- published: 07 Nov 2011
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- author: aboutscotland
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Achaea
Achaea (Greek: Αχαΐα Achaïa, [axaˈia]) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of West Greece. It is situated in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. The capital is Patras. The population exceeds 300,000 since 2001.
Achaea borders on Elis to the southwest, Arcadia to the south and Corinthia to the southeast. The Gulf of Corinth lies to its northeast, and the Gulf of Patras to its northwest. The mountain Panachaiko (1926m), though not the highest of Achaea, dominates the coastal area near Patras. Higher mountains are found in the south, notably Aroania (2341m) and Erymanthos (2224m). Other mountain ranges in Achaea are Omplos and Movri. Its main rivers ordered from west to east are the Larissos, Tytheus, Peiros, Charadros, Selinountas and Vouraikos. Most of the forests are in the mountain ranges, though several are in the plains including the extreme west. There are grasslands around the mid-elevation areas and barren lands in the highest areas.
Achaea has hot summers and mild winters. Sunny days dominate during the summer months in areas near the coast, while the summer can be cloudy and rainy in the mountains. Snow is very common during the winter in the mountains of Erymanthos, Panachaiko and Aroania. Winter high temperatures are around the 10°C mark throughout the low lying areas.
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Amalfi
Amalfi is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, c. 35 km southeast of Naples. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (1,315 meters, 4,314 feet), surrounded by dramatic cliffs and coastal scenery. The town of Amalfi was the capital of the maritime republic known as the Duchy of Amalfi, an important trading power in the Mediterranean between 839 and around 1200.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Amalfi was a popular holiday destination for the British upper class and aristocracy.
Amalfi is the main town of the coast on which it is located, named Costiera Amalfitana, and is today an important tourist destination together with other towns on the same coast, such as Positano, Ravello and others. Amalfi is included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
First mentioned in the 6th century, Amalfi soon afterwards acquired importance as a maritime power, trading grain from its neighbors, salt from Sardinia and slaves from the interior, and even timber, in exchange for the gold dinars minted in Egypt and Syria, in order to buy the Byzantine silks that it resold in the West. Grain-bearing Amalfi traders enjoyed privileged positions in the Islamic ports, Fernand Braudel notes. The Amalfi tables (Tavole Amalfitane) provided a maritime code that was widely used by the Christian port cities. Merchants of Amalfi were using gold coins to purchase land in the 9th century, while most of Italy worked in a barter economy. In the 8th and 9th century, when Mediterranean trade revived it shared with Gaeta the Italian trade with the East, while Venice was in its infancy, and in 848 its fleet went to the assistance of Pope Leo IV against the Saracens.
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Apostolic Palace
The Apostolic Palace is the official residence of the Pope, which is located in Vatican City. It is also known as the Sacred Palace, the Papal Palace and the Palace of the Vatican. The Vatican itself refers to the building as the Palace of Sixtus V in honor of Pope Sixtus V.
The palace is more accurately a series of self-contained buildings within the well-recognised outer structure which is arranged around the Courtyard of Sixtus V (Cortile di Sisto V). It is located North-East of St Peter's Basilica and adjacent to the Bastion of Nicholas V and Palace of Gregory XIII.
Rather than a traditional palace (a residential building surrounded by support buildings) the Apostolic Palace houses both residential and support offices of various functions as well as administrative offices not focused on the life and functions of the Pope himself.
The building contains the Papal Apartments, various government offices of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy See, private and public chapels, Vatican Museums and the Vatican library, including the Borgia Apartment now used to house artworks.
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Athelstaneford
Athelstaneford is a village in East Lothian, Scotland. It is close to the town of Haddington and lies approximately 20 miles east of Edinburgh. The village is also known locally as Elshingford.
According to popular legend, Athelstaneford is where the original Scottish saltire - the white diagonal cross on a sky blue background - was first adopted. On the eve of a battle between an army of the Picts and invading Angles from Northumbria (English) in 832AD, Saint Andrew, who was crucified on a diagonal cross, came to the Pictish King Óengus II in a vision promising victory. The next morning the Picts observed a white cross formed by clouds in the sky. They won the battle and attributed their victory to the blessing of Saint Andrew, adopting his form of the cross as their flag, and naming him as their patron saint.
The leader of the retreating Angles, Athelstan,, was slain at a nearby river crossing, hence the name Athelstaneford. There are several versions of the story, of which this is one of the more popular. Whatever the truth, the legend has cemented Athelstaneford's place in Scotland's history.
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Bethsaida
Bethsaida /ˌbɛθ.seɪˈiːdə/ (Greek: Βηθσαΐδά bēthsaidá;, from Hebrew/Aramaic בית צידה beth-tsaida "house of fishing") is a place mentioned in the New Testament.
A city east of the Jordan River, in a “desert place” (that is, uncultivated ground used for grazing) possibly the site at which Jesus miraculously fed the multitude with five loaves and two fish (Mark 6:32; Luke 9:10). It may be possible to identify this site with the village of Bethsaida in Lower Gaulanitis which the tetrarch Herod Philip I raised to the rank of a polis in the year 30/31, and renamed it Julias, in honor of Livia, the wife of Augustus. It lay near the place where the Jordan enters the Sea of Gennesaret (Ant., XVIII, ii, 1; BJ, II, ix, 1; III, x, 7; Vita, 72). This city was most likely located at et-Tell, a ruined site on the east side of the Jordan on rising ground, 2 km from the sea. This distance poses a problem however. Why would a fishing village be so far from the water? A combination of three hypothesises can explain this:-
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Brazil
Brazil
i/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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British Library
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom, and is the world's largest library in terms of total number of items. The library is a major research library, holding over 150 million items from many countries, in many languages and in many formats, both print and digital: books, manuscripts, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, videos, play-scripts, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings. The Library's collections include around 14 million books (second only to the United States' Library of Congress), along with substantial holdings of manuscripts and historical items dating back as far as 2000 BC.
As a legal deposit library, the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK. It also has a programme for content acquisitions. The British Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9.6 kilometres (6.0 mi) of new shelf space.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Capernaum
Capernaum ( /kəˈpɜrniəm/ kə-PUR-nee-əm; Hebrew: כְּפַר נַחוּם, Kfar Nahum, "Nahum's village") was a fishing village in the time of the Hasmoneans. Located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. It had a population of about 1,500. Archaeological excavations have revealed two ancient synagogues built one over the other. A church near Capernaum is said to be the home of Saint Peter.
Although Kfar Nahum, the original name of the small town, means "Nahum's village" in Hebrew, apparently there is no connection with the prophet named Nahum. In the writings of Josephus, the name is rendered in Greek as Kαφαρναούμ (Kapharnaum) and in the New Testament as Kαφαρναούμ (Kapharnaum) in some manuscripts and as Kαπερναούμ (Kapernaum) in others. In Arabic, it is called Talhum, and it is assumed that this refers to the ruin (Tell) of Hum (perhaps an abbreviated form of Nahum) (Tzaferis, 1989).
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Caucasian Iberia
Iberia (Georgian — იბერია, Latin: Iberia and Greek: Ἰβηρία), also known as Iveria (Georgian: ივერია), was a name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to the ancient Georgian kingdom of Kartli (4th century BC – 5th century AD), corresponding roughly to the eastern and southern parts of the present day Georgia. The term Caucasian Iberia (or Eastern Iberia) is used to distinguish it from the Iberian Peninsula, where the present day countries of Spain, Portugal and Andorra are located.
The Caucasian Iberians provided a basis for later Georgian statehood and along with Colchis (early western Georgian state) formed a core of the present day Georgian people (or Kartvelians).
One theory on the etymology of the name Iberia, proposed by Giorgi Melikishvili, was that it was derived from the contemporary Armenian designation for Georgia, Virkʿ (Armenian: Վիրք, and Ivirkʿ [Իվիրք] and Iverkʿ [Իվերք]), which itself was connected to the word Sver (or Svir), the Kartvelian designation for Georgians. The letter "s" in this instance served as a prefix for the root word "Ver" (or "Vir"). Accordingly, in following Ivane Javakhishvili's theory, the ethnic designation of "Sber", a variant of Sver, was derived the word "Hber" ("Hver") (and thus Iberia) and the Armenian variants, Ver and Vir.
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Church of Scotland
The Church of Scotland, (Scottish Gaelic: Eaglais na h-Alba, Scots: Kirk o Scotland) known informally by its Scots language name, the Kirk, is a Presbyterian church, decisively shaped by the Scottish Reformation.
The Church of Scotland traces its roots back to the beginnings of Christianity in Scotland, but its identity is principally shaped by the Reformation of 1560. Its current pledged membership is about 9% of the Scottish population—though according to the 2001 national census, 42% of the Scottish population claim some form of allegiance to it (see Religion in Scotland).
While the Church of Scotland traces its roots back to the earliest Christians in Scotland, its identity was principally shaped by the Scottish Reformation of 1560. At that point, the church in Scotland broke with Rome, in a process of Protestant reform led, among others, by John Knox. It reformed its doctrines and government, drawing on the principles of John Calvin which Knox had been exposed to while living in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1560, the Scottish Parliament abolished papal jurisdiction and approved Calvin's Confession of Faith, but did not accept many of the principles laid out in Knox's First Book of Discipline, which argued, amongst other things, that all of the assets of the old church should pass to the new. The 1560 Reformation Settlement was not ratified by the crown for some years, and the question of church government also remained unresolved. In 1572 the acts of 1560 were finally approved by the young James VI, but the Concordat of Leith also allowed the crown to appoint bishops with the church's approval. John Knox himself had no clear views on the office of bishop, preferring to see them renamed as 'superintendents'; but in response to the new Concordat a Presbyterian party emerged headed by Andrew Melville, the author of the Second Book of Discipline.
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Constantinople
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطینیه, Qostantiniyye; and modern Turkish: İstanbul) was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin and the Ottoman Empires. It was founded in AD 330, at ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine I, after whom it was named. The city was the largest and wealthiest European city of the Middle Ages, and shared the glories of the Byzantine Empire, which was eventually reduced to the city and its environs.
Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, it was taken only in 1204 by the army of the Fourth Crusade, in 1261 by Michael VIII, and in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. An inner wall was erected by Constantine I, and the city was surrounded by a triple wall of fortifications, begun during the 5th century by Theodosius II. The city was built on seven hills as well as on the Bosporus, and thus presented an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes and towers. The Church of Hagia Sophia, the sacred palace of the emperors, the hippodrome, and the Golden Gate were among the largest of the many churches, public edifices, and monuments lining the arcaded avenues and squares.
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Cyprus
Cyprusi/ˈsaɪprəs/ (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾos]; Turkish: Kıbrıs, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs]), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [cipɾiaˈci ðimokɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs dʒumhuɾijeˈti]), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria, Lebanon, northwest of Israel and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Republic of Cyprus is a member state of the European Union.
The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this period include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, which has been declared a World Heritage Site with an "enhanced protection" status in the event of armed conflict by UNESCO, along with the archaeological sites of Paphos and the Painted Churches of the Troodos Region. Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.
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East Lothian
East Lothian (Scots: Aest Lowden, Scottish Gaelic: Siorrachd Lodainn an Ear) (formerly Haddingtonshire) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy Area. It borders the City of Edinburgh, Scottish Borders and Midlothian. Its administrative centre is Haddington, although its largest town is Musselburgh.
The council area was created in 1996, under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, with the boundaries of the East Lothian district of the Lothian region. The district had been created in 1975, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, and it consisted of the local government county of East Lothian, plus the burgh of Musselburgh and the Inveresk area, both formerly within the county of Midlothian.
When abolished, for local government purposes, in 1975, the county of East Lothian bordered the county of Midlothian to the west, and the county of Berwick to the south. The county was called Haddingtonshire until 1921. At this time, border changes saw several villages on the outskirts of Edinburgh (e.g. Whitecraig) become part of East Lothian.
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Edinburgh
Edinburgh (i/ˈɛdɪnbʌrə/ ED-in-burr-ə; Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Èideann) is the capital city of Scotland and the seat of the Scottish Parliament. It is the second largest city in Scotland and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The City of Edinburgh Council governs one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. The council area includes urban Edinburgh and a 30 square miles (78 km2) rural area. Located in the south-east of Scotland, Edinburgh lies on the east coast of the Central Belt, along the Firth of Forth, near the North Sea.
The city was one of the historical major centres of the Enlightenment, led by the University of Edinburgh, helping to earn it the nickname Athens of the North. The Old Town and New Town districts of Edinburgh were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 in recognition of the unique character of the Medieval Old Town and the planned Georgian New Town. It covers both the Old and New Towns together with the Dean Village and the Calton Hill areas. There are over 4,500 listed buildings within the city. In May 2010, it had a total of 40 conservation areas covering 23% of the building stock and 23% of the population, the highest such ratios of any major city in the UK. In the 2011 mid-year population estimates, Edinburgh had a total resident population of 495,360.
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Esgueira
Esgueira is an urban parish in the municipality of Aveiro, in Portugal.
References to the sea waters of Esgueira can be found in 1057, since the production and commerce of salt were the great wealth of this river/sea zone. It was the head of the old council, founded by John III of Portugal and extinguished in 1759.
In Esgueira resides an age group relatively young. The town has 12 thousand inhabitants, in an area of 17.7 square kilometers.
According to the spokesperson of the Town Hall this is one of the sections with the most needs. There's a Health Department that works, temporarily, in the ground floor of the Town Hall, a Center of Rehabilitation for handicapped people, some clinics, two Dental Clinics, two pharmacies, a Center of Clinic Analysis and a Surgeon Center. The town's ambition is to build a Health Center, which is by now a very discussed topic because the future facility is planned to be built inside the court yard of the town's Elementary School.
In this field it must be highlighted the success of Casa do Povo de Esgueira, on the district, national and international level in the area of Badminton, they also hold sporting activities for futsal, gymnastics and traditional games. The town also has the activity of the Associação Desportiva de Taboeira, a sporting association what builds the youth in the game of Soccer. The Clube do Povo de Esgueira is also rather good at Basketball.
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Galloway
Galloway (Scottish Gaelic: Gall-Ghaidhealaibh, pronounced [əŋ ɡaulˠ̪ɣəlˠ̪əv] or Gallobha, Lowland Scots Gallowa, meaning "Land of the Foreign Gaels") is an area in southwestern Scotland. It usually refers to the former counties of Wigtownshire (or historically West Galloway) and Kirkcudbrightshire (or historically East Galloway). It is part of the Dumfries and Galloway council area of Scotland.
Galloway is contained by sea to the west and south, the Galloway Hills to the north, and the River Nith to the east; the border between Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire is marked by the River Cree.
The definition has, however, fluctuated greatly in size over history. The name is also given to a hardy breed of black, hornless beef cattle native to the region (and also to the more distinctive 'Belted Galloway' or 'Beltie'). Galloway has always been slightly isolated due to having 150 miles (240 km) of rugged coastline and a vast range of largely uninhabited hills to the north.
Galloway comprises that part of Scotland southwards from the Southern Upland watershed and westward from the River Nith. Traditionally it has been described as stretching from "the braes of Glenapp to the Nith". The valleys of three rivers, the Urr Water, the Water of Ken and River Dee, and the Cree, all running north-south, provide much of the good arable land, although there is also some arable land on the coast. Generally however the landscape is rugged and much of the soil is shallow. The generally south slope and southern coast make for mild and wet climate, and there is a great deal of good pasture.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] (
listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Ireland
Coordinates: 53°20′N 08°00′W / 53.333°N 8°W / 53.333; -8
Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɪrlənd] ( listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann or Airlan) is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth. To its east is the larger island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea.
Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.4 million. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 17th century. Today, it is one of the most deforested areas in Europe. There are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Karpass Peninsula
The Karpass Peninsula (Greek: Καρπασία, Turkish: Karpaz), also known as Karpasia or Karpas is a long, finger-like peninsula that is one of the most prominent geographical features of the island of Cyprus. Its farthest extent is Cape Apostolos Andreas, and its major population centre is the town of Rizokarpaso (Greek: Ριζοκάρπασο, Turkish: Dipkarpaz). Since 1974 the peninsula resides within the de facto Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
Karpass Peninsula is home to wild donkeys which are known as the symbol of Cyprus. There are some campaigns carried out by Turkish and Greek Cypriots to save the endangered donkeys in Karpass.
Coordinates: 35°31′40″N 34°16′38″E / 35.527756°N 34.277344°E / 35.527756; 34.277344
Karpaz Gate Marina (KGM) is due to open in the Karpaz Peninsula of Northern Cyprus on schedule in May 2011. It’s a marina destination in the eastern Mediterranean and should be an important maintenance centre. It will be the first luxury yacht marina to open in Northern Cyprus and will have facilities to accommodate boats up to 65m in length. It will offer berths for 300 yachts, 16 of these superyachts.
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Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv (Ukrainian: Київ [ˈkɪjiw] ( listen); Russian: Киев) is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press.
Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many high-tech industries, higher education institutions and world-famous historical landmarks. The city has an extensive infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport, including the Kiev Metro.
The name Kiev is said to derive from the name of Kyi, one of four legendary founders of the city (brothers Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv, and sister Lybid). During its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a commercial centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the great trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians (Vikings) in the mid-9th century. Under Varangians rule, the city became a capital of the Rus', the first East Slavic state. Completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a provincial capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours; first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland and Russia.
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Luqa
Ħal Luqa (meaning poplar in Aramaic) is a village located in the south east of Malta. It is an old town that has a dense population, typical of the Maltese Islands. The population of Ħal Luqa is 6,028 (Nov 2005). There is a church in its main square dedicated to St. Andrew. The traditional feast of St. Andrew is celebrated on the first Sunday of July, with the liturgical feast being celebrated on the November 30.
Citizens of Ħal Luqa vote for their local council every three years, which council consists of seven members, one of them being the mayor. The Mayor of Ħal Luqa is John Schembri.
The famous clock maker and inventor Michelangelo Sapiano (1826-1912) used to live in Ħal Luqa. He constructed various kinds of clocks, the clock in the belfry of the Parish Church being one of his many works. The house in Ħal Luqa where he used to live in, is situated in Pawlu Magri Street.
Air Malta has its headquarters in Ħal Luqa.
The historical town is mentioned as Luqqawatna in Malachi Martin's book King of Kings as the hidden capital of the ancient Philistines in around 1000 BC.
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.
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Paris
Coordinates: 48°51′24″N 2°21′03″E / 48.8567°N 2.3508°E / 48.8567; 2.3508
Paris (i/ˈpærɨs/; French: [paʁi] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of France. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region (or Paris Region, French: Région parisienne). As of January 2008 the city of Paris, within its administrative limits (the 20 arrondissements) largely unchanged since 1860, has an estimated population of 2,211,297 and a metropolitan population of 12,089,098, and is one of the most populated metropolitan areas in Europe. Paris was the largest city in the Western world for about 1,000 years, prior to the 19th century, and the largest in the entire world between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Paris is today one of the world's leading business and cultural centres, and its influences in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. It hosts the headquarters of many international organizations such as UNESCO, the OECD, the International Chamber of Commerce or the European Space Agency. Paris is considered one of the greenest and most liveable cities in Europe. It is also one of the most expensive.
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Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος, Pelopónnisos; see also list of Greek place names), is a large peninsula, located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. During the late Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, the peninsula was known as the Morea (Greek: Μωρέας, colloq. Μωριάς), a name still in colloquial use.
The peninsula is divided among three regions of Greece: most of it belongs to the Peloponnese region, and parts belong to the West Greece and Attica regions.
It was here that the Greek War of Independence began; the Peloponnesians have had an almost total dominance of politics and government in Greece since then.
The Peloponnese covers an area of some 21,549.6 km² (8,320 square miles) and constitutes the southernmost part of mainland Greece. While technically it may be considered an island, since the construction of the Corinth Canal in 1893 – like other peninsulas that have been separated from their mainland by man-made bodies of waters – it is rarely, if ever, referred to as an "island". It has two land connections with the rest of Greece, a natural one at the Isthmus of Corinth, and an artificial one in the shape of the Rio-Antirio bridge (completed 2004).
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Philippines
The Philippines
i/ˈfɪlɨpiːnz/ FI-lə-peenz (Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas) is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 98 million people, the Philippines is the 7th most populated Asian country and the 12th most populated country in the world. An additional 12.5 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic societies. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences which remain to this day.
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Rome
Rome (/ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is a city and special comune ("Roma Capitale") in Italy. Rome is the capital of Italy and the capital of Lazio (Latin: Latium). With 2.8 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi), it is also the country's largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. Between 3.2 and 3.7 million people live in the Rome metropolitan area. The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD and the city is regarded as one of the birthplaces of western civilization. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info))) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital.
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Sicily
Sicily (Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia, [siˈtʃiːlja]; [sɪˈɕilja]) is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea; along with surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana (Sicilian Autonomous Region).
Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean. It extends from the tip of the Apennine peninsula from which it is separated only by the narrow Strait of Messina, towards the North African coast. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, which is at 3,320 m (10,890 ft) the tallest active volcano in Europe and one of the most active in the world. The island has a typical Mediterranean climate.
The earliest archeological evidence of human dwelling on the island dates from 8000 BC. At around 750 BC, Sicily became a Greek colony and for the next 600 years it was the site of the Greek-Punic and Roman-Punic wars, which ended with the Roman destruction of Carthage. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, Sicily often changed hands, and during the early Middle Ages it was ruled in turn by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Arabs and Normans. Later on, the Kingdom of Sicily lasted between 1130 and 1816, subordinated to the crowns of Aragon, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and finally the Bourbons, as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was united with the rest of Italy in 1860, but a subsequent economic collapse led to a wave of emigration, separatism, and the emergence of the Mafia, whose criminal activities pose problems to this day. After the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region.
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St Andrews
Coordinates: 56°20′25″N 2°47′44″W / 56.3404°N 2.7955°W / 56.3404; -2.7955
St Andrews (Scots: Saunt Aundraes; Scottish Gaelic: Cill Rìmhinn) is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, named after Saint Andrew the Apostle. The town is home to the University of St Andrews, the third oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of the UK's most prestigious. The University is an integral part of the burgh, and during term time students make up approximately one third of the town's population. St Andrews has a population of 16,680, making this the fifth largest settlement in Fife.
There has been an important church in St Andrews since at least the 8th century, and a bishopric since at least the 11th century. The settlement grew to the west of St Andrews cathedral with the southern side of the Scores to the north and the Kinness burn to the south. The burgh soon became the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland, a position which was held until the Scottish Reformation. The famous cathedral, the largest in Scotland, now lies in ruins.
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St Andrews Cathedral
The Cathedral of St Andrew is a historical church in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, which was the seat of the Bishops (later Archbishops) of St Andrews from its foundation in 1158 until it fell into disuse after the Reformation. It is currently a ruined monument in the custody of Historic Scotland. The ruins indicate the great size of the building at 350 feet (over 100 metres) long.
The cathedral was founded to supply more accommodation than the older church of St. Regulus (St. Rule) afforded. This older church, located on what became the cathedral grounds, had been built in the Romanesque style. Today, there remains the square tower, 33 metres (108 feet) high, and the quire, of very diminutive proportions. On a plan of the town from about 1530, a chancel appears, and seals affixed to the city and college charters bear representations of other buildings attached. To the east is an even older religious site, the Church of St Mary on the Rock, the Culdee house that became a Collegiate Church.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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Vatican City
Vatican Cityi/ˈvætɨkən ˈsɪti/, or Vatican City State, in Italian officially Stato della Città del Vaticano (pronounced [ˈstaːto della t͡ʃitˈta del vatiˈkaːno]), is a landlocked sovereign city-state whose territory consists of a walled enclave within the city of Rome, Italy. It has an area of approximately 44 hectares (110 acres), and a population of just over 800. This makes Vatican City the smallest independent state in the world by both area and population.
Vatican City State was established in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty, signed by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri, on behalf of Pope Pius XI and by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Vatican City State is distinct from the Holy See, which dates back to early Christianity and is the main episcopal see of 1.2 billion Latin and Eastern Catholic adherents around the globe. Ordinances of Vatican City are published in Italian; official documents of the Holy See are issued mainly in Latin. The two entities have distinct passports: the Holy See, not being a country, issues only diplomatic and service passports, whereas Vatican City State issues normal passports. In each case very few passports are issued.
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Veliky Novgorod
Veliky Novgorod (Russian: Вели́кий Но́вгород; IPA: [vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət]) is one of the most important historic cities in Russia which serves as the administrative center of Novgorod Oblast. It is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen. Population: 218,724 (2010 Census preliminary results); 216,856 (2002 Census); 229,126 (1989 Census).
Novgorod is among the oldest cities of Russia, founded in the 9th or 10th century. The Sofia First Chronicle first mentions it in 859; the Novgorod First Chronicle mentions it first under the year 862 when it was allegedly already a major station on the trade route from the Baltics to Byzantium.[citation needed]
Archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century, however, have found cultural layers dating back only to the late 10th century, the time of the Christianization of Rus' and a century after it was allegedly founded, suggesting that the chronicle entries mentioning Novgorod in the 850s or 860s are later interpolations.
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Warsaw
Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ( listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most populous city proper in the European Union. The area of the city covers 516.9 square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the city's agglomeration covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sq mi).
Warsaw is an Alpha- global city, a major international tourist destination and an important economic hub in Central Europe. It is also known as the "phoenix city" because it has survived many wars throughout its history. Most notably, the city had to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive damage it suffered from World War II, during which 80% of its buildings were destroyed. On 9 November 1940 the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, for the Siege of Warsaw (1939).
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Acca of Hexham
Acca (b c. 660 – 740 or 742), Bishop of Hexham.
Born in Northumbria, Acca first served in the household of Bosa, the future Bishop of York, but later attached himself to Saint Wilfrid, possibly as early as 678, and accompanied him on his travels. On the return from their second journey to Rome in 692, Wilfrid was reinstated at Hexham and made Acca abbot of St Andrew's monastery there. After Wilfrid's death in 709 Acca succeeded him as bishop.
Acca tackled his duties with much energy, in ruling the diocese and in conducting the services of the church. He also carried on the work of church building and decorating started by Wilfrid. He once brought to the North a famous cantor named Maban, who had learned in Kent the Roman traditions of psalmody handed down from Gregory the Great through Saint Augustine.
He was also famous for his theological learning; his theological library was praised by Bede. He was known also for his encouragement of students by every means in his power. It was Acca who persuaded Stephen of Ripon (Eddius) to take on the Life of St. Wilfrid, and he lent many materials for the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum to Bede, who dedicated several of his most important works, especially those dealing with Holy Scripture, to him.
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Agabus
Saint Agabus (Greek: Ἄγαβος) or Saint Agabo was an early follower of Christianity mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as a prophet. He is traditionally remembered as one of the Seventy Disciples described in Luke 10:1-24.
According to Acts 11:27-28, he was one of a group of prophets who came to Antioch from Jerusalem. While there he predicted a severe famine that the author says came under the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius.
Acts 21:10-12 records that many years later, in 58, Agabus met Paul of Tarsus at Caesarea Maritima and warned him of his coming capture; he bound his own hands and feet with Paul's belt to demonstrate what the Jews would do if he continued his journey to Jerusalem, though Paul would not be persuaded.
Agabus is revered as a saint in most branches of Christianity. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on February 13, while the Eastern Christianity celebrates it on March 8. According to tradition he died a martyr in Antioch.
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Agrippa I
Agrippa I, also known as Herod Agrippa or simply Herod (10 BC – 44 AD), was a King of the Jews during the 1st century AD. The grandson of Herod the Great and son of Aristobulus IV and Berenice. He was born Marcus Julius Agrippa, so named in honour of Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. He is the king named Herod in the Acts of the Apostles, in the Bible, "Herod (Agrippa)" (Ἡρώδης Ἀγρίππας). He was, according to Josephus, known in his time as "Agrippa the Great". Christian and Jewish historiography take different views of this king, with the Christians largely opposing Agrippa and the Jews largely favoring Agrippa.
Agrippa's territory comprised most of Israel, including Iudaea, Galilee, Batanaea and Perea. From Galilee his territory extended east to Trachonitis.
Josephus informs us that, after the murder of his father, young Agrippa was sent by Herod the Great to the imperial court in Rome. There, Tiberius conceived a great affection for him, and had him educated alongside his son Drusus, who also befriended him, and future emperor Claudius. On the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly extravagant and was deeply in debt, was obliged to leave Rome, fleeing to the fortress of Malatha in Idumaea. There, it was said, he contemplated suicide.
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Agrippa II
Agrippa II (born AD 27/28), son of Agrippa I, and like him originally named Marcus Julius Agrippa, was the seventh and last king of the family of Herod the Great, thus last of the Herodians. He was the brother of Berenice, Mariamne, and Drusilla (second wife of the Roman procurator Antonius Felix). He is sometimes also called Herod Agrippa II.
Agrippa was educated at the court of the emperor Claudius, and at the time of his father's death was only seventeen years old. Claudius therefore kept him at Rome, and sent Cuspius Fadus as procurator of the Roman province of Judaea. While at Rome, he voiced his support for the Jews to Claudius, and against the Samaritans and the procurator of Iudaea Province, Ventidius Cumanus, who was lately thought to have been the cause of some disturbances there. On the death of Herod of Chalcis (in 48), his small principality (Chalcis, Syria) was given to Agrippa, with the right of superintending the Temple in Jerusalem and appointing its high priest. In 53, he was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who made him governor over the tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanias. Agrippa celebrated by marrying off his two sisters Mariamne and Drusilla. Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian, repeats the gossip that Agrippa lived in incestuous carnality with his sister, Berenice.
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Alphaeus
Alphaeus is mentioned in the New Testament as the father of two of the Twelve Apostles, namely:
There may have been two separate men named Alphaeus. Though both Matthew and James are described as being the "son of Alphaeus" there is no Biblical account of the two being called brothers, even in the same context where John and James or Peter and Andrew are described as being brothers.
Alphaeus is traditionally identified with Clopas, based on the identification from parallel Gospel accounts of Mary, the mother of James the third woman with Mary Magdalene and Salome wife of Zebedee beside the cross in Matthew with Mary, the wife of Clopas, the third woman in John's account. The Catholic Encyclopedia suggest that etymologically, the names "Clopas" and "Alphaeus" are different, but that they could still be the same person. Other sources propose that Alphaeus, Clophas and Cleophas are variant attempts to render the Aramaic "H" in Aramaic Hilfai into Greek as aspirated, or "K."
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Ananias and Sapphira
Ananias ( /ˌænəˈnaɪ.əs/) and his wife Sapphira ( /sæˈfaɪərə/) were, according to the Acts of the Apostles, members of the Early Christian church in Jerusalem. The account records their sudden deaths after lying to the apostles about money.
Acts chapter 4:32 closes by stating that the first followers of Jesus did not consider their possessions to be their own, but they had all things in common to use what they had on behalf of those in want. Barnabas, a Levite from Cyprus, sold a plot of land and donated the profit to the apostles.
As told at the beginning of Acts chapter 5 Ananias and Sapphira, following Barnabas' example but not willing to give all, also sold their land but withheld a portion of the sales. Ananias presented his donation to Peter claiming that it was the entire amount. Peter replied, "Why is it that Satan has so filled your heart that you have lied to the Holy Spirit?" Peter pointed out that Ananias was in control of the money and could give or keep it as he saw fit, but that he had withheld it from Peter and lied about it, and stated that Ananias had not only lied to Peter, but also to God. Ananias died on the spot and was carried out. As a result, everyone who heard the incident feared the Lord. Three hours after Ananias' death his wife told the same lie and also fell dead.
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Ananias of Damascus
Ananias (pronounced /ænəˈnaɪəs/ AN-ə-NY-əs, Ancient Greek: Ἀνανίας, same as Hebrew חנניה, Hananiah, "favoured of the LORD"), was a disciple of Jesus at Damascus mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible, which describes how he was sent by Jesus to restore the sight of "Saul, of Tarsus" (known later as Paul the Apostle) and provide him with additional instruction in the way of the Lord.
According to Acts 9:10, Ananias lived in the city of Damascus. In Paul's speech in Acts 22, he describes Ananias as "a devout man according to the law, having a good report of all the Jews" that dwelt in Damascus (Acts 22:12). According to F. F. Bruce, this indicates that he was not one of the refugees from the persecution in Jerusalem described in Acts 8:1.
During his conversion experience, Jesus had told Paul, (who was then called Saul,) to go into the city and wait. Jesus later spoke to Ananias in a vision, and told him to go to the "street which is called Straight", and ask "in the house of Judas for one called Saul, of Tarsus". (Acts 9:11) Ananias objected that Saul had been persecuting "thy saints", but the Lord told him that Saul was "a chosen vessel unto me, to bear my name before the Gentiles, and kings, and the children of Israel". (Acts 9:15). When Ananias went in to Saul and laid his hands on him, the "scales" of dead tissue on the surface of his eyes fell off, and he looked up at Ananias. After additional instruction, Saul was baptized. (Acts 9:18; 22:16)
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Angles
The Angles is a modern English term for a Germanic people who took their name from the ancestral cultural region of Angeln, a district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles were one of the main groups that settled in Britain in the post-Roman period, founding several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the name "England".
The name of the Angles is first recorded in Latinized form, as Anglii, in the Germania of Tacitus. The name is usually derived from a toponym, Angeln, from a Germanic word *anguz meaning "narrow" (of an estuary) or "angular" (of the shape of the Jutland peninsula).
Gregory the Great in an epistle simplified the Latinized name Anglii to Angli, the latter form developing into the preferred form of the word. The country remained Anglia in Latin. King Alfred's (Alfred the Great) translation of Orosius' history of the world uses Angelcynn (-kin) to describe England and the English people; Bede used Angelfolc (-folk); there are also such forms as Engel, Englan (the people), Englaland, and Englisc, all showing i-mutation.
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Annas
Annas [also Ananus or Ananias], son of Seth (23/22 BC–death date unknown, probably around 40CE), was appointed by the Roman legate Quirinius as the first High Priest of the newly formed Roman province of Iudaea in 6 AD; just after the Romans had deposed Archelaus, Ethnarch of Judaea, thereby putting Judaea directly under Roman rule.
Annas officially served as High Priest for ten years (6–15 AD), when at the age of 36 he was deposed by the procurator Gratus 'for imposing and executing capital sentences which had been forbidden by the imperial government.' Yet while having been officially removed from office, he remained as one of the nation's most influential political and social individuals, aided greatly by the use of his five sons and his son-in-law as puppet High Priests. His death is unrecorded, but his son Annas the Younger, also known as Ananus ben Ananus was assassinated in 66 AD for advocating peace with Rome.
Annas appears in the Gospels and Passion plays as a high priest before whom Jesus is brought for judgment, prior to being brought before Pontius Pilate.
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Antipas of Pergamum
Many Christian traditions believe Saint Antipas to be the Antipas referred to in the Book of Revelation (Revelation 2:13) as the "faithful martyr" of Pergamon, "where Satan dwells". According to Christian tradition, John the Apostle ordained Antipas as bishop of Pergamon during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian. The traditional account goes on to say Antipas was martyred in ca. 92 AD by burning in a brazen bull-shaped altar used for casting out demons worshiped by the local population.
There is a tradition of oil ("manna of the saints") being secreted from the relics of Saint Antipas. On the calendars of Eastern Christianity, the feast day of Antipas is April 11.
Some Christians pray to this saint for ailments of the teeth.
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Antonius Felix
Marcus Antonius Felix (Felix in Greek: ο Φηλιξ, born between 5/10-?) was the Roman procurator of Iudaea Province 52-58, in succession to Ventidius Cumanus.
Felix was the younger brother of the Greek freedman Marcus Antonius Pallas. Pallas served as a secretary of the treasury during the reign of the Emperor Claudius. Felix was a Greek freedman either of Claudius, according to which theory Josephus (Antiq. xx. 7) calls him Claudius Felix, or for Claudius's mother Antonia Minor, a daughter of Triumvir Mark Antony to Octavia Minor and niece of Emperor Augustus. According to Tacitus, Pallas and Felix descended from the Greek Kings of Arcadia.
Felix’s cruelty and licentiousness, coupled with his accessibility to bribes (see Book of Acts 24:26), led to a great increase of crime in Judaea. The period of his rule was marked by internal feuds and disturbances, which he put down with severity.
After Paul the Apostle was arrested in Jerusalem and rescued from a plot against his life, the local Roman chiliarch Claudius Lysias transferred him to Caesarea, where he stood trial before Felix. On at least one further occasion Felix and his wife Drusilla heard Paul discourse, and later on frequently sent for Paul and talked with him (Acts 24:24-26). When Felix was succeeded as procurator, having already detained Paul for two years, he left him imprisoned as a favor to the Jews (Acts 24:27).
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Apollos
Saint Apollos (Ἀπολλώς; contracted from Apollonius) is an apostle who is also a 1st century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. After the Christian couple Priscilla and Aquila corrected his incomplete Christian doctrine, his special gifts in preaching Jesus persuasively made him an important person in the congregation at Corinth, Greece after Paul's first visit there.[1 Cor. 3:6] He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus.[16:12]
Paul considered Apollos to be an apostle (1 Cor 4:6, 9-13)[1] who became a leader in the important Corinthian congregation.[1 Cor 3:6] [4:6] [16:12] In harmony with Paul's notices are the statements in Acts that Apollos was a highly educated Alexandrian Jew, who "spoke and taught accurately about Jesus, even though he knew only the baptism of John." [Acts 18:24-28] He came to Ephesus (probably in the year 52-3). After Christians in Ephesus first wrote to their counterparts recommending Apollos to them, he went to Achaia where Paul names him as an apostle (1 Cor 4:6, 9-13) Given that Paul only saw himself as an apostle 'untimely born' (1 Cor 15:8) it is certain that Apollos became an apostle in the regular way (as a witness to the risen Lord and commissioned by Jesus - 1 Cor 15:5-9; 1 Cor 9:1).
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Archippus
Archippus (Greek for "master of the horse") was an early Christian believer mentioned briefly in the New Testament epistles of Philemon and Colossians.
In Paul's letter to Philemon (Philemon 1:2), Archippus is named once alongside Philemon and Apphia as a host of the church, and a "fellow soldier." In Colossians 4:17 (ascribed to Paul), the church is instructed to tell Archippus to "Take heed to the ministry which thou hast received in the Lord, that thou fulfil it."
According to the 4th century Apostolic Constitutions (7.46), Archippus was the first bishop of Laodicea in Phrygia (now part of Turkey). Another tradition states that he was one of the 72 disciples appointed by Jesus Christ in Luke 10:1. The Roman Catholic Church observes a feast day for Saint Archippus on March 20.
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Barabbas
Barabbas or Jesus Barabbas (literally "son of the father" or "Jesus, son of the father" respectively) is a figure in the Christian narrative of the Passion of Jesus, in which he is the insurrectionary whom Pontius Pilate freed at the Passover feast in Jerusalem.
