However, unofficial fagging did persist beyond this change for some time. In 1963 a group of boys, led by the future political biographer Ben Pimlott, wrote a book, "Marlborough, an open examination written by the boys," describing life at the school. The writer and television critic T.C. Worsley wrote about predatory masters at the school in his critically acclaimed autobiography Flannelled Fool: A Slice of a Life in the Thirties.
wn.com/Marlborough_College -
Maurice Davin
Maurice Davin (1842–1927) was an Irish farmer who became co-founder of the Gaelic Athletic Association. He was also the first President of the GAA and the only man ever to serve two terms as president.
He was born in Carrick-on-Suir, County Tipperary. He became an extremely talented athlete and achieved international fame in the 1870s when he held numerous world records for running, hurdling, jumping and weight-throwing. In fact at a time he was regarded as the best athlete in the world.[citation needed]
From 1887 he actively campaigned for a body to control Irish athletics. Athletics in Ireland at the time was controlled directly by an English association which excluded the masses from most competitions.
Davin wrote "the laws under which athletic sports are held in Ireland were designed mainly for the guidance of Englishmen, and they do not deal at all with the characteristic sports and pastimes of the Irish race. Irish football is a great game" he wrote, "but there are no rules for either hurling or football and they are often dangerous."
wn.com/Maurice_Davin -
Michael Drayton
Michael Drayton (1563 – 23 December 1631) was an English poet who came to prominence in the Elizabethan era.
Drayton was born at Hartshill, near Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England. Almost nothing is known about his early life, beyond the fact that in 1580 he was in the service of Thomas Goodere of Collingham, Nottinghamshire. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholars, on the basis of scattered allusions in his poems and dedications, suggested that Drayton might have studied at the University of Oxford, and been intimate with the Polesworth branch of the Goodere family. More recent work has cast doubt on those speculations.
In 1591 he produced his first book, The Harmony of the Church, a volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. It is notable for a version of the Song of Solomon, executed with considerable richness of expression. However, with the exception of forty copies, seized by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the whole edition was destroyed by public order. Nevertheless, Drayton published a vast amount within the next few years.
wn.com/Michael_Drayton -
Māori people
The Māori (Māori pronunciation: [ˈmaːɔɾi], English: /ˈmaʊəri/) are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand. The Māori originated with settlers from eastern Polynesia, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages at some time before 1300 CE. Over several centuries in isolation, the Polynesian settlers developed a unique culture that became known as the "Māori", with their own language, a rich mythology, distinctive crafts and performing arts. Early Māori formed tribal groups, based on eastern Polynesian social customs and organisation. Horticulture flourished using plants they introduced, and later a prominent warrior culture emerged.
The arrival of Europeans to New Zealand starting from the 17th century brought enormous change to the Māori way of life. Māori people gradually adopted many aspects of Western society and culture. Initial relations between Māori and Europeans were largely amicable, and with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 the two cultures coexisted as part of a new British colony. Rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s. Social upheaval, decades of conflict and epidemics of introduced disease took a devastating toll on the Māori population, which went into a dramatic decline. But by the start of the 20th century the Māori population had begun to recover, and efforts were made to increase their standing in wider New Zealand society. Traditional Māori culture has enjoyed a revival, and a protest movement emerged in the 1960s advocating Māori issues.
wn.com/Māori_people -
Philip Sidney
Sir Philip Sidney (30 November 1554 – 17 October 1586) was an English poet, courtier and soldier, and is remembered as one of the most prominent figures of the Elizabethan Age. His works include Astrophel and Stella, The Defence of Poetry (also known as The Defence of Poesy or An Apology for Poetry), and The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia.
Born at Penshurst Place, Kent, he was the eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney and Lady Mary Dudley. His mother was the eldest daughter of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and the sister of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester. His younger brother, Robert was a statesman and patron of the arts, and was created Earl of Leicester. His younger sister, Mary, married Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke. Mary Sidney, who upon her marriage became the Countess of Pembroke, was a writer, translator and literary patron. Sidney dedicated his longest work, the Arcadia, to her. After her brother's death, Mary reworked the Arcadia, now known as The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia.
wn.com/Philip_Sidney -
Richard Lindon
Richard Lindon (30 June 1816 - 10 June 1887) was an English leatherworker who was instrumental in the development of the modern-day rugby ball by advancing the craft for ball, rubber bladder, and air pump.
Lindon set up home and shop at 6/6a Lawrence Sheriff Street, Rugby, England, immediately opposite the front doors of the Quadrangle of the Rugby School. As a boot and shoemaker, Lindon supplied footwear to the townsfolk of Rugby including the teachers and pupils of the school.
Balls in those days were not spherical, but more plum-shaped. This was because a pig's bladder was inflated by mouth through the snapped stem of a clay pipe then encased in panels of stitched leather. As such, the individual bladder dictated the shape of each ball.
By 1849, Lindon, now aged 33, who naturally had regular supplies of boot leather delivered, found himself bombarded by the boys of Rugby School to manufacture footballs for them. Lindon and his wife worked flat-out producing more balls than shoes.
Mrs. Lindon, besides being mother to 17 children, was the official "green" pig's bladder inflator. Blowing pig's bladders was not without its hazards. If the pig was diseased, it was going into Mrs. Lindon's lungs. Eventually Mrs. Lindon blew on enough infected pig's bladders to fall ill and consequently die.
wn.com/Richard_Lindon -
Richard Mulcaster
Richard Mulcaster (ca. 1531, Carlisle, Cumberland – 15 April 1611, Essex), is known best for his headmasterships and pedagogic writings. He is often regarded as the founder of English language lexicography.
In 1561 he became the first headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School in London, where he wrote his two treatises on education, Positions (1581) and Elementarie (1582). Merchant Taylors' School was at that time the largest school in the country, and Mulcaster worked to establish a rigorous curriculum which was to set the standard for education in Latin, Greek and Hebrew. In 1596 he became High Master of St Paul's School.
Mulcaster was born into the gentry in Carlisle, and began his formal education at Eton College, from where he progressed to King's College, Cambridge. Throughout his time at Cambridge and later at Oxford, he met important scholars who were to influence his later thinking, including Sir John Cheke and John Caius. By the time he left Oxford, Mulcaster was known for his intellectual prowess in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, which he took to Merchant Taylors' School.
wn.com/Richard_Mulcaster -
Robert Guérin
Robert Guérin (1876 – 1952) was a French journalist and the 1st President and founder of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association. A journalist with Le Matin newspaper, Guerin was actively involved in football through his role as secretary of the Football Department of the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques. He brought together representatives of the first seven member countries in Paris for the signing of FIFA's foundation act and agreement of the first FIFA statutes. On 22 May 1904, Guerin - then just 28 - was elected president at the inaugural FIFA Congress and remained in his post for two years, during which time another eight associations came on board, including the English Football Association.
wn.com/Robert_Guérin -
Rugby School
Coordinates: 52°22′03″N 1°15′40″W / 52.36750°N 1.26114°W / 52.36750; -1.26114
Rugby School is a co-educational day and boarding school located in the town of Rugby, Warwickshire, England. It is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain. The influence of Rugby and its pupils and masters in the nineteenth century was enormous and in many ways the stereotype of the English public school is a reworking of Thomas Arnold's Rugby. It is one of the best known schools in the country and seen as an innovator in education (e.g. see its part in developing the Cambridge Pre-U).
Rugby School was founded in 1567 as a provision in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, who had made his fortune supplying groceries to Queen Elizabeth I of England. Since Lawrence Sheriff lived in Rugby and the neighbouring Brownsover, the school was intended to be a free grammar school for the boys of those towns. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity. Its history during that trying period is characterized mainly by a series of lawsuits between descendants of the founder, who tried to defeat the intentions of the testator, and the masters and trustees, who tried to carry them out. A final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favor of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth.
wn.com/Rugby_School -
Shrewsbury School
Coordinates: 52°42′14″N 2°45′44″W / 52.7038°N 2.7622°W / 52.7038; -2.7622
Shrewsbury School is a co-educational independent school for pupils aged 13 to 18, founded by Royal Charter in 1552. The present campus to which the school moved in 1882 is located on the banks of the River Severn in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. It is one of the original nine Clarendon Schools (including Eton College, Harrow and Charterhouse School) that were defined by the Public Schools Act 1868 Originally a boarding school for boys, girls have been admitted into the Sixth Form since 2008 and its mixed gender roll of around 720 includes approximately 130 day pupils. Pupils are admitted at the age of 13 by selective examination. For approximately ten per cent of the pupils, English is a second or additional language. The school's old boys – or "Old Salopians" – include naturalist Charles Darwin, poet Sir Philip Sidney, his biographer, Fulke Greville, Astronomer Royal Martin Rees, authors Samuel Butler and Nevil Shute, and broadcasters such as John Peel and Michael Palin.
wn.com/Shrewsbury_School -
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt ( /ˈroʊzəvɛlt/ ROH-zə-velt; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was the 26th President of the United States of America (1901–1909). He is noted for his exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy" persona and robust masculinity. He was a leader of the Republican Party and founder of the short-lived Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party of 1912. Before becoming President, he held offices at the city, state, and federal levels. Roosevelt's achievements as a naturalist, explorer, hunter, author, and soldier are as much a part of his fame as any office he held as a politician. Roosevelt was 42 years old when sworn in as President of the United States in 1901, making him the youngest president ever; he beat out the youngest elected president, John F. Kennedy, by only one year. Roosevelt was also one of only three sitting presidents to have won the Nobel Peace Prize, the other two being Woodrow Wilson and Barack Obama.
wn.com/Theodore_Roosevelt -
Tom Wills
Thomas Wentworth "Tom" Wills (19 August 1835 – 2 May 1880) was a 19th-century sportsman who is considered one of the pioneers of the sport of Australian rules football. Also a notable cricketer, Wills played first-class matches for Victoria, Kent, and the Marylebone Cricket Club.
Born in the British colony of New South Wales, Wills grew up on properties owned by his father, the noted pastoralist Horatio Wills, near Gundagai and Ararat, in what is now the Australian state of Victoria. At the age of 14, Wills was sent to England to attend Rugby School, where he learnt the sport of cricket, as well as an early version of what is now called Rugby football. During his period in England, Wills attended Cambridge University, though he did not matriculate, and played first-class cricket matches for Kent and the Marylebone Cricket Club, as well as representing the university's cricket club in the annual match against Oxford. At this stage, he was described as one of the finest young cricketers in England by Bell's Sporting Life.
wn.com/Tom_Wills -
Uppingham School
Coordinates: 52°35′16″N 0°43′30″W / 52.58778°N 0.725°W / 52.58778; -0.725
Uppingham School is a co-educational independent school of the English public school tradition, situated in the small town of Uppingham in Rutland, England. The school was founded in 1584 by Robert Johnson, the Archdeacon of Leicester who also established Oakham School.
The school's current Headmaster, Richard Harman MA, is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference and the school is a member of the Rugby Group of independent schools in the United Kingdom.
The Reverend Edward Thring (headmaster 1853–1887) is perhaps the school's best-known headmaster. His many innovative changes to the school's curriculum were later adopted in other English public schools. During his headship the school moved temporarily to Borth in Wales after an outbreak of typhoid ravaged the town. The move to Borth is commemorated in an annual service, held in the school chapel.
Uppingham has a tradition for high musical standards based on the work of Paul David and Robert Sterndale Bennett and has recently opened a new music school, a fusion of new and old buildings named after the first Director of Music, Paul David. The current Director of Music is Stephen Williams.
wn.com/Uppingham_School -
Walter Camp
Walter Chauncey Camp (April 7, 1859 – March 14, 1925) was an American football player, coach, and sports writer known as the "Father of American Football". With John Heisman, Amos Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Fielding H. Yost, and George Halas, Camp was one of the most accomplished persons in the early history of American football. He played college football at Yale College from 1876 to 1882. Camp served as the head football coach at Yale from 1888 to 1892 before moving to Stanford University, where he coached in December 1892 and in 1894 and 1895. Camp's Yale teams of 1888, 1891, and 1892 have been recognized as national champions. Camp was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1951.
Camp was born in the city of New Britain, Connecticut, the son of Leverett Lee and Ellen Sophia (Cornwell) Camp. He attended Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, entered Yale College in 1876, and graduated in 1880. At Yale he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and Skull and Bones. He attended Yale Medical School, where his studies were interrupted first by an outbreak of typhoid fever and then by work for the Manhattan Watch Company. He worked for the New Haven Clock Company beginning in 1883, working his way up to chairman of the board of directors.
wn.com/Walter_Camp -
Westminster School
Coordinates: 51°29′54″N 0°07′42″W / 51.4984°N 0.1284°W / 51.4984; -0.1284
The Royal College of St. Peter in Westminster, better known as Westminster School, is one of Britain's leading independent schools, with the highest Oxford and Cambridge acceptance rate of any secondary school or college in Britain. Standing in the precincts of Westminster Abbey in central London, and with a history stretching back to the 11th century, the school's notable alumni include Ben Jonson, Robert Hooke,Christopher Wren, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham,Edward Gibbon, Henry Mayhew, A. A. Milne, Tony Benn and seven Prime Ministers. The school traditionally encourages independent and individual thinking. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven, and to the senior school at age thirteen; girls are admitted only at sixteen. The school has around 750 pupils; around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends, after Saturday morning school. It is one of the original nine British public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868.
wn.com/Westminster_School -
William FitzStephen
William Fitzstephen (also William fitz Stephen), (died c. 1191) was a cleric and administrator in the service of Thomas Becket, becoming a Subdeacon in his chapel, with responsibility for perusing letters and petitions. He witnessed Becket's murder, and wrote his biography - the Vita Sancti Thomae (Life of St. Thomas).
