The United Nations (abbreviated UN in English, and ONU in its other official languages), is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions.
There are 193 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world but Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most prominent position is Secretary-General which has been held by Ban Ki-moon of South Korea since 2007.
The United Nations Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[2]
The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II (1939–1945). Because of the widespread recognition that humankind could not afford a third world war, the United Nations was established to replace the flawed League of Nations in 1945 in order to maintain international peace and promote cooperation in solving international economic, social and humanitarian problems. The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the aegis of the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term 'United Nations' as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on 1 January 1942, when 26 governments signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort.[3] On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council—France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946.[4]
The organization was based at the Sperry Gyroscope Corporation's facility in Lake Success, New York, from 1946–1952, before moving to the United Nations Headquarters building in Manhattan upon its completion.
Since its creation, there has been controversy and criticism of the United Nations. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN was the John Birch Society, which began a "get US out of the UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish a "One World Government." After the Second World War, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that aimed at creating the new organization. Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it le machin ("the thing"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries.[5]
Shortly after its establishment the UN sought recognition as an international legal person due to the case of Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations[6] with the advisory opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The question arose whether the United Nations, as an organisation, had "the capacity to bring an international claim against a government regarding injuries that the organisation alleged had been caused by that state."[7]
The Court stated: the Organization was intended to exercise and enjoy, and is in fact exercising and enjoying functions and rights, which can only be explained on the basis of the possession of a large measure of international personality and the capacity to operate upon an international plane ... Accordingly, the Court has come to the conclusion that the Organization is an international person. That is not the same thing as saying that it is a State, which it certainly is not, or that its legal personality and rights and duties are the same as those of a State ... What it does mean is that it is a subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties, and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claims.[8]
The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs (formerly six – the Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory);[9] the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main United Nations Headquarters located on international territory in New York City.[10] The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva,[11] Vienna,[12] and Nairobi.[13] Other UN institutions are located throughout the world.
The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[2] The Secretariat uses two working languages, English and French. Four of the official languages are the national languages of the permanent members of the Security Council (the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a de facto official language); Spanish and Arabic are the languages of the two largest blocs of official languages outside of the permanent members (Spanish being official in 20 countries, Arabic in 26). Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded; Arabic was added later in 1973. The United Nations Editorial Manual states that the standard for English language documents is British usage and Oxford spelling, the Chinese writing standard is Simplified Chinese. This replaced Traditional Chinese in 1971 when the UN representation of China was changed from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China (see China and the United Nations for details).
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.
When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.
Conceivably, the one state, one vote power structure could enable states comprising just eight percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote (see List of countries by population). However, as no more than recommendations, it is difficult to imagine a situation in which a recommendation by member states constituting just eight percent of the world's population, would be adhered to by the remaining ninety-two percent of the population, should they object.[citation needed]
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[14] The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.
The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5 permanent members–China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States–and 10 non-permanent members, currently Azerbaijan, India, South Africa, Colombia, Morocco, Togo, Germany, Pakistan, Guatemala, and Portugal.[15] The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.[16]
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis.
The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection.
The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences, gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.[citation needed]
The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who took over from Kofi Annan in 2007 and has been elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016.[17]
Envisioned by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator", the position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's "chief administrative officer",[18] but the Charter also states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security",[19] giving the position greater scope for action on the world stage. The position has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization, and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.[20]
The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power.[21] The General Assembly can theoretically override the Security Council's recommendation if a majority vote is not achieved, although this has not happened so far.[22] There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states.[22]
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.[24]
It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. Several of the Court's current judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.[25]
The International Criminal Court (ICC), it came into being on 1 July 2002 with the entering into force of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court which was adopted on 17 July 1998. It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression (although it cannot exercise jurisdiction over this crime prior to 2017). The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of the States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the United Nations. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally.[26]
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Viewed separate from the specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UN’s subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active.