The penalty for Barabbas' crime was death by crucifixion, but according to the four canonical gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of Peter there was a prevailing Passover custom in Jerusalem that allowed or required Pilate, the praefectus or governor of Judaea, to commute one prisoner's death sentence by popular acclaim, and the "crowd" (ochlos) — which has become "the Jews" and "the multitude" in some translations — were offered a choice of whether to have Barabbas or Jesus Christ released from Roman custody. According to the closely parallel gospels of Matthew,Mark, and Luke, and the accounts in John and the Gospel of Peter, the crowd chose Barabbas to be released and Jesus of Nazareth to be crucified. A passage found only in the Gospel of Matthew has the crowd saying, "Let his blood be upon us and upon our children".
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Barnabas
Barnabas (Ancient Greek: Βαρναβᾶς), born Joseph, was an Early Christian, one of the earliest Christian disciples in Jerusalem. According to Acts 4:36 Barnabas was a Cypriot Jew. Named an apostle in Acts 14:14, he and Saint Paul undertook missionary journeys together and defended Gentile converts against a faction promoting Gentile circumcision (see also Judaizers). They gained many converts in Antioch (c 43-44), traveled together making more converts (c 45-47), and participated in the Council of Jerusalem (c 50). Barnabas and Paul successfully evangelized among the "God-fearing" gentiles who attended synagogues in various Hellenized cities of Anatolia (modern day Turkey).
Barnabas' story appears in the Acts of the Apostles, and Paul mentions him in some of his epistles.Tertullian named him as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, but this and other attributions are conjecture.Clement of Alexandria ascribed an early Christian epistle to Barnabas (Epistle of Barnabas), but that is highly improbable.
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Basil of Seleucia
Basil of Seleucia was a Bishop and ecclesiastical writer.
His date of birth is uncertain; died probably between 458 and 460; was distinguished during the period when the Eastern Church was convulsed by the Monophysite struggles, and was necessarily obliged to take sides in all those controversies. Those of his writings which have come down to us, though somewhat too rhetorical and involved, prove clearly that he was a man of great literary ability.
He was appointed Bishop of Seleucia in Isauria, between the years 432 and 447, and was one of those who took part in the Synod of Constantinople, which was summoned in 448 by the Patriarch Flavian for the condemnation of the Eutychian errors and the deposition of their great champion, Dioscurus of Alexandria. Curiously, though Basil seems to have agreed to these measures, he attended the Second Council of Ephesus the next year (440) and induced probably more by the threats and violence of the Monophysite party than by their arguments, he voted for the rehabilitation of Eutyches and for the deposition of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and was thus regarded for a time as a supporter of Monophysite opinions.
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Biblical Magi
The Magi ( /ˈmædʒaɪ/;Greek: μάγοι, magoi), also referred to as the (Three) Wise Men, (Three) Kings, or Kings from the East, were, according to Christian Scripture, a group of distinguished foreigners who visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh. They are regular figures in traditional accounts of the nativity celebrations of Christmas and are an important part of the Christian tradition.
The Gospel of Matthew, the only one of the four Canonical gospels to mention the Magi, states that they came "from the east" to worship the Christ, "born King of the Jews." Although the account does not tell how many they were, the three gifts led to a widespread assumption that they were three as well. In the East, the magi traditionally number twelve. Their identification as kings in later Christian writings is probably linked to Psalms 72:11, “May all kings fall down before him”.
The New Revised Standard Version of Matthew 2:1–12 describes the visit of the Magi:
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Blastus
Blastus was the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa (Acts 12:20), and a mediator for the Sidonians and Tyrians. Blastus was involved in the events that led to Herod's death.
According to Acts 12:20, Herod was displeased with the people of Sidon and Tyre (Lebanon), and forbade the export of food to them. Dependent on the food exports, the Sidonians and Tyrians made Blastus "their friend" (possibly through bribery). Blastus helped them obtain an audience with Herod. Acts 12:23 states that Herod was struck dead by God when the people of Sidon and Tyre offered him worship.
The story of Herod's death is somewhat corroborated by the contemporary historian Josephus. However Josephus does not mention the involvement of Blastus.
The 2010 Cartoon Network television show Robotomy includes a character named Blastus, who is an "outsider" robot that lives on the planet of Insanus. Voiced by John Gemberling, Blustus is unlike most robots on Insanus, in being sensitive and non-homicidal. In his quest to become popular, he is incredibly impulsive and overconfident in his abilities. He is the sidekick to another robot, Thrasher.[citation needed]
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Caiaphas
Joseph, son of Caiaphas, Hebrew יוסף בַּר קַיָּפָא or Yosef Bar Kayafa, commonly known simply as Caiaphas (Greek: Καϊάφας) in the New Testament, was the Roman-appointed Jewish high priest who is said to have organized the plot to kill Jesus. Caiaphas is also said to have been involved in the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus.
According to the Gospel accounts, Caiaphas was the major antagonist of Jesus. An ossuary of the high priest, Joseph Caiaphas, was found in Jerusalem in 1990. However, the authenticity of that discovery has been challenged by some scholars on various grounds.
The first-century Jewish historian Josephus is considered the most reliable literary source for Caiaphas. His works contain information on the dates for Caiaphas's tenure of the high priesthood, along with reports on other high priests, and also help to establish a coherent description of the responsibilities of the high-priestly office. Josephus (Antiquitates Judaicae 18.33-35) relates that Caiaphas became a high priest during a turbulent period. He also states that the proconsul Vitellius deposed him (Antiquitates Judaicae 18.95-97). Josephus' account is based on an older source in which incumbents of the high priesthood were listed chronologically.
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Claudius Lysias
Claudius Lysias is a figure mentioned in the New Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles. According to Acts 21:31-24:22, Lysias was a Roman Tribune and the commander (chiliarch) of the Roman garrison ("cohort" Acts 21:31) in Jerusalem.
Claudius Lysias is called "the tribune" (χιλίαρχος chiliarch) 16 times within Acts 21-24 (21.31-33, 37; 22.24, 26-29; 23.10, 15, 17, 19, 22; 24.22); 17 times if Claudius Lysias is also included in among the "military tribunes" in the "audience hall" when Herod Agrippa II and Bernice come to hear Paul (Acts 25:23). However, such a speculation is uncertain especially considering a minimum of two years from when Claudius Lysias sent Paul to the Procurator Marcus Antonius Felix in c. AD 57/58 Acts 23:26-35, to within the first few months of the new Procurator Porcius Festus who rules from AD 60-62 (Acts 24:27-25:1-22).
The Greek term Χιλίαρχος is said to be used to translate the Roman tribunus militum (following Polybius), and also for the phrase tribuni militares consulari potestate (Plutarch). The responsibilities of a χιλίαρχος were as a "commander of a thousand men". Essentially, Claudius Lysias is "a high ranking military officer in charge" of anywhere from 600 to 1,000 men, and this appears to be the case for it is said that his command was over a "cohort" (σπειρα, speira) in Jerusalem which is "the tenth part of a Roman legion having about 600 men" (Acts 21:31).
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Cleopas
Cleopas (or Cleophas, Greek Κλεόπας) was a figure of early Christianity, one of the two disciples who encountered Jesus during the Road to Emmaus appearance in the Gospel of Luke 24:13-32.
Some writers claim that the name Clopas in John 19 ("Mary of Clopas" Κλόπας) is a Hellenized form of a claimed Aramaic name Qlopha (קלופא), while Cleopas' name (Κλεόπας) is claimed to be an abbreviated form of "Cleopatros," which is claimed to be a "common" Hellenistic name meaning "son of a renowned father". However evidence for the male name Cleopatros (Κλεοπατρος) is unknown.
Others consider that Clophas, Cleophas and Alphaeus are all the same name.
Cleopas appears in Luke 24:13-27 as one of two disciples walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus. Cleopas is named in verse 18, while his companion remains unnamed.
This occurs three days after the crucifixion, on the day of Jesus' resurrection. The two have heard the tomb of Jesus was found empty earlier that day. They are discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asks them what they are discussing. "Their eyes were kept from recognizing him." He soon rebukes them for their unbelief and gives them a Bible study on prophecies about the Messiah. They ask the stranger to join them for the evening meal. When he breaks the bread "their eyes were opened" and they recognize him as the resurrected Jesus. Jesus immediately vanishes.
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Clopas
Clopas (Greek Klopas Κλωπᾶς; Hebrew possibly חלפי (Halfi); Aramaic חילפאי (Hilfài), is a figure of early Christianity. The name appears only once in the New Testament, specifically in John 19:25:
He is often identified with another figure of a similar name, Cleopas (Κλεοπᾶς), one of the two disciples of Emmaus Luke 24:13-27. There is some variation of the Greek manuscripts in both John 19:25 and Luke 24 as to the spelling Κλ[ε]οπᾶς, and the John "Clopas" is rendered "Cleophas" in the KJV.
The identity of the other women in the parallel passages in Matthew 27:56 and Mark 15:40 is given as Mary Magdalene, "Mary the mother of James and Joses," and "Salome the mother of Zebedee's children" (Matthew), "Salome" (Mark). Luke does not mention the women watching near the cross. The parallels continue again with accounts of the burial. Matthew 28:1 has "Mary Magdalene and the other Mary" with no mention of John's mother Salome, Mark 16:1 has again Mary Magdalene, "Mary the mother of James" and Salome. Luke says "they," John mentions only Mary Magdalene.
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Columba
Saint Columba (7 December 521 – 9 June 597 AD)—also known as Colum Cille (Old Irish, meaning "dove of the church"), Colm Cille (Irish), Calum Cille (Scottish Gaelic), Colum Keeilley (Manx Gaelic) and Kolban or Kolbjørn (Old Norse, meaning "black bear")—was a Gaelic Irish missionary monk who propagated Christianity among the Picts during the Early Medieval Period. He was one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland.
Columba was born to Fedlimid and Eithne of the Cenel Conaill in Gartan, near Lough Gartan, in modern County Donegal, part of the Provinces of Ulster in the north of Ireland. On his father's side he was great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages, an Irish high king of the 5th century. He was baptised in Temple-Douglas, in the County Donegal parish of Conwal (mid-way between Gartan and Letterkenny), by his teacher and foster-uncle Saint Crunathan.
In early Christian Ireland the druidic tradition collapsed due to the spread of the new Christian faith. The study of Latin learning and Christian theology in monasteries flourished. Columba became a pupil at the monastic school at Clonard Abbey, situated on the River Boyne in modern County Meath. During the sixth century, some of the most significant names in the history of Irish Christianity studied at the Clonard monastery. It is said that the average number of scholars under instruction at Clonard was 3,000. Twelve students who studied under St. Finnian became known as the Twelve Apostles of Ireland; Columba was one of them. He became a monk and eventually ordained a priest. During this time he is said to have founded a number of monasteries, including ones at Kells, Derry, and Swords.
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Constantius II
Constantius II (Latin: Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361), was Roman Emperor from 337 to 361. The second son of Constantine I and Fausta, he ascended to the throne with his brothers Constantine II and Constans upon their father's death.
In 340, Constantius' brothers clashed over the western provinces of the empire. The resulting conflict left Constantine II dead and Constans as ruler of the west until he was overthrown and assassinated in 350 by the usurper Magnentius. Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius marched against him. Magnentius was defeated at the battles of Mursa Major and Mons Seleucus, committing suicide after the latter. This left Constantius as sole ruler of the empire.
His subsequent military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354, and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. Contrastingly, in the east, the two decade old war against the Sassanids continued with mixed results.
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Crescens
Crescens was an individual who appears in the New Testament. He was said to be a missionary in Galatia and became a companion of Paul. The name 'Crescens' is the present-active participle of the Latin word crescere, and means 'increasing'.
Crescens, a companion of St. Paul during his second Roman captivity, appears but once in the New Testament, when he is mentioned as having left the Apostle to go into Galatia: "Make haste to come to me quickly", St. Paul writes to Timothy, "for Demas hath left me, loving this world, and is gone to Thessalonica, Crescens into Galatia, Titus into Dalmatia" (2 Timothy 4:8-10). All commentators agree in ranking Crescens with Titus rather than with Demas, and in seeing here, therefore, a reference to a missionary journey into Galatia. This term, in New Testament times, might mean either Gaul or the Roman province of Galatia in Asia Minor, where St. Paul had labored so much; and here it has been interpreted in either sense. In the other passages where it occurs in the New Testament, however, it denotes Galatia, and most probably it would be so understood here by Timothy, especially as the other regions mentioned are likewise to the east of Rome. Moreover, St. Paul might easily have a reason for sending a disciple to visit his old Churches in Galatia, while there is no proof that he had an active interest in Gaul.
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Daughter of Jairus
The record of the daughter of Jairus is a combination of miracles of Jesus in the Gospels (Mark 5:21–43, Matthew 9:18–26, Luke 8:40–56).
The story immediately follows the exorcism at Gerasa. Jairus, a patron of the synagogue, asks Jesus to heal his dying daughter. However, according to Matthew, his daughter is already dead, not dying. As they travel to Jairus's house, a sick woman in the crowd touches Jesus' cloak and is healed of her sickness. This is called the miracle of Christ healing the bleeding woman.
Meanwhile the daughter dies, but Jesus continues to the house and brings her back to life, or in his own words, awakens her. In Mark's account, the Aramaic phrase "Talitha Koum" (transliterated into Greek as ταλιθα κουμ and meaning, "Little girl, I say to you, get up!") is attributed to Jesus.
Donahue and Harrington state that this episode shows that "faith, especially as embodied by the bleeding woman, can exist in seemingly hopeless situations".
The combined stories have been used as an example of intercalation, with one incident inserted within another, and of contrast comparing the older woman with a 12-year ailment and the 12-year-old girl. Michael Keene states that there is a link between Jairus and the woman: "The link between them is faith since both Jairus and the bleeding woman showed great faith in Jesus"
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Diotrephes
Diotrephes was a man mentioned in the (Third Epistle of John, verses 9–11). His name means "nourished by Jupiter". As Raymond E. Brown comments, "Diotrephes is not a particularly common name."
In addition to being ambitious, proud, disrespectful of apostolic authority, rebellious, and inhospitable, the author of the letter says that Diotrephes tried to hinder those desiring to show hospitality to the brothers and to expel these from the congregation. Not even the location of Diotrephes' church can be determined from the letter. It is debatable whether the antipathy expressed in 3 John is based on "a theological dispute, a clash of competing ecclesiastical authorities, a disagreement about financial responsibilities for the mission, or personal dislike".
Adolf von Harnack was of the view that Diotrephes was the first monarchical bishop of whom we have the name.
The following is the passage and notes from the New English Translation.
1:9 I wrote something to the church, but Diotrephes, who loves to be first among them, does not acknowledge us. 1:10 Therefore, if I come, I will call attention to the deeds he is doing – the bringing of unjustified charges against us with evil words! And not being content with that, he not only refuses to welcome the brothers himself, but hinders the people who want to do so and throws them out of the church! 1:11 Dear friend, do not imitate what is bad but what is good. The one who does good is of God; the one who does what is bad has not seen God.
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Dorcas
Dorcas (also known as Tabitha) was a disciple who lived in Joppa, referenced in the Book of Acts 9:36–42 of the Bible. Acts recounts that when she died, she was mourned by "all the widows ... crying and showing (Peter) the robes and other clothing that Dorcas had made while she was still with them." (Acts 9:39). This may indicate that Dorcas was a widow, or at the very least that she joined the widows in their works of charity. The disciples present called upon Saint Peter who came from nearby Lydda to the place where her wake was being held and raised her from the dead.
This narrative concerning Tabitha/Dorcas indicates her prominence in community at Joppa. This might also be indicated by the fact that Peter took the trouble to come to her from a neighbouring city, when requested by the community members.
The name Dorcas is Greek translation of the Aramaic name Tabitha, meaning "gazelle". One species of gazelle is now known as the dorcas gazelle. She is commemorated with Lydia of Thyatira and Phoebe on January 27 in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and on October 25 in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod.
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Elymas
Elymas, also known as Bar-Jesus (arc. Bar-Yeshua, lat. Bariesu), was a Jewish magician who appears in the New Testament in the Acts of the Apostles, chapter 13.
Acts of the Apostles calls him a magus, which the King James Bible here translates as "sorcerer". He is represented as opposing Paul of Tarsus and Barnabas in the city of Paphos on Cyprus, when Sergius Paulus, the Roman Proconsul, wishes to hear Paul and Barnabas speak about Jesus. Because of this opposition, Paul states that God has decided to make him temporarily blind. A cloud of darkness immediately begins blocking his sight; After this Sergius Paulus is converted to Christianity.
Elymas means "Wise" in Arabic, while Bar-Yeshua literally means "son of Joshua" in Aramaic.
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Epaphras
Epaphras (Greek: Ἐπαφρᾶς) was a Christian preacher who spread the Gospel to his fellow Colossian citizens (Col. 1:7; 4:12). When Paul was a prisoner in Rome, Epaphras came to him with a favourable account of the Church at Colossae. He remained with Paul in Rome and was, in a sense, his "fellow prisoner" (Philemon 1:23). Paul bears witness to the struggling in his prayers for Colossae and his work of service there and in Laodicea and Hierapolis. (Colossians 4:12-13)
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Epaphroditus
Epaphroditus is a New Testament figure appearing as an envoy of the Philippian church to assist the Apostle Paul (Phil. 2.25-30). He is regarded as a saint of the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church, first Bishop of Philippi, and of Andriaca in Asia Minor, and first Bishop of Terracina, Italy. There is little evidence that these were all the same man.
Epaphroditus appears in the New Testament only in the letter to the Philippians (2.25-30, 4.18). This is a “common personal name”, being derived from Aphrodite meaning “lovely” or “charming”; moreover, the proper name is found in the papyri with alternative spelling (81-2 B.C.) – Epaphrodeitos, Epaphrodeiton.
The name was indeed quite common. The name corresponds to the Latin Venustus (= handsome), and was very common in the Roman period. "The name occurs very frequently in inscriptions both Greek and Latin, whether at full length Epaphroditus, or in its contracted form Epaphras."Flavius Josephus describes a man by the name of Epaphroditus who was “a man who is a lover of all kind of learning” (Ant. 1.8, Life 430, Against Apion 1.1; 2.1, 296).
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Ephrem Mtsire
Ephrem Mtsire or Ephraim the Small (Georgian: ეფრემ მცირე) (died c. 1101/3) was a Georgian monk at Antioch, theologian and translator of patristic literature from Greek.
Information as to Ephrem’s life is scarce. Early in life he received a thorough Hellenic education presumably in Constantinople, where his purported father Vache Karich'isdze, a Georgian nobleman from Tao, had removed in 1027. Ephrem then became a monk at the Black Mountain near Antioch, which was populated by a vibrant Georgian monastic community of around 70 monks. Later in his life, c. 1091, Ephrem became a hegumen of the Castalia monastery in Daphne, outside Antioch.
Ephrem’s hellenophile translational technique proved to be fundamental for later Georgian literature. He was the first to introduce literal rendering into Georgian, and made scholia and lexica familiar to Georgian readers. Some of his notable translations are the works by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Basil of Caesarea, Ephrem the Syrian, and John of Damascus. Ephrem’s original work "Tale on the Reason for the Conversion of the Georgians" (უწყებაჲ მიზეზსა ქართველთა მოქცევისასა; uts’qebay mizezsa k’art’velt’a mok’tsevisasa) is yet another manifesto in defense of autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church which was subject of a dispute between the Georgian and Antiochian churchmen in the 11th century.
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Erastus of Corinth
According to the New Testament Epistle to the Romans, Erastus (Greek: Ἔραστος, Erastos) was a steward (Greek: οἰκονόμος, oikonomos) in Corinth, a political office of high civic status. The word is defined as "the manager of household or of household affairs" or, in this context, "treasurer"; The King James Version uses the translation "chamberlain", while the New International Version uses "director of public works". A person named Erastus is also mentioned in the Second Epistle to Timothy and Acts. Although, it is not certain if these verses all refer to the one person or multiple persons names Erastus.
In 1929, an inscription mentioning an Erastus was found near a paved area northeast of the theater of Corinth. It has been dated to the mid-first century and reads "Erastus in return for his ship laid the pavement at his own expense." (Latin: ERASTVS. PRO. AED. S. P. STRAVIT) New Testament scholars have identified this aedile Erastus with the Erastus mentioned in The Epistle to the Romans but this is in dispute. This debate has implications relating to the social status of the members of the Pauline churches.
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Ethiopian eunuch
The Ethiopian eunuch is a figure in the New Testament of the Bible. The story of his conversion to Christianity is recounted in Acts 8.
Philip the Evangelist was told by an angel to go to the road from Jerusalem to Gaza, and there he met the Ethiopian eunuch. He had been to Jerusalem to worship (Acts 8:27), and was returning home. The eunuch was sitting in his chariot reading the Book of Isaiah, and had come to Isaiah 53:7-8. Philip asked the Ethiopian, "Do you understand what you are reading?" He said he did not, and asked Philip to explain the text to him. Philip told him the good news about Jesus, and the Ethiopian asked to be baptized. They went down into some water and Philip baptized him.
In the King James Version, the Ethiopian says, "I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God" (verse 37), but this is omitted in most modern versions. Hubbard suggests that confession is "not supported in the better manuscripts," although the Ethiopian is still "one of the outstanding converts in Acts."
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Euodia and Syntyche
Euodia (Greek Εὐοδία, meaning unclear, but possibly "sweet fragrance" or "prosperous journey") and Syntyche (Συντυχη, "fortunate," literally "with fate") are people mentioned in the New Testament. They were female members of the church in Philippi, and according to the text of Philippians 4: 2-3, they were involved in a disagreement together. The author of the letter, Paul of Tarsus, whose writings generally reveal his misgivings that internal disunity will seriously undermine the church, beseeched the two women to "agree in the Lord".
Despite the clear context and gender agreement of the original Greek text, the Authorised Version of the Bible incorrectly assigns Euodia the name "Euodias" (the male gender version of the name) and thus makes the quarrel appear to be between a man and a woman. According to some sources there was a historical theory that Euodias (male) was the gaoler of Philippi (see Acts 16: 25-34) and Syntyche was his wife. This theory is rejected by modern scholarship, not least because of the clarity in the original text that both characters are female. As a Roman colony, Philippi gave a level of independence to women that was not common in most Greek cities of the period; this may account for the prominence of the women and their disagreement.
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Eutychus
Eutychus was a young man of Troas tended to by St. Paul. Eutychus fell asleep due to the long nature of the discourse Paul was giving and fell from his seat out of a three story window. Paul then picked him up, insisting that he was not dead, and carried him back upstairs; those gathered then had a meal and a long conversation which lasted until dawn. After Paul left, Eutychus was found to be alive. This is related in the New Testament book of Acts 20:9-12.
It is unclear whether the story intends to relate that Eutychus was killed by the fall and Paul raised him, or whether he simply seemed to be dead, with Paul ensuring that he is still alive. Recent translations of the text differ on this point. Regardless of the result of the fall, the implication of the passage is Eutychus' complete recovery, whether by resurrection, by healing or by neither. Interestingly, the accident did not prevent those present from resuming their assembly as a group.
The name Eutychus means "fortunate".
The story may be based on the story of Elpenor from Homer’s Odyssey according to Dennis R. MacDonald of the Iliff School of Theology. MacDonald cites many other similar stories in Greco Roman mythology and storytelling, Er, Misenus, Palinurus and Thespesius are examples.
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Four Evangelists
In Christian tradition the Four Evangelists are Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, the authors attributed with the creation of the four Gospel accounts in the New Testament that bear the following titles:
The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence. Convention has traditionally held the authors to have been two of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, John and Matthew, and two "apostolic men," Mark and Luke:
They are called evangelists, a word meaning 'people who proclaim good news,' because their books aim to tell the "good news" ("gospel") of Jesus.
In iconography the evangelists often appear in Evangelist portraits derived from classical tradition, and are also frequently represented by the following symbols, which originate from the four "living creatures" that draw the throne-chariot of God, the Merkabah, in the vision in the Book of Ezekiel (Chapter 1) reflected in the Book of Revelation (4.6-9ff), though neither source links the creatures to the Evangelists. They are normally, but not invariably, all shown with wings like angels. The meanings accruing to the symbols grew over centuries, with an early formulation by Jerome, and were fully expressed by Rabanus Maurus, who set out three layers of meaning for the beasts, as representing firstly the Evangelists, secondly the nature of Christ, and thirdly the virtues required of a Christian for salvation:
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Francis Dvornik
Francis Dvornik (Chomýž, 14 August 1893 – Chomýž, 4 November 1975), in Czech František Dvorník, was a priest and academic, and one of the leading twentieth-century experts on Slavic and Byzantine history, and on relations between the churches of Rome and Constantinople.
Dvornik taught at Charles University in Prague, the Collège de France, and Harvard University.
In 1956 Harvard University Press published a collection of Essays Dedicated to F. Dvornik on the Occasion of his 60th Birthday (Harvard Slavic studies no. 2).
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Gabriel
In Abrahamic religions, Gabriel (Hebrew: גַּבְרִיאֵל, Modern Gavri'el Tiberian Gaḇrîʼēl, God is my strength; Arabic: جبريل, Jibrīl or جبرائيل Jibrāʾīl) is an angel who typically serves as a messenger to humans from God.
He first appears in the Book of Daniel, delivering explanations of Daniel's visions. In the Gospel of Luke Gabriel foretold the births of both John the Baptist and of Jesus. Christians of the Catholic traditions refer to him as Gabriel the Archangel.
Gabriel is referred to as "he" in the Bible, and in Daniel 9:21 he is explicitly called "The man Gabriel". Some moderns, especially New Age exponents, portray Gabriel as female or androgynous.
In Latter-day Saint theology, Gabriel is believed to have lived a mortal life as the prophet Noah. The two are regarded as the same individual; Noah being his mortal name and Gabriel being his heavenly name.
Gabriel is mentioned in the Book of Daniel, in the Hebrew Bible where he is sent as a messenger of YHWH (see God in Judaism) to Daniel during the Jewish captivity in Babylon. He is later mentioned in the Talmud.
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Gamaliel
Gamaliel the Elder (English pronunciation: /ɡəˈmeɪljəl/), or Rabban Gamaliel I (רבן גמליאל הזקן; Greek: Γαμαλιήλ ο Πρεσβύτερος), was a leading authority in the Sanhedrin in the mid 1st century CE. He was son of Simeon ben Hillel, and grandson of the great Jewish teacher Hillel the Elder, and died twenty years before the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE). He fathered a son, whom he called Simeon, after his father, and a daughter, whose daughter (i.e., Gamaliel's granddaughter) married a priest named Simon ben Nathanael. The name Gamaliel is the Greek form of the Hebrew name meaning reward of God.
In the Christian tradition, Gamaliel is celebrated as a Pharisee doctor of Jewish Law.Acts of the Apostles speaks of Gamaliel as a man of great respect who spoke in favor of arrested Christian apostles and the Jewish Law teacher of Paul the Apostle.
In the Talmud, Gamaliel is described as bearing the titles Nasi and Rabban (our master), as the president of the Great Sanhedrin in Jerusalem; although some dispute this, it is not doubted that he held a senior position in the highest court in Jerusalem. Gamaliel holds a reputation in the Mishnah for being one of the greatest teachers in all the annals of Judaism:
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George the Hagiorite
George the Hagiorite – Giorgi Mt'ats'mindeli or Giorgi At'oneli (Georgian: გიორგი მთაწმინდელი, გიორგი ათონელი) – (1009 – June 27, 1065), was a Georgian monk, religious writer, and translator, who spearheaded the activities of Georgian monastic communities in the Byzantine Empire. His epithets Mt'ats'mindeli and At'oneli, meaning "of the Holy Mountain" (Hagiorite) and "of Athos" (Athonite) respectively, are a reference to his association with the Iviron monastery on Mount Athos, where he served as hegumen.
One of the most influential Christian churchmen of medieval Georgia, George acted as an arbitrator and facilitator of cross-cultural engagement between his native country and the Byzantine Empire. He extensively translated the Fathers of the Church, the Psalms, works of exegesis and synaxaria from Greek – some things which had not previously existed in Georgian, revised some others, and improved the translations of one of his predecessors, Euthymius of Athos, to whom (and also to John of Athos) George dedicated his most important original work "The Vitae of John and Euthymius". Active also in Georgia, he helped regulate local canon law, and brought his young compatriots to be educated at Athos. His defense of the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox church when it was questioned by the Patriarch of Antioch made him one of the most venerated saints in Georgia. He featured prominently during the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western Christendom, being one of the few Eastern churchmen who defended the separated Western brethren.
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Gregory of Tours
Saint Gregory of Tours (November 30, c. 538 – November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of Gaul. He was born Georgius Florentius, later adding the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather. He wrote in form of late Vulgar Latin; however, it has been argued that this was a deliberate ploy to ensure his works would reach a wide audience. He is the main contemporary source for Merovingian history. His most notable work was his Decem Libri Historiarum or Ten Books of Histories, better known as the Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks"), a title given to it by later chroniclers, but he is also known for his credulous accounts of the miracles of saints, especially four books of the miracles of Martin of Tours. St Martin's tomb was a major draw in the 6th century, and Gregory's writings had the practical aspect of promoting this highly organized devotion.
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Herod Antipas
Herod Antipater (Greek: Ἡρῴδης Ἀντίπατρος, Hērǭdēs Antipatros; born before 20 BC – died after 39 AD), known by the nickname Antipas, was a 1st-century AD ruler of Galilee and Perea, who bore the title of tetrarch ("ruler of a quarter"). He is best known today for accounts in the New Testament of his role in events that led to the executions of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth.
After inheriting his territories when the kingdom of his father Herod the Great was divided upon his death in 4 BC, Antipas ruled them as a client state of the Roman Empire. He was responsible for building projects at Sepphoris and Betharamphtha, and more important for the construction of his capital Tiberias on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Named in honor of his patron, the emperor Tiberius, the city later became a center of rabbinic learning.
Antipas divorced his first wife Phasaelis, the daughter of King Aretas IV of Nabatea, in favour of Herodias, who had formerly been married to his brother Herod Philip I. According to the New Testament Gospels, it was John the Baptist's condemnation of this arrangement that led Antipas to have him arrested; John was subsequently put to death. Besides provoking his conflict with the Baptizer, the tetrarch's divorce added a personal grievance to previous disputes with Aretas over territory on the border of Perea and Nabatea. The result was a war that proved disastrous for Antipas; a Roman counter-offensive was ordered by Tiberius, but abandoned upon that emperor's death in 37 AD. In 39 AD Antipas was accused by his nephew Agrippa I of conspiracy against the new Roman emperor Caligula, who sent him into exile in Gaul. Accompanied there by Herodias, he died at an unknown date.
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Herod Archelaus
Herod Archelaus (23 BC – c. 18 AD) was the ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea (biblical Edom) from 4 BC to 6 AD. He was the son of Herod the Great and Malthace the Samaritan, the brother of Herod Antipas, and the half-brother of Herod Philip I.
Archelaus received the Tetrarchy of Judea by the last will of his father, though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his claims to Caesar Augustus in Rome. Before setting out, he quelled with the utmost cruelty a sedition of the Pharisees, slaying nearly three thousand of them. In Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his cruelty; but in 4 BC Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Samaria, Judea, and Idumea) with the title of ethnarch (not king) until 6 AD when Judaea province was formed, under direct Roman rule, at the time of the Census of Quirinius.
The first wife of Archelaus is given by Josephus simply as Mariamne, perhaps Mariamne III (Mariamne bint Aristobulus), whom he divorced to marry Glaphyra. She was the widow of Archelaus' brother Alexander, though her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, was alive. This violation of the Mosaic law along with Archelaus' continued cruelty roused the ire of the Jews, who complained to Augustus. Archelaus was deposed in the year 6 and banished to Vienne in Gaul; Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea became the Roman province of Iudaea.
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Herod the Great
Herod (Hebrew: הוֹרְדוֹס, Hordos, Greek: Ἡρῴδης, Hērōdēs), also known as Herod the Great (born 73 or 74 BCE, died 4 BCE in Jericho), was a Roman client king of Judea. His epithet of "the Great" is widely disputed as he is described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis." He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and elsewhere, including his expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple) and the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima. Important details of his biography are gleaned from the works of the 1st century CE Roman-Jewish historian Josephus Flavius.
The Romans made Herod's son Herod Archelaus ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (biblical Edom) from 4 BCE to 6 CE, referred to as the tetrarchy of Judea. Archelaus was judged incompetent by the Roman emperor Augustus who then combined Samaria, Judea proper and Idumea into Iudaea province under rule of a prefect until 41. Herod's other son Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE – 39 CE.
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Herodias
Herodias (c. 15 BC-after 39 AD) was a Jewish princess of the Herodian Dynasty. Asteroid 546 Herodias is named after her.
Herod II (born - ca. 27 BC; died - 33 AD) was the son of Herod the Great and his third wife Mariamne II, who was the daughter of Simon Boethus the High Priest (Mark 6:17). For a brief period he was his father's heir. Some writers call him Herod Philip I (not to be confused with Philip the Tetrarch, whom some writers call Herod Philip II).
Herod was the first husband of Herodias, and because the Gospel of Mark states that Herodias was married to Philip, some scholars have argued that his name was actually Herod Philip. Many scholars dispute this, however, and believe the Gospel writer was in error, a suggestion supported by the fact that the later Gospel of Luke drops the name Philip. Because he was the grandson of the high priest Simon Boethus he is sometimes described as Herod Boethus, but there is no evidence he was actually called this.
Herod the Great's execution of his Hasmonean sons, Alexander and Aristobulus IV in 7 BC, left the latter's daughter Herodias an orphaned minor. Herod engaged her to Herod II, her half-uncle, and her connection to the Hasmonean bloodline supported her new husband's right to succeed his father.
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Hippolytus of Rome
Hippolytus of Rome (170 – 235) was the most important 3rd-century theologian in the Christian Church in Rome, where he was probably born.Photios I of Constantinople describes him in his Bibliotheca (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, who was said to be a disciple of Polycarp, and from the context of this passage it is supposed that he suggested that Hippolytus himself so styled himself. However, this assertion is doubtful. He came into conflict with the popes of his time and seems to have headed a schismatic group as a rival bishop of Rome. For that reason he is sometimes considered the first Antipope. He opposed the Roman bishops who softened the penitential system to accommodate the large number of new pagan converts. However, he was very probably reconciled to the Church when he died as a martyr. He is the person usually understood to be meant by Saint Hippolytus.[citation needed]
Starting in the 4th century, various legends arose about him, identifying him as a priest of the Novatianist Schism or as a soldier converted by Saint Laurence. He has also been confused with another martyr of the same name.
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Historical Jesus
The term historical Jesus refers to scholarly reconstructions of the 1st-century figure Jesus of Nazareth. These reconstructions are based upon historical methods including critical analysis of gospel texts as the primary source for his biography, along with consideration of the historical and cultural context in which he lived.
The historical Jesus is believed to be a Galilean Jew who undertook at least one pilgrimage to Jerusalem, then part of Roman Judaea, during a time of messianic and apocalyptic expectations in late Second Temple Judaism. He was baptized by John the Baptist, whose example he may have followed, and after John was executed, began his own preaching in Galilee for only about two to three years prior to his death. He was an eschatological prophet and an autonomous ethical teacher. He told surprising and original parables, many of them about the coming Kingdom of God. Some scholars credit the apocalyptic declarations of the Gospels to him, while others portray his Kingdom of God as a moral one, and not apocalyptic in nature. He sent his apostles out to heal and to preach the Kingdom of God. Later, he traveled to Jerusalem where he caused a disturbance at the Temple. It was the time of Passover, when political and religious tensions were high in Jerusalem. The Gospels say that the temple guards (believed to be Sadducees) arrested him and turned him over to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate for execution. The movement he had started survived his death and was carried on by his brother James the Just and the apostles who proclaimed the resurrection of Jesus. After splitting with Rabbinic Judaism, it developed into Early Christianity.
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Impenitent thief
The impenitent thief was one of the two thieves who was crucified alongside Jesus. According to the Gospels, he taunted Jesus about not saving himself, while the penitent thief asked for mercy. The impenitent thief is given the apocryphal name Gestas, which first appears in the Gospel of Nicodemus, while his companion is called Dismas. Gestas was on the cross to the left of Jesus and Dismas was on the cross to the right of Jesus. In Jacobus de Voragine's "Golden Legend" the name of the impenitent thief is given as Gesmas. The impenitent thief is sometimes referred to as the "bad thief" in contrast to the good thief.
The apocryphal Arabic Infancy Gospel refers to Gestas and Dismas as Dumachus and Titus, respectively. According to tradition, Dumachus was one of a band of robbers who attacked Saint Joseph and the Holy Family on their Flight into Egypt as recorded in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's The Golden Legend.
Among Filipino Catholics, the name is popularly exclaimed as Hudas, Barabas, Hestas!, a term invoked as an exclamation of disappointment or chastisement, mentioning Gestas along with two other individuals Judas Iscariot and Barabbas, which widely gained prominence in the 1980 Filipino Hit Television Series John En Marsha (1973-1990), starring actor Dolphy and actress Nida Blanca.
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James the Just
James (Hebrew: יעקב Ya'akov; Greek Ἰάκωβος Iákōbos), first Bishop of Jerusalem, who died in 62 or 69, was an important figure in Early Christianity. He is distinguished from the Apostle James by various epithets; he is called James the brother of the Lord by Paul (Galatians 1:19), James the brother of the Lord, surnamed the Just by Hegesippus and others, "James the Righteous", "James of Jerusalem", "James Adelphotheos" (Ἰάκωβος ὁ ἀδελφόθεος), and so on.
James became the leader of the Christian movement in Jerusalem in the decades after Jesus' death, but information about his life is scarce and ambiguous. Apart from a handful of references in the Gospels, the main sources for his life are the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline epistles, the historian Josephus, and St. Jerome, who also quotes the early Christian author Hegesippus. The Epistle of James in the New Testament is traditionally attributed to him, and he is a principal author of the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15. In the extant lists of Hippolytus of Rome, Dorotheus of Tyre, the Chronicon Paschale, and Dimitry of Rostov, he is the first of the Seventy Apostles, though some sources, such as the Catholic Encyclopedia, draw the conclusion that "these lists are unfortunately worthless".
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Jason of Tarsus
Jason of Tarsus is numbered among the Seventy Disciples. Jason appears in the Bible in Acts 17. His house is used as a refuge by Paul, Silas, and Timothy in Thessalonica. Jason was arrested when the authorities could locate neither Paul nor Silas, and was made to post bail.
