Hazāra
هزاره
|
|
Sarwar Danish · Karim Khalili
Sima Samar · Habiba Sarabi
Sayed Anwar Rahmati · Abdul Haq Shafaq
|
| Total population |
| Approx. 5.4-8.1 million |
| Regions with significant populations |
 Afghanistan |
2,685,000-5,370,000 |
[1] |
 Iran |
1,567,000
(1993 estimate) |
[2][3] |
 Pakistan |
956,000 |
[2] |
 European Union |
180,000 |
[4] |
 Australia |
90,000 |
|
 United Kingdom |
54,230 |
|
 Canada |
48,090 |
|
 Turkey |
33,320 |
|
|
| Languages |
|
Persian (predominantly Dari and Hazaragi dialects)
|
| Religion |
|
Shia Islam (Twelver and Ismaili), with a Sunni minority[5]
|
| Related ethnic groups |
|
Persians, other Iranian peoples, Mongols
|
Hazāra (Persian: هزاره) are a Persian-speaking people who mainly live in central Afghanistan and in Pakistan. They are overwhelmingly Shiite Muslims and comprise the third largest ethnic group of Afghanistan,[6][7][8] forming about 9% (according to other sources up to 18%) of the total population.[1][9][10] Over half a million Hazaras live in neighbouring Pakistan (mostly in Quetta) and a similar number in Iran.
Babur, the founder of the Mughal reign in India, used the name Hazara in his records during the early 16th century for the first time. He, for the most part, referred to the populace of the mountainous region located west of Kabul, as far as Ghor and Ghazni.[11] The word Hazara most likely derives from the Persian word for Thousand (Persian: هزار - hazār). It may be the translation of the Mongol word ming (or minggan), a military unit of 1000 soldiers at the time Gengis Khan.[12][13][14] In the passage of time the term Hazar could have substituted the Mongol word and now stands for the group of people.[15]
The origins of the Hazaras have not been fully reconstructed. At least partial Mongol descent is difficult to rule out, because the Hazaras' physical attributes and parts of their culture and language resemble those of Mongolians. Thus, it is widely accepted that Hazaras have Mongolian ancestry, especially after genetic testing showed Hazaras carried the highest frequency of the Y chromosome attributed to Genghis Khan anywhere.[16] Some Hazara tribes are named after famous Mongol generals, for example the Tulai Khan Hazara who are named after Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. Theories of Mongol or partially Mongol descent are plausible, given that the Il-Khanate Mongol rulers, beginning with Oljeitu, embraced Shia Islam. Today, the majority of the Hazaras adhere to Shi'ism, whereas Afghanistan's other major ethnic groups are mostly Sunni. However, the Sunni and Ismaili Hazara population, while existent, have not been extensively researched by scholars.
Another popular theory proposes that Hazaras are descendants of the Kushans,[17] the ancient dwellers of Afghanistan famous for constructing the Buddhas of Bamiyan. Its proponents find the location of the Hazara homeland, and the similarity in facial features of Hazaras with those on frescoes and Buddha's statues in Bamiyan, suggestive. However, this belief is contrary not only to the fact that the Kushans were Indo-European Tocharians, but also to historical records which mention that in a particularly bloody battle around Bamiyan, Genghis Khan's grandson, Mutugen, was killed, and he ordered Bamiyan to be burnt to the ground in retribution.[18]
The theory accepted by most scholars, however, maintains that Hazaras are a mixed group. This is not entirely inconsistent with descent from Mongol military forces. For example, Nikudari Mongols settled in eastern Persia and mixed with native populations who spoke Persian.[6] A second wave of mostly Chagatai Mongols came from Central Asia and were followed by other Turko-Mongols, associated with the Ilkhanate (driven out of Persia) and the Timurids, all of whom settled in Hazarajat and mixed with the local Persian population, forming a distinct group.[6]
Genetically, the Hazara are primarily western Eurasian with eastern Eurasian genetic mixtures.[19][20][21] Genetic research suggests that they are related to neighboring peoples, while there also seems to be a patrimonial relation to Mongol peoples of Mongolia.[22][23] Mongol male ancestry is supported by studies in genetic genealogy as well, which have identified a particular lineage of the Y-chromosome characteristic of people of Mongolian descent ("the Y-chromosome of Genghis Khan").[19] This chromosome is virtually absent outside the limits of the Mongol Empire except among the Hazara, where it reaches its highest frequency anywhere.