The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII or PFII) is the UN's central coordinating body for matters relating to the concerns and rights of the world's indigenous peoples. The forum, which evolved from the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, is an advisory body within the framework of the United Nations System that reports to the UN's Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); however, it performs an advisory function in relation to other branches of the United Nations system. It also works with other U.N. bodies as they address indigenous rights through Conventions such as the International Labour Organization’s Convention No.169 and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 8j).[27]
The Forum's mandate is to:
- Provide expert advice and recommendations to the Economic and Social Council and to the various programmes, funds and agencies of the United Nations System through the Council;
- Raise awareness and promote the integration and coordination of activities related to indigenous issues within the UN system;
- Prepare and disseminate information on these issues.
Since the passage of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, much of the work of UNPFII has surrounded the compliance of U.N. member states to the standards of that declaration.[27] However, it performs many other international functions as well.[28]
Many UN organizations and agencies exist to work on particular issues. Some of the most well-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank and the World Health Organization.
It is through these agencies that the UN performs most of its humanitarian work. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through the WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP) and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by the UNHCR).
The United Nations Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties.
Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations
| No. |
Acronyms |
Logo |
Agency |
Headquarters |
Head |
Established in |
| 1 |
FAO |
|
Food and Agriculture Organization |
 Rome, Italy |
 José Graziano da Silva |
1945 |
| 2 |
IAEA |
|
International Atomic Energy Agency |
 Vienna, Austria |
 Yukiya Amano |
1957 |
| 3 |
ICAO |
|
International Civil Aviation Organization |
 Montreal, Canada |
 Raymond Benjamin |
1947 |
| 4 |
IFAD |
|
International Fund for Agricultural Development |
Rome, Italy |
 Kanayo F. Nwanze |
1977 |
| 5 |
ILO |
|
International Labour Organization |
 Geneva, Switzerland |
 Juan Somavía |
1946 (1919) |
| 6 |
IMO |
|
International Maritime Organization |
 London, United Kingdom |
 Efthimios E. Mitropoulos |
1948 |
| 7 |
IMF |
|
International Monetary Fund |
 Washington, D.C., USA |
Christine Lagarde |
1945 (1944) |
| 8 |
ITU |
|
International Telecommunication Union |
Geneva, Switzerland |
 Hamadoun Touré |
1947 (1865) |
| 9 |
UNESCO |
|
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
Paris, France |
 Irina Bokova |
1946 |
| 10 |
UNIDO |
|
United Nations Industrial Development Organization |
Vienna, Austria |
 Kandeh Yumkella |
1967 |
| 11 |
UPU |
|
Universal Postal Union |
Bern, Switzerland |
Edouard Dayan |
1947 (1874) |
| 12 |
WB |
|
World Bank |
Washington, D.C., USA |
Robert B. Zoellick |
1945 (1944) |
| 13 |
WFP |
|
World Food Programme |
Rome, Italy |
Josette Sheeran |
1963 |
| 14 |
WHO |
|
World Health Organization |
Geneva, Switzerland |
 Margaret Chan |
1948 |
| 15 |
WIPO |
|
World Intellectual Property Organization |
Geneva, Switzerland |
 Francis Gurry |
1974 |
| 16 |
WMO |
|
World Meteorological Organization |
Geneva, Switzerland |
 Alexander Bedritsky |
1950 (1873) |
| 17 |
UNWTO |
|
World Tourism Organization |
 Madrid, Spain |
 Taleb Rifai |
1974 |
An animation showing the timeline of accession of UN member states,
according to the UN. Note that Antarctica has no government; political control of
Western Sahara is in dispute; and the territories administered by the
Republic of China (Taiwan) and
Kosovo are considered by the UN to be provinces of the People's Republic of China and
Republic of Serbia, respectively.
With the addition of South Sudan on 14 July 2011,[29] there are currently 193 United Nations member states, including all fully recognized independent states[30] apart from Vatican City (the Holy See, which holds sovereignty over the state of Vatican City, is a permanent observer).[31]
The United Nations Charter outlines the rules for membership:
- Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations.