Jason is also mentioned in Romans 16:21. Jason is venerated as a saint in Catholic and Orthodox traditions. His feast day is July 12 (Catholic) and April 28 (Orthodox). His feast is celebrated on 3 Pashons in the Coptic Orthodox Church and on January 4 among the Seventy.
Born in Tarsus, he was appointed Bishop of Tarsus by the Apostle Paul. With the Apostle Sosipater he traveled to the island of Corfu where they built a church in honor of the Apostle Stephen the Protomartyr and converted many pagans to the Christian faith. Seeing this, the king of Corfu threw them into prison where they converted seven other prisoners to the Christian faith: Saturninus, Jakischolus, Faustianus, Januarius, Marsalius, Euphrasius and Mammius. The king had those seven put to death for their faith in boiling pitch.
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jesus Justus
Jesus Justus (Greek Iesous ho legomenos Ioustos) was one of several Jewish Christians in the church at Rome mentioned by Apostle Paul in the greetings at the end of Colossians 4:11.
Aristarchus my fellow prisoner greets you, and Mark the cousin of Barnabas (concerning whom you have received instructions--if he comes to you, welcome him), and Jesus who is called Justus. These are the only men of the circumcision among my fellow workers for the kingdom of God, and they have been a comfort to me.. Colossians 4:10-11
It is generally thought that Paul wrote Colossians while in prison in Rome most likely during AD 50’s. Of those with Paul, Justus, Aristarchus, and Mark are said in the letter to be “of the circumcision”, that is, Jewish and to have "proved a comfort to me."
The name Jesus was not uncommon at the time of Jesus of Nazareth, as it was a form of the Old Testament name Joshua (Yeshua ישוע).
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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Joachim
Saint Joachim ("he whom YHWH has set up", Hebrew: יְהוֹיָקִים Yəhôyāqîm, Greek Ἰωακείμ Iōākeím) was the husband of Saint Anne and the father of Mary, the mother of Jesus in the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican traditions. The story of Joachim and Anne appears first in the apocryphal Gospel of James. Joachim and Anne are not mentioned in the Bible.
Since the genealogies of Jesus in Matthew and Luke do not explicitly name either of Mary's parents, but apparently name two different fathers for Saint Joseph, many scholars from John of Damascus (8th C.), and particularly Protestant scholars, argue that the genealogy in Luke is actually the family tree of Mary, and that Heli is her father. To resolve the problem of Joseph having two fathers - one descended from Solomon, one descended from Nathan, son of David, traditions from the 7th Century specify that Heli was a first cousin of Joachim.
In the Protoevangelium of James, Joachim is described as a rich and pious man of the house of David who regularly gave to the poor and to the temple (synagogue) at Sepphoris. However, as his wife was barren, the high priest rejected Joachim and his sacrifice, as his wife's childlessness was interpreted as a sign of divine displeasure. Joachim consequently withdrew to the desert where he fasted and did penance for forty days. Angels then appeared to both Joachim and Anne to promise them a child. Joachim later returned to Jerusalem and embraced Anne at the city gate. The cycle of legends concerning Joachim and Anne were included in the Golden Legend and remained popular in Christian art until the Council of Trent restricted the depiction of apocryphal events. Traditional depictions (e.g., vestibular statuary) of Joachim show him bearing a shovel.
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John Mark
John Mark is a character in the New Testament. According to William Lane, an "unbroken tradition" identifies him with Mark the Evangelist. John Mark is mentioned several times in the Acts of the Apostles. The first mention is in Acts 12:12, when Peter is coming to his mother's house:
When this had dawned on him, he went to the house of Mary the mother of John, also called Mark, where many people had gathered and were praying.
John Mark himself appears a bit later in the same chapter, in Acts 12:25, as the travel companion of Saul (Apostle Paul) and Barnabas:
When Barnabas and Saul had finished their mission, they returned from Jerusalem, taking with them John, also called Mark.
John Mark is mentioned soon after the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15:37-41. Paul (Saul) does not have a too flattering impression of his former associate, arguing over him with Barnabas in Antioch:
Barnabas wanted to take John, also called Mark, with them, but Paul did not think it wise to take him, because he had deserted them in Pamphylia and had not continued with them in the work. They had such a sharp disagreement that they parted company. Barnabas took Mark and sailed for Cyprus, but Paul chose Silas and left, commended by the believers to the grace of the Lord. He went through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches.
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John of Patmos
John of Patmos is the name given, in the Book of Revelation, as the author of the apocalyptic text that is traditionally canonized in the New Testament. According to the text of Revelation, John is living on the Greek island of Patmos, where by some, he is considered to be in exile.
In Christian denominations, John of Patmos is regarded as a prophet and a saint who receives divine revelation. He has been referred to as John the Divine, John the Revelator, John the Theologian, Eagle of Patmos and John the Seer.
According to the text in Revelation, John of Patmos is instructed to write to the Seven Churches of Asia. Traditionally, this named author is believed to be the same person as both John the apostle of Jesus and John the author of the Fourth Gospel. The early 2nd century writer, Justin Martyr, was the first to equate the author of Revelation with John the Apostle. However, some biblical scholars now contend that these were separate individuals.
John the Presbyter, an obscure figure in the early church, has also been identified with the seer of the Book of Revelation by such authors as Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome.
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John Parker Lawson
John Parker Lawson (died 1852) was a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland and historian.
Ordained a minister in the Episcopal Church of Scotland, he was for some time a chaplain in the British Army. Later he lived in Edinburgh, writing for the booksellers.
His works include:
Lawson also edited in 1844 the first two volumes of Robert Keith's ‘History of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland’ for the Spottiswoode Society, and wrote the letterpress for Clarkson Stanfield and James Duffield Harding's Scotland Delineated, Edinburgh, 1847–54.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Lawson, John Parker". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
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John the Apostle
John the Apostle (Aramaic Yoħanna, Koine Greek Ἰωάννης) (c. AD 6 – c. 100) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome and brother of James, son of Zebedee, another of the Twelve Apostles. Christian tradition holds that he outlived the remaining apostles—all of whom suffered martyrdom (except Judas Iscariot)—and ultimately died of natural causes "in great old age in Ephesus" at the beginning of the second century. The Church Fathers consider him the same person as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, and the Beloved Disciple.
The Church Fathers generally identify him as the author of five books in the New Testament: the Gospel of John, three Epistles of John, and the Book of Revelation. The Gospel according to John differs considerably from the synoptic gospels, likely written decades earlier than John's Gospel. The bishops of Asia Minor supposedly requested him to write his gospel to deal with the heresy of the Ebionites, who asserted that Christ did not exist before Mary. John probably knew and undoubtedly approved of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, but these gospels spoke of Jesus primarily in the year following the imprisonment and death of John the Baptist). Around 600, however, Sophronius of Jerusalem noted that "two epistles bearing his name ... are considered by some to be the work of a certain John the Elder" and, while stating that Revelation was written by John on Patmos, it was “later translated by Justin Martyr and Irenaeus”, presumably in an attempt to reconcile tradition with the obvious differences in Greek style. On the other hand, many authors in those days employed secretaries often called scribes whose personal styles influenced the final documents. John perhaps employed different scribes for his several works who dictated his words as he was influenced by the Holy Spirit through his meditation, visions, and dreams.
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John the Baptist
John the Baptist (Hebrew: יוחנן המטביל, Yoḥanan ha-mmaṭbil, Arabic: يحيى بن زكريا Yahya ibn Zakariya, Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ Yoḥanan, Greek: Ὁ Ἅγιος/Τίμιος Ἐνδοξος Προφήτης, Πρόδρομος καὶ Βαπτιστής Ἰωάννης Ho Hágios/Tímios Endoxos, Profḗtēs, Pródromos, kaì Baptistḗs Ioánnes) (c. 6 BC – c. AD 30-36) was an itinerant preacher and a major religious figure mentioned in the Canonical gospels and the Qur'an. He is described in the Gospel of Luke as a relative of Jesus who led a movement of baptism at the Jordan River. Some scholars maintain that he was influenced by the Essenes, who were semi-ascetic, expected an apocalypse, and practiced rituals corresponding strongly with baptism, although there is no direct evidence to substantiate this. John is regarded as a prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and Mandaeism.
Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus at "Bethany beyond the Jordan," by wading into the water with Jesus from the eastern bank. John the Baptist is also mentioned by Jewish historian Josephus, in Aramaic Matthew, in Pseudo-Clementine, and in the Qur'an. Accounts of John in the New Testament appear compatible with the account in Josephus. There are no other historical accounts of John the Baptist from around the period of his lifetime.
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John the Evangelist
John the Evangelist (יוחנן Standard Hebrew Yoḥanan, Tiberian Hebrew Yôḥānān meaning "Yahweh is gracious", Greek: Εὐαγγελιστής Ἰωάννης) (c. AD 1 - c. 100)[citation needed][dubious – discuss] is the conventional name for the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionally he has been identified with the author of the other Johannine works in the New Testament – the three Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation, written by a John of Patmos – as well as with John the Apostle and the Beloved Disciple mentioned in the Gospel of John. However, at least some of these connections have been debated since about 200.
The Gospel of John refers to an unnamed "Beloved Disciple" of Jesus who bore witness to the gospel's message. The composer of the Gospel of John seemed interested in maintaining the internal anonymity of the author's identity.
The apostle John was a historical figure, one of the "pillars" of the Jerusalem church after Jesus' death. Some scholars believe that John was martyred along with his brother (Acts 12:1-2), although many other scholars doubt this. Harris believes that the tradition that John lived to old age in Ephesus developed in the late 2nd century, although the tradition does appear in the last chapter of the gospel. By the late 2nd century, the tradition was held by most Christians.
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Joseph Barsabbas
In the Christian New Testament, Joseph Justus (also known as Barsabbas) figures momentarily in the casting of lots among the 120 or so gathered together after the Ascension of Jesus, to replace Judas Iscariot and bring the Apostles again to the number twelve. According to Acts of the Apostles i.23 – 26:
23.So they proposed two men: Joseph called Barsabbas (also known as Justus) and Matthias. 24.Then they prayed, "Lord, you know everyone's heart. Show us which of these two you have chosen 25.to take over this apostolic ministry, which Judas left to go where he belongs." 26.Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was added to the eleven apostles."
Since the passage identifies the candidates as "of these men which have companied with us all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John, unto that same day that he was taken up from us", Joseph was a member of the wider circle of disciples.
Further identification of this shadowy figure is insecure, though in Christian tradition, he is numbered among the Seventy Disciples mentioned in Luke 10:1-24. No names are given among the Seventy-Two or Seventy Apostles of Christ—depending on the manuscripts—that were sent out in Luke 10.1:"two by two, into every town and place where he himself was about to go." Nor is this "Joseph the Just, son of the 'sabbath'"—as his name translates— identified as one of the adelphoi of Jesus— however this Greek word for "brothers" may be interpreted—in this one passage in Acts in which he appears. Nor does such a "Joseph Justus" appear among the disciples in the lists given in the synoptic gospels, unless he were represented unrecognized in some way under an alias. It would appear to be an inexplicable choice made by Peter among the assembled adelphoi (Acts 1.15, translated in the New International Version "believers").
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Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph of Arimathea was, according to the Gospels, the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus' Crucifixion. He is mentioned in all four Gospels.
A native of Arimathea, in Judea, Joseph was apparently a man of wealth—and probably a member of the Sanhedrin, which is the way bouleutēs, literally "counsellor", Luke 23:50 is most often interpreted. According to Mark 15:43, Joseph was an "honourable counsellor, who waited (or "was searching") for the kingdom of God". In Matthew 27:57 he is not described as a counsellor, but as a rich man and a disciple of Jesus. In John 19:38 he was secretly a disciple of Jesus: as soon as he heard the news of Jesus' death, he "went in boldly unto Pilate, and craved the body of Jesus." R.J. Miller notes this act as "unexpected… Is Joseph in effect bringing Jesus into his family?"
Pilate, reassured by a centurion that the death had taken place, allowed Joseph's request. Joseph immediately purchased fine linen (Mark 15:46) and proceeded to Golgotha to take the body of Jesus down from the cross. There, assisted by Nicodemus, Joseph took the body and wrapped it in the fine linen and applied myrrh and aloes (these are substances which Nicodemus had brought, according to John 19:39). Jesus' body then was conveyed to the place that had been prepared for Joseph's own body, a man-made cave hewn from rock in the garden of his house nearby. This was done speedily, "for the Sabbath was drawing on".
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Joses
Joses (Greek Ἰωσῆς Iōsēs) is a name, usually regarded as a form of Joseph, occurring four times in the New Testament:
Joses is a short Greek form of Joseph. Unlike Greek Joseph however, which remains frozen as Joseph in all grammatical cases, Joses functions like a true Greek name and is declined in Greek, taking the ending -etos in the genitive case, hence Josetos, "of Joses." Although spelling of Joseph is fairly constant in Greek, spellings of the short forms Joses and Josis vary. Tal Ilan's catalogue of Jewish name inscriptions of the period (2002) notes variation is the spelling of "Joseph" (indeclinable in Greek) and various shorter (and sometimes declined) Greek variants but also notes that the full form Joseph is dominant with 47 of 69 Greek inscriptions.
The Jose mentioned as 15th descendant of David (in the line from Solomon's younger brother Nathan in the Gospel of Luke) is otherwise unknown. The Greek spelling (Ἰωσή Iōsē) is a variant of Joses.
Joses is only mentioned twice in the New Testament, in parallel passages in Matthew 13:5 and Mark 6:3, which record the people of Nazareth's rejection of Jesus:
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Judas Barsabbas
Judas Barsabbas is a minor character in the New Testament. He is mentioned in Acts 15:22, where he and Silas are described as a "leaders among the believers" (NIV). Judas and Silas are delegated the task of accompanying Paul and Barnabas to Antioch and delivering the letter from the Council of Jerusalem. Acts 15:32 further describes Judas and Silas as prophets, and says that they "said much to encourage and strengthen the believers."
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Judas Iscariot
Judas Iscariot (Hebrew: יהודה איש־קריות, Yehuda, Yəhûḏāh ʾΚ-qrayyôṯ) was, according to the New Testament, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is infamously known for his kiss and betrayal of Jesus to the hands of the chief Sanhedrin priests for a ransom of 30 pieces of silver.
In the Greek New Testament, Judas is called Ιούδας Ισκάριωθ and Ισκαριώτης . "Judas" (spelled "Ioudas" in ancient Greek and "Iudas" in Latin, pronounced yudas in both) is the Greek form of the common name Judah (יהודה, Yehûdâh, Hebrew for "God is praised"). The Greek spelling underlies other names in the New Testament that are traditionally rendered differently in English: Judah and Jude.
The significance of "Iscariot" is uncertain. There are several major theories on etymology:
Judas is mentioned in the synoptic gospels, the Gospel of John and at the beginning of Acts of the Apostles.
Mark states that the chief priests were looking for a sly way to arrest Jesus. They decided not to do so during the feast since they were afraid that people would riot; instead, they chose the night before the feast to arrest him. In the Gospel of Luke, Satan enters Judas at this time.
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Judas of Galilee
Judas of Galilee or Judas of Gamala led a violent resistance to the census imposed for Roman tax purposes by Quirinius in Iudaea Province around AD 6. The revolt was crushed brutally by the Romans. These events are discussed by Josephus in Jewish Wars and in Antiquities of the Jews.
In Antiquities of the Jews Josephus states that Judas, along with Zadok the Pharisee founded the "fourth sect", of 1st century Judaism (the first three are the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and the Essenes). Josephus blames this sect, usually identified with the later Zealots, a group of theocratical-nationalists who preached that God alone was the ruler of Israel and later urged that no taxes should be paid to Rome, for the Great Jewish Revolt and for the destruction of Herod's Temple.
Josephus does not relate the death of Judas, although he does report that Judas' "sons" (it could also mean disciples) James and Simon were executed by procurator Tiberius Julius Alexander in about 46 AD. He also reports that Menahem, one of the early leaders of the Jewish Revolt in AD 66, was Judas' "son", but most scholars doubt this. Menahem may have been Judas' grandson, however. Menahem's cousin, Eleazar ben Ya'ir, then escaped to the fortress of Masada where he became a leader of the last defenders against the Roman Empire.
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Judas the Zealot
The name Judas the Zealot (Judas Zelotes) is mentioned in the Epistle of the Apostles (Epistula Apostolorum), written in the 2nd century. He is usually identified with the Apostle Simon the Zealot, with whom he shares a surname, or with the Apostle Jude.
Bruce Metzger, in his Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, comments on Matthew 10:3:
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Jude the Apostle
Jude was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is generally identified with Thaddeus, and is also variously called Jude of James, Jude Thaddaeus, Judas Thaddaeus or Lebbaeus. He is sometimes identified with Jude, "brother of Jesus", but is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, another disciple, the betrayer of Jesus.
The Armenian Apostolic Church honors Thaddeus along with Saint Bartholomew as its patron saints. In the Roman Catholic Church he is the patron saint of desperate cases and lost causes.
Saint Jude's attribute is a club. He is also often shown in icons with a flame around his head. This represents his presence at Pentecost, when he received the Holy Spirit with the other apostles. Another common attribute is Jude holding an image of Jesus Christ, in the image of Edessa. In some instances he may be shown with a scroll or a book (the Epistle of Jude) or holding a carpenter's rule.
Jude is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, another disciple and later the betrayer of Jesus. Both "Jude" and "Judas" are translations of the name Ιούδας in the Greek original New Testament, which in turn is a Greek variant of Judah, a name which was common among Jews at the time. In most bibles in languages other than English and French, Jude and Judas are referred to by the same name.
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Junia
Junia or Junias was a 1st century Christian highly regarded and complimented by the apostle Paul:
Salute Andronicus and Junia, my kinsmen, and my fellowprisoners, who are of note among the apostles, who also were in Christ before me.
— Romans 16:7 Authorized Version
(other versions: Romans 16:7)
Paul describes Junia (and Andronicus) as kinsmen, fellow prisoners, and as being "in Christ" before Paul's dramatic Damascus road conversion. The phrase, "of note among the apostles," (KJV, Douay, Darby, ERV, YLT, KJ21, NKJV, AKJV) leads many to the conclusion that she is the only woman apostle mentioned in the New Testament. It is assumed by some that Andronicus of Pannonia (Greek: Ανδρόνικος) was her husband. Both her gender and her apostleship are subjects of considerable debate. Understandably, this verse has received and continues to draw a great deal of attention in scholarly literature.
The identification of Junia in Romans 16:7 has been a familiar problem in biblical interpretation. Most studies, however, are preoccupied with the gender of the name, assuming that Junia's apostolic status is not in doubt. Burer and Wallace propose that the converse is true. They agree that Junia was a woman. However, they assert that the correct rendition of the Greek text places her as well known to the apostles rather than prominent among the apostles. That translation would indicate that the pair were not apostles, but that they enjoyed a high reputation among the apostles.
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Lazarus of Bethany
Lazarus of Bethany, also known as Saint Lazarus or Lazarus of the Four Days, is the subject of a prominent miracle attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of John, in which Jesus restores him to life four days after his death. The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions offer varying accounts of the later events of his life.
In the context of the Gospel of John, the narrative of the Raising of Lazarus forms "the climactic sign... Each of Jesus' seven signs illustrates some particular aspect of his divine authority, but this one exemplifies his power over the last and most irresistible enemy of humanity--death. For this reason it is given a prominent place in the gospel."
The name Lazarus (Latinised from the Hebrew: אלעזר, Elʿāzār, Eleazar - "God is my help") is also given to a second figure in the Bible: in the narrative of Lazarus and Dives, attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of Luke. Also called Dives and Lazarus, or The Rich Man and the Beggar Lazarus, the narrative tells of the relationship (in life and in death) between an unnamed rich man and a poor beggar named Lazarus. While the two characters named Lazarus have sometimes been conflated historically, they are generally understood to be two separate characters. Allusions to Lazarus as a poor beggar taken to the "Bosom of Abraham" should be understood as referring to the Lazarus mentioned in Luke, rather than the Lazarus raised from the dead in John.
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Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great or the Sun King (French: le Roi-Soleil), was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. He holds the distinction of being the longest-reigning king in European history, reigning for 72 years and 110 days.
Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin. An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin and lack of temporal restraint of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the nobility to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.
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Lucius of Cyrene
Lucius of Cyrene (Loukios o Kurenaios, Λούκιος ὁ Κυρηναῖος) was, according to the Book of Acts, one of the founders of the Christian Church in Antioch, then part of Roman Syria. He is mentioned by name as a member of the church there, after King Herod's Death:
Now there were in the church at Antioch prophets and teachers: Barnabas, Symeon who was called Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen who was a close friend of Herod the tetrarch, and Saul. [Acts 13:1 NAB].
Lucius is indicated as a founder by an inference in an earlier passage:
Now those who had been scattered by the persecution that arose because of Stephen went as far as Phoenicia, Cyprus and Antioch, preaching the word to no one but Jews. There were some Cypriots and Cyrenians, among them, however, who came to Antioch and began to speak to the Greeks as well, proclaiming the Lord Jesus. [Acts 11:19,20 NAB]
He was supposed to have been the first bishop of Cyrene.
There is a Lucius mentioned also in Romans 16:21, but there is no way of knowing if this is the same person.
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Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist (Ancient Greek: Λουκᾶς, Loukás) is a character in the New Testament. He is mentioned in three of the Pauline Epistles including Colossians where he is described by Paul as "Our dear friend Luke, the doctor" (NIV). Early Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius claimed that he was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles and this is the traditional Christian view today.
He is venerated as Saint Luke, patron saint of artists, physicians, surgeons, students, butchers; his feast day is 18 October.
Luke was a Greco-Syrian physician who lived in the Greek city of Antioch in Ancient Syria.
His earliest notice is in Paul's Epistle to Philemon, verse 24. He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2 Timothy 4:11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul. The next earliest account of Luke is in the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century. Helmut Koester, however, claims that the following part – the only part preserved in the original Greek – may have been composed in the late 2nd century:
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Lydia of Thyatira
Lydia of Thyatira is a character in the New Testament. She is regarded as the first recorded convert to Christianity in Europe.
The name, "Lydia", meaning "the Lydian woman", by which she was known indicates that she was from Lydia in Asia Minor. Though she is commonly known as “St. Lydia” or even more simply “The Woman of Purple,” Lydia is given other titles: “of Thyatira,” “Purpuraria,” and “of Phillippi (‘Philippisia’ in Greek).” “[Lydia’s] name is an ethnicon, deriving from her place of origin”. The first refers to her place of birth, which is a city in the Greek region of Lydia. The second comes from the Latin word for purple and relates to her connection with purple dye. Philippi was the city in which Lydia was living when she met St. Paul and his companions. All of these titles expound upon this woman’s background.
Acts 16 describes Lydia as follows:
Wayne Grudem sees the story of Lydia as being an example of effectual calling.
Lydia was most likely a Greek even though she lived in a Roman settlement. She was evidently a well-to-do agent of a purple-dye firm in Thyatira, a city southeast of Pergamum and approximately 40 miles inland, across the Aegean Sea from Athens. Lydia insisted on giving hospitality to Saint Paul and his companions in Philippi. They stayed with her until their departure, through Amphipolis and Apollonia, to Thessalonica (Acts 16:40-17:1).
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Lysanias
Lysanias was the ruler of a small realm on the western slopes of Mount Hermon, attested to by the Jewish writer Josephus and in coins from circa 40 BC. There is also mention of a Lysanias dated to 29 AD in the gospel of Luke. It has been debated whether these are the same person.
Lysanias was the ruler of a tetrarchy, centered on the town of Abila. This has been referred to by various names including Abilene, Chalcis and Iturea, from about 40-36 BC. Josephus is our main source for the life of Lysanias.
His father was Ptolemy son of Mennaeus who ruled the tetrarchy before him. Lysanias was cousin of Antigonus, who he helped during the latter's attempt to claim the throne of Judea in 40 BC with the military support of the Parthians.
According to Josephus (B.J. 1.248), he offered the Parthian satrap Barzapharnes "a thousand talents and 500 women to bring Antigonus back and raise him to the throne, after deposing Hyrcanus". However, Josephus in his later work, the Jewish Antiquities 14.330-331, relates that it was Antigonus who made the offer to the Parthians. Whichever the case, Lysanias was put to death by Mark Antony for his Parthian sympathies, at the instigation of Cleopatra, who had eyes on the territories of Lysanias.
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Malchus
In the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Bible, Malchus is the servant of the Jewish High Priest, Caiaphas, who participated in the arrest of Jesus. According to John, one of the disciples, the Apostle Peter, being armed with a sword, cut off the servant's ear in an attempt to prevent his Master's arrest.
The story is related in all four gospels, John 18:10–11; Matthew 26:51; Mark 14:47; and Luke 22:51, but the servant and the disciple are named only in John. Also, Luke is the only gospel that says Jesus healed the ear.
The relevant passage in the Gospel of John, KJV, reads:
The story is often used to illustrate Jesus' rejection of violence[citation needed] and surrender to God's will.
Thornton Wilder wrote a short play entitled, "The Servant's Name Was Malchus." It appeared in the collection "The Angel That Troubled the Waters and Other Plays."
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Manahen
Saint Manahen (also Manaen) was a teacher of the Church of Antioch and the foster brother (Gk. syntrophos, Vulg. collactaneus) of Herod Antipas.
Little is known of Manahen's life. He is said to be one those who, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, laid hands upon Saul and Barnabas and sent the two Apostles on the first of St. Paul's missionary journeys (Acts 13:3). Since St. Luke was an Antiochene, it is not unlikely that Manahen was one of "the prophets and doctors" of the Church of Antioch was one of the "eyewitnesses and ministers of the word" (Luke 1:2), who delivered unto Luke the details which that sacred writer has in regard to Antipas and other members of the Herodian family (Luke 3:1, 19, 20; 8:3; 9:7-9; 13:31, 32; 23:8-12; Acts 12). He may have become a disciple of Jesus with "Joanna, the wife of Chusa, Herod's steward" (Luke 8:3).
In A.D. 39, Antipas left for Rome to gain the favor of Caligula, but instead received an order of perpetual exile. (Jos., "Ant.", XVIII, vii, 2). During this time, the Church of Antioch was founded by Jewish Christians, who "had been dispersed by the persecution that arose on the occasion of Stephen" and had taught the Gospel also to the Greeks of Antioch, (Acts 11:19-24). It is quite likely that St. Manahen was one of these founders of the Antiochene Church.
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Mark the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist (Latin: Mārcus; Greek: Μᾶρκος; Coptic: Μαρκοϲ; Hebrew: מרקוס) is the traditional author of the Gospel of Mark. He is one of the Seventy Disciples, and the founder of the Church of Alexandria, one of the original four main episcopal sees of Christianity.
According to William Lane (1974), an "unbroken tradition" identifies Mark the Evangelist with John Mark, and John Mark as the cousin of Barnabas. An exception is found in Hippolytus of Rome, who in his work On the Seventy Apostles, distinguishes Mark the Evangelist (2 Tim 4:11), John Mark (Acts 12:12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37), and Mark the cousin of Barnabas (Col 4:10; Phlm 24). According to Hippolytus, they all belonged to the "Seventy Disciples" who were sent out by Jesus to saturate Judea with the gospel (Luke 10:1ff.). However, when Jesus explained that his flesh was "real food" and his blood was "real drink", many disciples left him (John 6:44-6:66), presumably including Mark. He was later restored to faith by the apostle Peter; he then became Peter’s interpreter, wrote the Gospel of Mark, founded the church of Africa, and became the bishop of Alexandria.
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Martha
Martha of Bethany (Aramaic מַרְתָּא Martâ) is a biblical figure described in the Gospels of Luke and John. Together with her siblings Lazarus and Mary, she is described as living in the village of Bethany near Jerusalem. She is the middle child of her family with Lazarus being the eldest and her sister Mary Magdalene the youngest. She was witness to Jesus' resurrection of her brother, Lazarus.
The name Martha is a Latin transliteration of the Koine Greek Μαρθα, itself a translation of the Aramaic מַרְתָּא Martâ, "The mistress" or "the lady", from מרה "mistress", feminine of מר "master". The Aramaic form occurs in a Nabatean inscription found at Puteoli, and now in the Naples Museum; it is dated AD. 5 (Corpus Inscr. Semit., 158); also in a Palmyrene inscription, where the Greek translation has the form Marthein.
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus visits the home of two sisters named Mary and Martha. The two sisters are contrasted: Martha was "cumbered about many things" while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part", that of listening to the master's discourse. The name of their village is not recorded, nor any mention of whether Jesus was near Jerusalem:
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Mary Magdalene
Mary Magdalene (original Greek Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνή), or Mary of Magdala, was one of Jesus' most celebrated disciples, and the most important female disciple in the movement of Jesus. Jesus cleansed her of "seven demons", [Lu 8:2] [Mk 16:9] sometimes interpreted as referring to complex illnesses. She became Jesus' close friend and most prominent during his last days, being present at the cross after the male disciples (excepting John the Beloved) had fled, and at his burial. She was the first person to see Jesus after his Resurrection, according to both John 20 and Mark 16:9.
Mary Magdalene is considered by the Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran churches to be a saint, with a feast day of July 22. The Eastern Orthodox churches also commemorate her on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers.
Consistently in the four Gospels, Mary Magdalene seems to be distinguished from other women named Mary by adding "Magdalene" (η Μαγδαληνή) to her name. Traditionally, this has been interpreted to mean that she was from Magdala, a town thought to have been on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Luke 8:2 says that she was actually "called Magdalene." In Hebrew מגדל Migdal means "tower", "fortress"; in Aramaic, "Magdala" means "tower" or "elevated, great, magnificent".
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Mary of Bethany
Mary of Bethany (Judeo-Aramaic מרים, Maryām, rendered Μαρία, Maria, in the Koine Greek of the New Testament; form of Hebrew מִרְיָם, Miryām, or Miriam, "wished for child", "bitter" or "rebellious") is a biblical figure described in the Gospels of John and Luke in the Christian New Testament. Together with her siblings Lazarus and Martha, she is described as living in the village of Bethany near Jerusalem.
In Latin tradition, Mary of Bethany is often identified as Mary Magdalene (of whom more is recorded in the gospels as well as in later traditions), while in Eastern Orthodox and Protestant traditions they are considered separate persons. The Orthodox Church has its own traditions regarding Mary of Bethany's life beyond the gospel accounts.
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus visits the home of two sisters named Mary and Martha. Mary is contrasted with her sister Martha, who was "cumbered about many things"[Lk 10:40] while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part," that of listening to the master's discourse. The name of their village is not recorded, nor any mention of whether Jesus was near Jerusalem:
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Mary of Clopas
Mary of Clopas (or of Cleopas) (Ancient Greek: Μαρία ἡ τοῦ Κλωπᾶ, Maria he tou Klopa) the wife of Clopas was one of various Marys named in the New Testament.
Mary of Clopas is explicitly mentioned only in John 19:25, where she is among the women present at the Crucifixion of Jesus:
Now there stood by the cross of Jesus His mother, and His mother’s sister, Mary [the wife] of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene.
The expression Mary of Clopas in the Greek text is ambiguous as to whether Mary was the daughter or wife of Clopas, but exegesis has commonly favoured the reading "wife of Clopas" (as reflected in above translation). Hegesippus thought that Clopas as the brother of Saint Joseph.
According to some interpretations, the same Mary was also among the women that on Easter morning went to the tomb to anoint Jesus' body with spices. Matthew 28:1 calls her "the other Mary" to distinguish her from Mary Magdalene, while Mark 16:1 uses the name "Mary of James", most probably derived from James the Less. The Latin version of that name, Maria Iacobi, is often used in tradition. Stephen S. Smalley (1982) says that it is "very probable" that Mary of Clopas is Mary the mother of James son of Alphaeus. Both "Clophas" and "Alphaeus" may be Greek spellings of the Aramaic name Hilfai.
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Mattia Preti
Mattia Preti (24 February 1613 – 3 January 1699) was an Italian Baroque artist who worked in Italy and Malta.
Born in the small town of Taverna in Calabria, Preti was sometimes called Il Cavalier Calabrese (the Knight of Calabria). His early apprenticeship is said to have been with the "Caravaggist" Giovanni Battista Caracciolo, which may account for his life-long interest in the style of Caravaggio.
Probably before 1630, Preti joined his brother Gregorio (also a painter), in Rome, where he became familiar with the techniques of Caravaggio and his school as well as with the work of Guercino, Rubens, Reni, Giovanni Lanfranco. In Rome, he painted fresco cycles in Sant'Andrea della Valle and San Carlo ai Catinari. Between 1644 and 1646, he may have spent time in Venice, but remained based in Rome until 1653, returning later in 1660-61. He painted frescoes for the church of San Biago at Modena (app. 1651-2) and participated in the fresco decoration of the Palazzo Pamphilj in Valmontone (documented 1660-61), where he worked along with Pier Francesco Mola, Gaspar Dughet, Francesco Cozza, Giovanni Battista Tassi (il Cortonese), and Guglielmo Cortese.
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Nicodemus ben Gurion
Nicodemus ben Gurion was a wealthy Jew who lived in Jerusalem in the 1st century CE. He is widely believed to be identical to the Nicodemus mentioned in the Gospel of John.
Nicodemus appears to have been a wealthy and respected figure, known for his holiness and generosity. He was an opponent of the Zealots and of the rebellion against Rome which led to the destruction of Jerusalem.
When Vespasian became emperor, Nicodemus sought peace with the emperor's son Titus, who was conducting the war. He agitated against the prosecution of the war by the Zealots. In retaliation they destroyed the stores of provisions that he and his friends had accumulated for the use of pilgrims.
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Nymphas
Nymphas meaning nymph. A man or a woman, depending on accenting of the Greek text, in the New Testament saluted by Paul of Tarsus in his Epistle to the Colossians as a member of the church of Laodicea[disambiguation needed
] (Colossians 4:15). Possibly a contraction of Nymphodorus. The church met in his or her house.
This article incorporates text from Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), a publication now in the public domain.
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Onesimus
Saint Onesimus (d. ca. 68 AD) (Greek: Ὀνήσιμος, Onēsimos, meaning "useful," also called Onesimus of Byzantium and The Holy Apostle Onesimus in some Eastern Orthodox churches) was a slave to Philemon of Colossae, a man of Christian faith. He may be the same Onesimus named by Ignatius of Antioch as Bishop in Ephesus.
The name 'Onesimus' appears in two New Testament epistles. In Colossians 4:9 a person of this name is identified as a Christian accompanying Tychicus to visit the Christians in Colossae; nothing else is stated about him in this context.
The Epistle to Philemon was written by the Apostle Paul to the slave-master Philemon concerning a runaway slave called Onesimus. This slave found his way to the site of Paul's imprisonment (most probably Rome or Caesarea) to escape punishment for a theft he was said to have committed. After hearing the Gospel from Paul, Onesimus converted to Christianity. Paul, having earlier converted Philemon to Christianity, sought to reconcile the two by writing the letter to Philemon which today exists in the New Testament.). The letter read (in part):
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Origen
Origen ( /ˈɒrɪdʒən/; Greek: Ὠριγένης Ōrigénēs), or Origen Adamantius (184/185 – 253/254), was an early Christian Alexandrian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Church. As early as the fourth century, his orthodoxy was suspect, largely because he believed in the pre-existence and apokatastasis, or universal reconciliation, ideas acknowledged to be beyond the pale of Christianity. Today he is generally regarded as one of the Church Fathers.
Origen excelled in multiple branches of theological scholarship, including textual criticism, biblical interpretation, philosophical theology, preaching, and spirituality. Some of his teachings, however, quickly became controversial. Notably, he frequently referred to his hypothesis of the pre-existence of souls. As in the beginning all intelligent beings were united to God, Origen also held out the possibility, though he did not assert so definitively, that in the end all beings, perhaps even the arch-fiend Satan, would be reconciled to God in what is called the apokatastasis ("restitution"). Origen's views on the Trinity, in which he saw the Son of God as subordinate to God the Father, became controversial during the Arian controversy of the fourth century, though a subordinationist view was common among the ante-Nicene Fathers. A group who came to be known as Origenists, and who firmly believed in the preexistence of souls and the apokatastasis, were declared anathema in the 6th century. This condemnation is attributed to the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, though it does not appear in the council's official minutes. Few scholars today believe that Origen should be blamed, as he commonly was in the past, for tentatively putting forward hypotheses, later judged heretical, on certain philosophical problems during a time when Christian doctrine was somewhat unclear on said problems.
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Paul the Apostle
Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"), also known as Saul of Tarsus, is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant, due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.
According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.
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Penitent thief
The Penitent thief, also known as the Thief on the Cross or the Good Thief, is an unnamed character mentioned in the Gospel of Luke who was crucified alongside Jesus and asked Jesus to remember him in his kingdom, unlike his companion the Impenitent thief.
In different Christian traditions different names have been given to the thief:
Two men were crucified at the same time as Jesus, one on his right hand and one on his left (Matthew 27:38, Mark 15:27-28, Luke 23:33, John 19:18), which Mark interprets as fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 53:12. According to Matthew, both of the "thieves" mocked Jesus (Matthew 27:44); Luke however, mentions that
39 Now one of the criminals hanging there reviled Jesus, saying, "Are you not the Messiah? Save yourself and us." 40 The other, however, rebuking him, said in reply, "Have you no fear of God, for you are subject to the same condemnation? 41 And indeed, we have been condemned justly, for the sentence we received corresponds to our crimes, but this man has done nothing criminal." 42 Then he said, "Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom." 43 He replied to him, "Amen, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise." 23:39-43
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Peter of Capua
Peter of Capua (died August 1214) was an Italian theologian and scholastic philosopher, and a Cardinal and papal legate.
Peter was a member of an Amalfitan family. After a being a teacher at the University of Paris, he was employed by Pope Innocent III as legate. He made trips to Poland and Bohemia in 1197, bringing decision of introducing celibacy. He also served as legate to France from 1198. He made a truce between Richard I of England and Philip II of France, in December of 1198. During Peter's meeting with Richard and William Marshal, the northerners found Peter's appearance and obsequious style of diplomacy to be repellent. Peter did succeed in convincing Richard to agree to a conditional five-year truce, but when he persisted in asking that Richard also release Philip of Dreux (a Bishop of Beauvais whom the king intensely hated) Richard lost his temper and threatened to castrate Peter.
Peter then took part in the Fourth Crusade. While in Constantinople he acquired relics, including the purported body of St. Andrew, which he brought in the end to Amalfi.
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Philip the Apostle
Philip the Apostle (Greek: Φίλιππος, Philippos) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Later Christian traditions describe Philip as the apostle who preached in Greece, Syria, and Phrygia.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the feast day of Philip, along with that of James the Just, was traditionally observed on 1 May, the anniversary of the dedication of the church dedicated to them in Rome (now called the Church of the Twelve Apostles). The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Philip's feast day on 14 November. One of the Gnostic texts found in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945 has been given the modern title "Gospel of Philip", though this text makes no claim to have been written by Philip. It gets the name simply because Philip is the only apostle ever mentioned in the text (73:8).