R1b1a1 (2011 name) is defined by the presence of SNP marker M73. It has been found at generally low frequencies throughout central Eurasia, but has been found with relatively high frequency among particular populations there including Hazaras in Pakistan (8/25 = 32%).[24]
In the late 16th century, the first mention of Hazaras are made by the court historians of Shah Abbas of the Safavid dynasty and by Babur.[6][25]
In their modern history, Hazaras have faced several wars and forced displacements. Since the beginnings of modern Afghanistan in the mid 18th century, Hazaras have faced persecution from the Pashtuns and have been forced to flee from many parts of today's Afghanistan to Hazarajat.[6] In the mid 18th century they were forced out of Helmand and the Arghandab basin of Kandahar.[6] During Dost Mohammad Khan's rule, Hazaras in Bamiyan and the Hazarajat area were heavily taxed. However, for the most part they still managed to keep their regional autonomy in Hazarajat.[6] This would soon change as the new Emir, Abdur Rahman Khan, was brought to power.
As the new Emir, Abdur Rahman set out a goal to bring Hazarajat under his control. After facing resistance from the Hazaras, he launched several campaigns in Hazarajat with many atrocities and ethnic polarization. The southern part of Hazarajat was spared as they accepted Abdur Rahman's rule, while the other parts of Hazarajat rejected Abdur Rahman and supported his uncle, Sher Ali Khan. Abdur Rahman waged war against Hazaras who rejected his policies and rule.[6]
In 1856 Abdur Rahman arrested Syed Jafar, chief of Sheikh Ali Hazara, and jailed him in Mazar-e-Sharif. The first Hazara uprising took place during 1888–90. When Abdur Rahman's cousin, Mohammad Eshaq, revolted against him, the Sheikh Ali Hazaras joined the revolt. The revolt was short lived and crushed as the Emir extended his control over large parts of Hazarajat. Sheikh Ali Hazaras had allies in two different groups, Shia and Sunni. Abdur Rahman took advantage of the situation, pitting Sunni Hazaras against Shia Hazaras, and made pacts among Hazaras.
After all of Sheikh Ali Hazara chiefs were sent to Kabul, opposition within the leadership of Sawar Khan and Syed Jafar Khan continued against government troops, but at last were defeated. Heavy taxes were imposed and Pashtun administrators were sent to occupied places, where they subjugated the people with many abuses.[6] The people were disarmed, villages were looted, local tribal chiefs were imprisoned or executed, and the best lands were confiscated and given to Pashtun nomads (Kuchis).[6][26]
The second uprising occurred in 1890–93. The cause of the uprising was the rape of the wife of a Hazara chief by 33 Afghan soldiers. The soldiers had entered their house under the pretext of searching for weapons and raped the chief's wife in front of him. The families of the Hazara chief and his wife retaliated against the humiliation, killed the soldiers and attacked the local garrison, where they took back their weapons. Several other tribal chiefs who supported Abdur Rahman now turned against him and joined the rebellion which rapidly spread through the entire Hazarajat. In response to the rebellion, the Emir declared a "jihad" against the Shiites and raised an army of 40, 000 soldiers, 10, 000 mounted troops, and 100,000 armed civilians (most of which were Pashtun nomads). He also brought in British military advisers to assist his army.[26] The large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was severely massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi:
thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were moved to Mountain area from their land and Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir.
[26]
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Part of a series on
100px Hazara people
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The third uprising of Hazaras was in response to the harsh repression, the Hazaras revolted again by early 1893. This revolt took the government forces by surprise and the Hazaras managed to take most of Hazarajat back. However, after months of fighting, they were eventually defeated due to a shortage of food. Small pockets of resistance continued to the end of the year as government troops committed atrocities against civilians and deported entire villages.[26]
Abdur Rahman's subjugation of the Hazaras due to fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to strong hatred between the Pashtuns and Hazaras for years to come. Massive forced displacements, especially in Oruzgan and Daychopan, continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled. Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Iran), Quetta (Pakistan), and even as far as Central Asia. It is estimated that more than 60% of the Hazara population were massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns and as a result many Hazara families had to leave seasonally to the major cities in Afghanistan, Iran, or Pakistan in order to find jobs and a source of income. Pakistan is now home to one of the largest settlements of Hazara, particularly in and around the city of Quetta.[26] Pashtun–Hazara conflicts were and are based solely on Shi'a–Sunni relations, thus the conflict was continued by the Taliban.