- The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. There were 77 founding members of the organization, but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. The group was founded on 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun.[32]
The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords, are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[33]
The founders of the UN had envisaged that the organization would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, however the outbreak of the Cold War made peacekeeping agreements extremely difficult because of the division of the world into hostile camps. Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace, as several dozen ongoing conflicts continue to rage around the globe.
A 2005 RAND Corp study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace.[34] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.[35] Situations where the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also occasionally intervened include the Korean War (1950–1953), and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Persian Gulf War in 1990.
The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions, an issue that stems from the UN's intergovernmental nature—seen by some as simply an association of 193 member states who must reach consensus, not an independent organization. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,[36] failed to provide humanitarian aid and intervene in the Second Congo War, failed to intervene in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and protect a refugee haven by authorizing peacekeepers to use force, failure to deliver food to starving people in Somalia, failure to implement provisions of Security Council resolutions related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and continuing failure to prevent genocide or provide assistance in Darfur. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, sexual abuse or soliciting prostitutes during various peacekeeping missions, starting in 2003, in the Congo,[37] Haiti,[38][39] Liberia,[40] Sudan and what is now South Sudan,[41] Burundi and Côte d'Ivoire.[42] In 2004, former Israeli ambassador to the UN Dore Gold criticized what it called the organization's moral relativism in the face of (and occasional support of)[43] genocide and terrorism that occurred between the moral clarity of its founding period and the present day. Gold specifically mentions Yasser Arafat's 1988 invitation to address the General Assembly as a low point in the UN's history.[44]
In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the United Nations Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for the creation of them.[45] However, the advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter and immediately halted concepts of arms limitation and disarmament, resulting in the first resolution of the first ever General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".[46] The principal forums for disarmament issues are the General Assembly First Committee, the UN Disarmament Commission, and the Conference on Disarmament, and considerations have been made of the merits of a ban on testing nuclear weapons, outer space arms control, the banning of chemical weapons and land mines, nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones, the reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengthen international security.
The UN is one of the official supporters of the World Security Forum, a major international conference on the effects of global catastrophes and disasters, which took place in the United Arab Emirates in October 2008.
The pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.
The UN and its agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into political parties have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide. The UN has helped run elections in countries with little or no democratic history, including recently in Afghanistan and East Timor. The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or International Court of Justice rulings.
The purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council, established in 2006,[47] is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which was often criticized for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens.[48] The council has 47 members distributed by region, which each serve three-year terms, and may not serve three consecutive terms.[49] A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly. In addition, the council has strict rules for membership, including a universal human rights review. While some members with questionable human rights records have been elected, it is fewer than before with the increased focus on each member state's human rights record.[50]
The rights of some 370 million indigenous peoples around the world are also a focus for the UN, with a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly in 2007.[51] The declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues that had confronted indigenous peoples for centuries. The declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters that concern their past, present and future.[51] The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues is the UN's central coordinating body for matters relating to the concerns and rights of the world's indigenous peoples. The forum is an advisory body within the framework of the United Nations System that reports to the UN's Economic and Social Council.
In conjunction with other organizations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.
The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. 32 UN agencies performing tasks on development are coordinating their efforts through the United Nations Development Group or UNDG.[52]
The UN also promotes human development through some related agencies, particularly the UNDP.[53] The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944.[54]
The UNDP annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.[55]
The Millennium Development Goals (declared in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000) are eight goals that all of the then 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.[56]
From time to time, the different bodies of the United Nations pass resolutions that contain operating paragraphs that begin with the words "requests", "calls upon", or "encourages", which the Secretary-General interprets as a mandate to set up a temporary organization or do something. These mandates can be as little as researching and publishing a written report, or mounting a full-scale peacekeeping operation (usually the exclusive domain of the Security Council).
Although the specialized institutions, such as the WHO, were originally set up by this means, they are not the same as mandates because they are permanent organizations that exist independently of the UN with their own membership structure. One could say that original mandate was simply to cover the process of setting up the institution, and has therefore long expired. Most mandates expire after a limited period and require renewal from the body, which set them up.