The Gospel of John describes Philip's calling as a disciple of Jesus.[Jn 1:43] Philip is described as a disciple from the city of Bethsaida, and connects him to Andrew and Peter, who were from the same town.[1:43–44] It further connects him to Nathanael (sometimes identified with Bartholomew) whom Philip first introduces to Jesus.[Jn 1:45–47] The authors of the Synoptic Gospels also describe Philip as a disciple of Jesus.[Mt 10:3][Mk 3:18][Lk 6:14] Philip was tested by Jesus about how to feed 5,000 people (John 6:4-7), and he was approached by Greeks who wanted to see Jesus (John 12:20-21).
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Picts
The Picts were a group of Late Iron Age and Early Mediaeval Celtic people living in ancient eastern and northern Scotland. There is an association with the geographical distribution of brochs, Brythonic place name elements, and Pictish stones. Picts are recorded from before the Roman conquest of Britain until the 10th century, when they merged with the Gaels. They lived to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and spoke the extinct Pictish language, thought to have been related to the Brythonic languages spoken by the Britons to the south. They are assumed to have been the descendants of the Caledonii and other tribes named by Roman historians or found on the world map of Ptolemy. Pictland, also known as Pictavia, gradually merged with the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata to form the Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). Alba expanded, absorbing the Brythonic kingdom of Strathclyde and Bernician Lothian, and by the 11th century the Pictish identity had been subsumed into the "Scots" amalgamation of peoples.
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Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilatus (Ancient Greek: Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, Pontios Pīlātos), known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate ( /ˈpɒntʃəs ˈpaɪlət/(US), /ˈpɒnti.əs ˈpaɪlət/ (UK)), was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus' trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus. As prefect, he served under Emperor Tiberius.
The sources for Pilate's life are the four canonical gospels, Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, a brief mention by Tacitus, and an inscription known as the Pilate Stone, which confirms his historicity and establishes his title as prefect. Based on these sources, it appears that Pilate was an equestrian of the Pontii family, and succeeded Valerius Gratus as prefect of Judaea in AD 26. Once in his post he offended the religious sensibilities of his subjects, leading to harsh criticism from Philo and Josephus. According to Josephus, he was ordered back to Rome after harshly suppressing a Samaritan uprising, arriving just after the death of Tiberius, which occurred on 16 March in the year 37. He was replaced by Marcellus.
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Pope Gelasius I
Pope Saint Gelasius I (died 21 November 496) was pope from 492 until his death in 496. He was the third and last Bishop of Rome of Berber origin[citation needed] in the Catholic Church. Gelasius was a prolific writer whose style placed him on the cusp between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Gelasius had been closely employed by his predecessor Felix III, especially in drafting papal documents. His reign was characterized by a call for strict orthodoxy, a more assertive push for papal authority, and increasing tension between the churches in the West and the East.
Gelasius' election on 1 March 492 was a gesture for continuity: Gelasius inherited Felix's struggles with Eastern Roman Emperor Anastasius I and the patriarch of Constantinople and exacerbated them by insisting on the removal of the name of the late Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, from the diptychs, in spite of every ecumenical gesture by the current, otherwise quite orthodox patriarch Euphemius (q.v. for details of the Acacian schism).
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Pope Paul VI
Paul VI (Latin: Paulus PP. VI; Italian: Paolo VI), born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini (26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding Pope John XXIII, who had convened the Second Vatican Council, he decided to continue it. He fostered improved ecumenical relations with Orthodox and Protestants, which resulted in many historic meetings and agreements.
Montini served in the Vatican's Secretariat of State from 1922 to 1954. While in the Secretariat of State, Montini and Domenico Tardini were considered as the closest and most influential co-workers of Pope Pius XII, who named him in 1954 Archbishop of Milan, the largest Italian diocese, yet denying him the Cardinal designation that traditionally accompanies being Archbishop of Milan, a function which made him automatically Secretary of the Italian Bishops Conference. John XXIII elevated him to the College of Cardinals in 1958, and after the death of John XXIII, Montini was considered one of his most likely successors.
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Pope Pius II
Pope Pius II, born Enea Silvio Piccolomini (Latin Aeneas Sylvius; 18 October 1405 – 14 August 1464) was Pope from 19 August 1458 until his death in 1464. Pius II was born at Corsignano in the Sienese territory of a noble but decayed family. His longest and most enduring work is the story of his life, the Commentaries, which is the only autobiography ever written by a reigning Pope.
After studying at the universities of Siena and Florence, he settled in the former city as a teacher, but in 1431 accepted the post of secretary to Domenico Capranica, bishop of Fermo, then on his way to the Council of Basel (1431–39). Capranica was protesting against the new Pope Eugene IV's refusal of a cardinalate for him, which had been designated by Pope Martin V. Arriving at Basel after enduring a stormy voyage to Genoa and then a trip across the Alps, he successively served Capranica, who ran short of money, and then other masters.
In 1435 he was sent by Cardinal Albergati, Eugenius IV's legate at the council, on a secret mission to Scotland, the object of which is variously related even by himself. He visited England as well as Scotland, underwent many perils and vicissitudes in both countries, and left a valuable account of each. The journey to Scotland proved so tempestuous that Piccolomini swore that he would walk barefoot to the nearest shrine of Our Lady from their landing port. This proved to be Dunbar; the nearest shrine was 10 miles distant at Whitekirk. The journey through the ice and snow left Aeneas afflicted with pain in his legs for the rest of his life. In Scotland he fathered his second natural child, the other one having been born in Strasbourg.
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Porcius Festus
Porcius Festus was procurator of Judea from about AD 59 to 62, succeeding Antonius Felix. His exact time in office is not known. The earliest proposed date for the start of his term is c. A.D. 55-6, while the latest is A.D. 61. These extremes have not gained much support and most scholars opt for a date between 58 to 60. F. F. Bruce says that, "The date of his [Felix's] recall and replacement by Porcius Festus is disputed, but a change in the provincial coinage of Judaea attested for Nero's fifth year points to A.D. 59" Conybeare and Howson lay out an extended argument for the replacement taking place in A.D. 60.
Festus inherited all of the problems of his predecessor in regard to the Roman practice of creating civic privileges for Jews. Only one other issue bedeviled his administration, the controversy between Agrippa II and the priests in Jerusalem regarding the wall erected at the temple to break the view of the new wing of Agrippa's palace.
During his administration, Jewish hostility to Rome was greatly inflamed by the civic privileges issue. Feelings were aroused which played an important part in the closely following Jewish War of AD 66.
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Priscilla and Aquila
Priscilla and Aquila were a first century Christian missionary couple described in the New Testament and traditionally listed among the Seventy Disciples. They lived, worked, and traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his honored, much-loved friends and coworkers in Christ Jesus. Priscilla and Aquila are described in the New Testament as providing a presence that strengthened the early Jesus groups. Paul was generous in his recognition and acknowledgment of his indebtedness to them.[Rom. 16:3-4] Their mutuality in ministry and their leadership can inspire members of church communities today to work together as teachers and preachers of the gospel.
According to the account in Acts 18:26, Priscilla and Aquila privately explained to Apollos a 'more accurate' Christian presentation. Apollos, an important preacher of the period was identified by Paul in 1 Corinthians 4:6, 9-13 as an apostle who had shared the privations of the traveling apostolic life. Apollos must have been active in Corinth prior to 55 CE when Paul wrote his letter, as by the time of writing he is back in Ephesus with Paul.[1Cor 16:12] Apollos is also mentioned by Luke in a retrospective account in Acts 18:24-28 which details Apollos' teaching in the synagogue in Ephesus in about 52/3 CE, prior to his tenure in Corinth. Luke speaks highly of Apollos as a native of Alexandria and an ‘eloquent man’ who had a ‘thorough knowledge of the Scriptures’ and ‘taught about Jesus accurately’ (thus using the earliest Christian exegetical method taught by Christ to the apostles post resurrection). [Lu 24:27,32,44] [Acts 1:3] [1Cor 15:3-8]
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Quirinius
Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (Greek Κυρήνιος - Kyrenios or Cyrenius, c. 51 BC - AD 21) was a Roman aristocrat. After the banishment of the ethnarch Herod Archelaus from the tetrarchy of Judea in AD 6, Quirinius was appointed legate governor of Syria, to which the province of Iudaea had been added for the purpose of a census.
Born in the neighborhood of Lanuvium, a Latin town near Rome, of an undistinguished family, Quirinius followed the normal pathway of service for an ambitious young man of his social class. According to the Roman historian Florus, Quirinius defeated the Marmaridae, a tribe of desert raiders from Cyrenaica, possibly while governor of Crete and Cyrene around 14 BC, declining however the honorific name Marmaricus. In 12 BC he was named consul, a sign that he enjoyed the favour of Augustus.
Some years later, he led a campaign against the Homonadenses, a tribe based in the mountainous region of Galatia and Cilicia, around 5 - 3 BC, probably as legate of Galatia. He won by reducing their strongholds and starving out the defenders. For this victory, he was awarded a triumph.
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Riagail
Riagail, aka Regulus, Irish monk, fl. 573-600.
Riagail was an Irish monk expelled from Ireland with Columba.
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Richard I of England
Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was known as Cœur de Lion, or Richard the Lionheart, even before his accession, because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. The Saracens called him Melek-Ric or Malek al-Inkitar – King of England.
By the age of sixteen, Richard was commanding his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father, King Henry II. Richard was a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade, effectively leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, but was unable to reconquer Jerusalem.
Although speaking only langue d'oïl and langue d'oc and spending very little time in England (he lived in his Duchy of Aquitaine in the southwest of France, preferring to use his kingdom as a source of revenue to support his armies), he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects. He remains one of the very few Kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number, and is an enduring, iconic figure in England and France.
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Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC). The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor. If a man was "proclaimed emperor" this normally meant he was proclaimed augustus, or (for generals) imperator (from which English emperor ultimately derives). Several other titles and offices were regularly accumulated by emperors, such as caesar, princeps senatus, consul and Pontifex Maximus. The power of emperors was generally based on the accumulation of powers from republican offices and the support of the army.
Roman emperors refused to be considered "kings", instead claiming to be leaders of a republic, however nominal. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, the Republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, magistracies etc.) was preserved until the very end of the Western Empire.
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Saint Andrew
Saint Andrew (Greek: Ἀνδρέας, Andreas; from the early 1st century—mid to late 1st century AD), called in the Orthodox tradition Prōtoklētos, or the First-called, is a Christian Apostle and the brother of Saint Peter. The name "Andrew" (Greek: manly, brave, from ἀνδρεία, Andreia, "manhood, valour"), like other Greek names, appears to have been common among the Jews, Christians, and other Hellenized peoples of the region. No Hebrew or Aramaic name is recorded for him. He is considered the founder and the first bishop of the Church of Byzantium and is consequently the patron saint of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, by which it is inferred that he was likewise a son of John, or Jonah.[Mt. 16:17] [Jn. 1:42] He was born in Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee.[Jn. 1:44] Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade, hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them "fishers of men" (Greek: ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων, halieĩs anthrōpōn). At the beginning of Jesus' public life, they were said to have occupied the same house at Capernaum.[Mk. 1:21-29]
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Saint Joseph
Joseph (Hebrew יוֹסֵף, "Yosef"; Greek: Ἰωσήφ) is a figure in the Gospels, the husband of the Virgin Mary and the earthly father of Jesus Christ (in distinction to God the Father, his "heavenly father"). In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican Christian traditions he is regarded as Saint Joseph.
The Pauline epistles, generally considered the earliest extant Christian records, make no reference to Jesus' father; nor does the Gospel of Mark, generally considered the first of the gospels. The first appearance of Joseph is therefore in the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Each contains a genealogy of Jesus tracing his ancestry back to King David, but the two are from different sons of David; Matthew follows the major royal line from Solomon, while Luke follows a minor line from Nathan, another son of David and Bathsheba. Consequently all the names between David and Joseph are different. According to Matthew "Jacob was the father of Joseph," while according to Luke, Joseph, or possibly Jesus, is said to be "of Heli." Some scholars reconcile the genealogies by viewing the Solomonic lineage as Joseph's major royal line, and the Nathanic lineage in Luke to be Mary's minor line.
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Saint Longinus
Longinus is the name given in medieval and some modern Christian traditions to the Roman soldier who pierced Jesus in his side with a lance, the "Holy Lance" (lancea, in the Latin Vulgate) while he was on the Cross. The figure is unnamed in the gospels. The Longinus legend further identifies this soldier as the centurion present at the Crucifixion, who testified, "In truth this man was son of God." Longinus' legend grew over the years to the point that he was said to have converted to Christianity after the Crucifixion, and he is traditionally venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and several other Christian communions.
No name for this soldier is given in the Gospels; the name Longinus is found in the pseudepigraphal Gospel of Nicodemus that was appended to the apocryphal Acts of Pilate. Longinus did not start out as a saint. An early tradition, found in the 4th-century pseudepigraphal "Letter of Herod to Pilate," claims that Longinus suffered for having pierced Jesus, and that he was condemned to a cave where every night a lion came and mauled him until dawn, after which his body healed back to normal, in a pattern that would repeat till the end of time. Later traditions turned him into a Christian convert, but as Sabine Baring-Gould observed, "The name of Longinus was not known to the Greeks previous to the patriarch Germanus, in 715. It was introduced amongst the Westerns from the Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. There is no reliable authority for the Acts and martyrdom of this saint." However, there is an old tradition linking the birthplace of Longinus with the small village of Lanciano, Samnite territory, in today's Abruzzo region of Central Italy.
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Saint Matthew
Saint Matthew (מַתִּתְיָהוּ Mattityahu or מתי Mattay "Gift of YHVH"; Greek: Ματθαῖος, Matthaios) was one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus and one of the four Evangelists.
Among the early followers and apostles of Jesus, Matthew is mentioned in Mt 9:9 and Mt 10:3 as a former tax collector from Capernaum who was called into the circle of the Twelve by Jesus. He is also named among the number of the Twelve, but without identification of his background, in Mk 3:18, Lk 6:15 and Acts 1:13. He is often equated with the figure of Levi, son of Alpheus, also a tax collector, who is mentioned in Mk 2:14 and Lk 5:27. He may have collected taxes from the Hebrew people for Herod Antipas. Matthew was "called" by Jesus of Nazareth to be one of the Twelve Disciples. According to the New Testament he was one of the witnesses of the Resurrection and the Ascension.
Matthew was a first century Galilean (presumably born in Galilee, which was not part of Judea or the Roman Iudaea province) and the son of Alpheus. During the Roman occupation (which began in 63 BC with the conquest of Pompey), Matthew collected taxes from the Hebrew people for Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee. His tax office was located in Capernaum. Jews who became rich in such a fashion were despised and considered outcasts. However, as a tax collector he would have been literate in Aramaic and Greek.
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Saint Matthias
Matthias (Hebrew transliteration Mattityahu) (d. 80), according to the Acts of the Apostles, was the apostle chosen by the remaining eleven apostles to replace Judas Iscariot following Judas' betrayal of Jesus and suicide. His calling as an apostle is unique in that his appointment was not made personally by Jesus, who had already ascended to heaven, and, it was made before the descending of the Holy Spirit upon the early Church.
There is no mention of a Matthias among the lists of disciples or followers of Jesus in the three synoptic gospels. According to Acts 1, in the days following the Ascension of Jesus, to the assembled disciples, who numbered about one hundred and twenty, that they nominated two men to replace Judas: Joseph called Barsabbas (also known as Justus) and Matthias. Then they prayed, "Lord, you know everyone's heart. Show us which of these two you have chosen to take over this apostolic ministry, which Judas left to go where he belongs." Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was added to the eleven apostles. (Acts 1:23-26)
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Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader and one of the twelve apostles of Jesus who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles and who is venerated as a saint. The son of John or of Jonah, he was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis. His brother Andrew was also an apostle. Peter is venerated in multiple churches and is regarded as the first Pope by the Catholic Church. After working to establish the church of Antioch, presiding for seven years as the leader of the city's Christian community, he preached to scattered communities of believers, Jews, Hebrew Christians and the gentiles, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bithynia.[citation needed] He then went to Rome, where in the second year of Claudius, it is claimed, he overthrew Simon Magus and held the Sacerdotal Chair for 25 years.[citation needed] He is said to have been put to death at the hand of Emperor Nero.
Peter wrote two General epistles. The Gospel of Mark is also ascribed to him (as Mark was his disciple and interpreter). On the other hand, several books bearing his name—the Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Revelation of Peter, and Judgement of Peter—are rejected by the Catholic Church as Apocryphal.
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Saint Publius
Saint Publius (in Maltese, San Publju) is the first Maltese Saint. He is venerated as the first Bishop of Malta. Publius' conversion led to Malta being the first Christian nation in the West, and one of the first in the world.
It was the same Publius who received the Apostle Paul during his shipwreck on the island as recounted in the Acts of the Apostles. According to the Acts of the Apostles, St. Paul cured Publius' dysentery-afflicted father.
"In the vicinity of that place were lands belonging to a man named Publius, the chief of the island. He welcomed us and received us cordially as his guests for three days. It so happened that the father of Publius was sick with a fever and dysentery. Paul visited him and, after praying, laid his hands on him and healed him. After this had taken place, the rest of the sick on the island came to Paul and were cured. They paid us great honor and when we eventually set sail they brought us the provisions we needed." - Acts 28:7-10, New American Bible
In fact apart from being the particular patron saint of the town of Floriana, Saint Publius is also one of the patron saints of Malta. He was martyred c. 125, during the persecution of Emperor Hadrian.
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Saint Stephen
Saint Stephen (Koine Greek: Στέφανος, Stephanos; sometimes spelled "Stephan"), the protomartyr of Christianity, is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran,Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Stephen's name is derived from the Greek language Stephanos, meaning "crown". Traditionally, Stephen is invested with a crown of martyrdom; he is often depicted in art with three stones and the martyrs' palm. In Eastern Christian iconography, he is shown as a young, beardless man with a tonsure, wearing a deacon's vestments, and often holding a miniature church building or a censer. Rembrandt depicted his martyrdom in his work The Stoning of Saint Stephen.
History approximates Stephen's story around A.D. 34-35, shortly after Jesus' crucifixion[citation needed]. According to Chapter 6 of The Acts of the Apostles, Stephen was among seven men of the early church at Jerusalem appointed to serve as deacon. However, he is depicted as also successfully preaching to his fellow Jews and bringing many to accept Jesus as the Messiah. After a dispute with the members of a synagogue of "Roman Freedmen," he is denounced for blasphemy against God and Moses (Acts 6:11) and speaking against the Temple and the Law. Stephen is tried before the Sanhedrin. His defense is presented as accusing the Jews of persecuting the prophets who had spoken out against the sins of the nation:
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Saint Timothy
Timothy (Greek: Τιμόθεος; Timótheos, meaning "honouring God" or "honored by God") was a first-century Christian bishop who died around the year 80. The New Testament indicates that Timothy traveled with Saint Paul, who was also his mentor. He is addressed as the recipient of the Epistles to Timothy.
Saint Timothy is mentioned in the Bible at the time of Paul's second visit to Lystra in Anatolia, where Timothy is mentioned as a "disciple". Paul, impressed by his "own son in the faith," arranged that he should become his companion. Timothy was the son of a Jewess, but had not been circumcised, and Paul now ensured that this was done, according to the text, to ensure Timothy’s acceptability to the Jews. According to McGarvey Paul performed the operation "with his own hand", but others claim this is unlikely and nowhere attested[citation needed]. He was ordained and went with Paul on his journeys through Phrygia, Galatia, Mysia, Troas, Philippi, Veria, and Corinth. His mother, Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are noted as eminent for their piety and faith, which indicates that they may have also been Christians. Timothy is praised by Paul for his knowledge of the Scriptures (in the 1st century mostly the Septuagint, see Development of the New Testament canon#Clement of Rome), and is said to have been acquainted with the Scriptures since childhood. Little is known about Timothy's father; only that he was Greek.
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Salome
Salome (Greek: Σαλωμη, Salōmē), the Daughter of Herodias (c AD 14 - between 62 and 71), is known from the New Testament (Mark 6:17-29 and Matthew 14:3-11, where, however, her name is not given). Another source from Antiquity, Flavius Josephus's Jewish Antiquities, gives her name and some detail about her family relations.
Her name in Hebrew is שלומית (Shlomiẗ, IPA: [ʃlomiθ]) and is derived from the root word ŠLM (שלם), meaning "peace".
Christian traditions depict her as an icon of dangerous female seductiveness, for instance depicting as erotic her dance mentioned in the New Testament (in some later transformations further iconised to the dance of the seven veils), or concentrate on her lighthearted and cold foolishness that, according to the gospels, led to John the Baptist's death.
A new ramification was added by Oscar Wilde, who in his play Salome portrayed her as something of a femme fatale. This last interpretation, made even more memorable by Richard Strauss's opera based on Wilde, is not consistent with Josephus's account; according to the Romanized Jewish historian, she lived long enough to marry twice and raise several children. Few literary accounts elaborate the biographical data given by Josephus.
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Samaritans
The Samaritans (Hebrew: שומרונים Shomronim, Arabic: السامريون as-Sāmariyyūn) are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously the Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Based on the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans claim their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites prior to the Babylonian Exile, preserved by those who remained in the Land of Israel, as opposed to Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by those returning from exile.
Ancestrally, Samaritans claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) as well as some descendants from the priestly tribe of Levi, who have connections to ancient Samaria from the period of their entry into the land of Canaan, while some suggest that it was from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the Samaritan Kingdom of Baba Rabba. The Samaritans, however, derive their name not from this geographical designation, but rather from the Hebrew term Shamerim שַמֶרִים, "Keepers [of the Law]".
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Sarmatians
The Iron Age Sarmatians (Latin Sarmatæ or Sauromatæ, Sanskrit Sakas Greek Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται) were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.
Their territory was known as Sarmatia to Greco-Roman ethnographers, corresponding to the western part of greater Scythia (modern Southern Russia, Ukraine, and the eastern Balkans). At their greatest reported extent, around 100 BC, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.
The Sarmatians declined in the 4th century with the incursions connected to the Migration period (Huns, Goths). The descendants of the Sarmatians became known as the Alans during the Early Middle Ages, and ultimately gave rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.
Sarmatae is in origin probably just one of several tribal names of the Sarmatians which came to be applied to the entire group as an exonym in Greco-Roman ethnography. Strabo in the 1st century names as the main tribes of the Sarmatians the Iazyges, the Roxolani, the Aorsi and the Siraces.
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Sceva
Sceva, or Scevas, apparently related to the Greek word skeuos meaning a vessel or implement, a Jew called a "chief priest" (archiereus in Greek) in Acts 19:14. There was no high priest in Jerusalem by this name--some speculate that he was the head of one of the twenty-four courses of the house of Levi. He had seven sons, who in Ephesus "took upon them to call over them which had evil spirits the name of the Lord Jesus," in imitation of Paul. They tried their method of exorcism on a fierce demon, and failed. His answer to them was "Jesus I know, and Paul I know; but who are ye?" (Acts 19:15) This has been interpreted as, "The Jesus whom you invoke is One whose authority I acknowledge; and the Paul whom you name I recognize to be a servant or messenger of God; but what sort of men are ye who have been empowered to act as you do by neither?" (Thomas Lindsay on the Acts of the Apostles.)
This article incorporates text from Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), a publication now in the public domain.
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Scoti
Scoti or Scotti was the generic name used by the Romans to describe those who sailed from Ireland to conduct raids on Roman Britain. It was thus synonymous with the modern term Gaels. In the 5th century, these raiders established the kingdom of Dál Riata along the west coast of Scotland. As this kingdom expanded in size and influence, the name was applied to all its subjects – hence the modern terms Scot, Scottish and Scotland.
The origin of the word Scoti or Scotti is uncertain. Charles Oman derives it from the Gaelic word Scuit (a man cut-off), suggesting that a Scuit was not a general word for the Gael but a band of outcast raiders. In the 19th century Aonghas MacCoinnich of Glasgow proposed that Scoti was derived from the Gaelic word Sgaothaich. It has also been suggested that it comes from the Greek word skotos (σκότος) meaning darkness.
Scotland takes its name from Scotus which in Latin translates into Irishman (masculine form of Scoti). This is in reference to the Gaelic settlers from Ireland which was named Scotia (feminine form of Scoti) during this Epoch. The settlers from Ireland in nowadays Scotland were known as Scoti.
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Scythians
The Scythians (/ˈsɪθi.ən/ or /ˈsɪði.ən/; from Greek Σκύθης, Σκύθοι), or Scyths /ˈsɪθ/, were an ethnolinguistic group of ancient Iranian nomadic tribal cultures who throughout Classical Antiquity dominated the Pontic-Caspian steppe, known at the time as Scythia. By Late Antiquity the closely related Sarmatians came to dominate the Scythians in this area. Much of the surviving information about the Scythians comes from the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 440 BC) in his Histories and Ovid in his poem of exile Epistulae ex Ponto, and archaeologically from the exquisite goldwork found in Scythian burial mounds in Ukraine and Southern Russia.
The name "Scythian" has also been used to refer to various peoples seen as similar to the Scythians, or who lived anywhere in the area known as Scythia,
Sulimirski views the Histories of Herodotus as the most important literary source relating to ancient Scyths. Herodotus provides a depiction that can be related to the results of archaeological research, but apparently knew little of the eastern part of Scythia. He did say that the ancient Persians called all the Scyths Σάκαι (Sacae, Herodotus 7.64). Their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths", ruled the vast lands occupied by the nation as a whole (Herodotus 4.20), calling themselves Σκώλοτοι (Scōloti, Herodotus 4.6). Oswald Szemerényi devotes a thorough discussion to the etymologies of ancient ethnic words for the Scythians in his work "Four old Iranian ethnic names: Scythian – Skudra – Sogdian – Saka". In it the names of Herodotus and the names of his title, except Saka, as well as many other words for "Scythian," such as Assyrian Aškuz and Greek Skuthēs, descend from *skeud-, an ancient Indo-European root meaning "propel, shoot" (cf. English shoot). *skud- is the zero-grade; that is, a variant in which the -e- is not present. The restored Scythian name is *Skuda (archer), which among the Pontic or Royal Scythians became *Skula, in which the d has been regularly replaced by an l.
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Sergius Paulus
This article incorporates text from Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), a publication now in the public domain.
Lucius Sergius Paulus or Paullus was a Proconsul of Cyprus under Claudius (1st century AD). He appears in Acts (13:6-13), where in Paphos Paul, accompanied by Barnabas and John Mark, overcame the attempts of Bar-Jesus or Elymas and converted Sergius to Christianity.
A boundary stone of Claudius mentioning Sergius was discovered at Rome in 1887. It records the appointment (AD 47) of the Curators of the banks and the channel of the river Tiber, one of whom was Sergius. Since Paul's journey to Cyprus is usually dated to the first half of the 40s (and some scholars would date his visit even earlier), it is thought Sergius first served his three years as Proconsul at Cyprus, then returned to Rome, where he was appointed curator. As he is not greeted in Paul's Epistle to the Romans, it is possible he died before it was written.
Some mediæval legends have anachronistically identified him with Paul of Narbonne.
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Seven Deacons
The Seven Deacons were leaders elected by the Early Christian church to minister to the people of Jerusalem. They are described in the Acts of the Apostles, and are the subject of later traditions as well; for instance they are supposed to have been members of the Seventy Disciples who appear in the Gospel of Luke.
The Seven Deacons were:
Only Stephen and Philip are discussed in much detail in Acts; tradition provides nothing more about Nicanor or Parmenas. Stephen became the first martyr of the church when he was killed by a mob; and whose death was agreed to by Saul of Tarsus, the future Paul (Acts 8:1). Philip evangelized in Samaria, where he converted Simon Magus and an Ethiopian eunuch, traditionally beginning the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Tradition calls Prochorus the nephew of Stephen and a companion of John the Evangelist, who consecrated him bishop of Nicomedia in Bithynia (modern-day Turkey). He was traditionally ascribed the authorship of the apocryphal Acts of John, and was said to have ended his life as a martyr in Antioch in the 1st century. According to Caesar Baronius' Annales Ecclesiastici, now considered historically inaccurate, Nicanor was a Cypriot Jew who returned to his native island and died a martyr in 76. Other accounts say he was martyred in "Berj," an unidentified place possibly confused with Botrys. Timon was said to have been a Hellenized Jew who became a bishop in Greece or in Bosra, Syria; in the latter account, his preaching brought the ire of the local governor, who martyred him with fire. After preaching for years in Asia Minor, where Hippolytus of Rome claimed he was bishop of Soli (Pompeiopolis; though he may have been referring to Soli, Cyprus), Parmenas was said to have settled down in Macedonia, where he died at Philippi in 98 during Trajan's persecutions.[citation needed]
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Seventy disciples
The seventy disciples or seventy-two disciples (known in the Eastern Christian tradition as the seventy apostles) were early followers of Jesus mentioned in the Gospel of Luke 10:1–24. According to Luke, the only gospel in which they appear, Jesus appointed them and sent them out in pairs on a specific mission which is detailed in the text. In Western Christianity, they are usually referred to as disciples, whereas in Eastern Christianity they are usually referred to as apostles. Using the original Greek words, both titles are descriptive as an apostle is one sent on a mission (the Greek uses the verb form: apesteilen) whereas a disciple is a student, but the two traditions differ on the scope of the words apostle and disciple.
The passage from Luke 10 reads:
This is the only mention of the group in the Bible. The number is seventy in manuscripts in the Alexandrian (such as Codex Sinaiticus) and Caesarean text traditions but seventy-two in most other Alexandrian and Western texts. It may derive from the 70 nations of Genesis or the many other 70 in the Bible, or the 72 translators of the Septuagint from the Letter of Aristeas. In translating the Vulgate, Jerome selected the reading of seventy-two.
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Silas
Saint Silas or Saint Silvanus (Greek: Σίλας / Σιλουανός; fl. 1st century AD) was a leading member of the Early Christian community, who later accompanied Paul on parts of his first and second missionary journeys.
There is some disagreement over the proper form of his name: he is consistently called "Silas" in Acts, but the Latin Silvanus, which means "of the forest," is always used by Paul and in the First Epistle of Peter; it may be that "Silvanus" is the Romanized version of the original "Silas," or that "Silas" is the Greek nickname for "Silvanus." Fitzmyer points out that Silas is the Greek version of the Aramaic "Seila," a version of the Hebrew "Saul," which is attested in Palmyrene inscriptions. The name Latin "Silvanus" may be derived from pre-Roman Italian languages (see, e.g., the character "Asilas," an Etruscan leader and warrior-prophet who plays a prominent role in assisting Aeneas in Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid).[citation needed]
He was with Paul in Phillipi when they were imprisoned, but were freed when an earthequake broke their chains and opened the prison door. He is thus sometimes depicted carrying broken chains.
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Simeon Niger
Simeon Niger is a person in the Book of Acts in the New Testament. He is mentioned in Acts 13:1 as being one of the "prophets and teachers" in the church of Antioch:
In the church at Antioch there were prophets and teachers: Barnabas, Simeon called Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen (who had been brought up with Herod the tetrarch) and Saul. (Acts 13:1, NIV)
The nickname Niger means "black", which is usually taken to mean a dark complexion and/or African descent.
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Simon Magus
Simon the Sorcerer or Simon the Magician, in Latin Simon Magus, (Greek Σίμων ὁ μάγος) was a Samaritan magus or religious figure and a convert to Christianity, baptised by Philip the Evangelist, whose later confrontation with Peter is recorded in Acts 8:9-24. The sin of simony, or paying for position and influence in the church, is named for Simon. The Apostolic Constitutions also accuses him of lawlessness. According to Recognitions, Simon's parents were named Antonius and Rachel.
Surviving traditions about Simon appear in anti-heretical texts, such as those of Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius, where he is often regarded as the source of all heresies. Justin wrote that nearly all the Samaritans in his time were adherents of a certain Simon of Gitta, a village not far from Flavia Neapolis. Irenaeus held him as being one of the founders of Gnosticism and the sect of the Simonians. Hippolytus quotes from a work he attributes to Simon or his followers the Simonians, Apophasis Megale, or Great Declaration. According to the early church heresiologists Simon is also supposed to have written several lost treatises, two of which bear the titles The Four Quarters of the World and The Sermons of the Refuter.
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Simon of Cyrene
Simon of Cyrene (שמעון "Hearkening; listening", Standard Hebrew Šimʿon, Tiberian Hebrew Šimʿôn) was the man compelled by the Romans to carry the cross of Jesus as Jesus was taken to his crucifixion, according to all three Synoptic Gospels
By contrast, the Gospel of John does not mention Simon, saying only that Jesus carried the cross himself, or carried his own cross (John 19:17). This may mean that Jesus received no assistance on the journey to Calvary; or it may be that John wished to emphasise that Jesus took the load of the cross and therefore of the sins of mankind upon himself.
Because his home town, Cyrene, Libya, was located in northern Africa, a connection arose making Simon of Cyrene the first saintly Christian. Cyrene, a Greek colony, also had a Jewish community where 100,000 Judean Jews had settled during the reign of Ptolemy Soter (323-285 BC) and was an early center of Christianity. The Cyrenian Jews had a synagogue in Jerusalem, where many went for annual feasts. Tradition states his sons Rufus and Alexander became missionaries; the inclusion of their names in Mark suggests that they were of some standing in the Early Christian community at Rome. It has even been suggested that the Rufus mentioned by Paul in Romans 16:13 is the son of Simon of Cyrene. Some also link Simon himself with the "men of Cyrene" who preached the Gospel to the Greeks in Acts 11:20. On the other hand, Simon's name does not prove he was Jewish, and Alexander and Rufus were both common names and may have referred to others.
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Simon the Leper
Simon the Leper is a biblical figure mentioned by the Gospels according to Matthew (26:6-13) and Mark (14:3-9). These two books narrate how Jesus made a visit to the house of Simon the Leper at Bethany during the course of which a woman anoints the head of Jesus with costly ointment. Bethany was the home of Simon the Leper as well as Mary, Martha, and Lazarus. The Gospel according to John (12:1-8) recounts that Mary, Martha and Lazarus attended a supper for Jesus Christ six days before the Passover and Crucifixion of Jesus. Martha served. According to John's Gospel, the feet of Jesus were also anointed. Comparing them suggests that Judas Iscariot and other disciples of Jesus also attended and protested the costly anointing of Jesus.
Simon the Leper is sometimes identified with Simon the Pharisee (see Shimon ben Gamliel), who is mentioned in the Gospel of Luke (7:36-50) as the host of a meal during which the feet of Jesus are anointed by a woman. Because of these similarities, efforts have been made to reconcile the events and characters but some scholars have pointed out differences between the two events. An alternative explanation for the similarities is that the Luke 7 anointing and the anointing at Bethany (Matthew 26:6, Mark 14:3, John 12:1) happened with some of the same participants, but several years apart.
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Simon the Zealot
The apostle called Simon Zelotes, Simon the Zealot, in Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13; and Simon Kananaios or Simon Cananeus ("Simon" signifying שמעון "hearkening; listening", Standard Hebrew Šimʿon, Tiberian Hebrew Šimʿôn), was one of the most obscure among the apostles of Jesus. Little is recorded of him aside from his name. A few pseudepigraphical writings were connected to him, and Jerome does not include him in De viris illustribus.
The name of Simon occurs in all of the synoptic gospels and Acts that give a list of apostles, without further details:
To distinguish him from Simon Peter, he is called Kananaios, or Kananites (Matthew 10:4; Mark 3:18), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, Zelotes, the "Zealot". Both titles derive from the Hebrew word qana, meaning The Zealous, though Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of Cana, in which case his epithet would have been "Kanaios" or even from the region of Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as "the Cananite" or "the Canaanite" is traditional and without contemporary extra-canonic parallel.
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Sopater
Sopater (so'-pa-ter, sop'-a-ter (gr Σωπατρoς; Sopatros, "saviour of his father", Easton's reads "The father who saves", Holman's reads “sound parentage”) was the son of Pyrhus, a man from the city of Berea. Sopater and others accompanied Paul out of Macedonia after a group of Jews began to plot against Paul, and then sailed from Philippi to Alexandria Troas where they met Paul who had gone by land.
It is commonly accepted that Sopater is the kinsman of Paul noted in Romans 16:21. as Sosipater He is hounored as Saint Sosipater, April 29, by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
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Tertius of Iconium
Tertius of Iconium (also Tertios) acted as an amanuensis for the Apostle Paul, writing down his letter to the Romans. According to church tradition he is numbered among the Seventy Disciples, and was Bishop in Iconium after the Apostle Sosipater. He died a martyr. The Church remembers St. Tertius on October 30 and November 10.
Troparion (Tone 3) [1]
Kontakion (Tone 2)
wn.com/Tertius_of_Iconium -
Theudas
Theudas (thyū'dăs) (died c. 46 AD) was a Jewish rebel of the 1st century AD. His name, if a Greek compound, may mean "gift of God", although other scholars believe its etymology is Semitic and might mean “flowing with water”. At some point between 44 and 46 AD, Theudas led his followers in a short-lived revolt.
Our principal source for the story is Josephus, who wrote:
It came to pass, while Cuspius Fadus was procurator of Judea, that a certain charlatan, whose name was Theudas, persuaded a great part of the people to take their effects with them, and follow him to the Jordan river; for he told them he was a prophet, and that he would, by his own command, divide the river, and afford them an easy passage over it. Many were deluded by his words. However, Fadus did not permit them to make any advantage of his wild attempt, but sent a troop of horsemen out against them. After falling upon them unexpectedly, they slew many of them, and took many of them alive. They also took Theudas alive, cut off his head, and carried it to Jerusalem. (Jewish Antiquities 20.97-98)[dead link]
wn.com/Theudas -
Thomas the Apostle
Thomas the Apostle, also called Doubting Thomas or Didymus (meaning "Twin," as does "Thomas" in Aramaic") was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is best known for questioning Jesus' resurrection when first told of it, then proclaiming "My Lord and my God" on seeing Jesus in John 20:28. He was perhaps the only Apostle who went outside the Roman Empire to preach the Gospel. He is also believed to have crossed the largest area, which includes the Parthian Empire and India.
Thomas speaks in the Gospel of John. In John 11:16, when Lazarus has just died, the apostles don't want to go back to Judea, where Jesus' fellow Jews had attempted to stone him to death. Thomas says bravely: "Let us also go, that we may die with him" (NIV).
