Five Sangomas in KwaZulu-Natal

Overview[link]

A sangoma is a practitioner of herbal medicine, divination and counselling in traditional Nguni (Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Swazi) societies of Southern Africa (effectively an African shaman).

Sangomas have many different social and political roles in the community: divination, healing, directing rituals, finding lost cattle, protecting warriors, counteracting witches, and narrating the history, cosmology, and myths of their tradition. They are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by witchcraft^[1], pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences) or by the ancestors themselves^[2], either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (thwasa)^[3]. For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.^[4]

Sangomas are steeped in ritual. They work in a sacred healing hut or Ndumba, where their ancestors reside. They have specific coloured cloths to wear to please each ancestor, and often wear the gallbladder of the goat sacrificed at their graduation ceremony in their hair. They summon the ancestors by either burning a plant called Imphepho, dancing, chanting, channelling and playing drums.

Sangomas are able to access advice and guidance from the ancestors for their patients in three ways: possession by an ancestor, or channelling; throwing bones; and interpreting dreams. In possession states the Sangoma works herself into a trance, through drumming, dancing and chanting, and allows her ego to step aside so an ancestor possesses her body and communicates directly with the patient, providing specific information about the patients problems. It can be very dramatic, with the Sangoma speaking in tongues, or foreign languages according to the specific ancestor, or dancing fervently beyond her normal ability.

Sangomas will give their patients Muti, medications of sand, plant and animal origin imbued with spiritual significance, often with powerful symbolism - eg. lion fat is given to promote courage in the younsters. There are medicines for everything from physical and mental illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties to potions for love and luck.

Beliefs and Tradition[link]

Sangomas greeting each other

A sangoma is a practitioner of ngoma, a form of traditional African medicine in Zulu culture. The philosophy is based on a belief in ancestral spirits. They perform a holistic and symbolic form of healing, embedded in the beliefs of their culture that ancestors in the afterlife guide and protect the living. Sangomas are called to heal, and through them ancestors from the spirit world can give instruction and advice to heal illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties.

Ancestral spirits can be the personal ancestors of the Sangoma or the patient or they might be general ancestors associated with the geographic area or the community^[5]. The spirits have the power to intervene in people's lives.^[6] Helping spirits work to connect the Sangoma to the spirits that are acting to cause the affliction. For example the crab, could be invoked as a mediator between the human world and the world of spirits. The crab is given this power because of its ability to move between the world of the land and the sea^[7]. Helping and harming spirits are seen as using the human as a battle ground for their own conflicts. By using ngoma, the sangoma can create harmony between the spirits which results in the alleviation of the patient's suffering.

The Sangoma may burn incense (eg. a plant called Imphepho) or sacrifice animals to please the ancestoral spirits. Snuff is also used to communicate with the ancestors through prayer.

Divination, Diagnosis and Healing Practices[link]

The goal in healing is to establish a balanced and harmless relationship between the afflicted patient and the spirits that are causing their illness or problem. This is generally performed through divination (Throwing the bones or Ancestral channeling) and a number of purification rituals.

Accessing the ancestors' advice through the bones is an alternative to the exhausting possession states. A patient will come to the sangoma and the sangoma must determine what the affliction or reason why the patient has come to see the sangoma. This is usually performed through a practice called throwing the bones. The patient or diviner throws bones on the floor, which may include animal vertebrae, dominoes, dice, coins, shells and stones, each with a specific significance to human life. For example a hyena bone signifies a thief and will provide information about stolen objects. The Sangoma or the patient throws the bones but the ancestors control how they lie, and the Sangoma then interprets this metaphor in relation to the patient's afflictions, what the patients ancestors require and how to resolve the disharmony. '^[8]. In the same way, Sangomas will interpret the metaphors present in dreams, either their own or patients'.

Patients will see a Sangoma for a number of broad reasons. Because the healing is not only physical but also social most problems a person could have could be determined to be twasa, spirit cause, and treated by a Sangoma. In the Cape, Black patients tend to complain of vague pains, anxieties, and harm to their reputation presumed to be the result of sorcery. Others have illnesses that come from breaking social taboos, such as sleeping with a married woman, and they wish to remove the stigma. Young people also consult the Sangoma to learn ways to gain good fortune for their future careers and families. One Swaziland family has even claimed that they found their lost daughter, whom they believed to be kidnapped, following the advice of a Sangoma^[9]. By contrast, white patients tend to complain of problems that cannot be solved by western medicine, like concern about money, help getting a promotion, or physical disease like high blood pressure and schizophrenia that are not easily managed by western doctors^[10].

When the diviner comes to an acceptable understanding of the problem and the patient agrees, she will instruct the patient on a course of medicine which may include use of ngoma, referral to a herbalist, inyanga (if the sangoma does not have the knowledge themselves), or recommending western medicine ^[11].