In 1901, Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's successor, granted amnesty to all people who were exiled by his predecessor. However, the division between the Afghan government and the Hazara people was already made too deep under Abdur Rahman. Hazaras continued to face severe social, economic and political discrimination through most of the 20th century.[6]
Mistrust of the central government by the Hazaras and local uprisings continued. In particular, in the 1940s, during Zahir Shah's rule, a revolt took place against new taxes that were exclusively imposed on the Hazaras. The Pashtun nomads meanwhile not only were exempted from taxes, but also received allowances from the Afghan government.[6] The angry rebels began capturing and killing government officials. In response, the central government sent a force to subdue the region and later removed the taxes.
During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Hazarajat region did not see as much heavy fighting like other regions of Afghanistan. However, rival Hazara political factions fought. The division was between the Tanzáim-e nasl-e naw-e Hazara, a party based in Quetta, of Hazara nationalists and secular intellectuals, and the pro-Khomeini Islamist parties backed by the new Islamic Republic of Iran.[6] By 1979, the Iran-backed Islamist groups liberated Hazarajat from the central Soviet-backed Afghan government and later took entire control of Hazarajat away from the secularists. By 1984, after severe fighting, the secularist groups lost all their power to the Islamists.
As the Soviets withdrew in 1989, the Islamist groups felt the need to broaden their political appeal and turned their focus to Hazara ethnic nationalism.[6] This led to establishment of the Hezb-e Wahdat, an alliance of all the Hazara resistance groups (except the Harakat-e Islami). In 1992, with the fall of Kabul, the Harakat-e Islami took sides with Burhanuddin Rabbani's government while the Hezb-e Wahdat took sides with the opposition. The Hezb-e Wahdat was eventually forced out of Kabul in 1995 when the Pashtun Taliban movement captured and killed their leader Abdul Ali Mazari. With the Taliban's capture of Kabul in 1996, all the Hazara groups united with the new Northern Alliance against the common new enemy. However, it was too late and despite the fierce resistance Hazarajat fell to the Taliban by 1998. The Taliban had Hazarajat totally isolated from the rest of the world going as far as not allowing the United Nations to deliver food to the provinces of Bamiyan, Ghor, Wardak, and Daykundi.[27]
Though Hazaras played a role in the anti-Soviet movement, other Hazaras participated in the new Communist government, which actively courted Afghan minorities. Sultan Ali Kishtmand, a Hazara, served as prime minister of Afghanistan from 1981-1990 (with one brief interruption in 1988).[28] The Ismaili Hazaras of Baghlan Province likewise supported the Communists, and their pir (religious leader) Jaffar Naderi led a pro-Communist militia in the region.[29]
During the years that followed, Hazaras suffered severe oppression and many large ethnic massacres were carried out by the predominately ethnic Pashtun Taliban and are documented by such groups as the Human Rights Watch.[30] These human rights abuses not only occurred in Hazarajat, but across all areas controlled by the Taliban. Particularly after their capture of Mazar-e Sharif in 1998, where after a massive killing of some 8000 civilians, the Taliban openly declared that the Hazaras would be targeted.
Following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, British and American forces invaded Afghanistan. Since then, the situation for Afghans in Afghanistan has changed drastically in Kabul but the country largely remains lawless at the hands of equally brutal afghan police forces. Hazaras have pursued higher education, enrolled in the army, and have top government positions.[31] For example, Mohammad Mohaqiq, a Hazara from the Hezb-e Wahdat party, was able to run in the 2004 presidential election in Afghanistan, and Karim Khalili became the Vice President of Afghanistan. A number of ministers and governors are Hazaras, including Sima Samar, Habiba Sarabi, Ramazan Bashardost, Sarwar Danish, Sayed Hussein Anwari, Abdul Haq Shafaq, Sayed Anwar Rahmati, Qurban Ali Oruzgani and many others. The mayor of Nili in Daykundi Province is Azra Jafari, who became the first female mayor in Afghanistan. The National Assembly of Afghanistan (Parliament) is 25% made up of ethnic Hazaras, which represents 61 members.[32][33] However, discrimination still lingers, and even accusations of genocide.[31][34] An indication of discrimination is the policy of allocating international help by the Afghan government. Hazarajat historically has been kept from any improvement by past governments. Since ousting the Taliban, several billion dollars have poured into Afghanistan for reconstruction and numerous mega-scale reconstruction projects took place in Afghanistan. But effectively a very small portion of international aid was allocated in the central regions of Afghanistan, the Hazarajat area.