Fitzstephen had been Becket's personal, household clerk for ten years and, when the prelate became Chancellor of England, he gave his clerk full authority to act in his name in diocesan matters. When Becket was forced into exile, after refusing to sign the Constitutions of Clarendon, King Henry accepted a petition, in verse, from Fitzstephen and pardoned him from the banishment meted upon his master. When Becket was reconciled with the king, Fitzstephen became his administrator once more. Fitzstephen was among those of Becket's advisors who cautioned against excommunicating Henry, as the archbishop later acknowledged.
Fitzstephen also wrote an interesting account of London in the 12th century, which was included in Becket's biography as a preface, "Descriptio Nobilissimi Civitatis Londoniae". The three editions of this work demonstrate a continuing familiarity with the life of the city, and for this reason he is not thought to be the same "Thomas Fitzstephen" whom Henry appointed to be Sheriff of Gloucester and itinerant justice in 1171.
wn.com/William_FitzStephen -
William Hammersley
William Josiah Sumner Hammersley (born 25 September 1826, Ash, Surrey, England - died 1886) was a prominent sports journalist for Bell's Life in Victoria and later The Australasian (Victoria), one of the four men credited with setting down the original rules of the Australian rules football.
He was educated at Aldenham School.[citation needed] He was educted privately in Billericay and at Trinity College, Cambridge, though he did not graduate with a degree.
He was a prominent cricketer, having played for Cambridge University Cricket Club, Surrey County Cricket Club and Marylebone Cricket Club.
He married Jane Thirkettle, 23 Sep 1849, in London, England and had four children.
Hammersley migrated to Melbourne and upon his arrival to Australia, he became a member of the Melbourne Cricket Club and worked as a sports journalist.
He captained the first Victorian XI to visit Sydney for an inter-colonial match in 1857 and was a right arm batter/bowler between 1847 and 1861.
He was a personal friend of fellow Cambridge cricketer Thomas Wentworth Wills and helped to give momentum to Wills calls to form a football club.
wn.com/William_Hammersley -
William Hone
William Hone (3 June 1780 – 8 November 1842) was an English writer, satirist and bookseller. His victorious court battle against government censorship in 1817 marked a turning point in the fight for British press freedom.
Hone was born at Bath, and had a strict religious upbringing. The only education he received was to be taught to read from the Bible. His father moved to London in 1783, and in 1790 Hone was placed in an attorney's office. After two and a half years in the office of a solicitor at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a solicitor at Gray's Inn. But he disliked the law, and had learned to think for himself. To the great concern of his father, he joined the London Corresponding Society in 1796, which campaigned to extend the vote to working men and was deeply unpopular with the government, who had tried to charge its leaders with treason.
Hone married in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating library in Lambeth Walk. He soon moved to St Martin's Churchyard, where he brought out his first publication, Shaw's Gardener (1806). It was at this time that he and his friend, John Bone, tried to establish a popular savings bank, and even spoke to the President of the Board of Trade about the project; they were unsuccessful. Bone then joined Hone in a bookseller's business; but bankruptcy was the result.
wn.com/William_Hone -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.
wn.com/William_Shakespeare -
William Strachey
William Strachey (4 April 1572 – 21 June 1621 (buried)) was an English writer whose works are among the primary sources for the early history of the English colonisation of North America. He is best remembered today as the eye-witness reporter of the 1609 shipwreck on the uninhabited island of Bermuda of the colonial ship Sea Venture, which was caught in a hurricane while sailing to Virginia. The survivors eventually reached Virginia after building two small ships during the ten months they spent on the island. His account of the incident and of the Virginia colony is thought by most Shakespearean scholars to have been a source for Shakespeare’s play The Tempest.
Strachey was born in Saffron Walden, a small market town in Essex, England, to William Strachey (d. 1598) and Mary Cooke (d. 1587), on an estate purchased by his grandfather in the 1560s. At the age of 16, he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge in 1588. He later studied at Gray's Inn, but there is no evidence he practiced law.
On 9 June 1595 Strachey married Frances Forster and settled near her home in Crowhurst in Surrey. They had two children, William, born 1596, and Edmund, born 1604. Strachey supported his family from his inheritance from his father, which he obtained after a legal battle with his stepmother, Elizabeth Brockett.
wn.com/William_Strachey -
William Webb Ellis
Rev. William Webb Ellis (24 November 1806 – 24 February 1872) was an Anglican clergyman who is famous for allegedly being the inventor of Rugby football whilst a pupil at Rugby School.
Web Ellis's name is firmly established in rugby union folklore and the William Webb Ellis Cup is presented to the winners of the Rugby World Cup.
Webb Ellis was born in Salford, Lancashire (some sources say he was born in Manchester as Webb Ellis himself said he was born there in the 1851 census as he later moved to the city). He was the younger of two sons of James Ellis, an officer in the Dragoon Guards, and Ann Webb, whom James married in Exeter in 1804. After his father was killed at the Battle of Albuera in 1811, Mrs Ellis decided to move to Rugby, Warwickshire so that William and his older brother Thomas could receive an education at Rugby School with no cost as a local foundationer (i.e. a pupil living within a radius of 10 miles of the Rugby Clock Tower). He attended the school from 1816 to 1825 and was recorded as being a good scholar and cricketer, although it was noted that he was 'rather inclined to take unfair advantage at cricket'. The incident in which Webb Ellis supposedly caught the ball in his arms during a football match (which was allowed) and ran with it (which was not) meant to have happened in the latter half of 1823.
wn.com/William_Webb_Ellis -
World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
wn.com/World_War_I
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Preview: Mata on Man City
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:08
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Juan Mata spoke to Chelsea TV ahead of the Premier League game against Manchester City. Watch the full interview and listen to Live match commentary on Chelsea TV: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Preview_Mata_on_Man_City
Juan Mata spoke to Chelsea TV ahead of the Premier League game against Manchester City. Watch the full interview and listen to Live match commentary on Chelsea TV: bit.ly
Ferguson on de Gea saves v Real Madrid - Man United v Reading preview | Premier League
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Alex Ferguson gives praise to David De Gea after he pulls off numerous saves to deny Real Madrid a first leg lead in the Uefa Champions League. Subscribe to /football - bit.ly /Football on Youtube brings you goals, highlights, player & manager interviews & more from the greatest soccer leagues in the world. Visit /football for official highlights from the Argentinian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Ukrainian football leagues and yet more soon. Like us on Facebook - on.fb.me Follow us on Twitter - bit.ly +1 on Google Plus - bit.ly Please note some viewing restrictions apply to highlights content.
http://wn.com/Ferguson_on_de_Gea_saves_v_Real_Madrid_Man_United_v_Reading_preview_|_Premier_League
Alex Ferguson gives praise to David De Gea after he pulls off numerous saves to deny Real Madrid a first leg lead in the Uefa Champions League. Subscribe to /football - bit.ly /Football on Youtube brings you goals, highlights, player & manager interviews & more from the greatest soccer leagues in the world. Visit /football for official highlights from the Argentinian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Ukrainian football leagues and yet more soon. Like us on Facebook - on.fb.me Follow us on Twitter - bit.ly +1 on Google Plus - bit.ly Please note some viewing restrictions apply to highlights content.
- published: 15 Feb 2013
- views: 14851
- author: football
Real Football Talk Podcast - Pre season discussion and predictions
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 72:25
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Pre_season_discussion_and_predictions
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 13 Aug 2012
- views: 433
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
THE HARLEM SHAKE Manchester City Football Club
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:32
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
The only Premier League Club to take on the Harlem Shake! Thanks to Baauer! Buy the track here: itunes.apple.com Subscribe for FREE and never miss another CityTV video. www.youtube.com www.mcfc.co.uk http www.twitter.com
http://wn.com/THE_HARLEM_SHAKE_Manchester_City_Football_Club
The only Premier League Club to take on the Harlem Shake! Thanks to Baauer! Buy the track here: itunes.apple.com Subscribe for FREE and never miss another CityTV video. www.youtube.com www.mcfc.co.uk http www.twitter.com
- published: 20 Feb 2013
- views: 3385505
- author: mcfcofficial
Real Football Talk Podcast - Premier league season 2012/13 week 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 32:14
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
follow me on twitter: twitter.com check out ron aka clickinsects channel: www.youtube.com check out Kamo aka intothebarriers channel: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_season_2012_13_week_1
follow me on twitter: twitter.com check out ron aka clickinsects channel: www.youtube.com check out Kamo aka intothebarriers channel: www.youtube.com
- published: 20 Aug 2012
- views: 402
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - premier league season 2012/13 week 2 - modric signs for real madrid
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 53:36
- Updated: 13 Sep 2012
check out the guys channels: rons: www.youtube.com Farrys: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_premier_league_season_2012_13_week_2_modric_signs_for_real_madrid
check out the guys channels: rons: www.youtube.com Farrys: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 27 Aug 2012
- views: 607
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - - Premier league season 2012 week 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 52:52
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
check out the guys channels: rons: www.youtube.com Farrys: www.youtube.com Gruns twitter (he ha sno utube): twitter.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_season_2012_week_3
check out the guys channels: rons: www.youtube.com Farrys: www.youtube.com Gruns twitter (he ha sno utube): twitter.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 03 Sep 2012
- views: 436
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - Premier league season 2012/13 week 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 50:29
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com Ron aka clickinsect's channel: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_season_2012_13_week_4
kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com Ron aka clickinsect's channel: www.youtube.com
- published: 18 Sep 2012
- views: 827
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - Premier league season 2012/13 week 5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 51:51
- Updated: 09 Feb 2013
kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com Ron aka clickinsect's channel: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_season_2012_13_week_5
kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com Ron aka clickinsect's channel: www.youtube.com
- published: 24 Sep 2012
- views: 541
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - Real Football Talk Podcast Week 9 Premier league season torres offside goals suarez celebration
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 43:43
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com Glens: www.youtube.com/glenn0010 follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Week_9_Premier_league_season_torres_offside_goals_suarez_celebration
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com Glens: www.youtube.com/glenn0010 follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 29 Oct 2012
- views: 721
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Premier league season week 6 2011/2012 steve keane sacked
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 36:06
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
follow me on twitter: twitter.com kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Premier_league_season_week_6_2011_2012_steve_keane_sacked
follow me on twitter: twitter.com kamo aka intothebarrier's channel:www.youtube.com
- published: 01 Oct 2012
- views: 271
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - Premier league season 2012/13 week 7
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 56:49
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_season_2012_13_week_7
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 08 Oct 2012
- views: 378
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Real Football Talk Podcast - Premier league Season week 8 2012/13
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 43:53
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Real_Football_Talk_Podcast_Premier_league_Season_week_8_2012_13
check out the guys channels ron aka clickinsect: www.youtube.com farry aka cockneyrebel9: www.youtube.com kamo aka intothebarrier: www.youtube.com follow me on twitter: twitter.com
- published: 22 Oct 2012
- views: 442
- author: MaxPlaysFIFA
Premiership Football Results 9th - 11th Feb 2013 - UK Football
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:52
- Updated: 23 Feb 2013
The Premiership Football Results in the UK results for weekend of 9th, 10th, 11th feb 2013 and league table as of 12th Feb 2013. Man Utd make an impressive 12pt lead over Man City. Liverpool get beat at home by West Brom. City under a great deal of pressure as the race seems to be over... or is it? Subscribe for every weekends action in the UK Football Premiership and also the very latest free bets offers from online bookies footballmadchat.blogspot.co.uk
http://wn.com/Premiership_Football_Results_9th_11th_Feb_2013_UK_Football
The Premiership Football Results in the UK results for weekend of 9th, 10th, 11th feb 2013 and league table as of 12th Feb 2013. Man Utd make an impressive 12pt lead over Man City. Liverpool get beat at home by West Brom. City under a great deal of pressure as the race seems to be over... or is it? Subscribe for every weekends action in the UK Football Premiership and also the very latest free bets offers from online bookies footballmadchat.blogspot.co.uk
- published: 12 Feb 2013
- views: 8
- author: Nigel Clarkson
Premiership Football Results 2/2/13 and 3/2/13 - Man Utd have a 9 point lead at the top
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:21
- Updated: 23 Feb 2013
All the Premiership Football Results for Saturday 2nd Feb 2013. Man Utd win at Fulham 0-1 to maintain their lead at the top with a 9point margin over Manchester City. Two results on Sunday 3/2/13: Man City 2 v Liverpool 2. West Brom 0 v Tottenham 1 footballmadchat.blogspot.co.uk
http://wn.com/Premiership_Football_Results_2_2_13_and_3_2_13_Man_Utd_have_a_9_point_lead_at_the_top
All the Premiership Football Results for Saturday 2nd Feb 2013. Man Utd win at Fulham 0-1 to maintain their lead at the top with a 9point margin over Manchester City. Two results on Sunday 3/2/13: Man City 2 v Liverpool 2. West Brom 0 v Tottenham 1 footballmadchat.blogspot.co.uk
- published: 02 Feb 2013
- views: 97
- author: Nigel Clarkson
Empire - Scoring Big: The global world of football
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:31
- Updated: 12 Feb 2013
Follow on Twitter: twitter.com Follow on Facebook: www.facebook.com How is football changing the world--and the world changing football? Football is more than just a sport, more than tournaments and trophies, more than big business. The game can be an engine of conflict or a force for change, transcending borders and cultural backgrounds and forging new affiliations and identities. Once entirely British, today, more than 60 percent of Premier League players come from overseas and half the teams are foreign-owned. Meanwhile in Egypt, football fans played a significant role in the revolution and continue to affect the country's future. Empire explores the politics and power of the world's most popular sport, and the global implications of the game. In an exclusive interview with Sepp Blatter, the FIFA president, we talk about the changing state of football across the world. Interviewees: Sepp Blatter: president of FIFA Andy Appleby: chairman and co-owner of the Derby County Rams Dan Jones: lead partner of the Sports Business Group at Deloitte Dave Zirin: sports editor at The Nation magazine Menna Elshishini: an Egyptian activist Ramy Essam: Egyptian musician and activist Shiko: member of the Egyptian Ultras Al Ahlawy Guests: Mina Rzouki: writer and broadcaster for The Daily Mirror and the World Football Show television programme Simon Kuper: columnist for The Financial Times and the author of several books about football including Soccernomics Ashling O'Connor: sports news ...