Herbal medicines (muti) are prepared, and depending on the afflicition a number of purification practices can be administered. This can be via the following methods^[12]

1. Bathing - Herbal mixtures are added to bath water to purify the patient
2. Vomitting (Phalaza)- A large volume (up to 2 litres) of a weak, lukewarm herbal infusion is drunk and a process of self-induced vomiting occurs to cleanse and tone the system.
3. Steaming (Futha) - Medicinal herbs are commonly inhaled by steaming them in a bucket of boiling water. A blanket is used to cover the patient and container. Hot rocks or a portable stove may be included to keep the bucket boiling. The patient sits under the blanket, breathes in the herbal steam and sweats.
4. Nasally - A variety of plants can be taken dried and powdered as snuff. Some are taken to induce sneezing which may traditionally be believed to aid the expulsion of disease. Others are taken for the common conditions such as headaches.
5. Enemas - Infusions and some decoctions are commonlly adminsited as enemas. The enema is a preferred route of administration of certain plant extracts, as it is believed they are more effective when administered this way.
6. Cuttings (umgaba) - Extracts or powders are directly applied to small cuts, made with a razor blade, in the patients skin.

Due to a changing cultural landscape, especially since the onset of colonialism, the distinction between diviners and herbalists is not clear anymore. With the additional encroachment of alleopathic, or Western, health care systems in South Africa, the roles of the diviner and herbalist have become increasingly blurred.^[13][14]

Thwasa and Initiation[link]

Both men and women can be called by the ancestors. A Sangoma is called to heal by an initiation illness, often psychosis, headache, intractable stomach pain, shoulder or neck complaints. To become a Sangoma, these problems together must be seen by a Sangoma as twasa or the calling of the spirits. The word is derived from thwasa which means 'the light of the new moon or from ku mu thwasisa meaining 'to lead to the light'^[15].

A trainee sangoma (or ithwasa) trains formally under another sangoma, for a period of anywhere between 3 months and years of learning humility to the ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use of Muti, medicines with spiritual significance.. During this training period the ithwasa will share their aliments in the form of song and dance, a process that is nurtured by the analysis of dreams, anxieties, and with prayer. The story develops into a song which becomes a large part of the graduation type ceremony that marks the end of the ithwasa's training ^[16]. At times in the training, and for the graduation, a ritual sacrifice of an animal is performed (usually chickens and a goat or a cow). The spilling of this blood is meant to seal the bond between the ancestors and the sangoma. At the end of Thwasa, a goat is sacrificed to call to the ancestors and appease them.

Drumming and Ancestral Dancing[link]

Drumming is an important part of summoning the ancestors. During times of celebration (eg at an Initiation) the possessed sangoma is called to dance and celebrate their ancestors. The Sangoma will fall into trance where the ancestors will be channeled (which is signified in Zulu traditions by episodes of convulsive fits) followed by the singing of ancestoral songs. These songs are echoed back to the ancestor via the audience in a process of call and response. The possessed Sangoma will then change into their traditional ancestral clothing and dance vigourously while others drum and sing in celebration.

Legal status[link]

Sangomas are legally recognized in South Africa as traditional health practitioners, under the Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2007 (Act. 22 of 2007) as diviners alongside with herbalists, traditional birth attendants, and traditional surgeons. The act calls for the establishment of a national council of traditional health practitioners to regulate and register a.o. sangomas in the country.^[17] However, it was only in December 2011 that the National Department of Health took action and opened nominations for seats on an interim council.^[18] Previously, the South African Parliament had passed the Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2004 (Act. 35 of 2004). However, the act was ruled unconstitutional after Doctors for Life International challenged it at the Constitutional Court, citing the insufficient public participation at provincial level in the drafting of the act.^[19]

History and Background[link]

The Zulu word with prefix is isangoma (pl. izangoma), alternatively it is also spelled as umngoma (pl. abangoma), 'sa ngoma' means 'do ngoma' and 'i sa ngoma' means 'those who do ngoma', so 'sangoma' or 'isangoma' refers specifically to the practitioner of the ngoma practice^[20]. Sangoma can also literally mean "person of the drum". The term sangoma is often used colloquially in South Africa for equivalent professions in other Bantu cultures in Southern Africa.^[21]. Forms of the Ngoma ritual are practiced throughout southern and south-eastern Africa in countries such as South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, Kenya, and Batswana. In more northern areas the practices are generally more diverse and less organized than the southern practices^[22]. Among the Kongo, the practice is called loka or more negitively doga, a term meaning witchcraft^[23]. The Xhosa term is igqirha (pl. amagqirha); as reflected in the lyrics of Miriam Makeba's Click Song^[24] (Xhosa: Qongqothwane): Igqira lendlela nguqongqothwane (the diviner of the road is the knock-knock beetle). Ngaka and selaoli are the terms in Northern Sotho and Southern Sotho respectively, while among the Venda and Tsonga people they are called mungome.^[21]

Ngoma is believed to have come to southern Africa during the Western Bantu migration that began around 2000 BCE and was further influenced by the eastern Bantu migration that occurred until 500 CE^[25]. The practice has evolved along with the social problems of its users. In pre-colonial form Ngoma songs dealt mainly with issues of hunting. Over time the system adapted to include the introduction of guns, and later the racial and class struggles of practitioners under colonial rule^[26]. In Zimbabwe, the civil war experience lead to a revival of Ngoma practice with a new emphasis on the spirits of the victims of war. The service allowed the Sangoma to help people cope with their own violent acts as well as those they had fallen victim to^[27]. In addition, Ngoma has been adapted by many to include both Christian and Muslim beliefs^[28].