For example, there have been more than 5000 kilometers of road pavement and construction in Afghanistan, of which almost none happened in central Afghanistan Hazarajat. Another indication of such discrimination is that Kochis (Afghan nomads from western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) are allowed now to use Hazarajat pastures in summer time. This practice started during the rule of Amir Abdurahman Khan for punishing Hazaras.
Living in mountainous Hazarajat where little farm land exists, Hazara people rely on these pasture lands for their livelihood and survival during long and harsh winters. In 2007 heavily armed Kochis moved into Hazarajat to graze their livestock, and when the local people resisted, it is reported that they clashed and several people died on both sides, Kochis and Hazara. Such a practice happened in 2008, and the government appears to approve this practice. Kochis belong to the Pashtun ethnic group, as do the Taliban.
In 2010, the drive by President Hamid Karzai after the Peace Jirga to strike a deal with Taliban leaders caused deep unease in Afghanistan’s minority communities, who fought the Taliban the longest and suffered the most during their rule. The leaders of the Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara communities, which together make up close to half of the country's population, vowed to resist any return of the Taliban to power, referring to the large-scale massacres of Hazara civilians during the Taliban period.[35]
Alessandro Monsutti argues, in his recent anthropological book,[36] that migration is the traditional way of life of the Hazara people, referring to the seasonal and historical migrations which have never ceased and do not seem to be dictated only by emergency situations such as war.[37]
Besides the major populations of Hazaras in Quetta (Pakistan)—where many have achieved considerably high positions within the government and police force—and Iran, there are significant communities in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and particularly the Northern European countries such as Sweden and Denmark. Many young Hazara are studying in developed countries such as Australia, legally through education or work visas. There are many Afghan Hazara who have migrated to developed countries especially in Australia as refugees. The notable case was the Tampa affair in which a shipload of refugees, mostly Hazaras, was rescued by the Norwegian freighter MV Tampa and subsequently sent to Nauru.[38] New Zealand agreed to take some of the refugees and all but one of those were approved.
Hazaras had been seasonal menial workers in British India, who came here in winter months to work in coal mines, road construction and in other menial labor jobs during the British expansion in Sindh, Balochistan and North west Frontier. The earliest record of Hazaras in the areas of present day Pakistan is found in Broad-foot's Sappers company from 1835 in Quetta. This company had also participated in the first Anglo Afghan war. Hazaras also worked in the agriculture farms in Sindh and construction of Sukkur barrage. Haider Ali Karmal Jaghori was a prominent political thinker of the Hazara people in Pakistan writing about the Political history of Hazara people. His work Hazaraha wa Hazarajat Bastan Dar Aiyna-e-Tarikh was published in Quetta in 1992, and another work by Aziz Tughyan Hazara Tarikh Milli Hazara was published in 1984 in Quetta.