In Thomas' best known appearance in the New Testament, [Jn. 20:24–29] he doubts the resurrection of Jesus and demands to touch Jesus' wounds before being convinced. Caravaggio's painting, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (illustration above), depicts this scene. This story is the origin of the term Doubting Thomas. After seeing Jesus alive, Thomas exclaimed, "My Lord and my God!".
wn.com/Thomas_the_Apostle -
Tiberius
Tiberius (Latin: Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD), was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder (from his marriage to Scribonia) and even later be adopted by Augustus, by which act he officially became a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the next forty years; historians have named it the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, great-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-great uncle of Nero.
Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, conquering Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania; laying the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, "the gloomiest of men." After the death of Tiberius’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 he became more reclusive and aloof. In 26, against better judgement, Tiberius exiled himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro. Caligula, Tiberius' grand-nephew and adopted grandson, succeeded the emperor upon his death.
wn.com/Tiberius -
Trophimus
Trophimus (Greek: Τρόφιμος, Trophimos) or Trophimus the Ephesian Greek: Τρόφιμος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, Trophimos ho Ephesios) was a Christian who accompanied Paul during a part of his third missionary journey. He was with Paul in Jerusalem, and the Jews, supposing that the apostle had brought him with him into the temple, raised a tumult which resulted in Paul’s imprisonment. (See Herod's Temple). In writing to Timothy, the apostle comments that he left Trophimus in Miletus due to illness. This must refer to some event not noticed in the Acts.
wn.com/Trophimus -
Tychicus
Tychicus is one of Paul's companions in the New Testament. He is mentioned five times (Acts 20:4; Colossians 4:7; Ephesians 6:21; 2 Timothy 4:12; Titus 3:12).
In both Ephesians and Colossians, Paul indicates that he is sending Tychicus to the Christians to whom he is writing, in order to encourage them.
The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that different traditions make him out to be the Bishop of Colophon, Chalcedon or Neapolis in Cyprus.
Hippolytus of Rome lists Tychicus as one of the seventy disciples. His feast is kept on 29 April.
wn.com/Tychicus -
Wachtang Djobadze
Wachtang Djobadze (Georgian: ვახტანგ ჯობაძე) (March 8, 1917 — February 10, 2007) was a Georgian art historian and Professor at the California State University, Los Angeles. During the Soviet Union, he lived as an émigré in the United States, and was the only Georgian scholar to have opportunity to travel to Turkey where a number of medieval Georgian churches and monasteries lay in ruins in the historical Tao-Klarjeti region and Antioch. He studied and described these monuments in several works, including Materials for the Study of Georgian Monasteries in the Western Environs of Antioch on the Orontes (1976), Archeological Investigations in the Region West of Antioch On-The-Orontes (Stuttgart : Steiner-Verlag-Wiesbaden-GmbH, 1986), Early Medieval Georgian Monasteries in Historic Tao, Klarjet'i, and Savset'i (Stuttgart : Steiner-Verlag-Wiesbaden-GmbH, 1992). In 1981, he discovered ruins of the medieval Georgian Gialia Monastery in Cyprus.
He died in Carlsbad (CA) on February 10, 2007, and was buried in Tbilisi, Georgia.
wn.com/Wachtang_Djobadze -
Wikipedia Persondata
wn.com/Wikipedia_Persondata -
Zebedee
Zebedee (Greek: Ζεβεδαῖος, Zebedaios, Greek word #2199 in Strong's; Hebrew: זְבַדְיָה, Zebadyah, Hebrew word #2069 in Strong's), according to all four Canonical gospels, was the father of James and John, two disciples of Jesus. The gospels also suggest that he was the husband of Salome: whereas Mark 15:40 names the women present at the crucifixion as "Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James the Less and of Joses, and Salome," the parallel passage in Matthew 27:56 has "Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James and Joses, and the mother of Zebedee's children." The Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that the Salome of Mark 15:40 is probably identical with the mother of the sons of Zebedee in Matthew.
Zebedee was a fisherman, "probably of some means." Although he is named several times in the gospels, the only times he actually appears are in Matthew 4:21-22 and Mark 1:20, where he is left in the boat after Jesus called James and John. Mark notes that Zebedee was left with the "hired men."
wn.com/Zebedee
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Animated story of St Andrew
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:46
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
Learn the story of Scotland's patron saint in our animated history of St Andrew.
http://wn.com/Animated_story_of_St_Andrew
Learn the story of Scotland's patron saint in our animated history of St Andrew.
St Andrews Girls: The Other Guys' Charity Single
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:32
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
DOWNLOAD THE CHARITY SINGLE AT: www.otherguys.co.uk Enquiries info@otherguys.co.uk --- The Other Guys: Celebrating 120 Years of St. Andrews Girls The Other Guys invite you to join them in celebrating 120 years of St Andrews Girls. Our tongue-in-cheek parody takes you on a journey around this Fife costal town as we try and shake off our rebuff from the now Duchess of Cambridge, formerly Kate Middleton. We try, and fail, to acquire a match at Britain's "top-match-making-university". The video celebrates two special milestones. First, it recognises the 120th Anniversary of the admittance of female students to the 600 year old institution, The University of St Andrews. Second, it celebrates forty years of wonderful work by the charity Breast Cancer Care. Beyond the laughs, the video seeks to raise awareness and money for this truly amazing charity. Every year 50000 people hear the devastating news that they have this life-threatening illness, 300 of those who are diagnosed are men. Breast Cancer Care is there for every one of them, providing expert information and professional support when it's needed most. The group know first hand how this can affect individuals and their families and by donating to, and raising awareness for, Breast Cancer Care we hope to help people through that very difficult time. Please support the charity by downloading the single here: www.otherguys.co.uk. It's only £1 to download, but you can make any further donation on top of that you wish. Simply ...
http://wn.com/St_Andrews_Girls_The_Other_Guys'_Charity_Single
DOWNLOAD THE CHARITY SINGLE AT: www.otherguys.co.uk Enquiries info@otherguys.co.uk --- The Other Guys: Celebrating 120 Years of St. Andrews Girls The Other Guys invite you to join them in celebrating 120 years of St Andrews Girls. Our tongue-in-cheek parody takes you on a journey around this Fife costal town as we try and shake off our rebuff from the now Duchess of Cambridge, formerly Kate Middleton. We try, and fail, to acquire a match at Britain's "top-match-making-university". The video celebrates two special milestones. First, it recognises the 120th Anniversary of the admittance of female students to the 600 year old institution, The University of St Andrews. Second, it celebrates forty years of wonderful work by the charity Breast Cancer Care. Beyond the laughs, the video seeks to raise awareness and money for this truly amazing charity. Every year 50000 people hear the devastating news that they have this life-threatening illness, 300 of those who are diagnosed are men. Breast Cancer Care is there for every one of them, providing expert information and professional support when it's needed most. The group know first hand how this can affect individuals and their families and by donating to, and raising awareness for, Breast Cancer Care we hope to help people through that very difficult time. Please support the charity by downloading the single here: www.otherguys.co.uk. It's only £1 to download, but you can make any further donation on top of that you wish. Simply ...
- published: 15 May 2012
- views: 125039
- author: thetheotherguys
Bedouin Soundclash - St Andrews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:02
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
St Andrews by Bedouin Soundclash from their album Street Gospels
http://wn.com/Bedouin_Soundclash_St_Andrews
St Andrews by Bedouin Soundclash from their album Street Gospels
- published: 06 Jul 2009
- views: 43025
- author: iaquinta89
Old Course, St. Andrews, Scotland, Hidden Links Golf Tours
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:48
- Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Video segment from the Hidden Links Golf Guide to Scotland featuring the Old Course at St. Andrews in Fife, birthplace of the game and world's oldest golf course. Venue for the 2000 and 2005 Opens which were both won by Tiger Woods. Site of the 2010 British Open Championship. Narrated by Renton Laidlaw. Copyright Hidden Links, Inc.
http://wn.com/Old_Course,_St_Andrews,_Scotland,_Hidden_Links_Golf_Tours
Video segment from the Hidden Links Golf Guide to Scotland featuring the Old Course at St. Andrews in Fife, birthplace of the game and world's oldest golf course. Venue for the 2000 and 2005 Opens which were both won by Tiger Woods. Site of the 2010 British Open Championship. Narrated by Renton Laidlaw. Copyright Hidden Links, Inc.
- published: 07 Jun 2008
- views: 30103
- author: HiddenLinks
Massed Pipes and Drums
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 04 Sep 2012
the Massed Pipes and Drums on the Edinburgh Military Tattoo
http://wn.com/Massed_Pipes_and_Drums
the Massed Pipes and Drums on the Edinburgh Military Tattoo
- published: 25 Oct 2006
- views: 99853
- author: sylverone
The St. Andrew's College Experience
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:27
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
Founded in 1899, St. Andrew's College ( www.sac.on.ca ) is an all-boys' boarding and day school for grades 5-12 in Aurora, Ontario.The St. Andrew's College Experience video was produced and directed by William Scoular, St. Andrew's Head of Drama. SAC's video wins grand gold award from the Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE).
http://wn.com/The_St_Andrew's_College_Experience
Founded in 1899, St. Andrew's College ( www.sac.on.ca ) is an all-boys' boarding and day school for grades 5-12 in Aurora, Ontario.The St. Andrew's College Experience video was produced and directed by William Scoular, St. Andrew's Head of Drama. SAC's video wins grand gold award from the Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE).
- published: 13 Sep 2010
- views: 25011
- author: St Andrews
Blind Melon St Andrew's Fall
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:15
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
1.Galaxie - www.youtube.com 2.2 x 4 - www.youtube.com 3.Vernie - www.youtube.com 4.Skinned - www.youtube.com 5.Toes Across The Floor - www.youtube.com 6.Walk - www.youtube.com 7.Dumptruck - www.youtube.com 8.Car Seat (God's Presents) - www.youtube.com 9. Wilt - www.youtube.com 10.The Duke - www.youtube.com 11.St. Andrew's Fall - www.youtube.com 12.New Life - www.youtube.com 13.Mouthful Of Cavities - www.youtube.com 14.Lemonade - www.youtube.com 15.track??? - www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Blind_Melon_St_Andrew's_Fall
1.Galaxie - www.youtube.com 2.2 x 4 - www.youtube.com 3.Vernie - www.youtube.com 4.Skinned - www.youtube.com 5.Toes Across The Floor - www.youtube.com 6.Walk - www.youtube.com 7.Dumptruck - www.youtube.com 8.Car Seat (God's Presents) - www.youtube.com 9. Wilt - www.youtube.com 10.The Duke - www.youtube.com 11.St. Andrew's Fall - www.youtube.com 12.New Life - www.youtube.com 13.Mouthful Of Cavities - www.youtube.com 14.Lemonade - www.youtube.com 15.track??? - www.youtube.com
- published: 08 Jul 2009
- views: 51504
- author: TheblindmellonTV
Blind Melon St. Andrew's Fall - intimate & Interactive
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:37
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Blind Melon September 12, 1995 MuchMusic Intimate & Interactive Toronto, Ontario, Canada Blind Melon: Shannon Hoon - Vocals, Guitar, Harmonica, Kazoo Rogers Stevens - Guitars, Piano Christopher Thorn - Guitars, Mandolin, Banjo, Accordion Glen Graham - Drums Brad Smith - Bass, Vocals, Maracas Appearing with Blind Melon: Mike Kelsey - Percussion, Flute Miles Tackett - Cello
http://wn.com/Blind_Melon_St_Andrew's_Fall_intimate_Interactive
Blind Melon September 12, 1995 MuchMusic Intimate & Interactive Toronto, Ontario, Canada Blind Melon: Shannon Hoon - Vocals, Guitar, Harmonica, Kazoo Rogers Stevens - Guitars, Piano Christopher Thorn - Guitars, Mandolin, Banjo, Accordion Glen Graham - Drums Brad Smith - Bass, Vocals, Maracas Appearing with Blind Melon: Mike Kelsey - Percussion, Flute Miles Tackett - Cello
- published: 04 Mar 2010
- views: 11068
- author: TheblindmellonTV
Michael Phelps Putt At St. Andrews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Phelps long putt Dunhill Links Championship. Swimming Olympian Michael Phelps sinks a 153-foot putt during the second round of team play at the Dunhill Links Championship.
http://wn.com/Michael_Phelps_Putt_At_St_Andrews
Phelps long putt Dunhill Links Championship. Swimming Olympian Michael Phelps sinks a 153-foot putt during the second round of team play at the Dunhill Links Championship.
- published: 06 Oct 2012
- views: 906897
- author: G4SportsNews
Scotland's Towns - St Andrews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:19
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
This series explores different towns in Scotland, and we learn about the historical and cultural backgrounds of each place. St Andrews is visited today, a town famous for it's craggy skyline, as well as it's rich golfing history.
http://wn.com/Scotland's_Towns_St_Andrews
This series explores different towns in Scotland, and we learn about the historical and cultural backgrounds of each place. St Andrews is visited today, a town famous for it's craggy skyline, as well as it's rich golfing history.
- published: 29 Nov 2010
- views: 6787
- author: STVScotland
Bedouin Soundclash - St. Andrews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
St. Andrews by Bedouin Soundclash (c) 2007 Side One Dummy Click the following link to purchase Bedouin Soundclash's album, Street Gospels: s1dm.my
http://wn.com/Bedouin_Soundclash_St_Andrews
St. Andrews by Bedouin Soundclash (c) 2007 Side One Dummy Click the following link to purchase Bedouin Soundclash's album, Street Gospels: s1dm.my
- published: 23 Sep 2008
- views: 59743
- author: sideonedummyrecords
Justin Bieber at St Andrews School, Boca Raton April 13, 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:22
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
thejustinbiebershrine.com - Justin Bieber visited the school to congratulate students who helped raised money on behalf of Pencils of Promises.
http://wn.com/Justin_Bieber_at_St_Andrews_School,_Boca_Raton_April_13,_2012
thejustinbiebershrine.com - Justin Bieber visited the school to congratulate students who helped raised money on behalf of Pencils of Promises.
- published: 13 Apr 2012
- views: 103039
- author: Unbelieberble
Ableton Tutorials Week 5: DJing w/ Live - Warping + (Salva & St. Andrew)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:44
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
For more, please visit Dubspot's blog bit.ly Inspired by a recent studio session with the legendary producer Photek, Dubspot Instructor and electronic music producer Professor Nalepa shares some techniques for preparing your live set for DJing, live performance and DJ mixes in this week's Ableton Live tutorial. In particular, using recent remixes of his own tracks by Salva and St. Andrew, he shares some useful advice on warping your tracks properly, a few tricks for setting up your live performance document, and some ideas to incorporate when making a DJ mix.
http://wn.com/Ableton_Tutorials_Week_5_DJing_w_Live_Warping_+_Salva_St_Andrew
For more, please visit Dubspot's blog bit.ly Inspired by a recent studio session with the legendary producer Photek, Dubspot Instructor and electronic music producer Professor Nalepa shares some techniques for preparing your live set for DJing, live performance and DJ mixes in this week's Ableton Live tutorial. In particular, using recent remixes of his own tracks by Salva and St. Andrew, he shares some useful advice on warping your tracks properly, a few tricks for setting up your live performance document, and some ideas to incorporate when making a DJ mix.
- published: 25 Feb 2011
- views: 29939
- author: DubSpot
Fife: Andrew's Kingdom - Fife: Andrew's Kingdom
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:43
- Updated: 15 Aug 2012
Documentary charting the religious, industrial and political history of Fife, from the arrival of St Andrew's bones sixteen centuries ago, to the technological revolution of today.
http://wn.com/Fife_Andrew's_Kingdom_Fife_Andrew's_Kingdom
Documentary charting the religious, industrial and political history of Fife, from the arrival of St Andrew's bones sixteen centuries ago, to the technological revolution of today.
- published: 12 Aug 2010
- views: 1047
- author: STVDocumentaries
Noam Chomsky. 'St Andrews, Scotland, Students & Syria'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 40:01
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
--- Follow Us Online --- facebook.com twitter.com ---Description --- Bubble TV sit down with Noam Chomsky after receiving his honorary degree to hear his views on Scottish independence, the global financial crisis, the British monarchy, language and Syria. --- Questions & Time Links --- 00:40 What are your views on Scottish independence? 02:03 What are your views on the Queen & Diamond Jubilee? 03:29 How are you influenced by faith? 05:02 How have the next generation affected language by texting and tweeting? 06:57 What advice would you give to a graduating student? 07:51 What achievement are you most proud of? 08:20 Who is a fair mediator over the Israeli - Palestine debate? 12:10 Why have you never combined your work on linguistics and politics? 13:19 What are your views on the global financial crisis? 25:27 How should Western governments respond to the Syrian situation? 30:00 Can the media remain truly impartial?
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky_'St_Andrews,_Scotland,_Students_Syria'
--- Follow Us Online --- facebook.com twitter.com ---Description --- Bubble TV sit down with Noam Chomsky after receiving his honorary degree to hear his views on Scottish independence, the global financial crisis, the British monarchy, language and Syria. --- Questions & Time Links --- 00:40 What are your views on Scottish independence? 02:03 What are your views on the Queen & Diamond Jubilee? 03:29 How are you influenced by faith? 05:02 How have the next generation affected language by texting and tweeting? 06:57 What advice would you give to a graduating student? 07:51 What achievement are you most proud of? 08:20 Who is a fair mediator over the Israeli - Palestine debate? 12:10 Why have you never combined your work on linguistics and politics? 13:19 What are your views on the global financial crisis? 25:27 How should Western governments respond to the Syrian situation? 30:00 Can the media remain truly impartial?
- published: 21 Jun 2012
- views: 19229
- author: BubbleTVonline
Black Saturday Bushfires St Andrews Vic Australia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:37
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
My Brother Jim filmed this never to be seen title wave of fire on the 7th Feb 09 before escaping from certain death to his home built bunker, louieb
http://wn.com/Black_Saturday_Bushfires_St_Andrews_Vic_Australia
My Brother Jim filmed this never to be seen title wave of fire on the 7th Feb 09 before escaping from certain death to his home built bunker, louieb
- published: 16 Feb 2009
- views: 32086
- author: louieb01
St. Andrews Green Dispensary Tour
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
www.weedmaps.com Take a tour of St. Andrews Green in Los Angeles, CA!
http://wn.com/St_Andrews_Green_Dispensary_Tour
www.weedmaps.com Take a tour of St. Andrews Green in Los Angeles, CA!
- published: 25 Jul 2011
- views: 32498
- author: nugporn
Bull Shark 6-18-11 St Andrews State Park Pier
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:34
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
Interesting to watch this shark swim along the coast but not quite as exciting as my daughter's basking shark vid - lol! www.youtube.com Cheers! Panama City Beach, FL cathyscamera.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Bull_Shark_6-18-11_St_Andrews_State_Park_Pier
Interesting to watch this shark swim along the coast but not quite as exciting as my daughter's basking shark vid - lol! www.youtube.com Cheers! Panama City Beach, FL cathyscamera.blogspot.com
- published: 18 Jun 2011
- views: 33571
- author: CathyFromPensacola
St. Andrews Scotland
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
St. Andrews Scotland Old Course
http://wn.com/St_Andrews_Scotland
Rev. Bertrand Bailey Jr. - I Made It
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:26
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Revival St Andrew
http://wn.com/Rev_Bertrand_Bailey_Jr_I_Made_It
EPISODE 1: A Student's Guide to The Bubble
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:31
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
--- Follow Us Online --- facebook.com twitter.com The first episode of the new student video broadcasting enterprise from St Andrews University. Reflecting on Fresher's Week 2010, students tell Bubble TV what it really means to study at St Andrews. We ♥ The Bubble. A Bubble TV Production. Interview: Anna Lisa Stone Camera: Alyn Farrow, Anna Lisa Stone Editor: Anna Lisa Stone
http://wn.com/EPISODE_1_A_Student's_Guide_to_The_Bubble
--- Follow Us Online --- facebook.com twitter.com The first episode of the new student video broadcasting enterprise from St Andrews University. Reflecting on Fresher's Week 2010, students tell Bubble TV what it really means to study at St Andrews. We ♥ The Bubble. A Bubble TV Production. Interview: Anna Lisa Stone Camera: Alyn Farrow, Anna Lisa Stone Editor: Anna Lisa Stone
- published: 28 Sep 2010
- views: 24917
- author: BubbleTVonline
Royal Romance: The Other Guys' Official Royal Wedding Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
Download and buy our new album at: otherguys.co.uk Kate Middleton is back in St Andrews... The Other Guys, blending the work of Lady Gaga, James Horner, Gustav Holst, The Human League and Michael Jackson, are proud to present 'Royal Romance'. Filmed and recorded by students in the town where Kate met Wills, Scotland's premier all male a cappella group bring you a sad tale of unrequited love. Director & Editor: Ollie Boesen Producers: Ollie Boesen & Iain Glen Sound: Matt Stevens, Ollie Boesen and Nick Girard Arrangement: Iain Glen and Ollie Boesen Lyrics: Ollie Boesen, Iain Glen, Matt Hinckley and Rob Baggot la Velle In the making of 'Royal Romance', The Other Guys would like to thank: Ted Rosner, Jasmine Kearsey, Sophie Renton, Anna Lisa Stone, Cesca Heartfield, Rhys Mansel, Amy Heather and Claire Gourlay. Eleven guys, eleven voices, no instruments and one princess. Enjoy. Lyrics: [Intro] I vow to thee my country, I vow to thee our queen to be. [Verses] I want you baby, you might be the one, The only problem, you're Kate Middleton, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. We met in first year, you lived in my halls, I poked you, on Facebook, and wrote on your wall, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. Down in the Lizard I saw you dancing, But grinding up to you was the future king, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. You were strutting in the fashion show, I auditioned, they said "no, no no, no", I want your love, Love, love ...
http://wn.com/Royal_Romance_The_Other_Guys'_Official_Royal_Wedding_Video
Download and buy our new album at: otherguys.co.uk Kate Middleton is back in St Andrews... The Other Guys, blending the work of Lady Gaga, James Horner, Gustav Holst, The Human League and Michael Jackson, are proud to present 'Royal Romance'. Filmed and recorded by students in the town where Kate met Wills, Scotland's premier all male a cappella group bring you a sad tale of unrequited love. Director & Editor: Ollie Boesen Producers: Ollie Boesen & Iain Glen Sound: Matt Stevens, Ollie Boesen and Nick Girard Arrangement: Iain Glen and Ollie Boesen Lyrics: Ollie Boesen, Iain Glen, Matt Hinckley and Rob Baggot la Velle In the making of 'Royal Romance', The Other Guys would like to thank: Ted Rosner, Jasmine Kearsey, Sophie Renton, Anna Lisa Stone, Cesca Heartfield, Rhys Mansel, Amy Heather and Claire Gourlay. Eleven guys, eleven voices, no instruments and one princess. Enjoy. Lyrics: [Intro] I vow to thee my country, I vow to thee our queen to be. [Verses] I want you baby, you might be the one, The only problem, you're Kate Middleton, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. We met in first year, you lived in my halls, I poked you, on Facebook, and wrote on your wall, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. Down in the Lizard I saw you dancing, But grinding up to you was the future king, I want your love, Love, love, love, I want your love. You were strutting in the fashion show, I auditioned, they said "no, no no, no", I want your love, Love, love ...
- published: 11 Apr 2011
- views: 800841
- author: thetheotherguys
St Andrew Honors St. Nick
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:27
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
How did St. Nick become known as Santa? Listen to St. Nick himself explain some of the legends surrounding his rise to fame and sainthood. St. Andrew Lutheran Church, Parsippany NJ www.elcaandy.org
http://wn.com/St_Andrew_Honors_St_Nick
How did St. Nick become known as Santa? Listen to St. Nick himself explain some of the legends surrounding his rise to fame and sainthood. St. Andrew Lutheran Church, Parsippany NJ www.elcaandy.org
- published: 01 Jan 2013
- views: 6
- author: writestuff88
photo: AP / New York City Police Department
30 Dec 2012
A woman who told police she shoved a man to his death off a subway platform because she has hated Muslims since the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks on the US and thought he was one was charged on Saturday with murder as a hate crime, prosecutors said ... Menendez, 31, was awaiting arraignment on the charge on Saturday evening, Queens District Attorney Richard Brown said. She faces 25 years to life in prison if convicted ... On Dec ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
30 Dec 2012
Comet Ison is likely to light up the skies in 2013. David Shukman, science editor, BBC News Continue reading the main story Related Stories. A science news preview of 2012. As the Philippines, New Jersey and Britain count the cost of ferocious flooding, expect another year in which extreme weather exacts a human toll. Partly this is because more and more of us live in harm's way on coasts and flood plains ... ....(size: 9.2Kb)
photo: AP / Felicia Fonseca
01 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. For good reason Mark Charles, a member of the Navajo Nation, is deeply offended that buried on page 45 of the 2010 Defense Appropriation Act (after pages on the maintenance and operation of the United States Military) is an "official" apology to Native American People ... political leaders and officials find it extremely difficult in expressing remorse for past mistakes ... Escorted by the U.S....(size: 5.6Kb)
photo: AP / John MacDougall
31 Dec 2012
Chancellor Angela Merkel has warned that the German economic climate in 2013 will be "even more difficult". In her new year message, she also cautioned that the eurozone debt crisis was far from over. However, she did say that reforms designed to address the roots of the problem were beginning to bear fruit ... In a taped interview to be broadcast later on Monday, Mrs Merkel urged Germans to be more patient ... Voters 'wary' ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
photo: AP / Shaam News Network
30 Dec 2012
London. UN-Arab League envoy to Damascus, Lakhdar Brahimi, has said that a diplomatic solution to the conflict in Syria seemed far away, adding that the country risked being slithering into ‘hell’ ... (ANI). For Zee News’s Updates, follow us on Twitter , Facebook, Google+, Pinterest. First Published ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Irish Times
02 Jan 2013
Star Tribune
02 Jan 2013
New Year's Eve revelers appear to be getting the message about the perils of mixing drinking and driving, according to Lt. Eric Roeske of the State Patrol ... Monday and ending at 8 a.m ... But in recent years, Roeske added, New Year's Eve, along with other red-flag DWI days like Super Bowl Sunday and St ... Nora Emery, 24, of Bigfork, was flown to St ... The driver of the semitrailer truck, Andrew Michalek, 58, of Blackduck, Minn., was uninjured ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
The Times of India
02 Jan 2013
LONDON. Cardiff moved seven points clear at the top of the Championship after a 1-0 victory at Birmingham, while second placed Hull had to settle for a 0-0 draw at Blackpool on New Year's Day ... His strike secured Cardiff's first win at St Andrew's since 1966 and their first league double over the Blues in 46 years ... Crystal Palace climbed to third place -- two points behind Hull -- after a 3-1 win over Wolves at Selhurst Park ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
Tampabay.com
02 Jan 2013
Times staff. Tampa Bay Times In Print. Wednesday, January 2, 2013. ADVERTISEMENT. ADVERTISEMENT ... Brooksville. American Legion Post 99. 5.30 p.m. Thursday, 208 E Fort Dade Ave ... 8150 Hampton St ... 9, First United Methodist Church, 109 S Broad St ... Thursday, Hernando Shrine Hall, 13400 Montour St ... today, 131 S Main St ... 1681 E Jefferson St ... Saturday, St. Andrew's Episcopal Church, Coulton Building, 2301 Deltona Blvd ... 18940 Drayton St., at County Line Road....(size: 10.3Kb)
Irish Times
02 Jan 2013
The mother of second-level student Andrew Clarke, who died when a car under which he was working fell on him, has spoken about how she “willed him to live” as she travelled with him in an ambulance to Dublin’s Tallaght Hospital ... He died on Monday ... “He was cold and unconscious by his car in the garage ... “Andrew was 6ft 4in and about 17 stone, but he was our baby boy ... However, Andrew had severe brain damage ... ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
The Tribune San Luis Obispo
02 Jan 2013
California 2013. New laws take effect today. Hit-and-run crash on Hwy. 101 injures SLO police sergeant. California's new laws target mortgages, guns. Fast food protesting and other Paso Robles emergencies. 5 hikers unhurt after Los Padres Forest rescue. Ice skating rink to open at Madonna Inn in December. Deals!. View All. ... Also, rookie quarterback Andrew Luck isn't Peyton Manning, but he makes plays ... 1343 Marsh St ... 1188 6th St ... ....(size: 16.1Kb)
noodls
02 Jan 2013
In a private suite, ST will parade its advanced multimedia solutions for set-top box (STB), digital TV, digital audio and other consumer applications, with particular focus on innovative new technologies in the areas of broadband services, home connectivity and 3DTV ... In home connectivity, ST has a suite of demos based on a 'headless' home gateway (i.e ... Further information on ST can be found at www.st.com....(size: 6.4Kb)
STL Today
02 Jan 2013
If it holds together, the deal hammered out early Tuesday morning in the Senate to resolve the so-called “fiscal cliff” should put the economy in St ... But it also would end a tax break that's been in place since 2010 that saves the typical family in St ... For a family earning the median household income in St ... Those cuts could hit hard in St....(size: 3.8Kb)
Springfield News-Sun
02 Jan 2013
The team began preparations for last year’s game in Houston practicing outside in 22-degree weather with a 14-degree wind chill that left wide receiver A.J ... “(Reliant Stadium) was the loudest place we’ve played at in the last two years, easily,” wide receiver Andrew Hawkins said ... “They’ve never let of go of it, and Domata (Peko) and Andrew (Whitworth) and the rest of them like Robert (Geathers) ... ....(size: 4.2Kb)
Canoe
02 Jan 2013
The Salt Lake Tribune
02 Jan 2013
Jacksonville, Fla. • The stuffed monkey spent the last year in storage, out of sight but still in everyone’s mind ... At a glance. No. 21 NORTHWESTERN 34, MISSISSIPPI ST. 20. Mississippi St. 20, Northwestern 34. Mississippi St. 0 10 3 7 — 20 ... MSSt NU ... Rushing » Mississippi St., J.Robinson 7-91, Perkins 19-84, ... Passing » Mississippi St., Russell 12-28-4-106, Prescott 0-1-0-0 ... Receiving » Mississippi St., Clark 3-36, Bumphis 3-18, ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
02 Jan 2013
Former Seton Hall basketball forward Herbert Lee Pope Jr. was arrested Monday night after police say he brandished a handgun outside an Ambridge bar ... Andrew McGill/412-263-1438 ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
noodls
02 Jan 2013
(Source. BMX Australia - Bicycle Motocross Australia Inc) Andrew Farrell, Wednesday, 2 January 2013 ... Entries are being accepted online or via manual entry and will close on Wednesday January 23 ... distributed by ... (noodl. 17089089) ....(size: 1.5Kb)
For other uses, see Saint Andrew (disambiguation).
 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) |
| Saint Andrew the Apostle | |
|---|---|
 Saint Andrew the Apostle, icon by Bulgarian iconographer Yoan from Gabrovo, 19th century |
|
| Apostle, First-called | |
| Born | early 1st century Bethsaida |
| Died | mid- to late 1st century AD Patras |
| Honored in | All Christianity |
| Major shrine | Church of St Andreas at Patras, with his relics |
| Feast | November 30 |
| Attributes | Old man with long (in the East often untidy) white hair and beard, holding the Gospel Book or scroll, sometimes leaning on a saltire[citation needed] |
| Patronage | Scotland, Ukraine, Russia, Sicily, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Diocese of Parañaque, Philippines, Amalfi, Luqa (Malta) and Prussia; Diocese of Victoria fishermen, fishmongers, rope-makers, golfers and performers |
Saint Andrew (Greek: Ἀνδρέας, Andreas; from the early 1st century—mid to late 1st century AD), called in the Orthodox tradition Prōtoklētos, or the First-called, is a Christian Apostle and the brother of Saint Peter. The name "Andrew" (Greek: manly, brave, from ἀνδρεία, Andreia, "manhood, valour"), like other Greek names, appears to have been common among the Jews, Christians, and other Hellenized peoples of the region. No Hebrew or Aramaic name is recorded for him. He is considered the founder and the first bishop of the Church of Byzantium and is consequently the patron saint of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Contents |
Life[link]
The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, by which it is inferred that he was likewise a son of John, or Jonah.[Mt. 16:17] [Jn. 1:42] He was born in Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee.[Jn. 1:44] Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade, hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them "fishers of men" (Greek: ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων, halieĩs anthrōpōn).[1] At the beginning of Jesus' public life, they were said to have occupied the same house at Capernaum.[Mk. 1:21-29]
The Gospel of John states that Andrew was a disciple of John the Baptist, whose testimony first led him, and another unnamed disciple of John the Baptist, commonly thought to be John the Evangelist to follow Jesus.[Jn. 1:35-40] Andrew at once recognized Jesus as the Messiah, and hastened to introduce him to his brother.[Jn. 1:41] Thenceforth, the two brothers were disciples of Christ. On a subsequent occasion, prior to the final call to the Apostolate, they were called to a closer companionship, and then they left all things to follow Jesus.[2]
In the gospels, Andrew is referred to as being present on some important occasions as one of the disciples more closely attached to Jesus,[3] Andrew told Jesus about the boy with the loaves and fishes (John 6:8), with Philip told Jesus about the Greeks seeking Him (John 12:20), and was one of four (the others being Peter, James, and John) to hear Jesus' teaching about what would soon happen (Mark 13:3).
Eusebius quotes Origen as saying Andrew preached along the Black Sea as far as the Volga, Kiev and Novgorod. Hence he became a patron saint of Ukraine, Romania and Russia. According to tradition, he founded the See of Byzantium (Constantinople)[4] in AD 38, installing Stachys as bishop. According to Hippolytus of Rome, he preached in Thrace, and his presence in Byzantium is also mentioned in the apocryphal Acts of Andrew, written in the 2nd century; Basil of Seleucia also knew of Apostle Andrew's mission in Thrace, as well as Scythia and Achaia.[5] This diocese would later develop into the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Andrew is recognized as its patron saint.
Andrew is said to have been martyred by crucifixion at the city of Patras (Patræ) in Achaea, on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. Early texts, such as the Acts of Andrew known to Gregory of Tours,[6] describe Andrew as bound, not nailed, to a Latin cross of the kind on which Jesus is said to have been crucified; yet a tradition developed that Andrew had been crucified on a cross of the form called Crux decussata (X-shaped cross, or "saltire"), now commonly known as a "Saint Andrew's Cross" — supposedly at his own request, as he deemed himself unworthy to be crucified on the same type of cross as Jesus had been.[7] "The familiar iconography of his martyrdom, showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, does not seem to have been standardized before the later Middle Ages," Judith Calvert concluded after re-examining the materials studied by Louis Réau.[8]
File:Agiandreas.jpg
Basilica of St. Andrew at Patras, where Andrew's relics are kept, said to be erected over the place of his martyrdom
Andrew is the patron saint of the city of Patras.
[edit] The Acts of Andrew
The apocryphal Acts of Andrew, mentioned by Eusebius, Epiphanius and others, is among a disparate group of Acts of the Apostles that were traditionally attributed to Leucius Charinus. "These Acts (...) belong to the third century: ca. A.D. 260," was the opinion of M. R. James, who edited them in 1924. The Acts, as well as a Gospel of St Andrew, appear among rejected books in the Decretum Gelasianum connected with the name of Pope Gelasius I. The Acts of Andrew was edited and published by Constantin von Tischendorf in the Acta Apostolorum apocrypha (Leipzig, 1821), putting it for the first time into the hands of a critical professional readership. Another version of the Andrew legend is found in the Passio Andreae, published by Max Bonnet (Supplementum II Codicis apocryphi, Paris, 1895).
Relics[link]
Relics of the Apostle Andrew are kept at the Basilica of St Andrew in Patras, Greece; the Duomo di Sant'Andrea, Amalfi, Italy; St Mary's Roman Catholic Cathedral, Edinburgh, Scotland;[9] and the Church of St Andrew and St Albert, Warsaw, Poland. There are also numerous smaller reliquaries throughout the world.
St Jerome wrote that the relics of St Andrew were taken from Patras to Constantinople by order of the Roman emperor Constantius II around 357 and deposited in the Church of the Holy Apostles. The head of Andrew was given by the Byzantine despot Thomas Palaeologus to Pope Pius II in 1461. It was enshrined in one of the four central piers of St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. In September 1964, Pope Paul VI, as a gesture of goodwill toward the Greek Orthodox Church, ordered that all of the relics of St Andrew that were in Vatican City be sent back to Patras. The relics, which consist of the small finger, part of the top of the cranium of Andrew, and small portions of the cross on which he was martyred, have since that time been kept in the Church of St Andrew at Patras in a special shrine and are revered in a special ceremony every November 30, his feast day.
Amalfi[link]
In 1208, following the sack of Constantinople, those relics of St Andrew and St Peter which remained in the imperial city were taken to Amalfi, Italy, by Cardinal Peter of Capua, a native of Amalfi. The Amalfi cathedral (Duomo), dedicated to St Andrew (as is the town itself), contains a tomb in its crypt that it maintains still contains the rest of the relics of the apostle. On 8 May 2008 the relic believed to be Andrew's head was returned to Amalfi Cathedral.
Traditions and legends[link]
Georgia[link]
The church tradition of Georgia regards St. Andrew as the first preacher of Christianity in the territory of Georgia and as the founder of the Georgian church. This tradition was apparently derived from the Byzantine sources, particularly Nicetas of Paphlagonia (died c. 890) who asserts that "Andrew preached to the Iberians, Sauromatians, Taurians, and Scythians and to every region and city, on the Black Sea, both north and south."[10] The version was adopted by the 10th-11th-century Georgian ecclesiastics and, refurbished with more details, was inserted in the Georgian Chronicles. The story of St. Andrew’s mission in the Georgian lands endowed the Georgian church with apostolic origin and served as a defense argument to George the Hagiorite against the encroachments from the Antiochian church authorities on autocephaly of the Georgian church. Another Georgian monk, Ephraim the Minor, produced a thesis, reconciling St. Andrew’s story with an earlier evidence of the 4th-century conversion of Georgians by St. Nino and explaining the necessity of the “second Christening” by Nino. The thesis was made canonical by the Georgian church council in 1103.[11][12]
Cyprus[link]
Cypriot tradition holds that a ship which was transporting Saint Andrew went off course and ran aground. Upon coming ashore, Andrew struck the rocks with his staff at which point a spring of healing waters gushed forth. Using it, the sight of the ship's captain, who had been blind in one eye, was restored. Thereafter, the site became a place of pilgrimage and a fortified monastery stood there in the 12th century, from which Isaac Comnenus negotiated his surrender to Richard the Lionheart. In the 15th century, a small chapel was built close to the shore. The main monaster of the current church dates to the 18th century.