White Sangomas[link]

While there are recorded instances of white sangomas before 1994, since 1994 an increasing number of white people have openly trained as sangomas in South Africa.^[29] The question of authenticity is still often an ongoing discussion. According to Dr Nokuzola Mndende of the Icamagu Institute, a Xhosa sangoma and formerly a lecturer in religious studies at the University of Cape Town:

"An igqirha is someone who has been called by their ancestors to heal, whether from the maternal or paternal side, they can't be called by [somebody else's] ancestors."^[30]

However, Philip Kubekeli, director of the Traditional Medical Practitioners, Herbalist and Spiritual Healers Association, and Phephsile Maseko, spokesperson of the Traditional Healers Organisation, insist that traditional healing knows no colour, and see nothing wrong with white sangomas^[30][31]

Several white sangomas, interviewed by The Big Issue in 2010, claimed that they have been welcomed by the black community in South Africa, aside from isolated experiences of hostility^[30]. On the other hand, there have also been reports that white sangomas have been less readily accepted by black sangomas^{[32] [33]}

Relationship with Western Medicine[link]

The formal health sector has shown continued interest in the role of sangomas and the efficacy of their herbal remedies. Western-style scientists continue to study the ingredients of traditional medicines in use by sangomas. Public health specialists are now enlisting sangomas in the fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS. In the past decade, the role of all types of traditional healers have become important in the fighting the impact of the virus and treating people infected with the virus before they advance to a point where they require (or can obtain) anti-retroviral drugs.

Estimates of the number of indigenous traditional healers in South Africa ranged up to 200 000 in 1999, compared to 25 000 western trained doctors.^[21] and are consulted first (or exclusively) by approximately 60% of the african population.^[34] While for many they provide the healing needed, there are some causes for concern. Charlatans who haven't undergone Thwasa charge exorbitant prices for fraudulent service, and not all countries in southern Africa have effective regulatory bodies to prevent this practice. Some Sangomas have been known to abuse the charismatic power they have over their patients by sexually assaulting them, sometimes dressed up as ritual. Repeated use of the same razor blade to make incisions for Muti carries HIV transmission risks in regions where the disease is rife. Western-style doctors have seen a number of cases of patients with serious gastrointestinal problems through the use of Muti, especially in enema form, and have even coined the phrase "ritual enema induced colitis".^[35] Zulu children may have up to three enemas a week.

Notable Sangomas[link]

• Busi Mhlongo
• John Lockley
• Mercy Manci
• Vusamazulu Credo Mutwa

See also[link]

• Inyanga
• Traditional African medicine

Notes[link]