One of the outcomes of the 2005 World Summit was a mandate (labelled id 17171) for the Secretary-General to "review all mandates older than five years originating from resolutions of the General Assembly and other organs". To facilitate this review and to finally bring coherence to the organization, the Secretariat has produced an on-line registry of mandates to draw together the reports relating to each one and create an overall picture.[57]
On 5 June 2007, World Environment Day, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon made public his ambition to make the United Nations more efficient in its operations: “I would like to see our renovated Headquarters complex eventually become a globally acclaimed model of efficient use of energy and resources. Beyond New York, the initiative should include the other United Nations headquarters and offices around the globe.” The UN's progress towards achieving this goal is communicated through the initiative Greening the Blue (see external links below).
Over the lifetime of the UN, over 80 colonies have attained independence.[58] The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. Through the UN Committee on Decolonization,[59] created in 1962, the UN has focused considerable attention on decolonization. It has also supported the new states that have arisen as a result of self-determination initiatives. The committee has overseen the decolonization of every country larger than 20,000 km² and removed them from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, besides Western Sahara, a country larger than the UK only relinquished by Spain in 1975.
The UN declares and coordinates international observances, periods of time to observe some issue of international interest or concern. Using the symbolism of the UN, a specially designed logo for the year, and the infrastructure of the United Nations System, various days and years have become catalysts to advancing key issues of concern on a global scale. For example, World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day and International Year of Deserts and Desertification.
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by their gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income.[61]
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied.[61] In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or 'floor' rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget. Refer to the table for major contributors.
A large share of UN expenditures addresses the core UN mission of peace and security. The peacekeeping budget for the 2005–2006 fiscal year was approximately US$5 billion, €2.5 billion (compared to approximately US$1.5 billion, €995 million for the UN core budget over the same period), with some 70,000 troops deployed in 17 missions around the world.[62] UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. As of 1 January 2011, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were: the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, China, Canada, Spain and the Republic of Korea.[63]
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, the WFP and UNDP) are financed by voluntary contributions from other member governments. Most of this is financial contributions, but some is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations. Since their funding is voluntary, many of these agencies suffer severe shortages during economic recessions. In July 2009, the World Food Programme reported that it has been forced to cut services because of insufficient funding.[64] It has received barely a quarter of the total it needed for the 09/10 financial year.
The UN and its agencies are immune to the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.[65]
Despite their independence in matters of human resources policy, the UN and its agencies voluntarily apply the laws of member states regarding same-sex marriages, allowing decisions about the status of employees in a same-sex partnership to be based on nationality. The UN and its agencies recognize same-sex marriages only if the employees are citizens of countries that recognize the marriage. This practice is not specific to the recognition of same-sex marriage but reflects a common practice of the UN for a number of human resources matters. It has to be noted though that some agencies provide limited benefits to domestic partners of their staff and that some agencies do not recognise same-sex marriage or domestic partnership of their staff.[citation needed]
In 2005, then-Secretary General
Kofi Annan published his report
In Larger Freedom, a proposal for reform of the UN.
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations, although little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work.[66] There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly.