http://wn.com/Empire_Scoring_Big_The_global_world_of_football
Follow on Twitter: twitter.com Follow on Facebook: www.facebook.com How is football changing the world--and the world changing football? Football is more than just a sport, more than tournaments and trophies, more than big business. The game can be an engine of conflict or a force for change, transcending borders and cultural backgrounds and forging new affiliations and identities. Once entirely British, today, more than 60 percent of Premier League players come from overseas and half the teams are foreign-owned. Meanwhile in Egypt, football fans played a significant role in the revolution and continue to affect the country's future. Empire explores the politics and power of the world's most popular sport, and the global implications of the game. In an exclusive interview with Sepp Blatter, the FIFA president, we talk about the changing state of football across the world. Interviewees: Sepp Blatter: president of FIFA Andy Appleby: chairman and co-owner of the Derby County Rams Dan Jones: lead partner of the Sports Business Group at Deloitte Dave Zirin: sports editor at The Nation magazine Menna Elshishini: an Egyptian activist Ramy Essam: Egyptian musician and activist Shiko: member of the Egyptian Ultras Al Ahlawy Guests: Mina Rzouki: writer and broadcaster for The Daily Mirror and the World Football Show television programme Simon Kuper: columnist for The Financial Times and the author of several books about football including Soccernomics Ashling O'Connor: sports news ...
- published: 29 Dec 2012
- views: 3709
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Joe Hart v David De Gea | Stat Comparison - 2012/13 Premier League
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:55
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
Who is the better goalkeeper - Man United's David De Gea or Man City's Joe Hart? Let us know what you think below... Check out www.talksport.co.uk for more football entertainment SUBSCRIBE to get more funny videos delivered right to your news feed: bit.ly FOLLOW us on Twitter and tell us what else you want to watch on talkSPORT's YouTube channel: bit.ly LIKE us on Facebook to join the world's most intriguing sporting debates: on.fb.me
http://wn.com/Joe_Hart_v_David_De_Gea_|_Stat_Comparison_2012_13_Premier_League
Who is the better goalkeeper - Man United's David De Gea or Man City's Joe Hart? Let us know what you think below... Check out www.talksport.co.uk for more football entertainment SUBSCRIBE to get more funny videos delivered right to your news feed: bit.ly FOLLOW us on Twitter and tell us what else you want to watch on talkSPORT's YouTube channel: bit.ly LIKE us on Facebook to join the world's most intriguing sporting debates: on.fb.me
- published: 11 Feb 2013
- views: 31696
- author: talkSPORTmagazine
10 Most Shocking Moments In Premier League History
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:10
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
From Robbie Fowler snorting the line to Roy Keane's tackle on Alf Inge Haaland...we countdown the Top 10 Most Shocking Moments In Premier League History. *This is a reupload of a video originally uploaded last year which was taken down due to copyright issues* Where else to find us: Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: www.twitter.com
http://wn.com/10_Most_Shocking_Moments_In_Premier_League_History
From Robbie Fowler snorting the line to Roy Keane's tackle on Alf Inge Haaland...we countdown the Top 10 Most Shocking Moments In Premier League History. *This is a reupload of a video originally uploaded last year which was taken down due to copyright issues* Where else to find us: Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: www.twitter.com
- published: 07 Feb 2013
- views: 16943
- author: TheFootballDaily
FOOTBALL FIGHTS 2012 EDITION HD | SPORTS FIGHTS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:42
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
Football Fights . FOOTBALL INJURIES - SPORTS INJURIES . . FOOTBALL FIGHTS 2012 EDITION HD - SPORTS FIGHTS - FOOTBALL INJURIES - SPORTS INJURIES - FOOTBALL TACKLES - TOP 10 SPORTS FIGHTS Football Fight and Pitch Invasion - Tajikistan Premier League Football Fight and Pitch...
http://wn.com/FOOTBALL_FIGHTS_2012_EDITION_HD_|_SPORTS_FIGHTS
Football Fights . FOOTBALL INJURIES - SPORTS INJURIES . . FOOTBALL FIGHTS 2012 EDITION HD - SPORTS FIGHTS - FOOTBALL INJURIES - SPORTS INJURIES - FOOTBALL TACKLES - TOP 10 SPORTS FIGHTS Football Fight and Pitch Invasion - Tajikistan Premier League Football Fight and Pitch...
- published: 23 Sep 2012
- views: 274566
- author: bvvok
Nike Football: Nike Academy 2-0 Everton
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
Everton. The Premier League Academy that produces talents like Wayne Rooney. But with resilience, you can compete with anyone. Watch how Jimmy Gilligan's side did.
http://wn.com/Nike_Football_Nike_Academy_2-0_Everton
Everton. The Premier League Academy that produces talents like Wayne Rooney. But with resilience, you can compete with anyone. Watch how Jimmy Gilligan's side did.
- published: 25 Dec 2012
- views: 134180
- author: NikeFootball
YWC Premier League Update Week 8 + Football News & More
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:56
- Updated: 23 Feb 2013
JOIN MY FANTASY FOOTBALL LEAGUE: 1. Go to fantasyfootball.skysports.com 2, Log in or create a new account 3. Make a team 4. Join the league (Name YWC Premier League --- PIN: 8016569 5. HAVE FUN!!! twitter.com Skype: daniel.parkin01 British Fist Channel: www.youtube.com British Fist Facebook: www.facebook.com British Fist Twitter Page: twitter.com
http://wn.com/YWC_Premier_League_Update_Week_8_+_Football_News_More
JOIN MY FANTASY FOOTBALL LEAGUE: 1. Go to fantasyfootball.skysports.com 2, Log in or create a new account 3. Make a team 4. Join the league (Name YWC Premier League --- PIN: 8016569 5. HAVE FUN!!! twitter.com Skype: daniel.parkin01 British Fist Channel: www.youtube.com British Fist Facebook: www.facebook.com British Fist Twitter Page: twitter.com
- published: 24 Oct 2012
- views: 130
- author: MrParkin01
Football Predictor - Manchester City Vs QPR | 13/05/2012 | Premier League Finale!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:39
- Updated: 03 Feb 2013
a like really helps me out :) thanks! ... follow me on twitter here: twitter.com (GIVEAWAY AT TONIGHT OR TOMORROW SORRY!) last football predictor of this premier league season, give your thoughts in the comment section as always, not the most popular series on my channel this but adds a whole new dimension to my channel with people getting involved etc. thanks for support may continue for euros. -Rossi so i've changed it round, to make everyone happy :) changed the series, let me know what you think of it, would mean a lot! this is the series where i talk about something else that isn't FIFA related, although FIFA is in the background! (FIFA is in the background too not bore you, if you would rather pictures LOL just say, but FIFA is there and we are not talking about the gameplay.) LAST WEEKS WINNERS: Rossi doesnt just play fifa.... www.youtube.com FIFA tournaments, to win cash here: www.begosu.com
http://wn.com/Football_Predictor_Manchester_City_Vs_QPR_|_13_05_2012_|_Premier_League_Finale!
a like really helps me out :) thanks! ... follow me on twitter here: twitter.com (GIVEAWAY AT TONIGHT OR TOMORROW SORRY!) last football predictor of this premier league season, give your thoughts in the comment section as always, not the most popular series on my channel this but adds a whole new dimension to my channel with people getting involved etc. thanks for support may continue for euros. -Rossi so i've changed it round, to make everyone happy :) changed the series, let me know what you think of it, would mean a lot! this is the series where i talk about something else that isn't FIFA related, although FIFA is in the background! (FIFA is in the background too not bore you, if you would rather pictures LOL just say, but FIFA is there and we are not talking about the gameplay.) LAST WEEKS WINNERS: Rossi doesnt just play fifa.... www.youtube.com FIFA tournaments, to win cash here: www.begosu.com
- published: 12 May 2012
- views: 32298
- author: RossiHD
The Boot Room - FIFA 13 Tactical Tips | Seasons Mode: Teams | The Boot Room
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:47
- Updated: 23 Feb 2013
Learn more about which teams to use in Seasons Mode for FIFA 13 that may give you the edge online including RSC Anderlecht, FC Anzhi Makhachkala, Olympique de Marseille and Udinese. Darren Cross from Match Magazine explains to Matt Cuttle how these non-premiership 4 Star teams, their formations and line-ups will up your game when playing FIFA 13, in the latest episode of The Boot Room.
http://wn.com/The_Boot_Room_FIFA_13_Tactical_Tips_|_Seasons_Mode_Teams_|_The_Boot_Room
Learn more about which teams to use in Seasons Mode for FIFA 13 that may give you the edge online including RSC Anderlecht, FC Anzhi Makhachkala, Olympique de Marseille and Udinese. Darren Cross from Match Magazine explains to Matt Cuttle how these non-premiership 4 Star teams, their formations and line-ups will up your game when playing FIFA 13, in the latest episode of The Boot Room.