1. ^ David M Cumes (2004), "'Africa in my bones pp.14
2. ^ Susan Schuster Campbell (1998), "Called to Heal" pp.38
3. ^ Susan Schuster Campbell (1998), "Called to Heal" pp.79
4. ^ David M Cumes (2004), "Africa in my bones" pp.10
5. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Culture Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" pp.149
6. ^ Callaway, Henry (1870). The Religious System of the Amazulu. Springvale, Natal. http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/rsa/index.htm. 
7. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Culture Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" pp.147-148
8. ^ David M Cumes "Africa in My Bones" (2004) pp41
9. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Culture Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995)pp.145
10. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Culture Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995)pp.145-146
11. ^ Rolf P.A. Dauskart "The Changing Geography of Traditional Medicine; urban Herbalism on the witwaterstrand, South Africa" (1990) pp.276
12. ^ Ben-Erik van Wyk, Bosch van Oudtshoorn, Nigel Gericke "Medicinal Plants of South Africa" (2009) pp.18
13. ^ Pretorius, Engela (1999). Crisp, Nicholas & Ntuli, Antoinette. ed. SAHR 1999. Durban: Health Systems Trust. pp. 249–257. ISBN 1-919743-53-7. 
14. ^ Richter, Marlise (2003). Traditional Medicines and Traditional Healers in South Africa. http://healthlink.org.za/uploads/files/TAC_Law_Proj.pdf. 
15. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) pp146
16. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) pp.146-148
17. ^ "Traditional Health Practitioners Act, 2007 (Act no. 22 of 2007)". Government Gazette. 
18. ^ "Notice of Nominations: Traditional Health Practitioners Act, 2007 (Act no. 22 of 2007)". Department of Health. http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/forms/2011/nomination_frm.pdf. Retrieved 25 January 2012. 
19. ^ Voyi, Ndumiso. "Sangoma sick notes invalid". HR future. http://www.hrfuture.net/legal/sangoma-sick-notes-invalid.php?Itemid=938. Retrieved 25 January 2012. 
20. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) pp. 147.
21. ^ ^{a b c} Truter, Ilse (September 2007). "African Traditional Healers: Cultural and religious beliefs intertwined in a holistic way". SA Pharmaceutical Journal 74 (8): 56–60. 
22. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995)pp. 142
23. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) 155-156.
24. ^ [1]
25. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Culture Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) pp.155-156
26. ^ John M. Janzen "Self Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa" (1995) pp.154-157
27. ^ John M. Janzen "'Doing Ngoma': A Dominant Trope in African Religion and Healing" (1991) pp.306
28. ^ John M. Janzen "'Doing Ngoma': A Dominant Trope in African Religion and Healing" (1991)
29. ^ Wreford, Joanne Thobeka (December 2007). "'Long-Nosed' Hybrids? Sharing the Experience of White Izangoma in Contemporary South-Africa". Journal of South African Studies 33 (4): 829–843. 
30. ^ ^{a b c} Bosworth, Brendon (26 July 2010). "Testing time for white sangomas". The Big Issue South Africa. http://www.streetnewsservice.org/news/2010/july/feed-242/testing-time-for-white-sangomas-.aspx. Retrieved 5 January 2012. 
31. ^ Sibanda, Mapula (7 March 2004). "Are white sangomas fake or real?". City Press. http://152.111.1.87/argief/berigte/citypress/2004/03/07/C1/24/01.html. Retrieved 5 January 2012. 
32. ^ Kaganof, Agan (7 April 2011). "Who’s healing WHO?". Chimurenga. http://www.chimurenganewsroom.org.za/?p=1796. Retrieved 5 January 2012. 
33. ^ Ngcai, Sabata (7 March 2004). "Sangomas take UCT by storm But where does the white sangoma fit in". City Press. http://152.111.1.87/argief/berigte/citypress/2001/04/22/18/2.html. Retrieved 5 January 2012. 
34. ^ Ben-Erik van Wyk, Bosch van Oudtshoorn, Nigel Gericke "Medicinal Plants of South Africa" (2009) pp.10
35. ^ Segal, I; Solomon A, Mirwis J. (November 1981). "Radiological manifestations of ritual-enema-induced colitis.". Clin Radiol 32 (6): 657–662. 

References[link]

• Foster, G and Anderson B. Chapters 6 & 7, Medical Anthropology.New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1978.
• Loudon, JB editor. Some aspects of treatment among the Zulu in Social anthropology and Medicine. London: Academic Press; 1976.
• Cumes, D. Africa in my Bones. Cape Town: New Africa Books; 2004.
• Tate, P. The Doctor's Communication Handbook. 4th ed. Oxford: OUP; 2003.
• Kale, R. Traditional healers in South Africa: a parallel health care system. BMJ 1995;310 (6988):1182-5.
• Niagia, SF. Traditional Medicine gets healthy recognition. Lancet 2002;359(9319):1760.
• Siringi, S. Traditional medicine could cut costs for national health services. Lancet 2002;359 (9319):1760.
• Ramsay, S. WHO launches first global strategy on traditional medicines. Lancet 2002;359(9319):1760.
• King, R. Collaboration with traditional healers in Aids prevention and care in Sub-Saharan Africa: a literature review. UNAIDS, Geneva (2000)
• van Wyk, B and van Oudtshoorn B and Gericke N. Medicinal Plants of South Africa.Pretoria: Briza Publications (2009)

External links[link]

• Sangomas murder for 'medicinal' body parts (article by Ramita Navai)

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Yvonne Chaka Chaka at the World Economic Forum annual meeting in 2012

Yvonne Chaka Chaka (born Yvonne Machaka in 1965) is a South African singer.

Dubbed the "Princess of Africa", Chaka Chaka has been at the forefront of South African popular music for 20 years. Songs like "I'm Burning Up", "thank you mister dj", "I Cry for Freedom", "Makoti", "Motherland" and the ever-popular "Umqombothi" ("African Beer") ensured Yvonne's stardom.

The song "Umqombothi" was featured in the opening scene of the 2004 movie Hotel Rwanda.

Biography[link]

Chaka Chaka was born in Dobsonville in Soweto. She became the first Black child to appear on South African television. In 1981 "Sugar Shack", a talent show, introduced her to the South African public.

Chaka Chaka started singing at 19 in 1985 when Phil Hollis of Dephon Records discovered her in Johannesburg. Shortly after, her debut album "I’m in Love With a DJ", sold 35,000 copies, and the title track became an instant hit.