In Pakistan today, most of the Hazara people (around half a million) live in the city of Quetta, in Balochistan province. Localities in the city of Quetta with prominent Hazara populations include Hazara Town and Mehr Abad. The Hazara ethnic minority have been facing discrimination in the province for a very long time, nevertheless, bloody violence perpetrated against their community has risen very sharply in recent years.[39][40][41] Some 700 people including women and children have been killed either in suicide attacks or targeted shootings.[42] No one has been arrested to this date in connection with these killings.[citation needed]
Literacy level among the Hazara community in Pakistan is relatively high[citation needed] and they have integrated well into the social dynamics of the local society. Saira Batool, a Hazara woman was one of the first female pilots in Pakistan Air Force. Other notable Hazara include Qazi Mohammad Esa, General Muhammad Musa, who served as Commander in Chief of the Pakistani Army from 1958 to 1968, Air Marshal(r) Sharbat Ali Changezi, Hussain Ali Yousafi slain chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party,[43] Syed Nasir Ali Shah, MNA from Quetta. Agha Abbas and his son Agha Ghulam Ali, owners of Agha Juice, a famous fruit juice outlet in the country since 1960, who were murdered in [44] May 2003 and jan 2007. The political representation of the community is served by Hazara Democratic Party, a secular liberal democratic party, headed by Abdul Khaliq Hazara.[45][46]
Over the many years as a result of political unrest in Afghanistan many Hazaras have migrated to Iran. They have complained of maltreatments in Iran. In March 2011, Eurasia Daily Monitor reported that representatives of Hazaras community in Iran have asked Mongolia to intervene in supporting their case with Iranian government and prevent Iranian forced repatriation to Afghanistan.[47]
The Hazara, outside of Hazarajat, have adopted the cultures of the cities where they dwell, and in many cases are quite Persianized. Traditionally the Hazara are highland farmers and although sedentary like the Tajiks, in the Hazarajat, they have retained many of their own customs and traditions, some of which are more closely related to those of Central Asia than to Iran.[21][48][49] For instance, many Hazara musicians are widely hailed as being skilled in playing the dambura, a regional and native instrument, a lute instrument similarly found in other Central Asian nations such as Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia.
Hazaras living in rural areas speak Hazaragi, an eastern dialect of the Persian language[50][51] with a significant number of Turkic and some Mongolian loan words.[6][52][53]
Many of the urban Hazaras in the larger cities such as Kabul and Mazari Sharif no longer speak Hazaragi but speak standard literary Persian (usually the Kābolī dialect) or regional varieties of Persian (for example the Khorāsānī dialect in the western region of Herat).
Until recently, a very small number of Hazaras near Herat still spoke the Moghol language, a Mongolic language once spoken by rebels against the Mongol armies of the Il-Khanat.[54]
Masjid Jame in Kabul during construction in 2008, which is the largest Shia mosque in Afghanistan.
[55]
Hazaras are predominantly Shi'a Muslims, mostly of the Twelver sect[56] and some Ismaili.[5] Since the majority of Afghans practice Sunni Islam, this probably contributed to the discrimination against the Hazaras.[15] Hazaras probably converted from Sunnism to Shi'ism during the reign of the Il-Khanate ruler Oljeitu (1304–1316), or during the first part of the 16th century, in the early days of the Safavid Dynasty.[57] Nonetheless, a small number of Hazaras are Sunni.[5][15] Sunni Hazaras have been attached to non-Hazara tribes while the Ismaili Hazaras have always been kept separate from the rest of the Hazaras on account of religious beliefs and political purposes.
The Hazara people have been organized by various tribes. The daizangi are the largest tribe, representing 57.2% of the Hazara population.[citation needed] However, more recently and since the inclusion of the Hazaras into the "Afghan state", tribal affiliations have been disappearing and former tribal names Turkmani, Sheikh Ali, Jaghori, Ghaznichi, Behsoodi, Uruzgani, and Daiznagi are also disappearing. The different Hazara tribes come from regions such as Parwan, Bamyan, and Ghazni.
Twenty-one-year-old Rohullah Nikpai, an ethnic Hazara, won a bronze medal in taekwondo in the Beijing Olympics 2008, beating world champion Juan Antonio Ramos of Spain 4–1 in a play-off final. It was Afghanistan's first-ever Olympic medal. Afghanistan's first female Olympic athlete Friba Razayee competed in judo at the 2004 Athens Olympics, but was eliminated in the first round of competition. Other famous Hazara athletes are Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz (Badminton) and Ali Hazara (Football). Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz is the first Hazara badminton player who represented the country in Asian Junior Championships in 2005 where he produced the first win for the country against Iraq, winning 15–13, 15–1. He participated in several international championships since 2005 and achieved victories against Australia, Philippines, and Mongolia. Syed Abrar Hussain Shah, a boxer, competed in the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984, the Seoul Olympics 1988, and the New Zealand Commonwealth Games in 1990. In Pakistan, Hazaras have excelled in sports and have received numerous awards particularly in boxing, football and in field hockey.
- ^ a b "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. December 13, 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html. Retrieved December 26, 2007.