The UN has also been accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and waste. During the 1990s, the United States withheld dues citing inefficiency, and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.[67]
An official reform programme was begun by Kofi Annan in 1997. Reforms mentioned include changing the permanent membership of the Security Council (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945), making the bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient, making the UN more democratic, and imposing an international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide.[citation needed]
In September 2005, the UN convened a World Summit that brought together the heads of most member states, calling the summit "a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold decisions in the areas of development, security, human rights and reform of the United Nations."[68] Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, renewing the organization's focus on peace, security, human rights and development, and to make it better equipped at facing 21st century issues. The World Summit Outcome Document delineated the conclusions of the meeting, including: the creation of a Peacebuilding Commission, to help countries emerging from conflict; a Human Rights Council and a democracy fund; a clear and unambiguous condemnation of terrorism "in all its forms and manifestations"; agreements to devote more resources to the Office of Internal Oversight Services; agreements to spend billions more on achieving the Millennium Development Goals; the dissolution of the Trusteeship Council, because of the completion of its mission; and, the agreement that individual states, with the assistance of the international community, have the "responsibility to protect" populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity- with the understanding that the international community is prepared to act "collectively" in a “timely and decisive manner” to protect vulnerable civilians should a state "manifestly fail" in fulfilling its responsibility.[69]
The Office of Internal Oversight Services is being restructured to better define its scope and mandate, and will receive more resources. In addition, to improve the oversight and auditing capabilities of the General Assembly, an Independent Audit Advisory Committee (IAAC) is being created. In June 2007, the Fifth Committee created a draft resolution for the terms of reference of this committee.[70][71] An ethics office was established in 2006, responsible for administering new financial disclosure and whistleblower protection policies. Working with the OIOS, the ethics office also plans to implement a policy to avoid fraud and corruption.[72] The Secretariat is in the process of reviewing all UN mandates that are more than five years old. The review is intended to determine which duplicative or unnecessary programmes should be eliminated. Not all member states agree on which of the over 7000 mandates should be reviewed. The dispute centres on whether mandates that have been renewed should be examined.[73] Indeed, the obstacles identified – in particular, the lack of information on the resource implications of each mandate – constituted sufficient justification for the General Assembly to discontinue the mandate review in September 2008. In the meantime, the General Assembly launched a number of new loosely related reform initiatives in April 2007, covering international environmental governance, ‘Delivering as One’ at the country level to enhance the consolidation of UN programme activities and a unified gender organization. Whereas little was achieved on the first two issues, the General Assembly approved in September 2010 the establishment of ‘UN Women’ as the new UN organization for gender equality and the empowerment of women. UN Women was established by unifying the resources and mandates of four small entities for greater impact and its first head is Ms. Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile.[citation needed]
- ^ "The World Today" (PDF). http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/world00.pdf. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country"
- ^ a b "General Assembly of the United Nations – Rules of Procedure". UN Department for General Assembly. http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/ropga/lang.shtml. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
- ^ David, Wilton. "United Nations". Etymologies & Word Origins: Letter U. WordOrigins.org. http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/comments/united_nations/.
- ^ "Milestones in United Nations History". Department of Public Information, United Nations. http://www.un.org/aboutun/milestones.htm. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
- ^ Gerbet, Pierre (1995). "Naissance des Nations Unies" (in French). Espoir (102). http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1944-1946-la-liberation/restaurer-le-rang-de-la-france/analyses/naissance-des-nations-unies.php.
- ^ Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations. ICJ Reports. 1949. p. 178.
- ^ Lindblom, Anna-Karin, Non-governmental organisations in international law, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2005, p.58
- ^ Lindblom, Anna-Karin, Non-governmental organisations in international law, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2005, p.59
- ^ "Membership of Principal United Nations Organs in 2005". United Nations. 15 March 2005. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436.doc.htm.
- ^ "United Nations Visitors Centre". United Nations. 2011. http://visit.un.org/wcm/content/. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ^ "The United Nations in the Heart of Europe". Unog.ch. http://www.unog.ch/. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ "United Nations Office in Vienna". Unvienna.org. 1980-01-01. http://www.unvienna.org/unov/. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ "//Welcome to UNON | | The United Nations Office at Nairobi //". Unon.org. http://www.unon.org/. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ "UN Charter: Chapter V". United Nations. Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080312121137/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter5.htm. Retrieved 24 March 2008.
- ^ http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp
- ^ "UN Security Council Members". United Nations. http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
- ^ "Ban Ki-moon wins second term as UN Secretary General". BBC. 21 June 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13868655.
- ^ Charter of the United Nations, Article 97.
- ^ Charter of the United Nations, Article 99.
- ^ Office of the Secretary-General–United Nations.
- ^ United Nations–Appointment Process of the Secretary-General.