Songs like "I'm Burning Up", "I Cry for Freedom", "Sangoma","Motherland" and the ever-popular, "Umqombothi" immediately ensured Chaka Chaka's status as a star on South Africa's mbaqanga music scene.

Chaka Chaka had it tough growing up. Her father died when she was 11 and her mother, a domestic worker, brought up three daughters on her meagre 40 Rand a month salary.

She has two diplomas from the University of South Africa, one in adult education, another in local government, management and administration. She also studied speech and drama at Trinity College, London, qualifying in 1997.

Releasing hit after hit, Chaka Chaka's subsequent award winning albums include "Burning Up", "Sangoma", "Who’s The Boss", "Motherland", " Be Proud to be African", "Thank You Mr DJ", "Back on my Feet", "Rhythm of Life", "Who's got the Power", "Bombani ( Tiko Rahini), "Power of Afrika", "Yvonne and Friends" and "Kwenzenjani".

Chaka Chaka owns a limousine company together with her husband, Dr Mandlalele Mhinga, has her own music label and her own production company. She teaches literacy part time at the University of South Africa, sits on several boards of charitable organisations and NGOs, and serves on the board of the Johannesburg Tourism Company.

Throughout her illustrious career Chaka Chaka has met people like Nelson Mandela (singing at his 85th birthday party), the Queen and Oprah Winfrey.

Chaka Chaka's continuing legacy as "Princess of Africa" is a testament to her connection to everyday people as well as royalty. Whether she is performing for Kings and Queens, Presidents and First Ladies or corporate concerts; she always returns to those she loves - her fans and family of listeners in South African cities, townships and rural areas.

"Mama Africa", Miriam Makeba said of her "She’s my baby!", Hugh Masekela adds that Yvonne is "my mad niece". Legends Dolly Rathebe and Dorothy Masuka describe Yvonne's music as "something that all should listen to".

When asked who she admired most, Chaka Chaka said "My mother because she has always been there for me. My mother raised three daughters single-handedly on a domestic worker's salary. That took great courage and strength. She is my mentor and hero. When I was born in 1965 in Soweto, it was during apartheid, and those were extremely difficult times. My dad was a great musician who could never realize his dream. He died when I was 11 years old. I inherited my talent from both parents, so music has always been in my blood. When I was little I would strum an empty tin and blow into a broom stick pretending it was a microphone. I sang in church choirs. I loved singing. I am blessed that I achieved my destiny, and been able to accomplish what my father could not." Then she married Tiny Mhinga who is related to Mavivi Myakayaka Manzini and is the uncle to Lebohang Manzini.

External links[link]

• Official Website
• Yvonne Chaka Chaka lyrics
• Yvonne Chaka Chaka on MySpace

Miriam Makeba
Makeba during a performance
Background information
Birth name	Zenzile Miriam Makeba[1]
Also known as	Mama Afrika
Born	(1932-03-04)4 March 1932 Prospect Township, Johannesburg, South Africa
Died	10 November 2008(2008-11-10) (aged 76) Castel Volturno, Italy
Genres	Marabi, World music, folk, pop rock, jazz
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, actress
Years active	1954–2008
Labels	Manteca, RCA, Mercury Records, Kapp Records, Collectables, Suave Music, Warner Bros., PolyGram, Drg, Stern's Africa, Kaz, Sonodisc
Website	Official website

Miriam Makeba (4 March 1932 – 10 November 2008), nicknamed Mama Africa, was a Grammy Award winning South African singer and civil rights activist.

In the 1960s she was the first artist from Africa to popularize African music in the U.S. and around the world. She is best known for the song "Pata Pata", first recorded in 1957 and released in the U.S. in 1967. She recorded and toured with many popular artists, such as Harry Belafonte, Paul Simon, and her former husband Hugh Masekela.

She actively campaigned against the South African system of apartheid. As a result, the South African government revoked her citizenship and right of return. After the end of apartheid she returned home. She died on 10 November 2008 after performing in a concert organized to support writer Roberto Saviano in his stand against the Camorra, a mafia-like organisation local to the Region of Campania.

Early years[link]

Zenzile Miriam Makeba was born in Johannesburg in 1932. Her mother was a Swazi sangoma (traditional healer-herbalist). Her father, who died when she was six years old, was a Xhosa. When she was eighteen days old, her mother was arrested for selling umqombothi, an African homemade beer brewed from malt and cornmeal. Her mother was sentenced to a six-month prison term, so Miriam spent her first six months of life in jail.^[2][3] As a child, she sang in the choir of the Kilmerton Training Institute in Pretoria, a primary school that she attended for eight years.^[4][5]

At the age of seventeen, Makeba gave birth to her only child, Bongi Makeba. She was then diagnosed with breast cancer, and her first husband left her shortly afterwards.^[6]