- published: 07 Jan 2013
- views: 6977
- author: eavision
photo: Public Domain
23 Feb 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "No one who works full-time should have to live in poverty." -President Barack Obama, State of the Union Address, 2013. As of late, I have grown very fond and reflective of the workers at McDonalds. Since I do not have the internet in my apartment, I usually go there every Sunday where I drink coffee and read the latest online news ... the exploitation of one class by another....(size: 3.7Kb)
photo: AP / Photo
22 Feb 2013
MALINDI, Kenya — In a room by the stairs, Shukrani Malingi, a Pokomo farmer, writhed on a metal cot, the skin on his back burned off. Down the hall, at a safe distance, Rahema Hageyo, an Orma girl, stared blankly out of a window, a long scar above her thimble-like neck. She was nearly decapitated by a machete chop — and she is only 9 months old. Connect With Us on Twitter ... Twitter List. Reporters and Editors ... ... Op-Ed ... N.Y ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP / SANA
22 Feb 2013
MOSCOW ' Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov accused the United States on Friday of having double standards on Syria, saying it had blocked a UN Security Council statement condemning a car bomb attack in Damascus. Washington denied it had blocked the statement and said it had only asked for balance ... “We believe these are double standards,” Lavrov said after talks with China’s foreign minister ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: UN / Sylvain Liechti
24 Feb 2013
Presidents from Africa's Great Lakes regional nations are set to sign a new peace deal aimed at bringing stability to the war-torn east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Ban Ki-moon, the UN secretary-general, who will witness the signing on Sunday at the African Union's headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, has invited 11 countries to the meeting ... But after almost two decades of war, expectations are low ... ....(size: 7.7Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
Denver Broncos) Te'o, the Football Player ... Teams at the NFL Scouting Combine want to talk football with Notre Dame linebacker Manti Te'o, not just an online hoax ... "I just want to talk to him," Executive Vice President of Football Operations John Elway said ... The linebacker answered plenty of questions about the hoax, but ultimately the NFL Scouting Combine is about football ... And Te'o the football player produced....(size: 5.2Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
(Source. SAFA - South African Football Association). Preparations for the annual 12-Nation Cyprus Women's Cup by South African Senior Women's National Team (Banyana Banyana) are on track and the girls cannot wait for the start of the tournament ... He said such tournaments were vital for the team's general growth ... distributed by. This noodl was issued by SAFA - South African Football Association and was initially posted at www.safa.net....(size: 2.7Kb)
The Oklahoman
25 Feb 2013
. By Gina Mizell .. email. STILLWATER — During the hours of live television coverage of the NFL Scouting Combine, the 40-yard dash always garners the most attention. Former Oklahoma State running back Joseph Randle clocked in at 4.63 seconds. Buy Tickets View all. 2012 OSU Football Schedule Buy tickets. email. Show / Hide Comments. Ads by Yahoo!. Mortgage Rates Hit 2.50% ... Oklahoma football ... X More in osu College football ... Oklahoma football....(size: 4.9Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
(Source. ACT Football Federation Inc) ... Here's what happened on a wet day in NSW. . MAYOR'S CUP ... But it was Monaro who should have taken the lead only minutes later ... WPL ... It was shame, but completely correct, that the match was curtailed in such a manner as both teams played some excellent football to keep the crowd absorbed despite the rain that fell intermittently throughout ... This noodl was issued by ACT Football Federation Inc....(size: 6.3Kb)
BBC News
25 Feb 2013
Sunday's gossip column 24 Feb 2013 Football ... Sunday's gossip column 24 Feb 2013 Football Sunday's Scottish Gossip 24 Feb 2013 Scottish Football Saturday's gossip column 23 Feb 2013 Football ... Breaking football news and reaction to top stories ... Full list of BBC Radio football commentaries. Football Tweets ... More from Football....(size: 5.6Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
Werner started playing flag football at the age of 12 with a club team called the Berlin Adler after starting in soccer and fell took an immediate liking to the sport ... "I just fell in love with flag football at the time, but when you turn 15 you automatically advance to tackle football and it was just the most amazing feeling just hitting people," Werner said ... Since basketball didn't work out, I wanted to do football....(size: 6.3Kb)
The Independent
25 Feb 2013
He became the most filmed non-playing substitute in the history of football. The French TV coverage – broadcast to 56 nations and 300 million people around the world – constantly broke away from French football's "classico" to zoom in on Beckham on the bench ... What did he think of French football so far, the TV reporter asked him ... "It's football....(size: 3.2Kb)
CNN
25 Feb 2013
It was all captured by a special 'Beck Cam' which host broadcaster Canal Plus had deployed to follow every move of the 37-year-old football icon, such has been the level of interest since his move to France's Ligue 1 from MLS side LA Galaxy ... Football Focus. Meet Italy's proud football racists ... Hardcore Italian football "ultra" Federico is a Lazio supporter who happily admits directing monkey chants at black players....(size: 10.3Kb)
New Straits/Business Times
25 Feb 2013
WITH football's hopes of being included in the Commonwealth Games looking slim at best, Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) president Tunku Imran Tuanku Ja'afar believes futsal would be the perfect substitute for the most popular sport on earth ... "As the Games is only an 11-day affair it would not be long enough to host a football competition but futsal, due to its univerisality and short time period, is a good alternative."....(size: 2.7Kb)
Houston Chronicle
25 Feb 2013
. February 24, 2013 . Updated. February 24, 2013 5.34pm. Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet. Page 1 of 1. SURPRISE, Ariz ... He allowed six hits, including Alcides Escobar's RBI triple ... Tweet ... Harvey ... Senior Football Showcase ... NBA.College Football ... Get your 'man cave' football ready NFL Preseason Action. Get ready for more football on TV – and in person NFC Preview ... Which teams will rise to the top The football widows’ guide to the NFL Fantasy Football....(size: 5.6Kb)
Houston Chronicle
25 Feb 2013
. February 24, 2013 . Updated. February 24, 2013 5.47pm. Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet. Page 1 of 1. FAYETTEVILLE, Ark ... Florida was second at 117 ... Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet ... Harvey ... Senior Football Showcase ... NBA.College Football ... NHL ... Get your 'man cave' football ready NFL Preseason Action. Get ready for more football on TV – and in person NFC Preview ... Which teams will rise to the top The football widows’ guide to the NFL Fantasy Football ... ....(size: 5.8Kb)
Houston Chronicle
25 Feb 2013
. February 24, 2013 . Updated. February 24, 2013 5.50pm. Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet. Page 1 of 1. GLENDALE, Ariz ... Greinke gave up one hit, a single up the middle by Jeff Keppinger ... Tweet ... Senior Football Showcase ... NBA.College Football ... Get your 'man cave' football ready NFL Preseason Action. Get ready for more football on TV – and in person NFC Preview ... Which teams will rise to the top The football widows’ guide to the NFL Fantasy Football ... ....(size: 5.8Kb)
Houston Chronicle
25 Feb 2013
By JONATHAN DALTON, Associated Press . February 24, 2013. Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet. Page 1 of 1 ... Mike Aviles and Cord Phelps added RBI singles for the Indians ... Tweet ... Harvey ... Sports ... Senior Football Showcase ... NBA.College Football ... 24 ... Get your 'man cave' football ready NFL Preseason Action. Get ready for more football on TV – and in person NFC Preview ... Which teams will rise to the top The football widows’ guide to the NFL Fantasy Football....(size: 6.0Kb)
For other uses, see Football (disambiguation).
Football refers to a number of sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball with the foot to score a goal. The most popular of these sports worldwide is association football, more commonly known as just "football" or "soccer". Unqualified, the word football applies to whichever form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears, including association football, as well as American football, Australian rules football, Canadian football, Gaelic football, rugby league, rugby union[1] and other related games. These variations of football are known as football "codes".
Various forms of "football" can be identified in history, often as popular peasant games. Contemporary codes of football can be traced back to the codification of these games at English public schools in the eighteenth and nineteenth century.[2][3] The influence and power of the British Empire allowed these rules of football to spread, including to areas of British influence outside of the directly controlled Empire,[4] though by the end of the nineteenth century, distinct regional codes were already developing: Gaelic Football, for example, deliberately incorporated the rules of local traditional football games in order to maintain their heritage.[5] In 1888, The Football League was founded in England, becoming the first of many professional football competitions. In the twentieth century, the various codes of football have become amongst the most popular team sports in the world.[6]
Common elements[link]
The various codes of football share the following common elements[citation needed]:
- Two teams of usually between 11 and 18 players; some variations that have fewer players (five or more per team) are also popular.
- A clearly defined area in which to play the game.
- Scoring goals or points, by moving the ball to an opposing team's end of the field and either into a goal area, or over a line.
- Goals or points resulting from players putting the ball between two goalposts.
- The goal or line being defended by the opposing team.
- Players being required to move the ball—depending on the code—by kicking, carrying, or hand-passing the ball.
- Players using only their body to move the ball.
In most codes, there are rules restricting the movement of players offside, and players scoring a goal must put the ball either under or over a crossbar between the goalposts. Other features common to several football codes include: points being mostly scored by players carrying the ball across the goal line; and players receiving a free kick after they take a mark or make a fair catch.
Peoples from around the world have played games which involved kicking or carrying a ball, since ancient times. However, most of the modern codes of football have their origins in England.[7]
Etymology[link]
Main article: Football (word)
There are confilicting explanations of the origin of the word "football". It is widely assumed that the word "football" (or "foot ball") references the action of the foot kicking a ball. There is a alternative explanation, which is that football originally referred to a variety of games in medieval Europe, which were played on foot. There is no conclusive evidence for either explanation.
The conflicting theories are discussed at length in the main article Football (word).
Early history[link]
Ancient games[link]
The Ancient Greeks and Romans are known to have played many ball games, some of which involved the use of the feet. The Roman game harpastum is believed to have been adapted from a Greek team game known as "ἐπίσκυρος" (episkyros)[8][9] or "φαινίνδα" (phaininda),[10] which is mentioned by a Greek playwright, Antiphanes (388–311 BC) and later referred to by the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria (c.150-c.215 AD). These games appear to have resembled rugby football.[11][12][13][14][15] The Roman politician Cicero (106–43 BC) describes the case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barber's shop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis.[16][17]
Documented evidence of an activity resembling football can be found in the Chinese military manual Zhan Guo Ce compiled between the 3rd century and 1st century BC.[18] It describes a practice known as cuju (蹴鞠, literally "kick ball"), which originally involved kicking a leather ball through a small hole in a piece of silk cloth which was fixed on bamboo canes and hung about 9 m above ground. During the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), cuju games were standardized and rules were established.[citation needed] Variations of this game later spread to Japan and Korea, known as kemari and chuk-guk respectively. Later, another type of goal posts emerged, consisting of just one goal post in the middle of the field.[citation needed]
The Japanese version of cuju is kemari (蹴鞠), and was developed during the Asuka period.[citation needed]This is known to have been played within the Japanese imperial court in Kyoto from about 600 AD. In kemari several people stand in a circle and kick a ball to each other, trying not to let the ball drop to the ground (much like keepie uppie). The game appears to have died out sometime before the mid-19th century. It was revived in 1903 and is now played at a number of festivals.[citation needed]
There are a number of references to traditional, ancient, or prehistoric ball games, played by indigenous peoples in many different parts of the world. For example, in 1586, men from a ship commanded by an English explorer named John Davis, went ashore to play a form of football with Inuit (Eskimo) people in Greenland.[19] There are later accounts of an Inuit game played on ice, called Aqsaqtuk. Each match began with two teams facing each other in parallel lines, before attempting to kick the ball through each other team's line and then at a goal. In 1610, William Strachey, a colonist at Jamestown, Virginia recorded a game played by Native Americans, called Pahsaheman.[citation needed] On the Australian continent several tribes of indigenous people played kicking and catching games with stuffed balls which have been generalised by historians as Marn Grook (Djab Wurrung for "game ball"). The earliest historical account is an anecdote from the 1878 book by Robert Brough-Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria, in which a man called Richard Thomas is quoted as saying, in about 1841 in Victoria, Australia, that he had witnessed Aboriginal people playing the game: "Mr Thomas describes how the foremost player will drop kick a ball made from the skin of a possum and how other players leap into the air in order to catch it." Some historians have theorised that Marn Grook was one of the origins of Australian rules football.
The Māori in New Zealand played a game called Ki-o-rahi consisting of teams of seven players play on a circular field divided into zones, and score points by touching the 'pou' (boundary markers) and hitting a central 'tupu' or target.[citation needed]
Games played in Mesoamerica with rubber balls by indigenous peoples are also well-documented as existing since before this time, but these had more similarities to basketball or volleyball, and since their influence on modern football games is minimal, most do not class them as football.[citation needed]Northeastern American Indians, especially the Iroquois Confederation, played a game which made use of net racquets to throw and catch a small ball; however, although a ball-goal foot game, lacrosse (as its modern descendant is called) is likewise not usually classed as a form of "football."[citation needed]
These games and others may well go far back into antiquity. However, the main sources of modern football codes appear to lie in western Europe, especially England.
Medieval and early modern Europe[link]
Further information: Medieval football
The Middle Ages saw a huge rise in popularity of annual Shrovetide football matches throughout Europe, particularly in England. An early reference to a ball game played in Britain comes from the 9th century Historia Brittonum, which desribes "a party of boys ... playing at ball".[21] References to a ball game played in northern France known as La Soule or Choule, in which the ball was propelled by hands, feet, and sticks,[22] date from the 12th century.[23]
The early forms of football played in England, sometimes referred to as "mob football", would be played between neighbouring towns and villages, involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams who would clash en masse,[24] struggling to move an item, such as inflated animal's bladder[25] to particular geographical points, such as their opponents' church, with play taking place in the open space between neighbouring parishes.[26] The game was played primarily during significant religious festivals, such as Shrovetide, Christmas, or Easter,[25] and Shrovetide games have survived into the modern era in a number of English towns (see below).
The first detailed description of what was almost certainly football in England was given by William FitzStephen in about 1174–1183. He described the activities of London youths during the annual festival of Shrove Tuesday:
- After lunch all the youth of the city go out into the fields to take part in a ball game. The students of each school have their own ball; the workers from each city craft are also carrying their balls. Older citizens, fathers, and wealthy citizens come on horseback to watch their juniors competing, and to relive their own youth vicariously: you can see their inner passions aroused as they watch the action and get caught up in the fun being had by the carefree adolescents.[27]
Most of the very early references to the game speak simply of "ball play" or "playing at ball". This reinforces the idea that the games played at the time did not necessarily involve a ball being kicked.
An early reference to a ball game that was probably football comes from 1280 at Ulgham, Northumberland, England: "Henry... while playing at ball.. ran against David".[28] Football was played in Ireland in 1308, with a documented reference to John McCrocan, a spectator at a "football game" at Newcastle, County Down being charged with accidentally stabbing a player named William Bernard.[29] Another reference to a football game comes in 1321 at Shouldham, Norfolk, England: "[d]uring the game at ball as he kicked the ball, a lay friend of his... ran against him and wounded himself".[28]
In 1314, Nicholas de Farndone, Lord Mayor of the City of London issued a decree banning football in the French used by the English upper classes at the time. A translation reads: "[f]orasmuch as there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large foot balls [rageries de grosses pelotes de pee][30] in the fields of the public from which many evils might arise which God forbid: we command and forbid on behalf of the king, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city in the future." This is the earliest reference to football.