- ^ a b "An Historical Overview on the Selection of United Nations Secretaries-General" (PDF). UNA-USA. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071025014319/http://www.unausa.org/atf/cf/%7b49C555AC-20C8-4B43-8483-A2D4C1808E4E%7d/SG+Reform+Fact+Sheet-fina-logol.pdf. Retrieved 30 September 2007.
- ^ Former Secretaries-General–United Nations.
- ^ "Statute of the International Court of Justice". International Court of Justice. http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index.php?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0. Retrieved 31 August 2007.
- ^ "The Court". International Court of Justice. http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&PHPSESSID=26e84ff7b1a8f1f3edf82cf94f3a7d68. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
- ^ "Agreement Between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations". International Criminal Court. 4 October 2004. http://www.icc-cpi.int/menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/2004/agreement%20between%20the%20international%20criminal%20court%20and%20the%20united%20nations.
- ^ a b http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/faq_drips_en.pdf
- ^ http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.aspx
- ^ "UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd Member State". Un.org. 2006-06-28. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39034&Cr=South+Sudan&Cr1=. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ Kosovo and Taiwan are only partially recognized, and are not recognized by the UN.
- ^ "United Nations Member States". United Nations. http://www.un.org/members/. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
- ^ "About the G77". Group of 77. http://www.g77.org/doc/. Retrieved 30 September 2007.
- ^ Nobel Prize. "The Nobel Peace Prize 1988". http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1988/. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- ^ RAND Corporation. "The UN's Role in Nation Building: From the Congo to Iraq" (PDF). http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG304.sum.pdf. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
- ^ Human Security Centre. "The Human Security Report 2005". http://www.humansecurityreport.info/. Retrieved 8 February 2007.
- ^ "Book Review: A People Betrayed, the Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide". Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/community/bookreviews/melvern.htm. [dead link]
- ^ Colum Lynch (16 December 2004). "U.N. Sexual Abuse Alleged in Congo". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3145-2004Dec15.html.
- ^ "UN troops face child abuse claims". BBC News. 30 November 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6195830.stm.
- ^ "108 Sri Lankan peacekeepers in Haiti to be repatriated after claims they paid prostitutes". International Herald Tribune. 2 November 2007. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/11/02/news/UN-GEN-UN-Haiti-Sexual-Exploitation.php.
- ^ "Aid workers in Liberia accused of sex abuse". International Herald Tribune. 8 May 2006. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/08/news/abuse.php.
- ^ Holt, Kate (4 January 2007). "UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
- ^ "UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan". BBC. 28 May 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/7420798.stm.
- ^ Gold, 216–217
- ^ Gold, 38
- ^ United Nations Charter, Article 26.
- ^ "Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During its First Session". United Nations. http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/1/ares1.htm. Retrieved 24 March 2008.
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 251 session 60 on 15 March 2006 (retrieved 19 September 2007)
- ^ "The Shame of the United Nations". New York Times. 26 February 2006. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/26/opinion/26sun2.html?_r=1&n=Top%2fOpinion%2fEditorials%20and%20Op%2dEd%2fEditorials&oref=slogin. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
- ^ "UN Human Rights Council Elections". United Nations. http://www.un.org/ga/61/elect/hrc/. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- ^ "Successful UN Human Rights Council Elections Demonstrate UN Members are Taking Reform Effort Seriously.". Open Society Policy Center. 9 May 2006. http://www.opensocietypolicycenter.org/news/article.php?docId=110.
- ^ a b UN General Assembly–61st session–United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
- ^ "About the UNDG". Undg.org. http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P=2. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "Human Development | Human Development Reports (HDR) | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)". Hdr.undp.org. http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "About Us–United Nations". The World Bank. 30 June 2003. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:20040610~menuPK:41691~pagePK:43912~piPK:44037,00.html. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
- ^ "Human Development Reports (HDR) – United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)". Hdr.undp.org. http://hdr.undp.org/en/. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "The UN Millennium Development Goals". United Nations. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- ^ The Secretary-General (30 March 2006). "Mandating and Delivering–Executive Summary". United Nations. http://www.un.org/mandatereview/executive.html.