Her professional career began in the 1950s when she was featured in the South African jazz group the Manhattan Brothers, and appeared for the first time on a poster. She left the Manhattan Brothers to record with her all-woman group, The Skylarks,^[7] singing a blend of jazz and traditional melodies of South Africa.^[2] As early as 1956, she released the single "Pata Pata".^[5] The single was played on all the radio stations and made her known throughout South Africa.^[8] Although she was a successful recording artist, she only received a few dollars for each recording session and no provisional royalties, and was keen to leave home.^{[citation needed]}

She had a short-lived marriage in 1959.^[6] Her break came in that year when she had a short guest appearance in Come Back, Africa, an anti-apartheid documentary produced and directed by American independent filmmaker Lionel Rogosin. The short cameo made an enormous impression on the viewers and Lionel Rogosin managed to organise a visa for her to attend the première of the film at the twenty-fourth Venice Film Festival in Italy, where the film won the prestigious Critics' Award.^[9][10][11] That year, Makeba sang the lead female role in the Broadway-inspired South African musical King Kong,^[4] alongside Hugh Masekela, who she married in 1964.^[6][2] She made her US debut on 1 November 1959, on The Steve Allen Show.^[5][12]

Exile[link]

Makeba then travelled to London where she met Harry Belafonte, who assisted her in gaining entry to the United States and achieving fame there.^[14] When she tried to return to South Africa in 1960 for her mother's funeral, she discovered that her South African passport had been cancelled.^[15] She signed with RCA Records and released Miriam Makeba, her first U.S. studio album, in 1960.^[15] In 1962, Makeba and Belafonte sang at John F. Kennedy's birthday party at Madison Square Garden, but Makeba did not go to the aftershow party because she was ill. President Kennedy insisted on meeting her, so Belafonte sent a car to pick her up and she met the President of the United States.^[16] In 1963, Makeba released her second studio album for RCA, The World of Miriam Makeba. The album, an early example of world music, peaked at number eighty-six on the Billboard 200.^[15][17] Later that year, after testifying against apartheid before the United Nations, her South African citizenship and her right to return to the country were revoked.^[4] She was a woman without a country, but the world came to her aid, and Guinea, Belgium and Ghana issued her international passports, and she became, in effect, a citizen of the world.^[15] In her life, she had nine passports,^[2] and was granted honorary citizenship in ten countries.^[16]

In 1966 Makeba received the Grammy Award for Best Folk Recording together with Harry Belafonte for An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba.^[10][17] The album dealt with the political plight of black South Africans under apartheid, and it was one of the first American albums to present traditional Zulu, Sotho and Swahili songs in an authentic setting.^[15] From the time of her New York debut at the Village Vanguard, her fame and reputation grew. She released many of her most famous hits in the United States, including "The Click Song" ("Qongqothwane" in Xhosa) and "Malaika". Time called her the "most exciting new singing talent to appear in many years," and Newsweek compared her voice to "the smoky tones and delicate phrasing" of Ella Fitzgerald and the "intimate warmth" of Frank Sinatra.^[2] Despite the success that made her a star in the U.S., she wore no makeup and refused to curl her hair for shows, thus establishing a style that would come to be known internationally as the "Afro look".^[9] In 1967, more than ten years after she wrote the song, the single "Pata Pata" was released in the United States and became a worldwide hit.^[5]

Her marriage to Trinidad-born civil rights activist, Black Panther, and Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee leader Stokely Carmichael in 1968 caused controversy in the United States, and her record deals and tours were cancelled.^[5] As a result, the couple moved to Guinea,^[4] her home for the next 15 years, where they became close with President Ahmed Sékou Touré and his wife, Andrée.^[2][19] Makeba was appointed Guinea's official delegate to the United Nations, for which she won the Dag Hammarskjöld Peace Prize in 1986.^{[5][10][20][21]} She also separated from Carmichael in 1973 and continued to perform primarily in Africa, Europe and Asia, but not in the United States, where a de facto boycott was in effect.^[18] Makeba was one of the entertainers at the 1974 Rumble in the Jungle match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman held in Zaïre.^[22] She addressed the United Nations General Assembly for the second time in 1975.^[2] She divorced Carmichael in 1978 and married an airline executive in 1980.^[6]

After the death of her daughter Bongi in 1985, she decided to move to Brussels.^[2] In the following year, Hugh Masekela introduced Makeba to Paul Simon, and a few months later she embarked on the very successful Graceland Tour, which was documented on music video.^[23][18][24] Two concerts held in Harare, Zimbabwe, were filmed in 1987 for release as Graceland: The African Concert. After touring the world with Simon, Warner Bros. Records signed Makeba and she released Sangoma ("Healer"), an a cappella album of healing chants named in honour of her mother who was an "isangoma" ("a healer").^[18] Shortly thereafter her autobiography Makeba: My Story was published and subsequently translated from English into other languages including German, French, Dutch, Italian and Spanish.^[5] She took part in the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute, a popular-music concert staged on 11 June 1988 at Wembley Stadium, London, and broadcast to 67 countries and an audience of 600 million.^[25] Also referred to as Freedomfest, Free Nelson Mandela Concert, and Mandela Day, the event called for Mandela's release.