- ^ a b Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.
- ^ Census of Afghans in Pakistan, UNHCR Statistical Summary Report (retrieved December 27, 2007)
- ^ The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090. Hazaras make up an estimated 15-20% of the population of Afghanistan depending to the source. The Hazara population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada
- ^ a b c The Afghans, Their History and Culture, Religion
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o L. Dupree, "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006, (LINK).
- ^ CIA World Factbook.
- ^ "A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006, PDF.
- ^ Kamal Hyder reports (12 Nov 2011). "Hazara community finds safe haven in Peshawar". Aljazeer English. http://www.aljazeera.com/video/asia/2011/11/2011111284512336838.html. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
- ^ "Ethnic Groups of Afghanistan". Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. 1997. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037). Retrieved 2010-09-18. "In 1996, approximately 40 percent of Afghans were Pashtun, 11.4 of whom are of the Durrani tribal group and 13.8 percent of the Ghilzai group. Tajiks make up the second largest ethnic group with 25.3 percent of the population, followed by Hazaras, 9-18 percent; Uzbeks, 6.3 percent; Turkmen, 2.5 percent; Qizilbash, 1.0; 6.9 percent other."
- ^ Z. M. Babur, Babur-nama, Lahore, 1987. P.p 200, 207, 214, 218, 221, 251-53
- ^ H. F. Schurmann, The Mon-gols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan, La Haye, 1962, p. 115
- ^ Hassan Poladi, The Hazâras, Stockton, 1989., p. 22
- ^ S.A Mousavi, The Hazaras of Afghanistan:An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study, Richmond, 1998., pp. 23-25
- ^ a b c Ehsan Yarshater, ed. "HAZĀRA". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition ed.). United States: Columbia University. http://iranicaonline.org/articles/hazara-1. Retrieved 2007-12-23.
- ^ Hartl, Daniel L; Jones, Elizabeth W, Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, p. 308 .
- ^ A Profile On Bamyan Civilization.
- ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991) Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy Blackwell, Oxford, UK, p. 164, ISBN 0-631-18949-1
- ^ a b http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis_2.html Genghis Khan a Prolific Lover, DNA Data Implies
- ^
- "The Hazara Tribes in Afghanistan" in (1959) Collection of papers presented: International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts (1957: Tokyo and Kyoto) Japanese National Commission for Unesco, Tokyo, p. 61 9240301
- Quintana-Murci, Lluís et al. (May 2004). "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor". American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (5): 834–35.
- Debets, G. F. (1970) Physical Anthropology of Afghanistan: I–II (translated from Russian) Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., OCLC 90304
- Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the international system Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., page 30, ISBN 0-300-05963-9
- ^ a b Jochelson, Waldemar (1928) Peoples of Asiatic Russia American Museum of Natural History, New York, page 33, OCLC 187466893, also available in microfiche edition
- ^ Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, p. 309.
- ^ Rosenberg, Noah A. et al. (December 2002). "Genetic Structure of Human Populations". Science (New Series) 298 (5602): 2381–85.
- ^ Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M et al. (February 2006). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics 78 (2): 202–21. DOI:10.1086/499411. PMC 1380230. PMID 16400607. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1380230. "8/176 R-M73 and 5/176 R-M269 for a total of 13/176 R1b in Pakistan and 4/728 R-M269 in India"
- ^ http://fletcher.tufts.edu/Congratulations/faces/~/media/Fletcher/Microsites/congratulations/PDFs/Sarabi.ashx
- ^ a b c d e Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5.
- ^ Rashid, Ahmed (March 1, 2001). Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (Paperback ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08902-8.
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=5i5WAAAAYAAJ&dq=Sultan+Ali+Kishtmand&q=sultan Pg 33. Sultan Ali Kishtmand had remained Prime Minister of Afghanistan from 10 January 1981 to 26 May 1990, with a brief break of about nine months, when Dr Hassan Sharq replaced him from 20 June 1988 to ...
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=cYtXJhByzoEC&pg=PA37&dq=naderi+hazara&hl=en#v=onepage&q=naderi%20hazara&f=false
- ^ Human Rights Watch (February 2001). "Afghanistan: massacres of Hazaras". hrw.org. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghanistan/. Retrieved December 27, 2007.