Other pilgrammages are more recent. The story is told that in 1895, the son of a Maria Georgiou was kidnapped. Seventeen years later, Saint Andrew appeared to her in a dream, telling her to pray for her son's return at the monastery. Living in Anatolia, she embarked on the crossing to Cyprus on a very crowded boat. Telling her story during the journey, one of the passengers, a young Dervish priest became more and more interested. Asking if her son had any distinguishing marks, he stripped off his cloths to reveal the same marks and mother and son were thus reunited.[13]
Apostolos Andreas Monastery (Greek: Απόστολος Ανδρέας) is a monastery dedicated to Saint Andrew situated just south of Cape Apostolos Andreas, which is the north-eastern most point of the island of Cyprus,in Rizokarpason in the Karpass Peninsula. The monastery is an important site to the Cypriot Orthodox Church. It was once known as 'the Lourdes of Cyprus', served not by an organized community of monks but by a changing group of volunteer priests and laymen. Both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities consider the monastery a holy place. As such it is visited by many people for votive prayers.
Malta[link]
File:AndrewFrescoSPOW.jpg
Fifth-century mosaic of St. Andrew at St. Paul Outside the Walls, Rome
The first reference regarding the first small chapel at Luqa dedicated to Andrew dates to 1497. The pastoral visit of Mgr. Pietro Dusina affirms that this chapel contained three altars, one of them dedicated to Andrew. The titular painting showing "Mary with Saints Andrew and Paul" was painted by the Maltese artist Filippo Dingli.
At one time, many fishermen lived in the village of Luqa, and this may be the main reason behind choosing Andrew as patron saint. The titular statue of Andrew was sculpted in wood by Giuseppe Scolaro in 1779. This statue underwent several restoration works including that of 1913 performed by the Maltese renowned artist Abraham Gatt. The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew on the main altar of the church was painted by Mattia Preti in 1687.
Romania[link]
The official stance of the Romanian Orthodox Church is that Andrew preached the Gospel to the Daco-Romans in the province of Dobrogea (Scythia Minor), whom he is said to have converted to Christianity. There have been some ancient Christian symbols found carved in a cave called Basarabi, near Constanţa harbor, which have been used for propaganda purposes in the communist era and beyond as part of the protochronism ideology, which purports that the Orthodox Church has been a companion and defender of the Romanian people for all of its history.[14] This theory is largely dismissed by scholars.[citation needed]
Ukraine, Romania, and Russia[link]
File:Predskazanie Kiev sv Andrey.jpg
St Andrew's prophecy of Kiev depicted in Radzivill Chronicle.
File:Andrey Pervozvannij.jpg
The monument in Kiev
File:Saint Andrew's Church of Kiev photo by Yuriy Kolodin.jpg
The Kievan hill where St. Andrew is said to have erected the cross is commemorated by the cathedral dedicated in his name
Early Christian History in Ukraine holds that the apostle Andrew is said to have preached on the southern borders of modern-day Ukraine, along the Black Sea. Legend has it that he travelled up the Dnieper River and reached the future location of Kiev, where he erected a cross on the site where the St. Andrew's Church of Kiev currently stands, and prophesied the foundation of a great Christian city, Jerusalem of the Russian/Ukrainian land.
It was in the obvious interest of Kievan Rus' and its later Russian and Ukraninian successors, striving in numerous ways to link themselves with the political and religious heritage of Byzantium, to claim such a direct visit from the famous. Claiming direct lineage from St. Andrew also had the effect of disregarding any theological leanings of Greek Orthodoxy over which disagreement arose, since the actual "indirect" proselytising via Byzantium was bypassed altogether. Still, as the same source quotes [7], Andrew only preached to the southern shore of the Black Sea (current Turkey).
Scotland[link]
About the middle of the 10th century, Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland. Several legends state that the relics of Andrew were brought under supernatural guidance from Constantinople to the place where the modern town of St Andrews stands today (Gaelic, Cill Rìmhinn).
The oldest surviving manuscripts are two: one is among the manuscripts collected by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and willed to Louis XIV of France, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, the other in the Harleian Mss in the British Library, London. They state that the relics of Andrew were brought by one Regulus to the Pictish king Óengus mac Fergusa (729–761). The only historical Regulus (Riagail or Rule) (whose name is preserved in the tower of St Rule was an Irish monk expelled from Ireland with Saint Columba; his dates, however, are c 573 – 600. There are good reasons for supposing that the relics were originally in the collection of Acca, bishop of Hexham, who took them into Pictish country when he was driven from Hexham (c. 732), and founded a see, not, according to tradition, in Galloway, but on the site of St Andrews. The connection made with Regulus is, therefore, due in all probability to the desire to date the foundation of the church at St Andrews as early as possible.
According to legend, in 832 AD, Óengus II led an army of Picts and Scots into battle against the Angles, led by Æthelstan, near modern-day Athelstaneford, East Lothian. The legend states that he was heavily outnumbered and hence whilst engaged in prayer on the eve of battle, Óengus vowed that if granted victory he would appoint Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland. On the morning of battle white clouds forming an X shape in the sky were said to have appeared. Óengus and his combined force, emboldened by this apparent divine intervention, took to the field and despite being inferior in terms of numbers were victorious. Having interpreted the cloud phenomenon as representing the crux decussata upon which Saint Andrew was crucified, Óengus honoured his pre-battle pledge and duly appointed Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland. The white saltire set against a celestial blue background is said to have been adopted as the design of the flag of Scotland on the basis of this legend.[15] However, there is evidence Andrew was venerated in Scotland before this.
Andrew's connection with Scotland may have been reinforced following the Synod of Whitby, when the Celtic Church felt that Columba had been "outranked" by Peter and that Peter's brother would make a higher ranking patron. The 1320 Declaration of Arbroath cites Scotland's conversion to Christianity by Andrew, "the first to be an Apostle". Numerous parish churches in the Church of Scotland and congregations of other Christian churches in Scotland are named after Andrew. The national church of the Scottish people in Rome, Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi is dedicated to St Andrew.
Legacy[link]
Andrew is the patron saint of Scotland, Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Patras in Greece, Amalfi in Italy, Luqa in Malta, and Esgueira in Portugal. He was also the patron saint of Prussia and of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The flag of Scotland (and consequently the Union Flag which also features on the flags of Australia, New Zealand and the arms and flag of Nova Scotia) feature St Andrew's saltire cross. The saltire is also the flag of Tenerife, the flag of Galicia and the naval jack of Russia. The Confederate flag also features a saltire commonly referred to as a St Andrew's cross, although its designer, William Porcher Miles, said he changed it from an upright cross to a saltire so that it would not be a religious symbol but merely a heraldic device. The Florida and Alabama flags also show that device. Andrew is also the patron saint of the U.S. Army Rangers.
The feast of Andrew is observed on November 30 in both the Eastern and Western churches, and is the national day of Scotland. In the traditional liturgical books of the Catholic Church, the feast of St. Andrew is the first feast day in the Proper of Saints.
See also[link]
- Saint Andrew of Patras
- Andrew
- Order of Saint Andrew
- Patron saints of places
- Roman Catholic calendar of saints
- St Andrew's Day
- St Andrews (disambiguation)
- Santo André, an industrial town in Brazil
- New Saint Andrews College
- St. Andrew's College (Ontario), an all-boys independent school in Ontario, Canada named after St. Andrew. On the driveway to the main building, there is the St. Andrew statue.
- Universidad de San Andrés, Argentina, named after the saint
- University of St Andrews, named after the Royal Burgh of St Andrews, which was named after the saint
Notes[link]
- ^ Metzger & Coogan (1993) Oxford Companion to the Bible, p 27.
- ^ Lk. 5:11, Matthew 4:19-20, Mark 1:17-18
- ^ Mark 13:3; John 6:8, 12:22; but in Acts there is only one mention of him. 1:13
- ^ The only bishopric in that neighbourhood before that time had been established at Heraclea.
- ^ Encyclopedia of early Christianity by Everett Ferguson, p. 51.
- ^ In Monumenta Germaniae Historica II, cols. 821-847, translated in M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford) reprinted 1963:369.
- ^ The legends surrounding Andrew are discussed in F. Dvornik, "The Idea of Apostolicity in Byzantium and the Legend of the Apostle Andrew", Dumbarton Oaks Studies, IV (Cambridge) 1958.
- ^ Judith Calvert, "The Iconography of the St. Andrew Auckland Cross", The Art Bulletin 66.4 (December 1984:543-555) p. 545, note 12; according to Louis Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien III.1 (Paris) 1958:79, St. Andrew's Cross appeared for the first time in the tenth century, but did not become an iconographic standard before the seventeenth. Calvert was unable to find a sculptural representation of Andrew on the saltire cross earlier than an architectural capital from Quercy, of the early twelfth century.
- ^ "National Shrine of Saint Andrew", St Mary's Roman Catholic Cathedral, Edinburgh
- ^ Peterson, Peter Megill (1958), Andrew, Brother of Simon Peter: His History and Legends, p. 20. E. J. Brill
- ^ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, p. 433. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5
- ^ Djobadze, Wachtang Z., "Materials for the Study of Georgian Monasteries in the Western Environs of Antioch on the Orontes", pp. 82-83. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, vol. 372, subsidia 48. Louvain, 1976.
- ^ http://www.whatson-northcyprus.com/interest/dipkarpaz/andreas.htm
- ^ Lavinia Stan, Lucian Turcescu, Religion and Politics in Post-Communist Romania, Oxford University Press, 2007, p.48
- ^ Lawson, John Parker, History of the Abbey and Palace of Holyroodhouse published 1848 p. 169 [1]
References[link]
- Metzger, Bruce M. (ed); , Michael D. Coogan (ed) (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
- Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-14-051312-4.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Saint Andrew |
- The Life and Miracles of St. Andrew The Apostle
- St. Andrew in the National Archives of Scotland
- Andreas: The Legend of St. Andrew translated by Robert Kilburn Root, 1899, from Project Gutenberg
- Paintings and Statues of Saint Andrew in Malta and around the world
- National Shrine to St Andrew in Edinburgh Scotland
- Scottish Government Celebrations of St. Andrew's Day
- Grimm's Saga No. 150 about St. Andrew
- St. Andrew page at Christian Iconography
- "The Life of St. Andrew" from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend
| Preceded by New creation |
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Before 38 |
Succeeded by Stachys the Apostle |
|
|
|||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Andrew |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | |
| Place of birth | Bethsaida |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | Patras |
http://wn.com/Saint_Andrew
Related pages:
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http://cs.wn.com/Svatý Ondřej
http://id.wn.com/Andreas
http://es.wn.com/Andrés el Apóstol
http://ru.wn.com/Андрей Первозванный
http://nl.wn.com/Andreas (apostel)
http://pl.wn.com/Andrzej Apostoł
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| Full name | Michael Fred Phelps[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nickname(s) | MP; The Baltimore Bullet[2]; Flying Fish[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nationality | USA | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Born | (1985-06-30) June 30, 1985 (age 26)[4] Baltimore, Maryland |
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| Height | 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m)[4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Weight | 185 lbs. 83.9 kg[5] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Sport | Swimming | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Stroke(s) | Backstroke, butterfly, freestyle, individual medley | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Club | North Baltimore Aquatic Club | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Medal record
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Michael Fred Phelps (born June 30, 1985) is an American swimmer who has, overall, won 16 Olympic medals—six gold and two bronze at Athens in 2004, and eight gold at Beijing in 2008, becoming the most successful athlete at both of these Olympic Games editions. In doing so he has twice equaled the record eight medals of any type at a single Olympics achieved by Soviet gymnast Alexander Dityatin at the 1980 Moscow Summer Games. His five gold medals in individual events tied the single Games record set by compatriot Eric Heiden in the 1980 Winter Olympics and equaled by Vitaly Scherbo at the 1992 Summer Games. Phelps holds the record for the most gold medals won in a single Olympics; his eight at the 2008 Beijing Games surpassed American swimmer Mark Spitz's seven-gold performance at Munich in 1972. Phelps' Olympic medal total is second only to the 18 Soviet gymnast Larisa Latynina won over three Olympics, including nine gold. Phelps also holds the all-time record for most gold Olympic medals, at 14.
Phelps's international titles and record breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award six times and American Swimmer of the Year Award eight times. He has won a total of sixty-six medals in major international competition, fifty-four gold, nine silver, and three bronze spanning the Olympics, the World, and the Pan Pacific Championships. His unprecedented Olympic success in 2008 earned Phelps Sports Illustrated magazine's Sportsman of the Year award.
After the 2008 Summer Olympics, Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation, which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles. As a participant in the US Anti-Doping Agency's "Project Believe" program, Phelps is regularly tested to ensure that his system is clean of performance-enhancing drugs.
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Early life[link]
Phelps was born and raised in the Rodgers Forge neighborhood of Towson, Maryland, a northwest suburb of Baltimore City.[6] Michael was the youngest of three children. His mother, Deborah Sue "Debbie" (née Davisson), is a middle school principal.[7] His father, Michael Fred Phelps, was a football player in high school and almost made the team for the Washington Redskins.[7] His ancestry includes English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, and German.[8]
Phelps began swimming at the age of seven, partly because of the influence of his sisters and partly to provide him with an outlet for his energy.[9] When Phelps was in the sixth grade, he was diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[10][11] His parents divorced in 1994 and Michael and his sisters went to live with their mother. By the age of 10, he held a national record for his age group, and Phelps began to train at the North Baltimore Aquatic Club under coach Bob Bowman. More age group records followed, and Phelps' rapid improvement culminated in his qualifying for the 2000 Summer Olympics at the age of 15 and becoming the youngest male to make a U.S. Olympic swim team in 68 years.[12] While he did not win a medal, he did make the finals and finished fifth in the 200-m butterfly.[13]
At the World Championship Trials for the 2001 World Aquatics Championships, on 22 July, Phelps broke the world record in the 200-m butterfly to become, at 15 years and 9 months, the youngest man ever to set a swimming world record, breaking the record previously held by Ian Thorpe when he lowered the 400-m freestyle world record at 16 years, 10 months.[14] At the World Championships in Fukuoka, Phelps broke his own world record in the 200-m butterfly en route to becoming a world champion for the first time.[15]
2002 Pan Pacific Championships[link]
See also: 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships
| Pan Pacific medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2002 Yokohama – Men's swimming | ||
Competitor for the  United States |
||
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:59.70 |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:12.48 |
| Gold | 4 × 100 m medley relay | 3:33.48 (WR) |
| Silver | 200 m butterfly | 1.55.41 |
| Silver | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:11.81 |
At Nationals, the selection meet for the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, in Fort Lauderdale, Phelps set an American record in the 200-m individual medley and was just off the world record in the 200-m butterfly.[16] In the 400-m individual medley, Phelps bettered the world record held by Tom Dolan with a time of 4:11.09, just ahead of Erik Vendt, who finished second with a time of 4:11.27, also below the old world record. In the 200-m freestyle, Phelps was barely beaten by Klete Keller and in the 100 m butterfly, Phelps beat Ian Crocker.[17]
At the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Yokohama, Phelps won three gold medals and two silvers. In his first event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps won gold ahead of Erik Vent with a time of 4:12.48. In the 200-m butterfly, Phelps lost to Tom Malchow, finishing behind him 1:55.41 to 1:55.21. Phelps said he lost because he did not take butterfly training seriously after he broke the world record. In the 200-m individual medley, Phelps won with a time of 1:59.70. In the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps, along with Nate Dusing, Klete Keller, and Chad Carvin, won the silver medal with a time 7:11.81 finishing behind Australia. The U.S. 4×100-m medley relay team consisted of Aaron Peirsol, Brendan Hansen, Phelps, and Ian Crocker. In the final for the medley relay, Phelps swam a 51.1 split, at the time the fastest split in history. The final time of 3:33.48 was a world record.[18]
2003 World Championships[link]
| World Championship medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2003 World Championships – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:54.35 |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:56.01 (WR) |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:09.09 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley relay | 3:31.54 (WR) |
| Silver | 100 m butterfly | 51.10 |
| Silver | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:10.26 |
At Nationals, Phelps won the 200-m freestyle, 200-m backstroke, and the 100-m butterfly.[19] He became the first American swimmer to win three different races in three different strokes at a national championship.[19] At the 2003 Duel in the Pool, a meet that pits swimming stars from Australia and the United States, Phelps broke the world record in the 400-m individual medley with a time of 4:10.73 and almost broke the world record in the 100-m butterfly, just missing the record by 0.03 seconds.[20] At a meet in Santa Clara, Phelps broke the world record in the 200-m individual medley with a time of 1:57.94.[21] Phelps said he broke the 200-m individual medley world record after Don Talbot said Phelps was unproven, using his words as motivation.[22]
At the 2003 World Aquatics Championships, Phelps won four gold medals, two silver medals, and broke five world records.[23] Phelps broke his first world record on July 22 in the semi-finals for the 200-m butterfly. Phelps swam a 1:53.93 to break his own world record of 1:54.58 set in 2001 and became the first man to swim under 1:54.00.[24] In the final of the 200-m butterfly, on July 23, Phelps easily won the gold medal, but did not come close to his world record with a time of 1:54.35.[25] Less than an hour later, Phelps swam the lead-off leg for the 4×200-m freestyle relay. Phelps put up a solid time of 1:46.60 (an American record) but the Americans could not match the depth of the Australians and ultimately finished second 7:10.26 to 7:08.58.[26] In the 200-m individual medley, Phelps showed complete dominance. On July 24, in the semifinals of the 200-m IM, Phelps broke his own world record with a time of 1:57.52.[27] On July 25, in the final of the 200-m IM, Phelps smashed his own record with a time of 1:56.04 to win the gold medal and finished almost 3 seconds ahead of Ian Thorpe.[28] About an hour before the final of the 200-m IM, Phelps swam in the semifinals of the 100-m butterfly. Phelps again showed dominance, finishing in the top seed with a world record time of 51.47.[29] However, in the final of the 100-m butterfly, on July 26, Ian Crocker erased Phelps' world record with a time of 50.98, to become the first man under 51 seconds. Phelps swam a 51.10 (also under his former world record), but had to settle for silver.[30] In the final of the 400-m individual medley, on July 27, Phelps broke his own world record with a time of 4:09.09 to easily claim the gold medal.[31] About half an hour later, Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4×100-m medley relay.[32] Phelps did not swim in the finals, but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats.[33]
2004 Summer Olympics[link]
See also: Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics
| Olympic medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2004 Athens – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 51.25 (OR) |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:54.04 (OR) |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:57.14 (OR) |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:08.26 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle | 7:07.33 (NR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley | 3:30.68 (WR) |
| Bronze | 200 m freestyle | 1:45.32 (NR) |
| Bronze | 4×100 m freestyle | 3:14.62 |
Trials[link]
At the 2004 U.S. Olympic Team Trials, Phelps competed in six events, including the 200- and 400-m IM, the 100- and 200-m butterfly, the 200-m freestyle, and the 200-m backstroke.[34] In his first event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps easily won with a world record time of 4:08.41.[35] Two days later, in the 200-m freestyle, Phelps won with a time of 1:46.27, finishing sixth-tenths of a second ahead of Klete Keller.[36] Phelps, however, was not pleased with the result and wanted to be in the 1:45s and was uncertain if he would swim the event in Athens.[37] The following day, Phelps won in the 200-m butterfly with a time of 1:54.31, three seconds ahead of second place finisher Tom Malchow.[38] After two days off, Phelps was back in the pool and finished second to Aaron Peirsol in the 200-m backstroke.[39] Less than half an hour later, Phelps won the 200 m individual medley title ahead of Ryan Lochte by 2.70 seconds.[40][41] The following day, Phelps finished second to Ian Crocker in the 100 m butterfly. Crocker won in a time of 50.76, a world record and 0.39 seconds ahead of Phelps.[42] When the Trials were over, Phelps became the first person to qualify in six individual events for a U.S. Olympic team.[43] However, Phelps dropped the 200-m backstroke to focus on the 200-m freestyle because he wanted to race Ian Thorpe.[43] Even though Phelps didn't compete in the 100-m freestyle at the Trials, he was still selected for the 4×10-m freestyle relay. Gary Hall, Jr. thought this was unfair and said Phelps did not deserve a spot on the relay. Phelps argued his program was too crowded to compete in 100-m freestyle and was at least among the top four swimmers because he had beaten the top-seeded Jason Lezak the last time he had swum against him.[44]
Olympics[link]
In his first event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps won with a world record time of 4:08.26 to win his first Olympic gold medal.[45][46] The following day, in the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps, along with Ian Crocker, Neil Walker, and Jason Lezak, finished in third place with a time of 3:14.62.[47][48] Crocker's lead-off time of 50.05 was the worst among the field and was blamed on sickness.[49][50] In the event many were calling The Race of the Century, held the following day, Phelps finished in third place behind Ian Thorpe and Pieter van den Hoogenband in the 200-m freestyle.[51][52] Although this race ended the chance to match Spitz's record, Phelps had savored the challenge even though it was not his strongest event, saying "How can I be disappointed? I swam in a field with the two fastest freestylers of all time".[53] In his fourth event, the 200-m butterfly, held the following day, Phelps finished first with a time of 1:54.04, breaking Tom Malchow's Olympic record.[54][55] About an hour later, in the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps, along with Ryan Lochte, Peter Vanderkaay, and Klete Keller, finished in first place with a time of 7:07.33.[56] Two days later, in the 200-m individual medley, Phelps finished first with a time of 1:57.14, an Olympic record.[57] In the 100-m butterfly final, held the following day, Phelps defeated American teammate Ian Crocker (who held the world record in the event at the time) by just 0.04 seconds with a time of 51.25.[58][59] Traditionally, the Olympian who places highest in an individual event will be automatically given the corresponding leg of the 4×100 m medley relay. This gave Phelps an automatic entry into the medley relay, but he deferred and Crocker swam instead.[59][60] Phelps' gesture gave Crocker a chance to make amends as well getting his final shot at a gold medal.[60] The American medley team went on to win the event in world-record time, and, since Phelps had raced in a preliminary heat of the medley relay, he was also awarded a gold medal along with the team members who competed in the final.[61][62] In winning six gold and two bronze medals, Phelps, still a teenager, had the second-best performance ever at a single Olympics, behind Mark Spitz's seven gold medals in Munich in 1972. Also, he became the second male swimmer ever to win more than two individual titles at a single Games with four, tying Spitz's four from 1972.
2005 World Championships[link]
| World Championship medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2005 World Championships – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 200 m freestyle | 1:45.20 (NR) |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:56.68 |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:13.77 (CR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:06.58 |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley relay | 3:31.85 |
| Silver | 100 m butterfly | 51.65 |
At the 2005 World Championship Trials, Phelps decided to drop his specialty events, the 400-m individual medley and the 200-m butterfly, and experiment with the 400-m freestyle and the 100-m freestyle.[63] Phelps went on to win the 400-m freestyle, the 200-m freestyle, the 100-m butterfly, the 100-m freestyle, and the 200-m individual medley at the Trials.[64][65][66][67][68]
At the 2005 World Aquatics Championships, Phelps won a total of six medals, 5 golds and one silver.[69] In the 400-m freestyle, Phelps did not make it past the preliminary heats and finished 18th overall with a time of 3:50.53.[70] Later that day, in the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps won his first gold in the Championships.[71] Two days later, on July 26, Phelps won his second gold in the 2000m freestyle with a new American record time of 1:45.20, finishing ahead of Grant Hackett.[72] Two days later, on July 28, Phelps finished 7th in the 100-m freestyle final.[73] Later that day, Phelps won his third gold in the 200-m individual medley.[74] On July 29, Phelps, along with Ryan Lochte, Peter Vanderkaay and Klete Keller, won the gold in the 4×200-m freestyle relay with a time of 7:06.58. This was the fourth gold medal for Phelps.[75] On July 30, Phelps swam in his last individual event, the 100-m butterfly. In the final, Phelps could not match the speed of Ian Crocker and had to settle for silver, finishing 51.65 to 50.40.[76] On July 31, Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4×100-m medley relay.[77] Phelps did not swim in the finals but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats.[78]
2006 Pan Pacific Championships[link]
See also: 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships
| Pan Pacific medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2006 Victoria – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:53.80 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:55.84 (WR) |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:10.47 |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:12.46 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:05.28 |
| Silver | 200 m backstroke | 1:56.81 |
At the 2006 National Championships, Phelps won a total of three events.[79] In his first event, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps won with a time of 1:54.32.[80] In his second event, the 100-m butterfly, Phelps just edged out Ian Crocker 51.51 to 51.73.[81] In his third event, the 200-m individual medley, Phelps won with a time of 1:56.50, just ahead of Ryan Lochte's time of 1:56.78.[82]
At the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Victoria, Phelps won five gold medals and one silver.[83] In his first event, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps won in a world record time of 1:53.80, his first world record in two years.[84] In his second event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps easily won with a time of 4:10.47, 3.38 seconds ahead of second place finisher Robert Margalis.[85] In his third event, the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps, along with Ryan Lochte, Peter Vanderkaay, and Klete Keller, won the gold medal with a time of 7:05.28.[86] In his fourth event, the 200-m backstroke, Phelps won the silver medal, finishing behind Aaron Peirsol 1:56.81 to 1:54.44.[87] In his fifth event, the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps, along with Neil Walker, Cullen Jones, and Jason Lezak, won the gold medal with a world-record time 3:12.46.[88] In his sixth event, the 200-m individual medley, Phelps won with a world record time of 1:55.84, breaking his record of 1:55.94 set in 2003.[89]
2007 World Championships[link]
| World Championship medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2007 World Championships – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 50.77 |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:52.09 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m freestyle | 1:43.86 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:54.98 (WR) |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:06.22 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:12.72 (CR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:03.24 (WR) |
At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships, Phelps won seven gold medals, tying the record, and broke five world records.[90] Phelps first gold medal came in the 4×100-m freestyle. Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 48.42 and Neil Walker, Cullen Jones and Jason Lezak each expanded the lead to win in a Championship record of 3:12.72, just missing the world record of 3:12.46 set the previous year.[91] Phelps set his first world record in the Championships in the 200-m freestyle, his second race. Phelps won the gold ahead of Pieter van den Hoogenband and broke Ian Thorpe's six-year-old world record with a time of 1:43.86.[92] For his third race, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps won the gold and bettered his own world record of 1:53.71 with a time of 1:52.09.[93] For his fourth race, the 200-m individual medley, Phelps set his third world record with a time of 1:54.98, bettering his own world-record time of 1:55.84[94] For his fifth race, the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 1:45.36 as the American team of Ryan Lochte, Klete Keller, and Peter Vanderkaay went on to win the gold medal and beat the previous world record set by Australia in 2001 with a time 7:03.24.[95] For his sixth race, the 100-m butterfly, Phelps edged out Ian Crocker 50.77 to 50.82 to win his sixth gold medal.[96] For his seventh event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps won the gold medal in a world-record time of 4:06.22, more than 3.5 seconds ahead of Ryan Lochte.[97] The 4×100-m medley relay team would have competed in the final, but received a disqualification for a false start during a changeover in the heats, ending Phelps' chance of eight gold medals.[98]
2008 Summer Olympics[link]
See also: Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2008 Summer Olympics
| Olympic medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2008 Beijing – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 50.58 (OR) |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:52.03 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m freestyle | 1:42.96 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m individual medley | 1:54.23 (WR) |
| Gold | 400 m individual medley | 4:03.84 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:08.24 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 6:58.56 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley relay | 3:29.34 (WR) |
Trials[link]
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials, Phelps competed in six individual events. In his first event, the 400-m individual medley, Phelps broke his own world record of 4:06.22 with a time of 4:05.25.[99] In his second event, the 200-m freestyle, Phelps won with a time of 1:44.10, ahead of Peter Vanderkaay's time 1:45.85.[100] In his third event, the 100-m freestyle, Phelps placed second in his heat with a time of 47.92, ensuring him a spot on the relay.[101] In his fourth event, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps won with a time of 1:52.20.[102] In his fifth event, the 200-m individual medley, Phelps broke his own world record of 1:54.98 with a time of 1:54.80.[103] In his sixth and final event, the 100-m butterfly, Phelps won with a time of 50.89.[104] When asked about his chances of winning eight gold medals in Beijing, Phelps said, "I am going to prepare for that meet just like I do every other meet ... There is only so much I can do in a month and then I am going to prepare myself the best that I can."[105]
Olympics[link]
Phelps set an Olympic record in the preliminary heats of the men's 400-m individual medley.[106][107] He followed that up in the final by winning the gold medal, as well as breaking his previous world record by nearly two seconds.[108][109]
Phelps swam the first leg of the men's 4×100-m freestyle relay in a time of 47.51 seconds (an American record for the 100-m freestyle), and won his second gold medal of the 2008 Olympics, as well as setting his second world record of the Olympics (3:08.24).[110] Teammate Jason Lezak, after beginning the anchor leg more than half a body length behind Alain Bernard, managed to finish ahead of the second-place French team by eight hundredths of a second. The top five teams in the final finished ahead of the world record of 3:12.23 set the previous day by the American B team in a preliminary heat.[111]
For his third race, Phelps broke his previous world record in the 200-m freestyle by nearly a second and won his third gold medal. He also set his third world record at the Olympics, 1:42.96, winning by nearly two seconds over silver medalist Park Tae-Hwan.[112] In this race, Phelps became only the fifth Olympic athlete in modern history to win nine gold medals, joining Mark Spitz, Larisa Latynina, Paavo Nurmi, and Carl Lewis.[113]
The next day, Phelps participated in two finals. In his first event, the 200 m butterfly, Phelps made it four gold medals and world records in four events by swimming the final in 1:52.03, defeating silver medalist László Cseh by almost seven-tenths of a second despite his goggles' having filled up with water and being unable to "see anything for the last 100 meters.[114] This fourth gold medal was his tenth, and made him the all-time leader for most Olympic gold medals won by an individual in the modern Olympic era.[115]
Less than one hour after his gold medal victory in the 200-m butterfly, Phelps swam the lead-off leg of the 4×200-m freestyle relay. With Lochte, Ricky Berens, and Peter Vanderkaay, he won his fifth gold and set his fifth world record as the American team finished first with a time of 6:58.56. The Americans were the first team to break the seven-minute mark in the relay, and broke the previous record, set in Melbourne, Australia, by more than four and a half seconds.[116]
After taking a day off from finals (Phelps did swim in qualifying heats), Phelps won his sixth gold of the Beijing Games on August 15 by winning the 200-m individual medley with a world record time of 1:54.23, finishing ahead of Cseh by over two seconds.[117]
7th gold medal and controversy[link]
Before the final of the 100-m butterfly, Serbian-American swimmer Milorad Čavić caused a minor stir when he said it would be "good" if Phelps lost. "It'd be good for him if he loses. It would be nice if historians talk about Michael Phelps winning seven gold medals and losing the eight to 'some guy.' I'd like to be that guy", Čavić said.[118] Phelps responded, "When people say things like that, it fires me up more than anything."[119] On August 16, Phelps won his seventh gold medal of the Games in the men's 100-m butterfly, setting an Olympic record for the event with a time of 50.58 seconds and edging out his nearest competitor Čavić, by 1/100 of a second.[120]
Unlike all six of his previous events in the 2008 Games, Phelps did not set a new world record, leaving intact Ian Crocker's world-record time of 50.40 seconds, set in 2005.
Phelps's 0.01-second finish ahead of Čavić prompted the Serbian delegation to file a protest. Subsequent analysis of the video by the FINA panel, which required analyzing frames shot 1/10,000th of a second apart, was used to officially confirm Phelps's victory,[121] but the images were not immediately released to the press. The initial refusal by official timekeeper Omega to release underwater photos of the finish also raised questions due to Phelps's sponsorship relationship with Omega.[122] Čavić later wrote in his blog, "People, this is the greatest moment of my life. If you ask me, it should be accepted and we should move on. I've accepted defeat, and there's nothing wrong with losing to the greatest swimmer there has ever been".[123] However, in August 2009, Omega officials admitted that while Čavić "for sure" touched the wall first, "Phelps did it more forcefully," thus registering the time first.[124]
| Epic. It goes to show you that not only is this guy the greatest swimmer of all time and the greatest Olympian of all time, he's maybe the greatest athlete of all time. He's the greatest racer who ever walked the planet. |
| —Mark Spitz (on Phelps winning his 7th gold medal)[125] |
Phelps's seventh gold medal of the Games tied Mark Spitz's record for gold medals won in a single Olympic Games, set in the 1972 Olympics. It was also his fifth individual gold medal in Beijing, tying the record for individual gold medals at a single Games originally set by Eric Heiden in the 1980 Winter Olympics and equaled by Vitaly Scherbo at the 1992 Summer Games. Said Phelps upon setting his seventh-straight Olympic record of the Games in as many events, "Dream as big as you can dream, and anything is possible ... I am sort of in a dream world. Sometimes I have to pinch myself to make sure it is real."