Return to South Africa[link]

Makeba and Dizzy Gillespie in Calvados, France, 1991

Nelson Mandela's 70th Birthday Tribute increased pressure on the government of South Africa to release Mandela, and in 1990, State President of South Africa Frederik Willem de Klerk reversed the ban on the African National Congress and other anti-apartheid organisations, and announced that Nelson Mandela would shortly be released from prison.^[26] Mandela, who was effectively released from Victor Verster Prison in Paarl on 11 February 1990,^[27] persuaded Miriam Makeba to return to South Africa. She returned home on 10 June 1990, on her French passport.^[2][28]

In 1991, Makeba, with Dizzy Gillespie, Nina Simone and Masekela, recorded and released her studio album, Eyes on Tomorrow. The album combined jazz, R&B, pop, and African music, and was a hit in Africa. Makeba and Gillespie then toured the world together to promote it.^[18] In November of the same year, she made a guest appearance in the episode "Olivia Comes Out of the Closet" of The Cosby Show. In 1992 she starred in the film Sarafina!. The film's plot centers on students involved in the 1976's Soweto youth uprisings, and Makeba portrayed the title character's mother, "Angelina". The following year she released Sing Me a Song.

On 16 October 1999, Miriam Makeba was nominated Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).^[29] In January 2000, her album, Homeland, produced by Cedric Samson and Michael Levinsohn for the New York City based record label Putumayo World Music,^[30] was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music Album category.^[31] She worked closely with Graça Machel-Mandela, who at the time was the South African first lady, for children suffering from HIV/AIDS, child soldiers, and the physically handicapped.^[2]

In 2001 she was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold by the United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin, "for outstanding services to peace and international understanding".^[10] She shared the Polar Music Prize with Sofia Gubaidulina.^[10] The prize is regarded as Sweden's foremost musical honour. They received their Prize from Carl XVI Gustaf King of Sweden during a nationally-televised ceremony at Berwaldhallen, Stockholm, on 27 May 2002.^[32] She also took part in the 2002 documentary Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony where she and others recalled the struggles of black South Africans against the injustices of apartheid through the use of music. In 2004, Makeba was voted 38th in the Top 100 Great South Africans. Makeba started a worldwide farewell tour in 2005, holding concerts in all of those countries that she had visited during her working life.^[16]

Death and legacy[link]

On 9 November 2008, she became ill while taking part in a concert organized to support writer Roberto Saviano in his stand against the Camorra, a mafia-like organisation local to the Region of Campania. The concert was being held in Castel Volturno, near Caserta, Italy. Makeba suffered a heart attack after singing her hit song "Pata Pata", and was taken to the "Pineta Grande" clinic where doctors were unable to revive her.^{[33][n 1][34][35]} Her publicist notes that Makeba had suffered "severe arthritis" for some time.^[36] She and family members were based in Northriding, Gauteng, at the time of her death.

On 25, 26 and 27 September 2009, a tribute show to Makeba entitled "Hommage à Miriam Makeba" and curated by Grammy Award-winning Beninoise singer-songwriter and activist Angélique Kidjo for the Festival d'Ile de France, was held at the Cirque d'hiver in Paris.^[37] The same show but with the English title of "Mama Africa: Celebrating Miriam Makeba" was held at the Barbican in London on 21 November 2009.^[38]

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

• The Many Voices of Miriam Makeba (1960) (LP Kapp KL1274)
• Miriam Makeba (1960) (LP RCA LSP2267)
• The World of Miriam Makeba (1963) (LP RCA LSP2750) #86 (US)^[17]
• The Voice of Africa (1964) (LP RCA LSP2845) #122 (US)^[17]
• Makeba Sings! (1965) (LP RCA LSP3321)
• An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba (1965) (LP with Harry Belafonte; RCA LSP3420; Grammy Award for Best Ethnic or Traditional Folk Recording) #85 (US)^[17]
• The Magic of Makeba (1965) (LP RCA LSP3512)
• The Magnificent Miriam Makeba (1966) (LP Mercury 134016)
• All About Miriam (1966) (LP Mercury 134029)
• Pata Pata (1967) (LP Reprise RS6274) #74 (US)^[17]
• Makeba! (1968) (LP Reprise RS6310)
• Keep Me in Mind (1970) (LP Reprise RS6381)
• A Promise (1974) (LP RCA YSPL1-544)
• Miriam Makeba & Bongi (1975) (LP with Bongi Makeba; Guinea: Editions Syliphone Conakry SLP 48)
• Country Girl (1978) (LP Sonodisc ESP165518)
• Comme une symphonie d'amour (1979) (LP Sonodisc ESP 7501)
• Sangoma (1988) (CD Warner Bros. 25673)
• Welela (1989) (CD Gallo CDGSP3084) #6 (US)^[17]
• Eyes on Tomorrow (1991) (CD Gallo CDGSP3086) #10 (US)^[17]
• Sing Me a Song (1993) (CD CDS12702)
• Homeland (2000) (CD Putumayo PUTU1642)
• Reflecting (2004) (CD Gallo Music GWVCD-51) #12 (US)^[17]
• Makeba Forever (2006) (CD Gallo Music CDGURB-082)