In 1363, King Edward III of England issued a proclamation banning "...handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games",[31] showing that "football" — whatever its exact form in this case — was being differentiated from games involving other parts of the body, such as handball.
King Henry IV of England also presented one of the earliest documented uses of the English word "football", in 1409, when he issued a proclamation forbidding the levying of money for "foteball".[28][32]
There is also an account in Latin from the end of the 15th century of football being played at Cawston, Nottinghamshire. This is the first description of a "kicking game" and the first description of dribbling: "[t]he game at which they had met for common recreation is called by some the foot-ball game. It is one in which young men, in country sport, propel a huge ball not by throwing it into the air but by striking it and rolling it along the ground, and that not with their hands but with their feet... kicking in opposite directions" The chronicler gives the earliest reference to a football pitch, stating that: "[t]he boundaries have been marked and the game had started.[28]
Other firsts in the mediæval and early modern eras:
- "a football", in the sense of a ball rather than a game, was first mentioned in 1486.[32] This reference is in Dame Juliana Berners' Book of St Albans. It states: "a certain rounde instrument to play with ...it is an instrument for the foote and then it is calde in Latyn 'pila pedalis', a fotebal."[28]
- a pair of football boots was ordered by King Henry VIII of England in 1526.[33]
- women playing a form of football was in 1580, when Sir Philip Sidney described it in one of his poems: "[a] tyme there is for all, my mother often sayes, When she, with skirts tuckt very hy, with girles at football playes."[34]
- the first references to goals are in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1584 and 1602 respectively, John Norden and Richard Carew referred to "goals" in Cornish hurling. Carew described how goals were made: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foote asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelue [twelve] score off, other twayne in like distance, which they terme their Goales".[35] He is also the first to describe goalkeepers and passing of the ball between players.
- the first direct reference to scoring a goal is in John Day's play The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed circa 1600; published 1659): "I'll play a gole at camp-ball" (an extremely violent variety of football, which was popular in East Anglia). Similarly in a poem in 1613, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe".
Calcio Fiorentino[link]
Main article: Calcio Fiorentino
In the 16th century, the city of Florence celebrated the period between Epiphany and Lent by playing a game which today is known as "calcio storico" ("historic kickball") in the Piazza Santa Croce. The young aristocrats of the city would dress up in fine silk costumes and embroil themselves in a violent form of football. For example, calcio players could punch, shoulder charge, and kick opponents. Blows below the belt were allowed. The game is said to have originated as a military training exercise. In 1580, Count Giovanni de' Bardi di Vernio wrote Discorso sopra 'l giuoco del Calcio Fiorentino. This is sometimes said to be the earliest code of rules for any football game. The game was not played after January 1739 (until it was revived in May 1930).
Official disapproval and attempts to ban football[link]
Main article: Attempts to ban football games
Numerous attempts have been made to ban football games, particularly the most rowdy and disruptive forms. This was especially the case in England and in other parts of Europe, during the Middle Ages and early modern period. Between 1324 and 1667, football was banned in England alone by more than 30 royal and local laws. The need to repeatedly proclaim such laws demonstrated the difficulty in enforcing bans on popular games. King Edward II was so troubled by the unruliness of football in London that on April 13, 1314 he issued a proclamation banning it: "Forasmuch as there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large balls from which many evils may arise which God forbid; we command and forbid, on behalf of the King, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city in the future."
The reasons for the ban by Edward III, on June 12, 1349, were explicit: football and other recreations distracted the populace from practicing archery, which was necessary for war. In 1424, the Parliament of Scotland passed a Football Act that stated it is statut and the king forbiddis that na man play at the fut ball under the payne of iiij d – in other words, playing football was made illegal, and punishable by a fine of four pence.
By 1608, the local authorities in Manchester were complaining that: "With the ffotebale...[there] hath beene greate disorder in our towne of Manchester we are told, and glasse windowes broken yearlye and spoyled by a companie of lewd and disordered persons ..."[36] That same year, the word "football" was used disapprovingly by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare's play King Lear contains the line: "Nor tripped neither, you base football player" (Act I, Scene 4). Shakespeare also mentions the game in A Comedy of Errors (Act II, Scene 1):
<poem>Am I so round with you as you with me,That like a football you do spurn me thus? You spurn me hence, and he will spurn me hither:
If I last in this service, you must case me in leather.</poem>
"Spurn" literally means to kick away, thus implying that the game involved kicking a ball between players.
King James I of England's Book of Sports (1618) however, instructs Christians to play at football every Sunday afternoon after worship.[37] The book's aim appears to be an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans regarding the keeping of the Sabbath.[38]
Establishment of modern codes[link]
English public schools[link]
Main article: English public school football games
While football continued to be played in various forms throughout Britain, its "public" schools (known as private schools in other countries) are widely credited with four key achievements in the creation of modern football codes. First of all, the evidence suggests that they were important in taking football away from its "mob" form and turning it into an organised team sport. Second, many early descriptions of football and references to it were recorded by people who had studied at these schools. Third, it was teachers, students and former students from these schools who first codified football games, to enable matches to be played between schools. Finally, it was at English public schools that the division between "kicking" and "running" (or "carrying") games first became clear.
The earliest evidence that games resembling football were being played at English public schools — mainly attended by boys from the upper, upper-middle and professional classes — comes from the Vulgaria by William Herman in 1519. Herman had been headmaster at Eton and Winchester colleges and his Latin textbook includes a translation exercise with the phrase "We wyll playe with a ball full of wynde".[39]
Richard Mulcaster, a student at Eton College in the early 16th century and later headmaster at other English schools, has been described as "the greatest sixteenth Century advocate of football".[40] Among his contributions are the earliest evidence of organised team football. Mulcaster's writings refer to teams ("sides" and "parties"), positions ("standings"), a referee ("judge over the parties") and a coach "(trayning maister)". Mulcaster's "footeball" had evolved from the disordered and violent forms of traditional football:
[s]ome smaller number with such overlooking, sorted into sides and standings, not meeting with their bodies so boisterously to trie their strength: nor shouldring or shuffing one an other so barbarously ... may use footeball for as much good to the body, by the chiefe use of the legges.[41]
In 1633, David Wedderburn, a teacher from Aberdeen, mentioned elements of modern football games in a short Latin textbook called Vocabula. Wedderburn refers to what has been translated into modern English as "keeping goal" and makes an allusion to passing the ball ("strike it here"). There is a reference to "get hold of the ball", suggesting that some handling was allowed. It is clear that the tackles allowed included the charging and holding of opposing players ("drive that man back").[citation needed]
A more detailed description of football is given in Francis Willughby's Book of Games, written in about 1660.[42] Willughby, who had studied at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School, Sutton Coldfield, is the first to describe goals and a distinct playing field: "a close that has a gate at either end. The gates are called Goals." His book includes a diagram illustrating a football field. He also mentions tactics ("leaving some of their best players to guard the goal"); scoring ("they that can strike the ball through their opponents' goal first win") and the way teams were selected ("the players being equally divided according to their strength and nimbleness"). He is the first to describe a "law" of football: "they must not strike [an opponent's leg] higher than the ball".[citation needed]
English public schools were the first to codify football games. In particular, they devised the first offside rules, during the late 18th century.[43] In the earliest manifestations of these rules, players were "off their side" if they simply stood between the ball and the goal which was their objective. Players were not allowed to pass the ball forward, either by foot or by hand. They could only dribble with their feet, or advance the ball in a scrum or similar formation. However, offside laws began to diverge and develop differently at each school, as is shown by the rules of football from Winchester, Rugby, Harrow and Cheltenham, during between 1810 and 1850.[43] The first known codes — in the sense of a set of rules — were those of Eton in 1815 [44] and Aldenham in 1825.[44])
During the early 19th century, most working class people in Britain had to work six days a week, often for over twelve hours a day. They had neither the time nor the inclination to engage in sport for recreation and, at the time, many children were part of the labour force. Feast day football played on the streets was in decline. Public school boys, who enjoyed some freedom from work, became the inventors of organised football games with formal codes of rules.
Football was adopted by a number of public schools as a way of encouraging competitiveness and keeping youths fit. Each school drafted its own rules, which varied widely between different schools and were changed over time with each new intake of pupils. Two schools of thought developed regarding rules. Some schools favoured a game in which the ball could be carried (as at Rugby, Marlborough and Cheltenham), while others preferred a game where kicking and dribbling the ball was promoted (as at Eton, Harrow, Westminster and Charterhouse). The division into these two camps was partly the result of circumstances in which the games were played. For example, Charterhouse and Westminster at the time had restricted playing areas; the boys were confined to playing their ball game within the school cloisters, making it difficult for them to adopt rough and tumble running games.[citation needed]
William Webb Ellis, a pupil at Rugby School, is said to have "with a fine disregard for the rules of football, as played in his time [emphasis added], first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus creating the distinctive feature of the rugby game." in 1823. This act is usually said to be the beginning of Rugby football, but there is little evidence that it occurred, and most sports historians believe the story to be apocryphal. The act of 'taking the ball in his arms' is often misinterpreted as 'picking the ball up' as it is widely believed that Webb Ellis' 'crime' was handling the ball, as in modern soccer, however handling the ball at the time was often permitted and in some cases compulsory,[45] the rule for which Webb Ellis showed disregard was running forward with it as the rules of his time only allowed a player to retreat backwards or kick forwards.
The boom in rail transport in Britain during the 1840s meant that people were able to travel further and with less inconvenience than they ever had before. Inter-school sporting competitions became possible. However, it was difficult for schools to play each other at football, as each school played by its own rules. The solution to this problem was usually that the match be divided into two halves, one half played by the rules of the host "home" school, and the other half by the visiting "away" school.
The modern rules of many football codes were formulated during the mid- or late- 19th century. This also applies to other sports such as lawn bowls, lawn tennis, etc. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's first lawnmower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.[46]
Apart from Rugby football, the public school codes have barely been played beyond the confines of each school's playing fields. However, many of them are still played at the schools which created them (see Surviving UK school games below).
Public schools' dominance of sports in the UK began to wane after the Factory Act of 1850, which significantly increased the recreation time available to working class children. Before 1850, many British children had to work six days a week, for more than twelve hours a day. From 1850, they could not work before 6 a.m. (7 a.m. in winter) or after 6 p.m. on weekdays (7 p.m. in winter); on Saturdays they had to cease work at 2 p.m. These changes mean that working class children had more time for games, including various forms of football.
Firsts[link]
Clubs[link]
Main article: Oldest football clubs
Sports clubs dedicated to playing football began in the 18th century, for example London's Gymnastic Society which was founded in the mid-18th century and ceased playing matches in 1796.[47][48]
The first documented club to bear in the title a reference to being a 'football club' were called "The Foot-Ball Club" who were located in Edinburgh, Scotland, during the period 1824–41.[49][50] The club forbade tripping but allowed pushing and holding and the picking up of the ball.[50]
Two clubs which claim to be the world's oldest existing football club, in the sense of a club which is not part of a school or university, are strongholds of rugby football: the Barnes Club, said to have been founded in 1839, and Guy's Hospital Football Club, in 1843. Neither date nor the variety of football played is well documented, but such claims nevertheless allude to the popularity of rugby before other modern codes emerged.
In 1845, three boys at Rugby school were tasked with codifying the rules then being used at the school. These were the first set of written rules (or code) for any form of football.[51] This further assisted the spread of the Rugby game. For instance, Dublin University Football Club—founded at Trinity College, Dublin in 1854 and later famous as a bastion of the Rugby School game—is the world's oldest documented football club in any code.
Competitions[link]
Main article: Oldest football competitions
One of the longest running football fixture is the Cordner-Eggleston Cup, contested between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College, Melbourne every year since 1858. It is believed by many to also be the first match of Australian rules football, although it was played under experimental rules in its first year. The first football trophy tournament was the Caledonian Challenge Cup, donated by the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne, played in 1861 under the Melbourne Rules.[52] The oldest football league is a rugby football competition, the United Hospitals Challenge Cup (1874), while the oldest rugby trophy is the Yorkshire Cup, contested since 1878. The South Australian Football Association (30 April 1877) is the oldest surviving Australian rules football competition. The oldest surviving soccer trophy is the Youdan Cup (1867) and the oldest national soccer competition is the English FA Cup (1871). The Football League (1888) is recognised as the longest running Association Football league. The first ever international football match took place between sides representing England and Scotland on March 5, 1870 at the Oval under the authority of the FA. The first Rugby international took place in 1871.
Modern balls[link]
Main article: football (ball)
.jpg)
In Europe, early footballs were made out of animal bladders, more specifically pig's bladders, which were inflated. Later leather coverings were introduced to allow the ball to keep their shape.[53] However, in 1851, Richard Lindon and William Gilbert, both shoemakers from the town of Rugby (near the school), exhibited both round and oval-shaped balls at the Great Exhibition in London. Richard Lindon's wife is said to have died of lung disease caused by blowing up pig's bladders.[54] Lindon also won medals for the invention of the "Rubber inflatable Bladder" and the "Brass Hand Pump".