- ^ a b Sappenfield, Mark (August 6, 2007). "Afghanistan's success story: The liberated Hazara minority". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0806/p06s02-wosc.html?page=2. Retrieved December 27, 2007.
- ^ Many Karzai rivals find way to Parliament
- ^ A very detailed analyze of new parliament by Kabul Center of Strategic Studies
- ^ "Hazara Australians to protest across Australia at Afghanistan genocide"
- ^ "Afghan Overture to Taliban Aggravates Ethnic Tensions". The New York Times, 27 June 2010.
- ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005) War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan Routledge, New York, ISBN 0-415-97508-5
- ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005) (in English, translated by Patrick Camiller). War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. Routledge, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97508-5.
- ^ Australia ships out Afghan refugees BBC News.
- ^ Gunmen kill 11 in Pakistan sectarian attack July 31, 2011 samaa.tv
- ^ Saba, Imtiaz Massacre in Mastung September 21, 2011, foreignpolicy.com
- ^ Suspected sectarian attack in Pakistan kills 13 Oct 4, 2011, reuters.com
- ^ Siddique, Abubakar and Nasar, Khudainoor Pakistan's Tiny Hazara Minority Struggles To Survive October 04, 2011, Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty | RFERL.org
- ^ "Hussain Ali Yousafi, chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party'" BBC News, 26 January 2009
- ^ http://archives.dawn.com/2002/05/26/local5.htm
- ^ Balochistan's Hazaras speak out — Qurat ul ain Siddiqui interviews Secretary-General of the Hazara Democratic Party, Mr Abdul Khaliq Hazara
- ^ List of Political parties
- ^ For the last 20 years Hazara elements have appealed for Mongolian sanctuary and support to prevent Iranian forced repatriation to Afghanistan
- ^ Schurmann, Franz (1962) The Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan Mouton, The Hague, Netherlands, OCLC 401634
- ^ Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1991) The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic, and Political Study, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, ISBN 0-312-17386-5
- ^ Ehsan Yarshater, ed. "HAZĀRA iv. Hazāragi dialect". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). United States: Columbia University. http://iranicaonline.org/articles/hazara-4. Retrieved 2011-01-13.
- ^ Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan Mouton, The Hague, Netherlands, page 17, OCLC 401634
- ^ Malistani, A. H. Tariq and Gehring, Roman (compilers) (1993) Farhang-i ibtidal-i milli-i Hazarah : bi-inzimam-i tarjamah bih Farsi-i Ingilisi = Hazaragi - Dari/Persian- English: a preliminary glossary A. H. Tariq Malistani, Quetta, OCLC 33814814
- ^ Farhadi, A. G. Ravan (1955). Le persan parlé en Afghanistan : Grammaire du kâboli accompagnée d'un recuil de quatrains populaires de la région de Kâbol. Paris.
- ^ Michael Weiers. 2003. "Moghol", The Mongolic Languages. Ed. Juha Janhunen. Routledge Language Family Series 5. London: Routledge. Pages 248-264.
- ^ [1]
- ^ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica - Hazara (Race)
- ^ Revolution unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the present, By Gilles Dorronsoro, pg.44
- Monsutti, Alessandro (2005) (in English, translated by Patrick Camiller). War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. Routledge, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97508-5.
- Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5.
- Frederiksen, Birthe; Nicolaisen, Ida (1996). Caravans and trade in Afghanistan: The changing life of the nomadic Hazarbuz. Carlsberg Foundation's Nomad Research Project. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-01687-9.
- Poladi, Hassan (1989). The Hazāras. Stockton, California: Mughal Publishing Company. ISBN 0-929824-00-8.
- Kakar, M. Hasan (1973). The pacification of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. New York: Afghanistan Council, Asia Society. OCLC 1111643.
- Mousavi, Syed Askr (1997). The Hazaras of Afghanistan. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5, 9780312173869.
- Harpviken, Kristian Berg. Political Mobilization Among the Hazara of Afghanistan: 1978-1992. Rapportserien ved Sosiologi, Nr. 9 1996. Oslo: Institutt for Sosiologi, Universitetet i Oslo. ISBN 82-570-0127-9. http://www.prio.no/sptrans/-1404536104/Harpviken%20KB%20(1996)%20Political%20mobilization%20among%20the%20Hazara.pdf.
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