- ^ "Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories, 1945–1999". United Nations. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust2.htm. Retrieved 9 October 2008.
- ^ the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization–Official Website.
- ^ "Assessment of Member States' contributions to the United Nations regular budget for the year 2011" (PDF). UN Secretariat. 28 December 2010. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/708/33/PDF/N1070833.pdf?OpenElement. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
- ^ a b "Fifth Committee Approves Assessment Scale for Regular, Peacekeeping Budgets, Texts on Common System, Pension Fund, as it Concludes Session (Press Release)". United Nations. 22 December 2006. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gaab3787.doc.htm.
- ^ "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations". United Nations. 31 December 2007. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/bnote.htm. Retrieved 24 March 2008.
- ^ "Financing of UN Peacekeeping Operations". United Nations. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/financing.html. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
- ^ "BBC News, 'Dire shortage' at UN food agency". BBC. 31 July 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/8179250.stm. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
- ^ "Jerusalem Court: No Immunity for UN Employee for Private Acts—Diplomatic/Consular Law and Sovereign Immunity in Israel". Diplomaticlaw.com. 23 March 2009. http://diplomaticlaw.com/blog/2009/03/23/jerusalem-court-no-immunity-for-un-employee-for-private-acts/. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ The Future of the United Nations: Understanding the Past to Chart a Way Forward / Joshua Muravchik (2005) ISBN 978-0-8447-7183-0.
- ^ Reddy, Shravanti (29 October 2002). "Watchdog Organization Struggles to Decrease UN Bureaucracy". Global Policy Forum. http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/ngo-un/rest-un/2002/1029watchdog.htm. Retrieved 21 September 2006.
- ^ "The 2005 World Summit: An Overview" (PDF). United Nations. http://www.un.org/ga/documents/overview2005summit.pdf.
- ^ "2005 World Summit Outcome" (PDF). United Nations. http://www.un.org/summit2005/presskit/fact_sheet.pdf.
- ^ Irene Martinetti (1 December 2006). "Reforming Oversight and Governance of the UN Encounters Hurdles". http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/226.
- ^ "Oversight and Governance". Center for UN Reform Education. http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/31.
- ^ "Ethics Office". Center for UN Reform Education. http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/32.
- ^ "Mandate Review". Center for UN Reform Education. http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/30.
- United Nations Intellectual History Project Book Series. Indiana University Press.
- "Think Again: The United Nations", Madeleine K. Albright, Foreign Policy, September/October 2004.
- Hans Köchler, Quo Vadis, United Nations?, in: Law Review, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, College of Law, May 2005 Online version.
- An Insider's Guide to the UN, Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press (1 November 2003), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4.
- United Nations: The First Fifty Years, Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press (1 March 1997), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN 0-87113-656-2.
- Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations, Stephen Schlesinger, Westview Press (1 September 2003), softcover, 374 pages, ISBN 978-0-8133-3324-3.
- The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945, edited by Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010, paperback, 794 pages. ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0. For US edition, click here.
- United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations, edited by Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1993, paperback, 589 pages. ISBN 0-19-827926-4. For US edition, click here.
- A Guide to Delegate Preparation: A Model United Nations Handbook, edited by Scott A. Leslie, The United Nations Association of the United States of America, 2004 edition (October 2004), softcover, 296 pages, ISBN 1-880632-71-3.
- "U.S. At War–International." Time Magazine XLV.19 7 May 1945: 25–28.
- The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, edited by Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws, Oxford University Press, July 2007, hardcover, 896 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-927951-7, ISBN 0-19-927951-9.
- Gold, Dore. Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.
- Official websites
- Other
![Map showing the Member states of the United NationsThis map does not represent the view of its members or the UN concerning the legal status of any country,[1] nor does it accurately reflect which areas' governments have UN representation.](http://web.archive.org./web/20130202021221/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Nations_Members.svg)