All-time record[link]
On August 17, Phelps won his eighth gold medal in the men's 4×100-m medley relay, breaking Mark Spitz's record of seven gold medals won in a single Olympic Games, which had stood since 1972.[126] Phelps, along with teammates Brendan Hansen, Aaron Peirsol, and Jason Lezak, set a new world record in the event with a time of 3 minutes and 29.34 seconds, 0.7 seconds ahead of second-place Australia and 1.34 seconds faster than the previous record set by the United States at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. When Phelps dived in to swim the 100-m butterfly leg, the third leg of the 400-meter medley, the United States had been trailing Australia and Japan. Phelps completed his split in 50.1 seconds, the fastest butterfly split ever for the event, giving teammate Jason Lezak a more than half-second lead for the final leg, which he would hold onto to clinch the event in world record time.[127] Said Phelps, upon completing the event that awarded him his eighth gold medal and eighth Olympic record in as many events, "Records are always made to be broken no matter what they are ... Anybody can do anything that they set their mind to."[128]
2009 World Championships[link]
| World Championship medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2009 World Championships – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 49.82 (WR) |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:51.51 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:09.21 (CR) |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 6:58.55 (WR) |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley relay | 3:27.28 (WR) |
| Silver | 200 m freestyle | 1:43.22 |
At the 2009 National Championships, Phelps drastically shortened his program, swimming in only three individual events. In his first event, the 200-m freestyle, Phelps won with a time of 1:44.23.[129] In his second event, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps easily won with a time of 1:52.76, 0.88 seconds ahead of the second place finisher.[130] In his third event, the 100-m butterfly, Phelps won with a world-record time of 50.22.[131]
At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, Phelps won a total of 6 medals, 5 golds and 1 silver. In his first event, the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 47.78, well off his 47.51 performance in Beijing, but the American team was able to edge out Russia and France for the gold.[132] For his second race, the 200-m freestyle, Phelps lost his first race in four years to Germany's Paul Biedermann. Phelps touched second in 1:43.22, but Biedermann smashed Phelps' record of 1:42.96 set in Beijing a year ago with a time of 1:42.00.[133] Phelps took the silver graciously, but coach Bob Bowman threatened to withdraw Phelps from international competition because Bowman claimed Biedermann had an unfair advantage because he was wearing a full polyurethane swim suit, specifically an Arena X-Glide. Bowman said, "It took me five years to get Michael from 1:46 to 1:42 and this guy has done it in 11 months. That's an amazing training performance. I'd like to know how to do that."[134] Phelps rebounded from this loss and for his third race, the 200-m butterfly, Phelps won the gold and broke his own world record of 1:52.03 with a time of 1:51.51.[135] For his fourth race, the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 1:44.49 as the team went on to win the gold medal and break the world record set the previous year.[136] After his loss in the 200-m freestyle, many thought Phelps was vulnerable coming into the final for the 100-m butterfly.[137] His closest competitor, Milorad Čavić, who wore an Arena X-Glide (the same suit Biedermann beat Phelps with), thought people were making excuses for Phelps because he was wearing an LZR Racer. Čavić even offered to buy Phelps a new suit.[138] For his fifth race, the 100-m butterfly, Phelps won the gold and became the first man to complete it in under 50 seconds, beating Čavić 49.82 to 49.95.[139] The victory prompted a fierce celebration from Phelps, who sat on the lane rope and pumped his chest and swimsuit.[140] For his final event, the 4×100-m medley relay, Phelps won his fifth gold medal. Phelps, along with teammates Aaron Peirsol, Eric Shanteau, and David Walters, set a new world record in the event with a time of 3 minutes and 27.28 seconds.[141]
2010 Pan Pacific Championships[link]
See also: 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships
| Pan Pacific medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2010 Irvine – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 50.86 |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:54.11 |
| Gold | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:11.74 |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle relay | 7:03.84 |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley relay | 3:32.48 |
At the 2010 National Championships, Phelps competed in five individual events. In the 200-m freestyle, Phelps won ahead of Ryan Lochte in a time of 1:45.61.[142] About an hour later, Phelps returned to the pool to win the 200-m butterfly.[143] But Phelps was not happy with his performance and called it the "worst" 200-m butterfly of his life. In the 100-m butterfly, Phelps won his 50th national title in 50.65.[144] After the race, Phelps said he was "fairly pleased" with the result.[145][146] In the 200-m individual medley, Phelps finished second to Lochte 1:55.94 to 1:54.84.[147] It was the first time Lochte had beat Phelps in a major national meet.[148] In the 200-m backstroke, Phelps finished in 4th place in 1:56.98.[149]
On the first day of competition at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, Phelps opted out swimming in the final of the 200-m freestyle to focus on the 200-m butterfly. In the 200-m butterfly, Phelps led from start to finish, coming in first with a time of 1:54.11. Although it was much slower than his 1:51.51 time from the previous year, Phelps has not lost a 200-m butterfly final since 2002.[150][151] On day two of the competition, Phelps swam in the heats of the 400-m individual medley and contributed in the 4×200-m freestyle relay. In the heats of the 400-m individual medley, Phelps failed to make the A final, with Lochte and Tyler Clary taking the top two American positions.[152] Phelps did not swim in the B final of the 400-m individual medley. In the 4×200-m freestyle relay, Phelps, with Peter Vanderkaay, Ricky Berens, and Lochte, finished first ahead of Japan and Australia.[153] On day three of the competition, Phelps competed in the 100-m butterfly and contributed in the 4×100-m freestyle relay. In the 100-m butterfly, Phelps finished first in a time of 50.86, a championship record.[154] In the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps, with Lochte, Jason Lezak, and Nathan Adrian, finished first ahead of Australia and South Africa. As the lead-off leg in the 4×100-m freestyle relay, Phelps set the championship record in the 100-m freestyle with a time of 48.13.[155] In his final event, Phelps swam in the 4×100-m medley relay with Aaron Peirsol, Mark Gangloff, and Adrian and finished first ahead of Japan and Australia.[156]
2011 World Championships[link]
| World Championship medal record | ||
|---|---|---|
| 2011 World Championships – Men's swimming | ||
| Competitor for the USA | ||
| Gold | 100 m butterfly | 50.71 |
| Gold | 200 m butterfly | 1:53.34 |
| Gold | 4×200 m freestyle | 7:02.67 |
| Gold | 4×100 m medley | 3:32.06 |
| Silver | 200 m freestyle | 1:44.79 |
| Silver | 200 m individual medley | 1:54.16 |
| Bronze | 4×100 m freestyle relay | 3:11.96 |
In his first event at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai, Phelps won bronze in the 4×100-m freestyle relay with Garrett Weber-Gale, Jason Lezak, and Nathan Adrian.[157] This was Phelps' first bronze in a World Aquatics Championships. Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 48.08, the second-best lead-off in the field behind James Magnussen's 47.49. In his second event, the 200-m freestyle, Phelps won silver for the second consecutive time at a World Aquatics Championships. This time he finished second to Ryan Lochte in the event with a time of 1:44.79, compared to Lochte's time of 1:44.44.[158] In his third final, the 200-m butterfly, he won his first gold medal with a time of 1:53.34 to become the first swimmer to win five gold medals in one discipline at the World Aquatics Championships.[159] In his fourth event, the 200-m individual medley, Phelps again finished second to Lochte in a personal best of 1:54.16, which was 0.16 behind Lochte who swam a new world record.[160] It was Phelps' 30th medal in the World Aquatics Championships. Shortly after completing the semifinals of the 100-m butterfly, Phelps competed in the 4×200-m freestyle relay with Peter Vanderkaay, Ricky Berens, and Ryan Lochte. Phelps' team won the gold medal in a time of 7:02.67. Phelps swam the lead-off leg in 1:45.53, the third-best leg in the field.[161] In the 100-m butterfly, Phelps won his third consecutive title (also winning in 2007 and 2009) and second individual title of the meet with a time of 50.71.[162] In his last event, the 4×100-m medley relay, Phelps teamed with Nick Thoman, Mark Gangloff, and Nathan Adrian to win gold in a time of 3:32.06. Phelps' butterfly leg of 50.57 was by far the fastest butterfly leg in the field.[163]
2012 Summer Olympics[link]
Phelps has said he will compete at the 2012 Summer Olympics but it would likely be his last Olympics.[164][165] For the 2012 Olympics, Phelps has stated he will never do eight events again and will try new events. Phelps has said he will for sure drop the 400-m individual medley from his program, but his other events are in question. Phelps said, "I keep saying I want to go down and start sprinting, but Bob really isn't so keen on that ... I don't think that's going to happen ... Over the next four years, I'd like to try some different events, maybe not do some of the events I did here."[166][167]
Physique[link]
A few physical attributes particularly suit Phelps to swimming: his long, thin torso offers low drag; his arms span 6 feet 7 inches (201 cm)—disproportionate to his height of 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm)—and act as long, propulsive "paddles"; his relatively short legs lower drag, and perhaps add the speed enhancement of a hydrofoil; his size-14 feet provide the effect of flippers; and his hypermobile ankles can extend beyond the pointe of a ballet dancer, enabling him to whip his feet as if they were fins for maximum thrust through the water.[168]
Allegations of performance enhancing drug use[link]
Throughout the 2008 Olympics, Phelps was questioned by the press as to whether perhaps his feats were "too good to be true", a reference to unsupported rumors that Phelps might be taking performance enhancing drugs.[169][170] In response, Phelps noted that he had signed up for Project Believe, a project by the United States Anti-Doping Agency in which U.S. Olympians can volunteer to be tested in excess of the World Anti-Doping Agency guidelines.[171] During the Games, Phelps was tested nine times, and passed all of them.[172][173]
Bob Bowman[link]
Phelps has trained under Bob Bowman since he was 11 years old.[174] Bowman swam for Florida State University from 1983 to 1985.[175] Phelps has said Bowman reminded him of a drill sergeant because of his disciplined and regimented ways.[176] However, Phelps has said, "Training with Bob is the smartest thing I've ever done ... I'm not going to swim for anyone else."[177] After the 2004 Summer Olympics, Bowman was hired as the head coach for the University of Michigan after Jon Urbanchek retired. Phelps joined Bowman at Michigan to train and even took a few classes, but did not pursue a degree.[178][179] After the 2008 Summer Olympics, Bowman returned to Baltimore as CEO at the North Baltimore Aquatic Club. Phelps also returned to Baltimore with Bowman.[180]
Personal life[link]
Bob Bowman described Phelps as "a solitary man"[181] with a "rigid focus"[6] at the pool prior to a race, but afterwards "a man incredibly invested in the success of the people he cares about".[6] "He's unbelievably kind-hearted",[181] recounting Phelps's interaction with young children after practices.[6]
Controversies[link]
In November 2004, at the age of 19, Phelps was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol in Salisbury, Maryland.[182] He pleaded guilty to driving while impaired the following month and was granted probation before judgment and ordered to serve 18 months' probation, fined $250, obligated to speak to high school students about drinking and driving and had to attend a Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) meeting.[183] Questioned about the incident later that month by Matt Lauer on the Today Show, Phelps said it was an "isolated incident" and that he had "definitely let myself down and my family down ... I think I let a lot of people in the country down."[6]
In early 2009, Phelps admitted to "behavior which was regrettable and demonstrated bad judgment" following the publication of a photo by the British tabloid, The News of the World, showing him using a bong, a device used for smoking tobacco or marijuana.[184] Following an investigation, the Richland County Sheriff's Department announced on February 16 that Phelps would not be prosecuted in connection with the incident because there was not enough evidence.[185] USA Swimming suspended Phelps from swimming competitively for three months, and Kellogg's announced that it would not renew his endorsement contract.[186]
Relationship with Ian Thorpe[link]
Phelps idolized Australian Ian Thorpe as a teenager, modelling his public image after him.[187] Thorpe initially said it was highly unlikely for Phelps to win eight gold medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.[188] His remarks were used by Phelps, who stuck them on his locker as motivation during the Games.[189] Thorpe was in the stands for the men's 4×100 meter medley relay, where Phelps was swimming for his eighth Olympic title. When Phelps and his teammates captured the gold, Thorpe gave a congratulatory kiss to Phelps' mother, then gave a handshake and a hug to congratulate Phelps. Thorpe afterwards said "I'm really proud of him not just because he won eight golds. Rather, it's how much he has grown up and matured into a great human being. Never in my life have I been so happy to have been proved wrong. I enjoyed every moment of it."[126] He added, "I just couldn't envision it happening. And I didn't think he would get all eight, not because Michael couldn't win, but because of the competition. It's been a very tough week to get through. I couldn't do it. You couldn't imagine much closer races. The 4×100 free goes down as one of the all-time great races."[190][191]
Philanthropy[link]
After the 2008 Olympics, Phelps used his $1 million Speedo bonus to set up the Michael Phelps Foundation.[192][193] His foundation focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles.[194]
In 2010 the Michael Phelps Foundation, the Michael Phelps Swim School and KidsHealth.Org developed and nationally piloted the im program for Boys & Girls Club members. The im program teaches children the importance of being active and healthy, with a focus on the sport of swimming. It also promotes the value of planning and goal-setting.[195]
Honors and awards[link]
Phelps was a USA Olympic Team Member in 2000, 2004, and 2008, and holds the records for most Olympic gold medals (14), most such medals in individual events (9), and most such medals at a single games (8, in Beijing 2008).[4] A street in his hometown of Baltimore was re-named The Michael Phelps Way in 2004.[196] On April 9, 2009, Phelps was invited to appear before the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate, to be honored for his Olympic accomplishments.[197]
Phelps has also received the following awards:
- World Swimmer of the Year Award: 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009[198]
- American Swimmer of the Year Award: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009[198][199]
- Golden Goggle Male Performance of the Year: 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009[4]
- Golden Goggle Relay Performance of the Year: 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009[4]
- Golden Goggle Male Athlete of the Year: 2004, 2007, 2008[4]
- USOC SportsMan of the Year Award: 2004, 2008[200]
- James E. Sullivan Award: 2003[201]
- Laureus World Sports Sportsman of the Year Award (Nominated): 2004, 2005, 2008, 2009[202][203][204][205]
- Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year: 2008[206]
World records[link]
With 39 world records (29 individual, 10 relay) as of 02009-12-19December 19, 2009, Phelps has set more records than any other swimmer, surpassing Mark Spitz's previous record of 33 world records (26 individual, 7 relay). All but two of the records were set in a long-course (50-meter) pool; records that currently stand are indicated in bold. Currently, he holds seven world records.
| No. | Distance | Event | Time | Location | Date | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 200 m | Butterfly | 1:54.92 | Austin, Texas, US | 02001-03-30March 30, 2001 | [207] |
| 2 | 200 m | Butterfly (2) | 1:54.58 | Fukuoka, Japan | 02001-07-24July 24, 2001 | [207] |
| 3 | 400 m | Individual medley | 4:11.09 | Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, US | 02002-08-15August 15, 2002 | [208] |
| 4 | 4×100 m | Medley relay[a] | 3:33.48 | Yokohama, Japan | 02002-08-29August 29, 2002 | [209] |
| 5 | 400 m | Individual medley (2) | 4:10.73 | Indianapolis, Indiana, US | 02003-04-06April 6, 2003 | [210] |
| 6 | 200 m | Individual medley | 1:57.94 | Santa Clara, California, US | 02003-06-29June 29, 2003 | [211] |
| 7 | 200 m | Butterfly (3) | 1:53.93 | Barcelona, Spain | 02003-07-22July 22, 2003 | [212] |
| 8 | 200 m | Individual medley (2) | 1:57.52 | Barcelona, Spain | 02003-07-24July 24, 2003 | [212] |
| 9 | 100 m | Butterfly | 0:51.47 | Barcelona, Spain | 02003-07-25July 25, 2003 | [212] |
| 10 | 200 m | Individual medley (3) | 1:56.04 | Barcelona, Spain | 02003-07-25July 25, 2003 | [212] |
| 11 | 400 m | Individual medley (3) | 4:09.09 | Barcelona, Spain | 02003-07-27July 27, 2003 | [212] |
| 12 | 200 m | Individual medley (4) | 1:55.94 | College Park, Maryland, US | 02003-08-09August 9, 2003 | [213] |
| 13 | 400 m | Individual medley (4) | 4:08.41 | Long Beach, California, US | 02004-07-07July 7, 2004 | [214] |
| 14 | 400 m | Individual medley (5) | 4:08.26 | Athens, Greece | 02004-08-14August 14, 2004 | [215] |
| 15 | 200 m | Butterfly (4) | 1:53.80 | Victoria, British Columbia, Canada | 02006-08-17August 17, 2006 | [216] |
| 16 | 4×100 m | Freestyle relay[b] | 3:12.46 | Victoria, British Columbia, Canada | 02006-08-19August 19, 2006 | [216] |
| 17 | 200 m | Individual medley (5) | 1:55.84 | Victoria, British Columbia, Canada | 02006-08-20August 20, 2006 | [216] |
| 18 | 200 m | Butterfly (5) | 1:53.71 | Columbia, Missouri, US | 02007-02-17February 17, 2007 | [217] |
| 19 | 200 m | Freestyle | 1:43.86 | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | 02007-03-27March 27, 2007 | [218] |
| 20 | 200 m | Butterfly (6) | 1:52.09 | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | 02007-03-28March 28, 2007 | [218] |
| 21 | 200 m | Individual medley (6) | 1:54.98 | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | 02007-03-29March 29, 2007 | [218] |
| 22 | 4×200 m | Freestyle relay[c] | 7:03.24 | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | 02007-03-30March 30, 2007 | [218] |
| 23 | 400 m | Individual medley (6) | 4:06.22 | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | 02007-04-01April 1, 2007 | [218] |
| 24 | 400 m | Individual medley (7) | 4:05.25 | Omaha, Nebraska, US | 02008-06-29June 29, 2008 | [219] |
| 25 | 200 m | Individual medley (7) | 1:54.80 | Omaha, Nebraska, US | 02008-07-04July 4, 2008 | [219] |
| 26 | 400 m | Individual medley (8) | 4:03.84 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-10August 10, 2008 | [220] |
| 27 | 4×100 m | Freestyle relay (2)[d] | 3:08.24 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-11August 11, 2008 | [220] |
| 28 | 200 m | Freestyle (2) | 1:42.96 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-12August 12, 2008 | [221] |
| 29 | 200 m | Butterfly (7) | 1:52.03 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-13August 13, 2008 | [222] |
| 30 | 4×200 m | Freestyle relay (2)[e] | 6:58.56 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-13August 13, 2008 | [223] |
| 31 | 200 m | Individual medley (8) | 1:54.23 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-15August 15, 2008 | [224] |
| 32 | 4×100 m | Medley relay (2)[a] | 3:29.34 | Beijing, China | 02008-08-17August 17, 2008 | [225] |
| 33 | 100 m | Butterfly (2) | 0:50.22 | Indianapolis, Indiana, US | 02009-07-09July 9, 2009 | [226] |
| 34 | 200 m | Butterfly (8) | 1:51.51 | Rome, Italy | 02009-07-29July 29, 2009 | [227] |
| 35 | 4×200 m | Freestyle relay (3)[f] | 6:58.55 | Rome, Italy | 02009-07-31July 31, 2009 | [227] |
| 36 | 100 m | Butterfly (3) | 0:49.82 | Rome, Italy | 02009-08-01August 1, 2009 | [227] |
| 37 | 4×100 m | Medley relay (3)[g] | 3:27.28 | Rome, Italy | 02009-08-02August 2, 2009 | [227] |
| 38 | 4×100 m | Medley relay (sc)[h] | 3:20.71 | Manchester, United Kingdom | 02009-12-18December 18, 2009 | [228] |
| 39 | 4×100 m | Freestyle relay (sc)[i] | 3:03.30 | Manchester, United Kingdom | 02009-12-19December 19, 2009 | [229] |
- a with Aaron Peirsol, Brendan Hansen, and Jason Lezak
- b with Neil Walker, Cullen Jones, and Jason Lezak
- c with Ryan Lochte, Klete Keller, and Peter Vanderkaay
- d with Garrett Weber-Gale, Cullen Jones, and Jason Lezak
- e with Ryan Lochte, Ricky Berens, and Peter Vanderkaay
- f with Ryan Lochte, Ricky Berens, and David Walters
- g with Aaron Peirsol, Eric Shanteau and David Walters
- h short course record with Nick Thoman, Mark Gangloff and Nathan Adrian
- i short course record with Nathan Adrian, Matt Grevers and Garrett Weber-Gale
See also[link]
- List of multiple Olympic gold medalists
- List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games
- List of multiple Olympic medalists
- List of multiple Olympic medalists at a single Games
- World record progression 100 metres butterfly
- World record progression 200 metres butterfly
- World record progression 200 metres freestyle
- World record progression 200 metres individual medley
- World record progression 400 metres individual medley
- World record progression 4x100 metres freestyle relay
- World record progression 4x200 metres freestyle relay
- World record progression 4x100 metres medley relay
Notes[link]
- ^ "Michael Phelps biography and family!". FAQGO.com. 2008-08-10. Archived from the original on 2010-08-25. http://www.webcitation.org/5sG7LpKho. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ Harris, Nick (2008-08-11). "'Baltimore Bullet' has history in his sights". The Independent (London). Archived from the original on 2010-08-25. http://www.webcitation.org/5sFuQpI5B. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ "'Flying Fish' Phelps largely unknown in China". MSNBC.com. 2008-08-17. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26249018/ns/beijing_olympics-beijing_olympics_news/t/flying-fish-phelps-largely-unknown-china/. Retrieved 2012-04-21.
- ^ a b c d e f "USA Swimming bio: Michael Phelps". USA Swimming. http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopModules/BioViewManaged.aspx?personid=4beec290-d7ae-483d-a512-36b18a4e022a&TabId=1453&Mid=10312. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ [1]
- ^ a b c d e "Phelps' voyage". The Baltimore Sun. 2008-08-03. Archived from the original on 2010-09-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5sWfHxTXl. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ a b Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 15.
- ^ http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~battle/olympics08/phelps.htm
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 16.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 24.
- ^ Schaller, p. 4.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 85.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 78.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 88.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 92.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 109.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 110
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 111
- ^ a b Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 122.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 123.
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- ^ "2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships – 100 m butterfly results (final)". Omega Timing. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2010/IrvinePPchampionships/C73A1_Res1Heat_124_Finals_1_Men_100_Fly.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
- ^ "2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships – 4×100 m freestyle relay results (final)". Omega Timing. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2010/IrvinePPchampionships/C74B_ResSummaryRelay_30_Heats_Men_4x100_Free.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
- ^ "2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships – 4×100 m medley relay results (final)". Omega Timing. http://omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2010/IrvinePPchampionships/C74B_ResSummaryRelay_140_Finals_Men_4x100_Medley.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-21.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Australia Stuns France, U.S. For Men's 400 Free Relay Triumph; Two New Textile Bests". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-24. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27647.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:--Australia-Stuns-France,-U.S.-For-Men's-400-Free-Relay-Triumph;-Two-New-Textile-Bests. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Ryan Lochte Bests Michael Phelps For 200 Free Gold". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-26. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27675.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-Ryan-Lochte-Bests-Michael-Phelps-For-200-Free-Gold. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Michael Phelps Closes Out Takeshi Matsuda for Gold Medal". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-27. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27694.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-Michael-Phelps-Closes-Out-Takeshi-Matsuda-for-Gold-Medal. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Ryan Lochte Sets First Post Techsuit-Era World Record". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-28. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27712.asp?=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-Ryan-Lochte-Sets-First-Post-Techsuit-Era-World-Record. Retrieved 2011-07-28.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Ryan Lochte's Monster Anchor Leg Secures United States Victory in 800 Free Relay". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-29. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27740.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-Ryan-Lochte's-Monster-Anchor-Leg-Secures-United-States-Victory-in-800-Free-Relay. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: Michael Phelps Threepeats 100 Fly". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-30. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27755.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-Michael-Phelps-Threepeats-100-Fly. Retrieved 2011-07-30.
- ^ "FINA World Championships, Swimming: United States Edges Australia for 400 Medley Relay Win". Swimming World Magazine. 2011-07-31. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/27775.asp?q=FINA-World-Championships,-Swimming:-United-States-Edges-Australia-for-400-Medley-Relay-Win. Retrieved 2011-07-31.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 224.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 225.
- ^ Schaller, p.228.
- ^ Schaller, p. 229.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 67.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 185.
- ^ "I'm clean , says history making Phelps". Daily News and Analysis. 2008-08-15. http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/report_i-m-clean-says-history-making-phelps_1183542. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Craig Lord (2008-07-02). "Michael Phelps shrugs off question of drugs". The Sunday Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/olympics/article4537584.ece. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Allan Maki (2008-08-15). "Phelps deals with doping questions". The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/archives/article704542.ece. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Gina Kolata (2008-08-15). "So Far, Drug Testing Has Revealed Only a Few Positives". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/16/sports/olympics/16doping.html. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Schaller, p. 24.
- ^ Schaller, p. 22.
- ^ Schaller, p. 25.
- ^ Kevin Van Valkenburg (2008-08-16). "Opposites attract". The Baltimore Sun. http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/bal-te.sp.bowman16aug16,0,265609.story. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
- ^ Schaller, p. 45.
- ^ Schaller, p. 66.
- ^ Schaller, p. 27.
- ^ a b "Profile: Michael Phelps". The Sunday Times (London). 2008-08-17. Archived from the original on 2010-09-07. http://www.webcitation.org/5sZXr3cIe. Retrieved 2010-09-07.
- ^ Schaller, p. 42.
- ^ "Olympic Champ Sentenced For DUI". CBS News. 2004-12-29. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/08/national/main654380.shtml. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
- ^ "Michael Phelps: Behavior 'inappropriate'". The Baltimore Sun. 2009-02-02. Archived from the original on 2010-08-25. http://www.webcitation.org/5sG4hWXFE. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ "Not enough evidence to charge Phelps, sheriff says". CNN. 2009-02-16. Archived from the original on 2010-08-25. http://www.webcitation.org/5sG62yWfn. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ Juliet Macur (2009-02-05). "Phelps Disciplined Over Marijuana Pipe Incident". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/sports/othersports/06phelps.html?ref=sports. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 95.
- ^ Nicole Jeffery (2008-07-23). "Thorpe's doubt of eight gold sweep spurs Phelps". The Australian. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/thorpes-doubt-of-eight-gold-sweep-spurs-phelps/story-e6frg7mo-1111116988410. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Phelps, Beneath the Surface, p. 281.
- ^ Schaller, p. 196.
- ^ Kaz Mochlinski (2008-08-20). "Ian Thorpe happy to have been proved wrong by Michael Phelps". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/2591815/Ian-Thorpe-happy-to-have-been-proved-wrong-by-Michael-Phelps-Olympics.html. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 227.
- ^ Bob Considine (2008-09-02). "Phelps to use $1 million bonus to start charity". TODAY People. http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/26506320/. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Phelps, No Limits, p. 226.
- ^ Van Valkenburg, Kevin (6/24/2011). "Phelps expands swimming education initiative". http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/bs-sp-phelps-foundation-0624-20110623,0,136720.story. Retrieved 8/4/2011.
- ^ "Athlete Bio: Michael Phelps". The New York Times. 2008-07-26. Archived from the original on 2010-09-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5sWfnpqdn. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ "Phelps wins over General Assembly, hopes Preakness stays in Maryland". Baltimore Sun. http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/news/local/politics/2009/04/michael_phelps_general_assembl.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
- ^ a b "Swimming World Magazine: Swimmers of the Year". Swimming World Magazine. 2009-12-01. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/SwimmersOfTheYear.asp. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ "Swimming World Names 2009 American Swimmers of the Year". Swimming World Magazine. 2009-11-29. Archived from the original on 2010-09-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5sWbpfsY0. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ "USOC Athletes of the Year". United States Olympic Committee. http://www.teamusa.org/resources/olympic-facts-figures/olympic-honors/usoc-athletes-of-the-year. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ Freeman, Rick (2004-04-13). "Phelps joins prestigious Sullivan list". USA Today. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2010-09-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5sWdylZVP. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ "Nominees archive (2004)". Laureus.com. http://www.laureus.com/nominees?year=2004. Retrieved 2010-09-05. [dead link]
- ^ "Nominees archive (2005)". Laureus.com. http://www.laureus.com/nominees?year=2005. Retrieved 2010-09-05. [dead link]
- ^ "Nominees archive (2008)". Laureus.com. http://www.laureus.com/nominees?year=2008. Retrieved 2010-09-05. [dead link]
- ^ "Nominees archive (2009)". Laureus.com. http://www.laureus.com/nominees?year=2009. Retrieved 2010-09-05. [dead link]
- ^ "Michael Phelps Named Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year". Swimming World Magazine. 2008-12-02. Archived from the original on 2010-09-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5sWbQ4lbJ. Retrieved 2010-09-05.
- ^ a b Litsky, Frank (2001-11-30). "Youngster Quickly Joins Elite". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVLxOxLh. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "World Record Not Quite Enough For Vendt In 400m IM". Usctrojans.com. 2002-08-15. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVMJml4q. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "U.S. Men Have Last Word, Set World Mark in 400m Medley Relay as Pan Pacs End With a Bang". Swimming World Magazine. 2002-08-29. Archived from the original on 2010-09-07. http://www.webcitation.org/5sZWtiOH7. Retrieved 2010-09-07.
- ^ "Phelps Lowers His Own World Record in the 400 IM at "Duel in the Pool"". Swimming World Magazine. 2003-04-06. Archived from the original on 2010-09-07. http://www.webcitation.org/5sZXBSEuy. Retrieved 2010-09-07.
- ^ Ostler, Scott (2003-06-30). "New world record? Phelps just starting". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVLAiZMa. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b c d e "10th FINA World Championships, Barcelona (ESP): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Event". Omega Timing. 2003-07-26. p. 167. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2003/barcelona2003/Book_All_Results.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "Phelps sets new world mark in 200m medley". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2003-08-10. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVIMBOM6. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ May, Meredith (2004-07-08). "Setting the pace / Phelps breaks own world record in Olympic qualifying". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVHrVe0A. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "Phelps earns first gold". Casper Star-Tribune. 2004-08-15. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVHVU0pN. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b c "2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, Victoria, British Columbia (CAN): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Event". Omega Timing. 2006-08-20. p. 76. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2006/victoria_2006/2006_Pan_Pacs_Victoria_BC_CAN.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "Phelps sets world record at Grand Prix". Columbia Missourian. 2007-02-18. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVHD6Gvc. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b c d e "12th FINA World Championships, Melbourne (AUS): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Event". Omega Timing. 2007-04-01. p. 190. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2007/melbourne2007/Book_All_Results.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b "2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials, Omaha (USA): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Event". Omega Timing. 2008-07-06. p. 162. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2008/Omaha_b_2008/2008_US_Olympic_Trials.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b "Men's long course world records as of December 18, 2009". Swimming World Magazine. 2009-12-18. http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/results/records/WorldRecords_LCM.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "Phelps picks up third gold medal in Beijing". The Belfast Telegraph. 2008-08-12. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVKuD9Wt. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "More gold and another day at the office for Michael Phelps". Daily News (New York). 2008-08-12. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVKezpiU. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ Stallman, Jason (2008-08-12). "Phelps Adds 2 More Gold Medals". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVKQ6zhN. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ Stallman, Jason (2008-08-15). "Phelps wins 200 individual medley for sixth gold". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVKGNyfJ. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "Michael Phelps overtakes Mark Spitz with record-breaking haul of eight gold medals". The Sunday Telegraph (London). 2008-08-17. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVJzUNDj. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "USA Swimming National Championships: Michael Phelps Demolishes World Record in 100 Fly". Swimming World Magazine. 2009-07-09. Archived from the original on 2010-09-04. http://www.webcitation.org/5sVFrlHMY. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b c d "13th FINA World Championships, Rome (ITA): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Event". Omega Timing. 2009-07-30. pp. 246–247. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2009/Roma2009/Book_All_Results.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ "British Gas Duel in the Pool – 4×100 m medley relay (final)". Omega Timing. http://www.omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2009/DuelManchester/C73B1_Res1HeatRelay_102_Finals_1_Men_4x100_Medley.pdf. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
- ^ "British Gas Duel in the Pool: United States Team vs European Select Team: December 18–19 – 2009 Manchester (GBR): Full Results Book: Records Broken By Record Type". Omega Timing. 2009-12-19. p. 32. http://omegatiming.com/swimming/racearchives/2009/DuelManchester/Book_All_Results.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
References[link]
- Phelps, Michael (2004). Beneath the Surface. United States: Sports Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-1-59670-352-0.
- Phelps, Michael (2008). No Limits: The Will to Succeed. United States: Free Press. ISBN 1-4391-3072-8.
- Schaller, Bob (2008). Michael Phelps: The Untold Story of a Champion. United States: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-35737-0.
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Michael Phelps |
- USA Swimming athlete bio: Michael Phelps
- Michael Phelps at the United States Olympic Committee
- Michael Phelps Foundation official website
- Michael Phelps on Twitter
- Michael Phelps on Facebook
| Records | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Tom Malchow |
Men's 200 meter butterfly world record holder (long course) March 30, 2001 – Present |
Incumbent |
| Preceded by Tom Dolan |
Men's 400 meter individual medley world record holder (long course) August 15, 2002 – Present |
Incumbent |
Preceded by Jani Sievinen |
Men's 200 meter individual medley world record holder (long course) June 29, 2003 – July 30, 2009 |
Succeeded by Ryan Lochte |
Preceded by Andriy Serdinov Ian Crocker Milorad Čavić |
Men's 100 meter butterfly world record holder (long course) July 25, 2003 – July 26, 2003 July 9, 2009 – July 31, 2009 August 1, 2009 – present |
Succeeded by Ian Crocker Milorad Čavić Incumbent |
Preceded by Ian Thorpe |
Men's 200 meter freestyle world record holder (long course) March 27, 2007 – July 28, 2009 |
Succeeded by Paul Biedermann |
| Awards | ||
| Preceded by Ian Thorpe Grant Hackett |
World Swimmer of the Year 2003–2004 2006–2009 |
Succeeded by Grant Hackett Ryan Lochte |
| Preceded by Lenny Krayzelburg & Tom Dolan Aaron Peirsol |
American Swimmer of the Year 2001–2004 2006–2009 |
Succeeded by Aaron Peirsol Ryan Lochte |
| Preceded by Lance Armstrong Tyson Gay |
USOC Sportsman of the Year 2004 2008 |
Succeeded by Hunter Kemper Todd Lodwick |
|
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Phelps, Michael Fred |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | swimmer, Olympic Gold medalist |
| Date of birth | June 30, 1985 |
| Place of birth | Baltimore, Maryland, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Michael_Phelps
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http://ru.wn.com/Фелпс, Майкл
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Phelps
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Justin Bieber | |
|---|---|
 Justin Bieber at the NRJ Music Awards in Cannes, France in 2012 |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Justin Drew Bieber[1] |
| Born | (1994-03-01) March 1, 1994 (age 18)[2] London, Ontario, Canada |
| Origin | Stratford, Ontario, Canada |
| Genres | Pop, R&B, teen pop[3][4][5] |
| Occupations | Singer-songwriter, musician, actor |
| Instruments | Vocals, guitar, piano, percussion,[6] trumpet[7] |
| Years active | 2008–present |
| Labels | Island, RBMG |
| Associated acts | Usher, Ludacris |
| Website | justinbiebermusic.com |
Justin Drew Bieber ( /ˈbiːbər/ BEE-bər, born March 1, 1994)[2] is a Canadian Pop/R&B singer-songwriter, musician, and actor.[3][5] Bieber was discovered in 2008 by Scooter Braun,[8] who came across Bieber's videos on YouTube and later became his manager. Braun arranged for him to meet with Usher in Atlanta, Georgia, and Bieber was soon signed to Raymond Braun Media Group (RBMG), a joint venture between Braun and Usher,[9] and then to a recording contract with Island Records offered by L.A. Reid.[6][10] Bieber's debut single, "One Time", was released in 2009 and peaked in the top twenty in Canada and charted in the top thirty in several international markets. His debut album, the seven-track EP My World, followed in November 2009, and was soon certified platinum in the United States. He became the first artist to have seven songs from a debut album chart on the Billboard Hot 100.[11]
Bieber's first full-length studio album, My World 2.0, was released in March 2010. It debuted at number one or within the top ten in several countries and was certified platinum in the United States. It was preceded by the worldwide top-ten single, "Baby". The music video of "Baby" is currently ranked as the most viewed and most discussed YouTube video.[12] Bieber followed up the release of his debut album with his first headlining tour, the My World Tour, the remix albums My Worlds Acoustic and Never Say Never – The Remixes, and the 3D biopic-concert film Justin Bieber: Never Say Never, that nearly matched the record for the biggest opening weekend gross for a concert-film. Bieber released his second studio album, Under the Mistletoe, in November 2011, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. Bieber has received numerous awards, including Artist of the Year at the 2010 American Music Awards, and has been nominated for such awards as Best New Artist and Best Pop Vocal Album at the 53rd Grammy Awards. In 2012, Bieber was named Forbes 3rd most powerful celebrity in the world, earning $55 million. As of May 2012, Bieber has sold 15 million albums.[13]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Bieber was born on March 1, 1994, in London, Ontario in St Joseph's Hospital,[14][15] and was raised in Stratford, Ontario.[16] Bieber's mother, Patricia Lynn "Pattie" Mallette, was 18 years old when she became pregnant. Mallette, originally from Stratford, raised her son with the help of her parents, Bruce and Diane.[17] Mallette worked a series of low-paying office jobs, raising Bieber as a single mother in low-income housing. Bieber has maintained contact with his father, Jeremy Jack Bieber, who married another woman and had two children.[18][19][20] Bieber's great-grandfather was from Germany.[21] Bieber's mother's ancestry is French Canadian.[22] Bieber attended a French immersion elementary school in Stratford called Jeanne Sauvé Catholic School.[17]
During his childhood, Bieber was interested in hockey, soccer, and chess; he often kept his musical aspirations to himself.[18] As he grew up, Bieber taught himself to play the piano, drums, guitar, and trumpet.[16][23] In early 2007, when he was twelve, Bieber sang Ne-Yo's "So Sick" for a local singing competition in Stratford and was placed second.[6][23] Mallette posted a video of the performance on YouTube for their family and friends to see. She continued to upload videos of Bieber singing covers of various R&B songs, and Bieber's popularity on the site grew.[10] Chris Hicks, Bieber's A&R at Island/Def Jam, explained the young artist's huge online following to HitQuarters by saying:
"He was doing something different. He was an attractive white kid singing very soulful R&B hits. That set him apart immediately from anyone in his range because no one was covering or singing these kind of records. But equally important was that you believed in these songs – it was real. And you wanted to hear more."[24]
Career[link]
[edit] 2008–09: Discovery and My World
While searching for videos of a different singer, Scooter Braun, a former marketing executive of So So Def, clicked on one of Bieber's 2007 videos by accident.[18] Impressed, Braun tracked down the theater Bieber was performing in, located Bieber's school, and finally contacted Mallette. Mallette was reluctant because of Braun's Jewish religion; she remembered praying, "God, I gave him to you. You could send me a Christian man, a Christian label! ... you don’t want this Jewish kid to be Justin’s man, do you?"[18] However, after praying with her church elders and receiving their encouragement, she permitted Braun to fly Bieber, then 13,[10] to Atlanta, Georgia, to record demo tapes.[18] A week after arriving, Bieber sang for R&B singer/songwriter Usher.[25] Bieber was soon signed to Raymond Braun Media Group (RBMG), a joint venture between Braun and Usher.[9] Justin Timberlake was also reportedly in the running to sign Bieber, but lost the bidding war to Usher.[9][26] Usher then sought assistance in finding a label home for the artist from then manager Chris Hicks, who helped engineer an audition with his contact Antonio L.A. Reid of Island Def Jam Music Group.[24] Reid signed Bieber to Island Records in October 2008 (resulting in a joint venture between RBMG and Island Records) and appointed Hicks as executive Vice-President of Def Jam where he would be able manage Bieber's career at the label.[6][9][10][24] At that point, Bieber and his mother moved to Atlanta temporarily, also the home of Usher and Braun, to record and get counseling from Braun.[9] Braun became Bieber's manager.[10]
Bieber's first single, "One Time", was released to radio while Bieber was still recording his debut album.[27] The song reached number 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 during its first week of release in July 2009,[10] and later peaked at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100. During fall 2009 it had success in international markets.[28] The song was certified Platinum in Canada and the US and Gold in Australia and New Zealand.[29][30][31] Bieber's first release, an extended play entitled My World, was released on November 17, 2009. The album's second single, "One Less Lonely Girl", and two promo singles, "Love Me", and "Favorite Girl", were released exclusively on the iTunes store and charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100.[28] "One Less Lonely Girl" was later also released to radio and peaked within the top fifteen in Canada and the US, being certified Gold in the latter.[28] My World was eventually certified Platinum in the US and Double Platinum in both Canada and the UK.[31][32][33] To promote the album, Bieber performed on several live shows such as mtvU's VMA 09 Tour, European program The Dome, YTV's The Next Star, The Today Show,[34][35] The Wendy Williams Show, Lopez Tonight, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, It's On with Alexa Chung, Good Morning America, Chelsea Lately, and BET's 106 & Park with Rihanna. Bieber also guest starred in an episode of True Jackson, VP in late 2009.[36]
Bieber performed Stevie Wonder's "Someday at Christmas" for U.S. President Barack Obama and first lady Michelle Obama at the White House for Christmas in Washington, which was broadcast on December 20, 2009, on U.S. television broadcaster TNT.[37] Bieber was also one of the performers at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on December 31, 2009.[38] Bieber was a presenter at the 52nd Grammy Awards on January 31, 2010. He was invited to be a vocalist for the remake of We Are The World (a song written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie) for its 25th anniversary to benefit Haiti after the earthquake. Bieber sings the opening line, which was sung by Lionel Richie in the original version.[39] On March 12, 2010, a version of K'naan's "Wavin' Flag" recorded by a collective of Canadian musicians known as Young Artists for Haiti was released. Bieber is featured in the song, performing the closing lines.
[edit] 2010–11: My World 2.0 and Never Say Never film
"Baby", the lead single from his debut album, My World 2.0, which features Ludacris, was released in January 2010 and became his biggest hit thus far, charting at number five in the U.S. and reaching the top ten in seven other countries.[28] Two promo singles "Never Let You Go", and "U Smile" were top thirty hits on the U.S. Hot 100, and top twenty hits in Canada.[28] According to review aggregator Metacritic, the album has received "generally favorable reviews".[40] It debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200, making Bieber the youngest solo male act to top the chart since Stevie Wonder in 1963.[41] My World 2.0 also debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, Irish Albums Chart, Australian Albums Chart, and the New Zealand Albums Chart[28] and reached the top ten of fifteen other countries.[42][43] To promote the album, Bieber appeared on several live programs including The View, the 2010 Kids Choice Awards, Nightline, The Late Show with David Letterman, The Dome and 106 and Park.[44] Bieber collaborated with Sean Kingston on his single "Eenie Meenie" which also appeared on Bieber's debut album. The song reached the top ten in the United Kingdom and Australia, and the top-twenty of most other markets.
On April 10, 2010, Bieber was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live.[45] On July 4, 2010, Bieber performed at the Macy's Fourth of July Fireworks Spectacular in New York City.[46] The second single from My World 2.0, "Somebody to Love", was released in April 2010, and a remix was released featuring Bieber's mentor Usher. The single reached number ten in Canada, number fifteen in the United States, and the top twenty in multiple international countries.