Live albums[link]

• Miriam Makeba in Concert! (1967) (LP) (Reprise RS6253) #182 (US)^[17]
• Live in Tokyo (1968) (LP) (Reprise SJET8082)
• Live in Conakry: Appel a l'Afrique (1974) (LP) (Sonodisc SLP22)
• Enregistrement public au Theatre des Champs-Elysées (1977) (LP) (released on CD6508 as Pata Pata: Live in Paris in 1998)
• Live at Berns Salonger, Stockholm, Sweden, 1966 (2003) (CD) (Gallo Music GWVCD-49)

Compilations[link]

• The Best of Miriam Makeba (LP) Canada: RCA Victor LSP-3982, 1968
• Harry Belafonte and Miriam Makeba (as Harry Belafonte and Miriam Makeba) (2xLP) Camden PJL2-8042, 1975
• Miriam Makeba (LP) Italy: Record Bazaar RB 254, 1980
• The Queen of African Music (CD) Verlag Pläne 831 655-938, 1987
• Africa (CD) Germany: Novus 3155-2-N/ND 83155, 1991
• Miriam Makeba and The Skylarks: Volume 1 (as Miriam Makeba and The Skylarks; Remastered from 78/45 RPM recorded between 1956 and 1959) (CD) TELCD 2303, 1991
• Folk Songs from Africa (CD) SAAR CD 12514, 1994
• En public à Paris et Conakry (CD), 1996
• Hits and Highlights (CD), 1997
• Miriam Makeba and The Skylarks: Volume 2 (as Miriam Makeba and The Skylarks; Remastered from 78/45 RPM recorded between 1956 and 1959) (CD) TELCD 2315, 1997
• The Best of Miriam Makeba (CD) BMG, 2000
• Legend (CD) Next Music CDSL21, 2001
• Mama Africa: The Very Best of Miriam Makeba (CD), 2001
• The Guinea Years (CD/LP) STCD3017/SLP48, 2001
• Mother Africa: The Black Anthology (CD), 2002
• The Best of Miriam Makeba: The Early Years (CD) Wrasse WRASS 088, 2002
• The Definitive Collection (CD) UK: Wrasse WRASS 062, 2002
• Her Essential Recordings (2xCD) Manteca MANTDBL502, 2006
• Mama Afrika 1932-2008 (CD) Gallo, 2009

Extended plays[link]

• Makeba - Belafonte (as Miriam Makeba and Harry Belafonte) (Vinyl, 7", 45 RPM) Germany: RCA Victor EPA 9035, 1961
• The Click Song (Vinyl, 7", EP) France: London RE 10.145, 1963
• Chants d'Afrique (Vinyl, 7") France: RCA Victor 86.374, 1964

Singles[link]

• "Duze" (1956) (10-inch shellac 78 rpm mono Gallotone GB.2062)
• "Pass Office Special" (1957) (10-inch shellac 78 rpm mono Gallotone GB.2134)
• "The Click Song" / "Mbube" (1963) (7-inch vinyl London HL 9747)
• "Malaika" / "Malcolm X" (1965) (7-inch vinyl Kenya: Sonafric SYL 565)
• "Pata Pata" (1967) (7-inch vinyl Reprise 0606) #12 (US)^[17]
• "Malayisha" (1967) (7-inch vinyl Reprise)
• "Emavungwini" (1968) (7-inch vinyl France, Spain: Reprise)
• "I Shall Be Released" / "Iphi Ndilela (Show Me the Way)" (1969) (7-inch vinyl Germany: Reprise RA 0804)
• "Pata Pata" / "Click Song Number 1" (1972) (7-inch vinyl Germany, Netherlands: Reprise REP 14 217)
• "We Got to Make It" / "Promise" (1975) 7-inch vinyl with Instrumentalgruppe German Democratic Republic: AMIGA 4 56 044, 1974, and France: Disques Espérance)
• "Pata Pata" / "Malayisha" (1976) (7-inch vinyl Italy: Reprise 14 267, released in France in 1978)
• "Hauteng" / "Talking and Dialoging" (1978) (7-inch vinyl France: Disques Espérance ESP 155027)
• "Comme une symphonie d'amour" (1979) (7-inch vinyl France: Disques Espérance ESP 65.009)
• "Give Me a Reason" / "Africa" (1989) (7-inch vinyl Italy: Philips 875 308-7)
• "Pata Pata 2000" (2000) (CD Putumayo PUTU 919-S)

Filmography[link]

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

Sources[link]

Books

Journals and magazines

Web

External links[link]

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