In 1855, the U.S. inventor Charles Goodyear — who had patented vulcanized rubber — exhibited a spherical football, with an exterior of vulcanized rubber panels, at the Paris Exhibition Universelle. The ball was to prove popular in early forms of football in the U.S.A.[55]
Modern ball passing tactics[link]
Main article: Passing (association football)
The earliest reference to a game of football involving players passing the ball forward and attempting to score past a goalkeeper was written in 1633 by David Wedderburn, a poet and teacher in Aberdeen, Scotland.[56]
"Scientific" football is first recorded in 1839 from Lancashire[57] and in the modern game in Rugby football from 1862[58] and from Sheffield FC as early as 1865.[59][60] The first side to play a passing combination game was the Royal Engineers AFC in 1869/70[61][62] By 1869 they were "work[ing] well together", "backing up" and benefiting from "cooperation".[63] By 1870 the Engineers were passing the ball: "Lieut. Creswell, who having brought the ball up the side then kicked it into the middle to another of his side, who kicked it through the posts the minute before time was called"[64] Passing was a regular feature of their style[65] By early 1872 the Engineers were the first football team renowned for "play[ing] beautifully together"[66] A double pass is first reported from Derby school against Nottingham Forest in March 1872, the first of which is irrefutably a short pass: "Mr Absey dribbling the ball half the length of the field delivered it to Wallis, who kicking it cleverly in front of the goal, sent it to the captain who drove it at once between the Nottingham posts"[67] The first side to have perfected the modern formation was Cambridge University AFC[68][69][70] and introduced the 2–3–5 "pyramid" formation.[71][72]
Cambridge rules[link]
Main article: Cambridge rules
In 1848, at Cambridge University, Mr. H. de Winton and Mr. J.C. Thring, who were both formerly at Shrewsbury School, called a meeting at Trinity College, Cambridge with 12 other representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury. An eight-hour meeting produced what amounted to the first set of modern rules, known as the Cambridge rules. No copy of these rules now exists, but a revised version from circa 1856 is held in the library of Shrewsbury School.[73] The rules clearly favour the kicking game. Handling was only allowed when a player catches the ball directly from the foot entitling them to a free kick and there was a primitive offside rule, disallowing players from "loitering" around the opponents' goal. The Cambridge rules were not widely adopted outside English public schools and universities (but it was arguably the most significant influence on the Football Association committee members responsible for formulating the rules of Association football).
Sheffield rules[link]
Main article: Sheffield rules
By the late 1850s, many football clubs had been formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various codes of football. Sheffield Football Club, founded in 1857 in the English city of Sheffield by Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest, was later recognised as the world's oldest club playing association football.[74] However, the club initially played its own code of football: the Sheffield rules. The code was largely independent of the public school rules, the most significant difference being the lack of an offside rule.
The code was responsible for many innovations that later spread to association football. These included free kicks, corner kicks, handball, throw-ins and the crossbar.[75] By the 1870s they became the dominant code in the north and midlands of England. At this time a series of rule changes by both the London and Sheffield FAs gradually eroded the differences between the two games until the adoption of a common code in 1877.
Australian rules[link]
Main article: Australian rules football
See also: Origins of Australian rules football
Various forms of football were played in Australia during the Victorian gold rush, from which emerged a distinct and locally popular sport. While these origins are still the subject of much debate the popularisation of the code that is known today as Australian Rules Football is currently attributed to Tom Wills.
Wills wrote a letter to Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle, on July 10, 1858, calling for a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter.[76] This is considered by historians to be a defining moment in the creation of the new sport. Through publicity and personal contacts Wills was able to co-ordinate football matches in Melbourne that experimented with various rules,[77] the first recorded of which occurred on July 31, 1858. On 7 August 1858, Wills umpired a relatively well documented schoolboys match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College. Following these matches, organised football matches rapidly increased in popularity.
Wills and others involved in these early matches formed the Melbourne Football Club (the oldest surviving Australian football club) on May 14, 1859. The first members included Wills, William Hammersley, J.B. Thompson and Thomas H. Smith. They met with the intention of forming a set of rules that would be widely adopted by other clubs.
The backgrounds of the original rule makers makes for interesting speculation as to the influences on the rules. Wills, an Australian of convict heritage was educated in England. He was a rugby footballer, a cricketer and had strong links to indigenous Australians. At first he desired to introduce rugby school rules. Hammersley was a cricketer and journalist who emigrated from England. Thomas Smith was a school teacher who emigrated from Ireland. The committee members debated several rules including those of English public school games. Despite including aspects similar to other forms of football there is no conclusive evidence to point to any single influence. Instead the committee decided on a game that was more suited to Australian conditions and Wills is documented to have made the declaration "No, we shall have a game of our own".[78] The code was distinctive in the prevalence of the mark, free kick, tackling, lack of an offside rule and that players were specifically penalised for throwing the ball.
The Melbourne football rules were widely distributed and gradually adopted by the other Victorian clubs. They were redrafting several times during the 1860s to accommodate the rules of other influential Victorian football clubs. A significant re-write in 1866 by H C A Harrison's committee to accommodate rules from the Geelong Football Club made the game, which had become known as "Victorian Rules", increasingly distinct from other codes. It used cricket fields, a rugby ball, specialised goal and behind posts, bouncing with the ball while running and later spectacular high marking. The form of football spread quickly to other other Australian colonies. Outside of its heartland in southern Australia the code experienced a significant period of decline following World War I but has since grown other parts of the world at an amateur level and the Australian Football League emerged as the dominant professional competition.
Football Association[link]
.jpg)
Main article: The Football Association#History
During the early 1860s, there were increasing attempts in England to unify and reconcile the various public school games. In 1862, J. C. Thring, who had been one of the driving forces behind the original Cambridge Rules, was a master at Uppingham School and he issued his own rules of what he called "The Simplest Game" (these are also known as the Uppingham Rules). In early October 1863 another new revised version of the Cambridge Rules was drawn up by a seven member committee representing former pupils from Harrow, Shrewsbury, Eton, Rugby, Marlborough and Westminster.
At the Freemasons' Tavern, Great Queen Street, London on the evening of October 26, 1863, representatives of several football clubs in the London Metropolitan area met for the inaugural meeting of The Football Association (FA). The aim of the Association was to establish a single unifying code and regulate the playing of the game among its members. Following the first meeting, the public schools were invited to join the association. All of them declined, except Charterhouse and Uppingham. In total, six meetings of the FA were held between October and December 1863. After the third meeting, a draft set of rules were published. However, at the beginning of the fourth meeting, attention was drawn to the recently published Cambridge Rules of 1863. The Cambridge rules differed from the draft FA rules in two significant areas; namely running with (carrying) the ball and hacking (kicking opposing players in the shins). The two contentious FA rules were as follows:
IX. A player shall be entitled to run with the ball towards his adversaries' goal if he makes a fair catch, or catches the ball on the first bound; but in case of a fair catch, if he makes his mark he shall not run.X. If any player shall run with the ball towards his adversaries' goal, any player on the opposite side shall be at liberty to charge, hold, trip or hack him, or to wrest the ball from him, but no player shall be held and hacked at the same time.
—[79]
At the fifth meeting it was proposed that these two rules be removed. Most of the delegates supported this, but F. M. Campbell, the representative from Blackheath and the first FA treasurer, objected. He said: "hacking is the true football". However, the motion to ban running with the ball in hand and hacking was carried and Blackheath withdrew from the FA. After the final meeting on 8 December, the FA published the "Laws of Football", the first comprehensive set of rules for the game later known as Association Football. The term "soccer", in use since the late 19th century, derives from an abbreviation of "Association".[80]
The first FA rules still contained elements that are no longer part of association football, but which are still recognisable in other games (such as Australian football and rugby football): for instance, a player could make a fair catch and claim a mark, which entitled him to a free kick; and if a player touched the ball behind the opponents' goal line, his side was entitled to a free kick at goal, from 15 yards (13.5 metres) in front of the goal line.
Rugby football[link]
Main article: History of rugby union
File:Football London Ilustrated News.gif
A rugby scrum in 1871
In Britain, by 1870, there were about 75 clubs playing variations of the Rugby school game. There were also "rugby" clubs in Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. However, there was no generally accepted set of rules for rugby until 1871, when 21 clubs from London came together to form the Rugby Football Union (RFU). The first official RFU rules were adopted in June 1871. These rules allowed passing the ball. They also included the try, where touching the ball over the line allowed an attempt at goal, though drop-goals from marks and general play, and penalty conversions were still the main form of contest.
North American football codes[link]
 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007) |
Main articles: History of American football and Canadian football#History
As was the case in Britain, by the early 19th century, North American schools and universities played their own local games, between sides made up of students. Students at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire played a game called Old division football, a variant of the association football codes, as early as the 1820s.
The first game of rugby in Canada is generally said to have taken place in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, the first recorded football club in Canada.
In 1869, the first game played in the United States under rules based on the FA code occurred, between Princeton and Rutgers. This is also often considered to be the first U.S. game of college football, in the sense of a game between colleges (although the eventual form of American football would come from rugby, not association football).
Modern American football grew out of a match between McGill University of Montreal, and Harvard University in 1874.[dubious – discuss] At the time, Harvard students are reported to have played the Boston Game — a running code — rather than the FA-based kicking games favoured by U.S. universities. This made it easy for Harvard to adapt to the rugby-based game played by McGill and the two teams alternated between their respective sets of rules. Within a few years, however, Harvard had both adopted McGill's rugby rules and had persuaded other U.S. university teams to do the same. In 1876, at the Massasoit Convention, it was agreed by these universities to adopt most of the Rugby Football Union rules, with some variations. Princeton, Rutgers and others continued to compete using soccer-based rules for a few years before switching to the rugby-based rules of Harvard and its competitors. U.S. colleges did not generally return to soccer until the early 20th century.
In 1880, Yale coach Walter Camp, devised a number of major changes to the American game. Camp's two most important rule innovations in establishing American football as distinct from the rugby football games on which it is based are scrimmage and down-and-distance rules.
Scrimmage refers to the practice of starting action by delivering the ball from the ground to another player's hand. Camp's original rule allowed this delivery to be done only with the feet; the rule was soon changed to allow the ball to be passed by hand. The rule also established a distinct line of scrimmage which separates the two teams from each other. When a player is tackled, he is ruled down and play stops, while the teams reset on either side of the line of scrimmage. Play then resumes with the delivery of the ball. Teams are given a limited number of downs to achieve a certain distance (always measured in yards). In American football, teams are given four downs to advance the ball ten yards, after which possession of the ball changes. In Canadian football, teams are allowed three downs to advance ten yards. These rules created a fundamental distinction between the North American codes and rugby codes. Rugby is still fundamentally a continuous-action game, while North American codes are organized around running discrete "plays", as defined as starting with the delivery from "scrimmage" and ending with the "down".
American football, in its early years, was an excessively violent game, plagued with several deaths and life-changing injuries every year. The violence became so drastic that President Theodore Roosevelt threatened to shut down the game in 1905, should rules not be changed to minimize this violence. Several rule changes were put into place that year, but the most enduring has been the introduction of the legal forward pass, which, like Camp's rule changes of the 1880s, fundamentally changed the nature of the sport. When it became legal to throw the ball forward, an entire new method of advancing the ball emerged. As a result, players became more specialized in their roles, as the different positions on the team required different skill sets. Thus, some players are primarily involved in running with the ball (the running back) while others specialize in throwing (the quarterback), catching (the wide receiver), or blocking (the offensive line). With the advent of free substitution rules in the 1940s and 1950s, teams could deploy separate offensive and defensive "platoons" which led to even greater specialization.
Over the years, Canadian football absorbed some developments in American football, but also retained many unique characteristics. One of these was that Canadian football, for many years, did not officially distinguish itself from rugby. For example, the Canadian Rugby Football Union, founded in 1884 was the forerunner of the Canadian Football League, rather than a rugby union body. (The Canadian Rugby Union, today known as Rugby Canada, was not formed until 1965.) American football was also frequently described as "rugby" in the 1880s.
Gaelic football[link]
Main article: History of Gaelic football
In the mid-19th century, various traditional football games, referred to collectively as caid, remained popular in Ireland, especially in County Kerry. One observer, Father W. Ferris, described two main forms of caid during this period: the "field game" in which the object was to put the ball through arch-like goals, formed from the boughs of two trees; and the epic "cross-country game" which took up most of the daylight hours of a Sunday on which it was played, and was won by one team taking the ball across a parish boundary. "Wrestling", "holding" opposing players, and carrying the ball were all allowed.
By the 1870s, Rugby and Association football had started to become popular in Ireland. Trinity College, Dublin was an early stronghold of Rugby (see the Developments in the 1850s section, above). The rules of the English FA were being distributed widely. Traditional forms of caid had begun to give way to a "rough-and-tumble game" which allowed tripping.
There was no serious attempt to unify and codify Irish varieties of football, until the establishment of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in 1884. The GAA sought to promote traditional Irish sports, such as hurling and to reject imported games like Rugby and Association football. The first Gaelic football rules were drawn up by Maurice Davin and published in the United Ireland magazine on February 7, 1887. Davin's rules showed the influence of games such as hurling and a desire to formalise a distinctly Irish code of football. The prime example of this differentiation was the lack of an offside rule (an attribute which, for many years, was shared only by other Irish games like hurling, and by Australian rules football).
Split in Rugby football[link]
File:Reverend marshall.jpg
An English cartoon from the 1890s lampooning the divide in rugby football which led to the formation of rugby league. The caricatures are of Rev. Frank Marshall, an arch-opponent of player payments, and James Miller, a long-time opponent of Marshall. The caption reads: Marshall: "Oh, fie, go away naughty boy, I don't play with boys who can’t afford to take a holiday for football any day they like!" Miller: "Yes, that's just you to a T; you’d make it so that no lad whose father wasn’t a millionaire could play at all in a really good team. For my part I see no reason why the men who make the money shouldn’t have a share in the spending of it."
Further information: History of rugby league
The International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) was founded in 1886, but rifts were beginning to emerge in the code. Professionalism was beginning to creep into the various codes of football.
In England, by the 1890s, a long-standing Rugby Football Union ban on professional players was causing regional tensions within rugby football, as many players in northern England were working class and could not afford to take time off to train, travel, play and recover from injuries. This was not very different from what had occurred ten years earlier in soccer in Northern England but the authorities reacted very differently in the RFU, attempting to alienate the working class support in Northern England. In 1895, following a dispute about a player being paid broken time payments, which replaced wages lost as a result of playing rugby, representatives of the northern clubs met in Huddersfield to form the Northern Rugby Football Union (NRFU). The new body initially permitted only various types of player wage replacements. However, within two years, NRFU players could be paid, but they were required to have a job outside sport.
The demands of a professional league dictated that rugby had to become a better "spectator" sport. Within a few years the NRFU rules had started to diverge from the RFU, most notably with the abolition of the line-out. This was followed by the replacement of the ruck with the "play-the-ball ruck", which allowed a two-player ruck contest between the tackler at marker and the player tackled. Mauls were stopped once the ball carrier was held, being replaced by a play-the ball-ruck. The separate Lancashire and Yorkshire competitions of the NRFU merged in 1901, forming the Northern Rugby League, the first time the name rugby league was used officially in England.
Over time, the RFU form of rugby, played by clubs which remained members of national federations affiliated to the IRFB, became known as rugby union.
Globalisation of association football[link]
Main article: History of FIFA
The need for a single body to oversee association football had become apparent by the beginning of the 20th century, with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. The English Football Association had chaired many discussions on setting up an international body, but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to associations from seven other European countries: France, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland, to form an international association. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris on May 21, 1904. Its first president was Robert Guérin. The French name and acronym has remained, even outside French-speaking countries.
Further divergence of the two rugby codes[link]
Rugby league rules diverged significantly from rugby union in 1906, with the reduction of the team from 15 to 13 players. In 1907, a New Zealand professional rugby team toured Australia and Britain, receiving an enthusiastic response, and professional rugby leagues were launched in Australia the following year. However, the rules of professional games varied from one country to another, and negotiations between various national bodies were required to fix the exact rules for each international match. This situation endured until 1948, when at the instigation of the French league, the Rugby League International Federation (RLIF) was formed at a meeting in Bordeaux.
During the second half of 20th century, the rules changed further. In 1966, rugby league officials borrowed the American football concept of downs: a team could retain possession of the ball for no more than four tackles. The maximum number of tackles was later increased to six (in 1971), and in rugby league this became known as the six tackle rule.
With the advent of full-time professionals in the early 1990s, and the consequent speeding up of the game, the five metre off-side distance between the two teams became 10 metres, and the replacement rule was superseded by various interchange rules, among other changes.
The laws of rugby union also changed significantly during the 20th century. In particular, goals from marks were abolished, kicks directly into touch from outside the 22 metre line were penalised, new laws were put in place to determine who had possession following an inconclusive ruck or maul, and the lifting of players in line-outs was legalised.
In 1995, rugby union became an "open" game, that is one which allowed professional players. Although the original dispute between the two codes has now disappeared — and despite the fact that officials from both forms of rugby football have sometimes mentioned the possibility of re-unification — the rules of both codes and their culture have diverged to such an extent that such an event is unlikely in the foreseeable future.
Use of the word "football"[link]
For more details on this topic, see Football (word).
The word "football", when used in reference to a specific game can mean any one of those described above. Because of this, much friendly controversy has occurred over the term football, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the English-speaking world. Most often, the word "football" is used to refer to the code of football that is considered dominant within a particular region. So, effectively, what the word "football" means usually depends on where one says it.
Association football is known generally as soccer where other codes of football are dominant, including: the United States, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand. American football is always football in the United States. In francophone Quebec, where Canadian football is more popular, the Canadian code is known as football and association football is known as le soccer.[82] Of the 45 national FIFA affiliates in which English is an official or primary language, most currently use Football in their organizations' official names. The FIFA affiliates in Canada and the United States use Soccer in their names.
A few FIFA affiliates have recently "normalized" to using "Football", including:
- Australia's association football governing body changed its name in 2007 from using "soccer" to "football"[83]
- New Zealand also changed in 2007, saying "the international game is called football."[84]
- Samoa changed from "Samoa Football (Soccer) Federation" to "Football Federation Samoa" in 2009.[85][86]
Football codes board[link]
| Football | Cambridge rules (1848) | Football Association (1863) | ||
| 7-a-side | ||||
| Beach (1992) | ||||
| Futsal (1930) | ||||
| Sheffield rules (1857) | ||||
| Indoor | ||||
| Paralympic | ||||
| Street | ||||
| Rugby rules (1845) | ||||
| Rugby Union (1871) | ||||
| Rugby sevens (1883) | ||||
| Rugby League (1875) | ||||
| Rugby nines | ||||
| Beach rugby | ||||
| Touch rugby | ||||
| American football (1869) | Arena football (1987) | |||
| Canadian football (1861) | Flag football | |||
| Gaelic (1887) | ||||
| Australian rules (1859) | ||||
Present day codes and families[link]
Association football and descendants[link]
Main article: Variants of association football
- Association football, also known as football, soccer, footy and footie
- Indoor/basketball court varieties of Football:
- Five-a-side football — played throughout the world under various rules including:
- Futsal — the FIFA-approved five-a-side indoor game
- Minivoetbal — the five-a-side indoor game played in East and West Flanders where it is hugely popular
- Papi fut — the five-a-side game played in outdoor basketball courts (built with goals) in Central America.
- Indoor soccer — the six-a-side indoor game, known in Latin America, where it is often played in open air venues, as fútbol rápido ("fast football")
- Masters Football — six-a-side played in Europe by mature professionals (35 years and older)
- Five-a-side football — played throughout the world under various rules including:
- Paralympic football — modified Football for athletes with a disability.[87] Includes:
- Football 5-a-side — for visually impaired athletes
- Football 7-a-side — for athletes with cerebral palsy
- Amputee football — for athletes with amputations
- Deaf football — for athletes with hearing impairments
- Electric wheelchair soccer
- Beach soccer — football played on sand, also known as beach football and sand soccer
- Street football — encompasses a number of informal varieties of football
- Rush goalie — is a variation of football in which the role of the goalkeeper is more flexible than normal
- Headers and Volleys — where the aim is to score goals against a goalkeeper using only headers and volleys
- Crab football — players stand on their hands and feet and move around on their backs whilst playing football as normal
- Swamp soccer — the game is played on a swamp or bog field
Rugby school football and descendants[link]
- Rugby football
- Rugby league — often referred to simply as "league", and usually known simply as "football" or "footy" in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.
- Rugby league nines (or sevens)
- Touch football (rugby league) — a non-contact version of rugby league. Often called simply "touch", in South Africa it is known as "six down"
- Rugby union
- Mini rugby a variety for children.
- Rugby sevens
- Rugby league — often referred to simply as "league", and usually known simply as "football" or "footy" in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.
-
- Beach rugby — rugby played on sand
- Touch rugby — generic name for forms of rugby football which do not feature tackles
- Gridiron football
- American football — called "football" in the United States and Canada, and "gridiron" in Australia and New Zealand. Sometimes called "tackle football" to distinguish it from the touch versions
- Indoor football, arena football — an indoor version of American football
- Nine-man football, eight-man football, six-man football — versions of tackle football, played primarily by smaller high schools that lack enough players to field full 11-man teams
- Touch football (American) — non-tackle American football
- Flag football — non-tackle American football, like touch football, in which a flag that is held by velcro on a belt tied around the waist is pulled by defenders to indicate a tackle
- Street football (American) — American football played in backyards without equipment and with simplified rules
- Canadian football — called simply "football" in Canada; "football" in Canada can mean either Canadian or American football depending on context
- Canadian flag football — non-tackle Canadian football
- Nine-man football — similar to nine-man American football, but using Canadian rules; played by smaller schools in Saskatchewan that lack enough players to field full 12-man teams
See also: Comparison of American football and rugby league, Comparison of American football and rugby union, Comparison of Canadian and American football, and Comparison of rugby league and rugby union
Irish and Australian varieties[link]
These codes have in common the absence of an offside rule, the requirement to bounce or solo (toe-kick) the ball while running, handpassing by punching or tapping the ball rather than throwing it, and other traditions.
- Australian rules football — officially known as "Australian football", and informally as "football", "footy" or "Aussie rules". In some areas (erroneously) referred to as "AFL", which is the name of the main organising body and competition
- Auskick — a version of Australian rules designed by the AFL for young children
- Metro footy (or Metro rules footy) — a modified version invented by the USAFL, for use on gridiron fields in North American cities (which often lack grounds large enough for conventional Australian rules matches)
- Kick-to-kick – informal versions of the game
- 9-a-side footy — a more open, running variety of Australian rules, requiring 18 players in total and a proportionally smaller playing area (includes contact and non-contact varieties)
- Rec footy — "Recreational Football", a modified non-contact touch variation of Australian rules, created by the AFL, which replaces tackles with tags
- Touch Aussie Rules — a non-contact variation of Australian Rules played only in the United Kingdom
- Samoa rules — localised version adapted to Samoan conditions, such as the use of rugby football fields
- Masters Australian football (a.k.a. Superules) — reduced contact version introduced for competitions limited to players over 30 years of age
- Women's Australian rules football — played with a smaller ball and (sometimes) reduced contact version introduced for women's competition
- Gaelic football — Played predominantly in Ireland. Commonly referred to as "football" or "Gaelic"
- International rules football — a compromise code used for games between Gaelic and Australian Rules players
Surviving medieval ball games[link]
Inside the UK[link]
- The Haxey Hood, played on Epiphany in Haxey, Lincolnshire
- Shrove Tuesday games
- Scoring the Hales in Alnwick, Northumberland
- Royal Shrovetide Football in Ashbourne, Derbyshire
- The Shrovetide Ball Game in Atherstone, Warwickshire
- The Shrove Tuesday Football Ceremony of the Purbeck Marblers in Corfe Castle, Dorset
- Hurling the Silver Ball at St Columb Major in Cornwall
- The Ball Game in Sedgefield, County Durham
- In Scotland the Ba game ("Ball Game") is still popular around Christmas and Hogmanay at:
- Duns, Berwickshire
- Scone, Perthshire
- Kirkwall in the Orkney Islands
Outside the UK[link]
- Calcio Fiorentino — a modern revival of Renaissance football from 16th century Florence.
Surviving UK school games[link]
Games still played at UK public (independent) schools:
Recent inventions and hybrid games[link]
- Keepie uppie (keep up)
- is the art of juggling with a football using feet, knees, chest, shoulders, and head.
- Footbag
- is a small bean bag or sand bag used as a ball in a number of keepie uppie variations, including hacky sack (which is a trade mark).
- Freestyle football
- a modern take on keepie uppie where freestylers are graded for their entertainment value and expression of skill.
Based on FA rules[link]
Based on rugby[link]
- Force ’em backs a.k.a. forcing back, forcemanback
Hybrid games[link]
- Austus
- a compromise between Australian rules and American football, invented in Melbourne during World War II.
- Bossaball
- mixes Association football and volleyball and gymnastics; played on inflatables and trampolines.
- Footvolley
- mixes Association football and beach volleyball; played on sand
Note: although similar with football and volleyball in some aspects, Sepak takraw has ancient origins and cannot be considered an hybrid game.
- Football tennis
- mixes Association football and tennis
- Kickball
- a hybrid of Association football and baseball, invented in the United States in about 1942.
- Speedball (American)
- a combination of American football, soccer, and basketball, devised in the United States in 1912.
- Universal football
- a hybrid of Australian rules and rugby league, trialled in Sydney in 1933.[88]
- Volata
- a game resembling Association football and European handball, devised by Italian fascist leader, Augusto Turati, in the 1920s.
- Wheelchair rugby
- also known as Murderball, invented in Canada in 1977. Based on ice hockey and basketball rather than rugby.
Tabletop games and other recreations[link]
Based on Football (soccer)[link]
- Subbuteo
- Blow football
- Table football — also known as foosball, table soccer, babyfoot, bar football or gettone)
- Fantasy football (soccer)
- Button football — also known as Futebol de Mesa, Jogo de Botões
- Penny football
- FIFA Video Games Series
- Pro Evolution Soccer
- Mario Strikers
Based on American football[link]
Based on Australian football[link]
Based on Rugby League football[link]
- Sidhe's Rugby League series
- Australian Rugby League
See also[link]
- Football field (unit of length)
- List of players who have converted from one football code to another
- Names for association football
- 1601 to 1725 in sports: Football
Notes[link]
- ^ Reilly, Thomas; Gilbourne, D. (2003). "Science and football: a review of applied research in the football code". Journal of Sports Science 21: 693–705.
- ^ "History of Rugby in Australia". Rugby Football History. http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/wallabies.html#3. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
- ^ Bailey, Steven (1995). "Living Sports History: Football at Winchester, Eton and Harrow". The Sports Historian 15 (1): 34–53.
- ^ Perkin, Harold (1989). "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and commonwealth". The International Journal of the History of Sport 6 (2): 145–155.
- ^ Reilly, Thomas; Doran, D. (2001). "Science and Gaelic football: A revie". Journal of Sports Sciences 19 (3): 181–193.
- ^ Bale, J. (2002). Sports Geography. Taylor & Francis. p. 43. ISBN 0-419-25230-4.
- ^ Marples, M (1954). A History of Football. Secker and Warburg, London
- ^ ἐπίσκυρος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
- ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007 Edition: "In ancient Greece a game with elements of football, episkuros, or harpaston, was played, and it had migrated to Rome as harpastum by the 2nd century BC".
- ^ φαινίνδα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
- ^ Nigel Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Routledge, 2005, p. 310
- ^ Nigel M. Kennell, The Gymnasium of Virtue: Education and Culture in Ancient Sparta (Studies in the History of Greece and Rome), The University of North Carolina Press, 1995, on Google Books
- ^ Steve Craig, Sports and Games of the Ancients: (Sports and Games Through History), Greenwood, 2002, on Google Books
- ^ Don Nardo, Greek and Roman Sport, Greenhaven Press, 1999, p. 83
- ^ Sally E. D. Wilkins, Sports and games of medieval cultures, Greenwood, 2002, on Google books
- ^ E. Norman Gardiner: "Athletics in the Ancient World", Courier Dover Publications, 2002, ISBN 0-486-42486-3, p.229
- ^ William Smith: "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", 1857, p.777
- ^ He, Jin (2001). An Analysis of Zhan Guo Ce. Beijing: Peking University Press. ISBN 7-301-05101-8, p. 59-82
- ^ Richard Hakluyt, Voyages in Search of The North-West Passage, University of Adelaide, December 29, 2003
- ^ From William Blandowski's Australien in 142 Photographischen Abbildungen, 1857, (Haddon Library, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge)
- ^ Historia Brittonum at the [[Medieval Sourcebook.
- ^ Ruff, Julius (2001). Violence in Early Modern Europe 1500-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-521-59894-1.
- ^ Jusserand, Jean-Jules. (1901). Le sport et les jeux d'exercice dans l'ancienne France. Retrieved January 11, 2008, from http://agora.qc.ca/reftext.nsf/Documents/Football--Le_sport_et_les_jeux_dexercice_dans_lancienne_France__La_soule_par_Jean-Jules_Jusserand (French)
- ^ Dunning, Eric (1999). Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence and Civilisation. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-415-09378-1.
- ^ a b Dunning, Eric (1999). Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence and Civilisation. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-415-09378-1.
- ^ Baker, William (1988). Sports in the Western World. University of Illinois Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-252-06042-7.
- ^ Stephen Alsford, FitzStephen's Description of London, Florilegium Urbanum, April 5, 2006
- ^ a b c d e Francis Peabody Magoun, 1929, "Football in Medieval England and Middle-English literature" (The American Historical Review, v. 35, No. 1).
- ^ "Irish inventions: fact and fiction". Carlow-nationalist.ie. http://www.carlow-nationalist.ie/tabId/392/itemId/2418/Irish-inventions-fact-and-fiction.aspx. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ Derek Birley (Sport and The Making of Britain). 1993. Manchester University Press. p. 32. 978-0719037597
- ^ Derek Baker (England in the Later Middle Ages). 1995. Boydell & Brewer. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-85115-648-4
- ^ a b "Online Etymology Dictionary (no date), "football"". Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=football. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ Vivek Chaudhary, “Who's the fat bloke in the number eight shirt?” (The Guardian, February 18, 2004.)
- ^ Anniina Jokinen, Sir Philip Sidney. "A Dialogue Between Two Shepherds" (Luminarium.org, July 2006)
- ^ Richard Carew. "EBook of The Survey of Cornwall". Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/srvcr10.txt. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
- ^ International Olympic Academy (I.O.A.) (no date), “Minutes 7th International Post Graduate Seminar on Olympic Studies”
- ^ John Lord Campbell, ''The Lives of the Lords Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England'', vol. 2, 1851, p. 412. Books.google.co.uk. 1851. http://books.google.com/?id=sHrejZJVc80C&pg=RA3-PA412&dq=football. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ "William Maxwell Hetherington, 1856, ''History of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, Ch.1 (Third Ed.)". Reformed.org. http://www.reformed.org/books/hetherington/west_assembly/index.html?mainframe=/books/hetherington/west_assembly/chapter_1a.html#Book%20of%20Sports1618. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ A history of Winchester College. by Arthur F Leach. Duckworth, 1899 ISBN 1-4446-5884-0
- ^ "2003, "Richard Mulcaster"". Footballnetwork.org. http://www.footballnetwork.org/dev/historyoffootball/history8_18_3.asp. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ Francis Peabody Magoun. (1938) History of football from the beginnings to 1871. p.27. Retrieved 2010-02-09.
- ^ Francis Willughby, 1660–72, ''Book of Games''. Books.google.co.uk. 2003. ISBN 978-1-85928-460-5. http://books.google.com/?id=P-io9DcBllkC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&vq=football&dq=willughby+book+of+sports. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ a b Julian Carosi, 2006, "The History of Offside"[dead link]
- ^ a b Richard William Cox; Dave Russell and Wray Vamplew (2002). Encyclopedia of British Football. Routledge. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-7146-5249-8.
- ^ example of ball handling in early football from English writer William Hone, writing in 1825 or 1826, quotes the social commentator Sir Frederick Morton Eden, regarding "Foot-Ball", as played at Scone, Scotland:
- The game was this: he who at any time got the ball into his hands, run [sic] with it till overtaken by one of the opposite part; and then, if he could shake himself loose from those on the opposite side who seized him, he run on; if not, he threw the ball from him, unless it was wrested from him by the other party, but no person was allowed to kick it. (William Hone, 1825–26, The Every-Day Book, "February 15." Access date: March 15, 2007.)
- ^ ABC Radio National Ockham's Razor, first broadcast 6 June 2010.
- ^ THE SURREY CLUB Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London, England), Sunday, October 07, 1849; pg. 6.New Readerships
- ^ Football: The First Hundred Years. The Untold Story. Adrian Harvey. 2005. Routledge, London
- ^ John Hope, Accounts and papers of the football club kept by John Hope, WS, and some Hope Correspondence 1787–1886 (National Archives of Scotland, GD253/183)
- ^ a b "The Foot-Ball Club in Edinburgh, 1824–1841 – The National Archives of Scotland". Nas.gov.uk. 2007-11-13. http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/071112.asp. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ "Rugby chronology". Museum of Rugby. http://www.rfu.com/microsites/museum/page.aspx?section=89§ionTitle=World+Rugby+Chronology. Retrieved April 24, 2006.
- ^ "History of the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne". Electricscotland.com. http://www.electricscotland.com/history/australia/melbourne.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ Soccer Ball World – Early History . Retrieved June 9, 2006. Archived June 16, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The exact name of Mr Lindon is in dispute, as well as the exact timing of the creation of the inflatable bladder. It is known that he created this for both association and rugby footballs. However, sites devoted to football indicate he was known as HJ Lindon, who was actually Richards Lindon's son, and created the ball in 1862 (ref: Soccer Ball World), whereas rugby sites refer to him as Richard Lindon creating the ball in 1870 (ref: Guardian article). Both agree that his wife died when inflating pig's bladders. This information originated from web sites which may be unreliable, and the answer may only be found in researching books in central libraries.
- ^ soccerballworld.com, (no date) "Charles Goodyear's Soccer Ball" Downloaded 30/11/06.
- ^ Scots invented beautiful game The Scotsman, 14 June 2006
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London, England), Sunday, January 13, 1839.New Readerships
- ^ Blackwood's Magazine, Published by W. Blackwood, 1862, page 563
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London, England), Saturday, January 07, 1865; Issue 2,229: "The Sheffield party, however, eventually took a lead, and through some scientific movements of Mr J Wild, scored a goal amid great cheering"
- ^ Bell's life in london, November 26th 1865, issue 2275: "We cannot help recording the really scientific play with which the Sheffield men backed each other up
- ^ Wall, Sir Frederick (2005). 50 Years of Football, 1884–1934. Soccer Books Limited. ISBN 1-86223-116-8.
- ^ [Cox, Richard (2002) The encyclopaedia of British Football, Routledge, United Kingdom]
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 18 December 1869
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 5 November 1870,issue 2
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 18 November 1871,issue 2, 681
- ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 17 February 1872,issue 2694
- ^ The Derby Mercury (Derby, England), Wednesday, March 20, 1872; Issue 8226
- ^ Murphy, Brendan (2007). From Sheffield with Love. Sports Book Limited. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-899807-56-7.
- ^ Association Football, chapter by CW Alcock, The English Illustrated Magazine 1891, page 287
- ^ Harvey, Adrian (2005). Football, the First Hundred Years. Routledge. pp. 273, ref 34–119. ISBN 0-415-35019-0. http://books.google.com/?id=TxoZ0S-GC7MC.
- ^ Csanadi Arpad, Hungerian coaching manual "Soccer", Corvina, Budapest 1965
- ^ Wilson Jonathon, Inverting the pyramid: a History of Football Tactics , Orion, 2008
- ^ "Football Association tribute to the Cambridge Rules". http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/dp/2006121303. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
- ^ Harvey, Adrian (2005). Football, the First Hundred Years. Routledge. pp. 95–99. ISBN 0-415-35019-0. http://books.google.com/?id=TxoZ0S-GC7MC.
- ^ Murphy, Brendan (2007). From Sheffield with Love. Sports Book Limited. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-1-899807-56-7.
- ^ "Letter from Tom Wills". MCG website. Archived from the original on June 25, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060625081726/http%3A//www.mcg.org.au/default.asp%3Fpg%3Dfootballdisplay%26articleid%3D37. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
- ^ "The Origins of Australian Rules Football". MCG website. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070611104451/http%3A//www.mcg.org.au/default.asp%3Fpg%3Dfootballdisplay%26articleid%3D36. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
- ^ Sport: Touchstone of Australian Life from the Australian Broadcasting Commission. First broadcast on Thursday 17/05/01
- ^ Peter Shortell. Hacking – a history, Cornwall Referees Society, 2 October 2006
- ^ "soccer, n". Oxford English Dictionary. June 2011. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/183733. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
- ^ "Canadian Football Timelines (1860– present)". Football Canada. Archived from the original on February 28, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070228064050/http%3A//www.footballcanada.com/history_timeline.asp. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
- ^ "The governing body is the "Fédération de soccer du Québec"". Federation-soccer.qc.ca. http://www.federation-soccer.qc.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=149&Itemid=34. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ Stories Soccer to become football in Australia (SMH.com.au. December 17, 2004) "ASA chairman Frank Lowy said the symbolic move would bring Australia into line with the vast majority of other countries which call the sport football."
- ^ NZ Football – The Local Name Of The Global Game (NZFootball.co.nz. April 27, 2006) "The international game is called football and were part of the international game so the game in New Zealand should be called football"
- ^ David As... (2009-11-28). ""new name & logo for Samoan football"". Sportingpulse.com. http://www.sportingpulse.com/assoc_page.cgi?client=0-1001-0-0-0&sID=12574&&news_task=DETAIL&articleID=10755795§ionID=12574. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ ""Football progress in Samoa "". Samoaobserver.ws. http://www.samoaobserver.ws/index.php?view=article&id=21824%3Afootball-progress&option=com_content&Itemid=81. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ Summers, Mark. "The Disability Football Directory". http://www.disabilityfootball.co.uk.
- ^ Sean Fagan, Breaking The Codes, RL1908.com, 2006
References[link]
| Find more about Football on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Green, Geoffrey (1953); The History of the Football Association; Naldrett Press, London
- Mandelbaum, Michael (2004); The Meaning of Sports; Public Affairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1
- Williams, Graham (1994); The Code War; Yore Publications, ISBN 1-874427-65-8
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Football
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Football (Sportart)
http://fr.wn.com/Football (homonymie)
http://it.wn.com/Football
http://pl.wn.com/Futbol
http://cs.wn.com/Fotbal (rozcestník)
http://es.wn.com/Fútbol (homonimia)
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