On June 23, 2010, Bieber went on his first official headlining tour, the My World Tour, starting in Hartford, Connecticut, to promote My World and My World 2.0.[47] In July 2010, it was reported that Bieber was the most searched for celebrity on the Internet.[48] That same month his music video, "Baby", surpassed Lady Gaga's "Bad Romance" to become the most viewed, and most disliked YouTube video ever.[49] In September 2010, it was reported that Bieber accounted for three percent of all traffic on Twitter, according to an employee of the social-networking site.[50]
Bieber began recording his second album in July 2010 in New York City.[51] At this point, because of puberty, his voice was deeper than it was when he recorded his first album. In April 2010, the singer discussing his vocals remarked, "It cracks. Like every teenage boy, I'm dealing with it and I have the best vocal coach in the world. [...] Some of the notes I hit on "Baby" I can't hit anymore. We have to lower the key when I sing live."[52]
Bieber guest-starred in the season premiere of the CBS crime drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, which aired on September 23, 2010. He played a "troubled teen who is faced with a difficult decision regarding his only brother", who is also a serial bomber. Bieber was also in a subsequent episode which aired on February 17, 2011, in which his character is killed.[53] Bieber performed a medley of "U Smile", "Baby", and "Somebody to Love" and briefly played the drums at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010.[54] Bieber announced in October 2010 that he would release an acoustic album, called My Worlds Acoustic.[55] It was released on Black Friday in the United States and featured acoustic versions of songs from his previous albums, and accompanied the release of a completely new song titled "Pray".[56]
A 3-D part-biopic, part-concert film starring Bieber entitled Justin Bieber: Never Say Never, was released on February 11, 2011, directed by Step Up 3D director Jon Chu. It topped the box office with an estimated gross of $12.4 million on its opening day from 3,105 theaters.[57] It grossed $30.3 million for the weekend and was narrowly beaten by the romantic comedy Just Go With It, which grossed $31 million.[58] Never Say Never is said to have exceeded industry expectations, nearly matching the $31.1 million grossed by Miley Cyrus's 2008 3-D concert film, Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, which holds the record for the top debut for a music-documentary.[59][60] Never Say Never grossed a total of $98,441,954 worldwide.[61] The film is accompanied by his second remix album, Never Say Never – The Remixes, released February 14, 2011, and features remixes of songs from his debut album, with guest appearances from Miley Cyrus, Chris Brown, and Kanye West, among others.[62]
[edit] 2011–present: Under The Mistletoe and Believe
On February 27, 2011, Bieber attended the 2011 Vanity Fair Oscar Party with American actress and singer Selena Gomez,[63] confirming several months of media speculation about a romantic relationship between the pair.[64][65][66][67][68][69]
In June 2011, Bieber was ranked number 2 on the Forbes list of Best-Paid Celebrities under 30. He is the youngest star and 1 of 7 musicians on the list raking in with $53 million earned in a 12 month period.[70] On November 1, 2011, Bieber released Under the Mistletoe, his second studio album.[71] It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 210,000 copies in its first week of release.[72]
In late 2011, Bieber began recording his third studio album, entitled Believe. Kanye West and Drake are confirmed to be featured on the album.[73] On February 22, 2012, Bieber announced via Twitter that the first single off Believe will be released in March 2012.[74] The following week, Bieber appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to announce that the first single will be called "Boyfriend" and was released on March 26, 2012.[75] The song was co-written by Mike Posner.[76] The second single, Die In Your Arms, was released on May 29th, 2012. [77]
Image[link]
Justin Bieber has a higher score on the Klout online "influence" scale than Barack Obama or The Dalai Lama.[78] According to Jan Hoffman of The New York Times, part of Bieber's appeal stems from his YouTube channel. Long before he released his EP, My World, in mid-November, the YouTube videos attracted millions of views.[18] Braun recognized the appeal. Prior to flying him to Atlanta, Braun wanted to "build him up more on YouTube first" and had Bieber record more home videos for the channel. "I said: 'Justin, sing like there’s no one in the room. But let's not use expensive cameras.' We'll give it to kids, let them do the work, so that they feel like it's theirs", recalled Braun.[18] Bieber continues to upload videos to the same channel and has opened a Twitter account, from which he interacts with fans regularly;[10] his account was reported in November 2010 to have over 6 million followers.[79] Since then he has been consistently gaining followers at an average of 24,000 per day.[80] The accounts also serve marketing purposes; for example, Bieber's music video for "One Time" only began selling quickly after it was uploaded to YouTube.[81]
Usher comments that while he and Bieber were both signed at the same age, "I had the chance to ramp up my success, where this has happened to Bieber abruptly." As a result, Usher, Braun, Bieber's bodyguard Kenny, and other adults surrounding Bieber constantly coach him on handling fame and his public image.[18] After signing Bieber, Usher appointed one of his former assistants, Ryan Good, to be Bieber's road manager and stylist. Good, once nicknamed Bieber's "swagger coach", created a "streetwise look" for the singer which consisted of baseball caps, hoodies, dog chains and flashy sneakers. Amy Kaufman of The Los Angeles Times comments, "Though a product of a middle-class suburban upbringing in Stratford, Ontario, Bieber's manner of dress and speech ("Wassup man, how you doin'?" or "It's like, you know, whateva' ") suggest he's mimicking his favorite rappers."[82]
Bieber is often featured in teen magazines such as Tiger Beat,[18] and has been labeled as a "teen heartthrob".[83] Bieber has released a collection of nail varnishes to raise awareness for charity.[84] Wax statues of Bieber are on display at Madame Tussauds wax museums in New York, Amsterdam and London.[85] His change of hairstyle in 2010, and the consequent alterations to Bieber products, led to it being called 'the most expensive musical haircut of all time;[86] one company spent $100,000 to fix its dolls for the 2011 Christmas season.[87]
Bieber has been criticized for looking and sounding younger than his age, his teen-pop music, image, and frequent media attention.[88] He has been a frequent target of Internet bloggers and message board posters, notably by users of Internet message board 4chan and users of YouTube.[89] Nick Collins of The Daily Telegraph speculated that "Bieber's character also appears to strike a particularly sour note with his Internet critics, with many remarks commenting on his youthful appearance, his teen-pop songs, his image as a heart-throb to young teenage girls and his manner of speech".[90]
Personal views and life[link]
Bieber is a Christian,[91] and said he has a relationship with Jesus, talks to him and that "he's the reason I'm here".[92]
Bieber's comments in a February 2011 profile in Rolling Stone sparked controversy.[93] Asked about abstinence, Bieber responded, "I don't think you should have sex with anyone unless you love them." He said he does not "believe in abortion" and that it is "like killing a baby".[94] He described sexual orientation as "everyone's own decision."[95] Bieber has contributed to the It Gets Better Project,[96] which aims to prevent suicide among LGBT youth.[97]
Bieber has said he is not interested in obtaining United States citizenship and has criticized America's health care system. Praising Canada as being "the best country in the world", he cited its health care system as a model example.[94]
In May 2012, Bieber purchased a 10,000 square-foot mansion on 1.3 acres of land, located in the community of Calabasas, California, a suburb of Los Angeles.[98]
Twitter[link]
Main article: Justin Bieber on Twitter
As of April 2012[update], Bieber's Twitter account (@justinbieber) is the second most popular celebrity account behind that of Lady Gaga.[99] By mid-April 2012, he had over 20 million followers.[100][101] His follower acquisition is one new follower every other second.[102][103] His popularity on Twitter at one point accounted for three percent of all Twitter related traffic, with a Twitter employee commenting that "racks of servers are dedicated" to Bieber.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112] This resulted in over 180 million page views for the service each month.[105] Bieber was frequently a trending topic on Twitter when the feature first launched[105] because his fans frequently discussed him on the network. [113] and was named the top trending star on Twitter in 2010;[114] Klout gave his account a score of 100.[115][116]
The size of Bieber's and Gaga's follower bases are cited as a reason why marketers should pay attention to Twitter:[117] with an ability to reach millions of people with a single tweet.[117] 8.3% of tweets mentioning "bieber" were semi-automated and probably Twitter related spam.[118] Research done about Twitter and the 2011 Egyptian revolution includes Bieber as he made tweets about the topic at a time when he had roughly 8 million followers. His multiple tweets resulted in 32,000 responses each, which made Bieber's Twitter account one of the single largest nodes for discussion about the uprising one of the largest on Twitter.[119][120]
In March 2012, Bieber fans launched an unsuccessful attempt to unseat Lady Gaga as the most popular celebrity on Twitter. Neither Bieber nor Lady Gaga discussed their mutual fanbase's campaigns on Twitter.[121]
Discography[link]
Main article: Justin Bieber discography
- My World 2.0 (2010)
- Under the Mistletoe (2011)
- Believe (2012)
Tours[link]
- 2009: Urban Behavior Tour
- 2010–2011: My World Tour
- 2012-2013: Believe Tour
Filmography[link]
| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2009 | True Jackson, VP | Himself | Guest star |
| My Date With... | |||
| 2010 | Silent Library | ||
| School Gyrls | Cameo | ||
| Saturday Night Live | Guest star/performer | Ep 35.18 | |
| CSI: Crime Scene Investigation | Jason McCann | Shock Waves (Season 11, Episode 1) | |
| Hubworld | Guest star | Season 1, Episode 1 | |
| The X Factor (UK) | Performer | Series 7, Week 8 | |
| 2011 | Extreme Makeover: Home Edition | Guest star[122] | |
| CSI: Crime Scene Investigation | Jason McCann | Targets of Obsession (Season 11, Episode 15). | |
| Khloé & Lamar | Himself | Episode:The Father In Law (uncredited) Himself playing the NBA Celebrity All Star Game | |
| Saturday Night Live | Guest star | Ep. 36.14 | |
| Justin Bieber: Never Say Never[123] | Himself | Film produced by MTV Films and distributed by Paramount Pictures released February 2011 in United States; and March to April worldwide[124] The official movie trailer was released on October 26[125] | |
| Dancing With The Stars | Guest star | Week 7 Result Show | |
| So Random! | Himself | He performed in December 2011. | |
| Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade | Guest star | Performed at Walt Disney World Resort | |
| The X Factor (UK) | Performer | Series 8, Week 9 | |
| 2012 | Men in Black 3 | Baby Alien |
Awards and nominations[link]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Justin Bieber
References[link]
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- ^ Hogan, Kate (February 28, 2011). "Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez Step Out Together on Oscar Night". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20469564,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ "Caught in the Act!". People. November 4, 2010. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20439639,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ Greer, Carlos (December 13, 2010). "Selena Gomez: Justin Bieber and I Are Just Friends". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20449246,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ Ziegbe, Mawuse (December 23, 2010). "Justin Bieber Calls Selena Gomez 'An Amazing Person'". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1654905/justin-bieber-calls-selena-gomez-amazing-person.jhtml. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ "Bikini-clad Selena Gomez kisses Justin Bieber". USA Today. January 3, 2011. http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/40898352/ns/today-entertainment/t/bikini-clad-selena-gomez-kisses-justin-bieber/#.Twdff0o-O3k. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ Nudd, Tim (January 3, 2011). "Justin Bieber & Selena Gomez Caught Kissing in the Caribbean". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20454367,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ Hammel, Sarah (January 31, 2011). "Justin Bieber Calls Selena Gomez 'One of My Best Friends'". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20462453,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
- ^ Pomerantz, Dorothy. "Full List: The Best-Paid Celebrities Under 30". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2011/06/09/top-earning-celebrities-under-30_slide_3.html. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Caulfield, Keith (November 9, 2011). "Justin Bieber's 'Mistletoe' Brightens Billboard 200 with No. 1 Debut". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. http://www.billboard.com/#/news/justin-bieber-s-mistletoe-brightens-billboard-1005490762.story. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
- ^ Chandler, D.L. (October 26, 2011). "Justin Bieber Taps Drake, Kanye West For 'Believe' Album". MTV RapFix. http://rapfix.mtv.com/2011/10/26/justin-bieber-taps-drake-kanye-west-believe-album/. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
- ^ https://twitter.com/#!/justinbieber/status/172478593983709184
- ^ "Justin Bieber's Big Announcement". YouTube. 2012-02-29. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P493k1YRp8w&feature=branded. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ Vena, Jocelyn (2012-03-01). "Justin Bieber Announces New Single, 'Boyfriend' – Music, Celebrity, Artist News". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1680212/justin-bieber-boyfriend-single.jhtml. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ Justin Bieber Dies In Your Arms
- ^ Rushe, Dominic (January 2, 2011). "Justin Bieber is more influential online than the Dalai Lama or US president". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2011/jan/02/klout-social-media-networking. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
- ^ Vena, Jocelyn (November 9, 2010). "Justin Bieber Hits 6 Million Twitter Followers – Music, Celebrity, Artist News". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1651843/20101109/bieber_justin.jhtml. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
- ^ "Justin Bieber Twitter Statistics". Twitter Counter. March 15, 2011. http://twittercounter.com/justinbieber. Retrieved 2011-03-15.
- ^ "Justin Bieber: A phenom on the verge of superstardom". Billboard. Azcentral.com. March 19, 2010. http://www.azcentral.com/thingstodo/music/articles/2010/03/19/20100319justin-bieber-billboard.html. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Kaufman, Amy (April 13, 2010). "Adults work hard to manage Justin Bieber's image". Azcentral.com. http://www.azcentral.com/thingstodo/music/articles/2010/04/13/20100413justin-bieber-tour.html. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Rizzo, Monica (February 24, 2010). "Hot Ticket: Justin Bieber & Rihanna to Perform at Kids' Choice Awards – TV News, Justin Bieber, Rihanna". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20346575,00.html. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ "Justin Bieber releases more colours into his nail varnish collection"[dead link] Vogue (UK)
- ^ Vena, Jocelyn (March 15, 2011). "Justin Bieber Wax Figures Unveiled". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1659922/justin-bieber-wax-figure.jhtml. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
- ^ October 11, 2011 (October 11, 2011). "Most expensive musical haircut of all time". Artsjournal.com. http://www.artsjournal.com/slippeddisc/2011/10/most-expensive-musical-haircut-of-all-time.html. Retrieved 2011-12-16.
- ^ Tyler, Lewis (October 13, 2011). "Bieber haircut costs US toy-maker $100,000". ToyNews Online. http://www.toynews-online.biz/news/34607/Bieber-haircut-costs-US-toy-maker-100000. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
- ^ Collins, Nick (July 6, 2010). "Why is Justin Bieber so loved and hated?". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/internet/7873834/Why-is-Justin-Bieber-so-loved-and-hated.html. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
- ^ "Justin Bieber's Youtube Fight". http://www.buzzfeed.com/mjs538/justin-biebers-youtube-fight.
- ^ Collins, Nick (July 6, 2010). "Why is Justin Bieber so loved and hated?". The Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/internet/7873834/Why-is-Justin-Bieber-so-loved-and-hated.html. Retrieved 2010-07-08.
- ^ Ronson, Jon (November 13, 2010). "Justin Bieber: One day with the most Googled name on the planet". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2010/nov/13/justin-bieber-interview. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
- ^ Kaufman, Donna (November 2, 2010). "Justin Bieber Talks Jesus & Marriage". Ivillage Entertainment. http://www.ivillage.com/justin-bieber-talks-jesus-and-marriage/1-a-294985. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
- ^ Saxberg, Lynn (February 17, 2011). "Baby Baby -better be born in Canada; Bieber disses American health care -and says no to abortion". The Ottawa Citizen.: p. A.4.
- ^ a b By Rolling Stone (February 16, 2011). "Justin Bieber Talks Sex, Politics, Music and Puberty In New 'Rolling Stone' Cover Story". Rolling Stone. http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/justin-bieber-talks-sex-politics-music-and-puberty-in-new-rolling-stone-cover-story-20110216. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
- ^ Justin Bieber interview Rolling Stone Retrieved 2011-03-15
- ^ "Justin Bieber Posts 'It Gets Better' Video" Retrieved 2011-03-15
- ^ It Gets Better Project website Retrieved 2011-03-15
- ^ McQueeney, Kerry; Watkins, Jane (May 27, 2012). "He's all grown up! Justin Bieber, 18, seals the $6.5m deal on his very first home - a sprawling Calabasas mansion". Dailymail.co.uk. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2150919/Justin-Bieber-18-seals-6-5m-deal-home--sprawling-Calabasas-mansion.html?ito=feeds-newsxml. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
- ^ Shiv Singh; Stephanie Diamond (April 3, 2012). Social Media Marketing For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 143–. ISBN 978-1-118-06514-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Dnv9AZ8Tj4C&pg=PA143. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ "'The Voice:' Justin Bieber updates fans on Twitter , singer to make announcement?". Entertainment Examiner (USA). April 16, 2012. http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AUNB:EAEN&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=13DC80FB672ABFA8&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=1053B823C33F21F9. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Soccer's Kaka tops 10 million followers on Twitter". Associated Press News Service. April 25, 2012. http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AUNB:APNS&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=13E6168D001C4648&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=1053B823C33F21F9. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Adam Sherwin. "Justin Bieber reveals new 'mature' direction as Biebermania hits London – News – Music". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/justin-bieber-reveals-new-mature-direction-as-biebermania-hits-london-7675857.html. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ a b Richard Godwin. "One night with Justin Bieber and I'm a Belieber – Celebrity News – Showbiz – Evening Standard". Evening Standard. London. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/one-night-with-justin-bieber-and-im-a-belieber-7674843.html. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ Curtis, Dustin (September 7, 2010). "At any moment, Justin Bieber uses 3% of our infrastructure. Racks of servers are dedicated to him. – A guy who works at Twitter". https://twitter.com/#!/dcurtis/status/23192425566. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ a b c "Justin Bieber Accounts for 3 Percent of All Twitter Traffic". TV Guide. September 8, 2010. http://www.tvguide.com/News/Justin-Bieber-Twitter-1022684.aspx. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Kaufman, Gil (September 8, 2010). "Justin Bieber Activity Drives 3 Percent Of Twitter Traffic". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1647321/justin-bieber-activity-drives-3-percent-twitter-traffic.jhtml. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Twitter Has 'Racks of Servers' Dedicated to Justin Bieber | NewsFeed | TIME.com". Newsfeed.time.com. September 8, 2010. http://newsfeed.time.com/2010/09/08/twitter-has-racks-of-servers-dedicated-to-justin-bieber/. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Fabio Kon; Anne-Marie Kermarrec (December 26, 2011). Middleware 2011: Acm/Ifip/usenix 12th International Middleware Conference, Lisbon, Portugal, December 12–16, 2011, Proceedings. Springer. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-3-642-25820-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=ESrm5lcx7L8C&pg=PA21. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Aaron Barlow; Robert Leston (December 31, 2011). Beyond the Blogosphere: Information and Its Children. ABC-CLIO. pp. 233–. ISBN 978-0-313-39287-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=YM4JiWFLCQ8C&pg=PA233. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Stephen Marche (May 10, 2011). How Shakespeare Changed Everything. HarperCollins. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-0-06-196553-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=jBibgie2VEEC&pg=PT51. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Justin Bieber Has "Racks" of Twitter Servers, Uses 3 Percent of Site's Resources". GearLog (Ziff Davis, Inc). 2010-09-08. http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/123820191. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Justin Bieber a ocupat 3% din serverul Twitter" (in Spanish). Agentia.org. 2010-11-24. http://www.agentia.org/monden/justin-bieber-a-ocupat-3-din-serverul-twitter-6123.html. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ "Justin Bieber Vintage Video: 'I Love Twitter' | News". VH1. http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1657695/20110210/index.jhtml. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ "Bieber Tops Twitter Trend List". World Entertainment News Network (COMTEX News Network, Inc). 2010-12-16. http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/122734894. Retrieved April 26, 2012
- ^ Poeter, Damon (1970-01-01). "Tweet or Die: Employers Hiring Based on Applicants' Klout Scores? | News & Opinion". PCMag.com. http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2403567,00.asp. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
- ^ Marco Massarotto (2010-10-18T00:00:00+02:00) (in Italian). Social Network. Apogeo Editore. pp. 201–202. ISBN 978-88-503-1233-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=IZowqKn7G40C&pg=PT201. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ a b Brandon Vogt (August 5, 2011). The Church and New Media: Blogging Converts, Internet Activists, and Bishops Who Tweet. Our Sunday Visitor. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-59276-033-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=c4zwxSzKstYC&pg=PA19. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Neil Spring; George F. Riley (April 25, 2011). Passive and Active Measurement: 12th International Conference, PAM 2011, Atlanta, GA, USA, March 20–22, 2011, Proceedings. Springer. pp. 108–12. ISBN 978-3-642-19259-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=weLp1ECX4XIC&pg=PA110. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Maksim Tsvetovat; Alexander Kouznetsov (October 6, 2011). Social Network Analysis for Startups: Finding Connections on the Social Web. O'Reilly Media, Inc.. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-4493-0646-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tn-L5WoCeygC. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Maksim Tsvetovat; Alexander Kouznetsov (October 6, 2011). Social Network Analysis for Startups: Finding Connections on the Social Web. O'Reilly Media, Inc.. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4493-0646-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tn-L5WoCeygC. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
- ^ Tim Kenneally Reuters 7:18 pm CDT, March 28, 2012 (March 28, 2012). "Justin Bieber Vs. Lady Gaga: Fans wage epic war for Twitter dominance". Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/sns-rt-justin-bieber-lady-gagamt1thewrap36616-20120328,0,7289032.story. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Jocleyn, Vena (January 25, 2011). "Justin Bieber Addresses Dangers Of Texting And Driving On 'Extreme Makeover'". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1656584/justin-bieber-addresses-dangers-texting-driving-on-extreme-makeover.jhtml. Retrieved 2011-02-08.
- ^ "Justin Bieber Never Say Never – Official website". http://www.justinbieberneversaynever.com/. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
- ^ "Global Sites & Release Dates". Justin Bieber Never Say Never – Official website.. http://www.justinbieberneversaynever.com/intl/releasedates/release-dates.html. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
- ^ "Justin Bieber: Never Say Never – Official movie trailer". http://www.trailerdownload.net/movie/justin-bieber-3d/trailers/trailer-4629.html. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Further reading[link]
- Justin Bieber (October 12, 2010). Justin Bieber: First Step 2 Forever: My Story. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-203974-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=a2iAh-KFdIgC&pg=PP1.
- Ronny Bloom (April 15, 2010). Justin Bieber. Penguin Group USA. ISBN 978-0-8431-9903-1.
- Chas Newkey-Burden (September 1, 2010). Justin Bieber: The Unauthorized Biography. Michael O'Mara. ISBN 978-1-84317-523-0.
- Sarah Oliver (October 1, 2011). Justin Bieber A-Z. John Blake. ISBN 978-1-84358-379-0.
- Sarah Parvis; Gail Herman (February 8, 2011). Superstars! Justin Bieber: In the Spotlight and Behind the Scenes. Time Home Entertainment. ISBN 978-1-60320-902-1.
- Marc Shapiro (August 17, 2010). Justin Bieber: The Fever!. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-67878-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=LyrqE1c66mwC&pg=PP1.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Justin Bieber |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Justin Bieber |
- Official website
- Justin Bieber at the Internet Movie Database
- Justin Bieber at the Open Directory Project
- Justin Bieber on Twitter
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Bieber, Justin |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Canadian singer |
| Date of birth | March 1, 1994 |
| Place of birth | Stratford, Ontario, Canada |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Chomsky" redirects here. For other topics with the same name, see Chomsky (disambiguation).
 Noam Chomsky visiting Vancouver, British Columbia in 2004 |
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| Other names | Avram Noam Chomsky |
|---|---|
| Born | (1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 83) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| Era | 20th / 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Generative linguistics, Analytic philosophy |
| Main interests | Linguistics · Psychology Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Politics · Ethics |
| Notable ideas | Generative grammar, universal grammar, transformational grammar, government and binding, X-bar theory, Chomsky hierarchy, context-free grammar, principles and parameters, Minimalist program, language acquisition device, poverty of the stimulus, Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem, Chomsky Normal Form, propaganda model[1] |
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Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,[5][6] cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years.[7] Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics"[8][9][10] and a major figure of analytic philosophy.[5] His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.[11][12]
Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy[13] and contemporary capitalism,[14] and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure.[15] His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.
According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall.[16][17][18][19] Chomsky is the author of over 100 books.[20] He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, the universal grammar theory, and the Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem.
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, to Jewish parents in the affluent East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the elder son of noted professor of Hebrew at Gratz College and IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) member William Chomsky (1896–1977), a native of Ukraine. His mother, Elsie Chomsky (née Simonofsky)—a native of what is present-day Belarus—grew up in the United States and, unlike her husband, spoke "ordinary New York English". Chomsky's parents' first language was Yiddish,[21] but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it.[21] Although Chomsky's mother was part of the radical activism in the 1930s, he was influenced largely by his uncle who, having never passed 4th grade, owned a newsstand that acted as an "intellectual center [where] professors of this and that argu[ed] all night".[22] Chomsky was influenced also by being a part of a Hebrew-based, Zionist organization, as well as by hanging around anarchist bookstores.[22]
He describes his family as living in a sort of "Jewish ghetto", split into a "Yiddish side" and "Hebrew side", with his family aligning with the latter and bringing him up "immersed in Hebrew culture and literature", though he means more a "cultural ghetto than a physical one".[23] Chomsky also describes tensions he experienced with Irish Catholics and German Catholics and anti-semitism in the mid-1930s. He recalls "beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis.[23] In a discussion of the irony of his staying in the 1980s in a Jesuit House in Central America, Chomsky explained that during his childhood, "We were the only Jewish family around. I grew up with a visceral fear of Catholics. They're the people who beat you up on your way to school. So I knew when they came out of that building down the street, which was the Jesuit school, they were raving anti-Semites. So childhood memories took a long time to overcome."[24]
Chomsky remembers the first article he wrote was at age 10 while a student at Oak Lane Country Day School about the threat of the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.[25]
A graduate of Central High School of Philadelphia, Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, taking classes with philosophers such as C. West Churchman and Nelson Goodman and linguist Zellig Harris. Harris's teaching included his discovery of transformations as a mathematical analysis of language structure (mappings from one subset to another in the set of sentences). Chomsky referred to the morphophonemic rules in his 1951 master's thesis—The Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew—as transformations in the sense of Carnap's 1938 notion of rules of transformation (vs. rules of formation), and subsequently reinterpreted the notion of grammatical transformations in a very different way from Harris, as operations on the productions of a context-free grammar (derived from Post production systems). Harris's political views were instrumental in shaping those of Chomsky.[26] Chomsky earned a BA in 1949 and an MA in 1951.
In 1949, he married linguist Carol Schatz. They remained married for 59 years until her death from cancer in December 2008.[27] The couple had two daughters, Aviva (b. 1957) and Diane (b. 1960), and a son, Harry (b. 1967). With his wife Carol, Chomsky spent time in 1953 living in HaZore'a, a kibbutz in Israel. Asked in an interview whether the stay was "a disappointment" Chomsky replied, "No, I loved it"; however, he "couldn't stand the ideological atmosphere" and "fervent nationalism" in the early 1950s at the kibbutz, with Stalin being defended by many of the left-leaning kibbutz members who chose to paint a rosy image of future possibilities and contemporary realities in the USSR.[28] Chomsky notes seeing many positive elements in the commune-like living of the kibbutz, in which parents and children lived together in separate houses, and when asked whether there were "lessons that we have learned from the history of the kibbutz", responded,[29][30] that in "some respects, the kibbutzim came closer to the anarchist ideal than any other attempt that lasted for more than a very brief moment before destruction, or that was on anything like a similar scale. In these respects, I think they were extremely attractive and successful; apart from personal accident, I probably would have lived there myself – for how long, it's hard to guess."
Chomsky received his PhD in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harvard University as a Harvard Junior Fellow. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, one of his best-known works in linguistics.
Chomsky joined the staff of MIT in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics, and in 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor. As of 2010, Chomsky has taught at MIT continuously for 55 years.
In February 1967, Chomsky became one of the leading opponents of the Vietnam War with the publication of his essay, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals",[31] in The New York Review of Books. This was followed by his 1969 book, American Power and the New Mandarins, a collection of essays that established him at the forefront of American dissent. His far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy,[32][33] and he is frequently sought out for his views by publications and news outlets internationally. In 1977 he delivered the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, the Netherlands, under the title: Intellectuals and the State.
Chomsky has received death threats because of his criticisms of U.S. foreign policy.[34] He was also on a list of planned targets created by Theodore Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber; during the period that Kaczynski was at large, Chomsky had all of his mail checked for explosives.[34] He states that he often receives undercover police protection, in particular while on the MIT campus, although he does not agree with the police protection.[34]
Chomsky resides in Lexington, Massachusetts, and travels often, giving lectures on politics.
Thought[link]
Linguistics[link]
Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.
Perhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. He has always acknowledged his debt to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar, although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge.
It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate, and that he discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG.[35]
The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)—developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)—makes strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.
Proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as indications of innateness.
More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters," Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.
Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as Elizabeth Bates[36] and Michael Tomasello[37] argue very strongly against Chomsky's theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language with a number of general processing mechanisms in the brain that interact with the extensive and complex social environment in which language is used and learned.
His best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond "SPE phonology" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology.
Generative grammar[link]
Main article: Generative grammar
The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar, studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages.[38] The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar. From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore, he argues that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar would serve to bridge that gap.
Chomsky's theories have been immensely influential within linguistics, but they have also received criticism. One recurring criticism of the Chomskyan variety of generative grammar is that it is Anglocentric and Eurocentric, and that often linguists working in this tradition have a tendency to base claims about Universal Grammar on a very small sample of languages, sometimes just one. Initially, the Eurocentrism was exhibited in an overemphasis on the study of English. However, hundreds of different languages have now received at least some attention within Chomskyan linguistic analyses.[39][40][41][42][43] In spite of the diversity of languages that have been characterized by UG derivations, critics continue to argue that the formalisms within Chomskyan linguistics are Anglocentric and misrepresent the properties of languages that are different from English.[44][45][46] Thus, Chomsky's approach has been criticized as a form of linguistic imperialism.[47] In addition, Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. This practice has been criticized on general methodological grounds. Some psychologists and psycholinguists,[who?] though sympathetic to Chomsky's overall program, have argued that Chomskyan linguists pay insufficient attention to experimental data from language processing, with the consequence that their theories are not psychologically plausible. Other critics (see language learning) have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar to explain child language acquisition, arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient.
Today there are many different branches of generative grammar; one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomskyan and generative in orientation, but with significant differences in execution.
Chomsky hierarchy[link]
Main article: Chomsky hierarchy
Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modeling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science (especially in compiler construction and automata theory).[48] Indeed, there is an equivalence between the Chomsky language hierarchy and the different kinds of automata. Thus theorems about languages are often dealt with as either languages (grammars) or automata.
An alternate method of dealing with languages is based upon Formal Power series.[49] Formal Power series as well as the relationship between languages and semi-groups continued to occupy M. P. Schützenberger at the Sorbonne. Formal Power Series are similar to the Taylor Series one encounters in a course on Calculus, and it is especially useful for languages where words (terminal symbols) are commutative.[50]
Politics[link]
Main article: Noam Chomsky's political views
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Chomsky has stated that his "personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism",[51] and he has praised libertarian socialism.[52] Although Chomsky tries to avoid the ambiguity of labels, his political views are often characterized in news accounts as "leftist"[53][54][55][56] or "left-wing," and he has described himself as an anarcho-syndicalist.[57] He is a member of the Campaign for Peace and Democracy and the Industrial Workers of the World international union.[58] Chomsky is also a member of the International Organization for a Participatory Society which he describes as having the potential to "carry us a long way towards unifying the many initiatives here and around the world and molding them into a powerful and effective force."[59][60] He published a book on anarchism titled Chomsky on Anarchism, published by the anarchist book collective AK Press in 2006.
Chomsky has engaged in political activism all of his adult life and expressed opinions on politics and world events, which are widely cited, publicized, and discussed. Chomsky has in turn argued that his views are those the powerful do not want to hear, and for this reason he is considered an American political dissident.
Chomsky asserts that authority, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate, and that the burden of proof is on those in authority. If this burden can't be met, the authority in question should be dismantled. Authority for its own sake is inherently unjustified. An example given by Chomsky of a legitimate authority is that exerted by an adult to prevent a young child from wandering into traffic.[61] He contends that there is little moral difference between chattel slavery and renting one's self to an owner or "wage slavery". He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that undermines individual freedom. He holds that workers should own and control their workplace, a view held (as he notes) by the Lowell Mill Girls.[62]
Chomsky has strongly criticized the foreign policy of the United States. He claims double standards in a foreign policy preaching democracy and freedom for all while allying itself with non-democratic and repressive organizations and states such as Chile under Augusto Pinochet and argues that this results in massive human rights violations. He often argues that America's intervention in foreign nations, including the secret aid given to the Contras in Nicaragua, an event of which he has been very critical, fits any standard description of terrorism,[63][dead link] including "official definitions in the US Code and Army Manuals in the early 1980s."[64][65] Before its collapse, Chomsky also condemned Soviet imperialism; for example in 1986 during a question/answer following a lecture he gave at Universidad Centroamericana in Nicaragua, when challenged about how he could "talk about North American imperialism and Russian imperialism in the same breath," Chomsky responded: "One of the truths about the world is that there are two superpowers, one a huge power which happens to have its boot on your neck; another, a smaller power which happens to have its boot on other people's necks. I think that anyone in the Third World would be making a grave error if they succumbed to illusions about these matters."[66]
Regarding the death of Osama bin Laden, Chomsky stated: "We might ask ourselves how we would be reacting if Iraqi commandos landed at George W. Bush's compound, assassinated him, and dumped his body in the Atlantic. Uncontroversially, his crimes vastly exceed bin Laden’s, and he is not a 'suspect' but uncontroversially the 'decider' who gave the orders to commit the 'supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole' (quoting the Nuremberg Tribunal) for which Nazi criminals were hanged: the hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of refugees, destruction of much of the country, [and] the bitter sectarian conflict that has now spread to the rest of the region."[67]
He has argued that the mass media in the United States largely serve as a "bought priesthood"[68] of the U.S. government and U.S.-based corporations, with the three intertwined through common interests. In a famous reference to Walter Lippmann, Chomsky along with his coauthor Edward S. Herman has written that the American media manufactures consent among the public. Chomsky has condemned the 2010 US Supreme Court Citizens United ruling revoking the limits on campaign finance, calling it a "corporate takeover of democracy."[69]
Chomsky opposes the U.S. global "war on drugs", claiming its language is misleading, and refers to it as "the war on certain drugs." He favors drug policy reform, in education and prevention rather than military or police action as a means of reducing drug use.[70] In an interview in 1999, Chomsky argued that, whereas crops such as tobacco receive no mention in governmental exposition, other non-profitable crops, such as marijuana are attacked because of the effect achieved by persecuting the poor.[71] He has stated:
U.S. domestic drug policy does not carry out its stated goals, and policymakers are well aware of that. If it isn't about reducing substance abuse, what is it about? It is reasonably clear, both from current actions and the historical record, that substances tend to be criminalized when they are associated with the so-called dangerous classes, that the criminalization of certain substances is a technique of social control.[72]
Chomsky is critical of the American "state capitalist" system and big business; he describes himself as a socialist, specifically an anarcho-syndicalist, and is critical of "authoritarian" communist branches of socialism.[citation needed] He also believes that socialist values exemplify the rational and morally consistent extension of original unreconstructed classical liberal and radical humanist ideas to an industrial context. He believes that society should be highly organized and based on democratic control of communities and work places. He believes that the radical humanist ideas of his two major influences, Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, were "rooted in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism, and retain their revolutionary character."[73]
Chomsky has stated that he believes the United States remains the "greatest country in the world",[74] a comment that he later clarified by saying, "Evaluating countries is senseless and I would never put things in those terms, but that some of America's advances, particularly in the area of free speech, that have been achieved by centuries of popular struggle, are to be admired."[75] He has also said "In many respects, the United States is the freest country in the world. I don't just mean in terms of limits on state coercion, though that's true too, but also in terms of individual relations. The United States comes closer to classlessness in terms of interpersonal relations than virtually any society."[76]
Chomsky objects to the criticism that anarchism is inconsistent with support for government welfare, stating in part:
One can, of course, take the position that we don't care about the problems people face today, and want to think about a possible tomorrow. OK, but then don't pretend to have any interest in human beings and their fate, and stay in the seminar room and intellectual coffee house with other privileged people. Or one can take a much more humane position: I want to work, today, to build a better society for tomorrow – the classical anarchist position, quite different from the slogans in the question. That's exactly right, and it leads directly to support for the people facing problems today: for enforcement of health and safety regulation, provision of national health insurance, support systems for people who need them, etc. That is not a sufficient condition for organizing for a different and better future, but it is a necessary condition. Anything else will receive the well-merited contempt of people who do not have the luxury to disregard the circumstances in which they live, and try to survive.[77]
Chomsky holds views that can be summarized as anti-war but not strictly pacifist. He prominently opposed the Vietnam War and most other wars in his lifetime. He expressed these views with tax resistance and peace walks. In 1968, he signed the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.[78] He published a number of articles about the war in Vietnam, including "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". He maintains that U.S. involvement in World War II to defeat the Axis powers was probably justified, with the caveat that a preferable outcome would have been to end or prevent the war through earlier diplomacy. He believes that the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were "among the most unspeakable crimes in history".[79]
Chomsky has made many criticisms of the Israeli government, its supporters, the United States' support of the government, and its treatment of the Palestinian people, arguing that " 'supporters of Israel' are in reality supporters of its moral degeneration and probable ultimate destruction" and that "Israel's very clear choice of expansion over security may well lead to that consequence."[80] Chomsky disagreed with the founding of Israel as a Jewish state, saying, "I don't think a Jewish or Christian or Islamic state is a proper concept. I would object to the United States as a Christian state."[81] Chomsky hesitated before publishing work critical of Israeli policies while his parents were alive, because he "knew it would hurt them" he says, "mostly because of their friends, who reacted hysterically to views like those expressed in my work."[82] On May 16, 2010, Israeli authorities detained Chomsky and ultimately refused his entry to the West Bank via Jordan.[83] A spokesman for the Israeli Prime Minister indicated that the refusal of entry was simply due to a border guard who "overstepped his authority" and a second attempt to enter would likely be allowed.[84] Chomsky disagreed, saying that the Interior Ministry official who interviewed him was taking instructions from his superiors.[84] Chomsky maintained that based on the several hours of interviewing, he was denied entry because of the things he says and because he was visiting a university in the West Bank but no Israeli universities.[84]
Chomsky has a broad view of free-speech rights, especially in the mass media, and opposes censorship. He has stated that "with regard to freedom of speech there are basically two positions: you defend it vigorously for views you hate, or you reject it and prefer Stalinist/fascist standards".[85] With reference to the United States diplomatic cables leak, Chomsky suggested that "perhaps the most dramatic revelation ... is the bitter hatred of democracy that is revealed both by the U.S. Government -- Hillary Clinton, others -- and also by the diplomatic service."[86] Chomsky refuses to take legal action against those who may have libeled him and prefers to counter libels through open letters in newspapers. One notable example of this approach is his response to an article by Emma Brockes in The Guardian which alleged he denied the existence of the Srebrenica massacre.[87][88][89] Chomsky's complaint prompted The Guardian to publish an apologetic correction and to withdraw the article from the paper's website.[90]
Chomsky has frequently stated that there is no connection between his work in linguistics and his political views and is generally critical of the idea that competent discussion of political topics requires expert knowledge in academic fields. In a 1969 interview, he said regarding the connection between his politics and his work in linguistics:
I still feel myself that there is a kind of tenuous connection. I would not want to overstate it but I think it means something to me at least. I think that anyone's political ideas or their ideas of social organization must be rooted ultimately in some concept of human nature and human needs.[91]
Some critics have accused Chomsky of hypocrisy when, in spite of his political criticism of American and European military imperialism, early research at the institution (MIT) where he did his linguistic research had been substantially funded by the American military.[92] Chomsky makes the argument that because he has received funding from the U.S. military, he has an even greater responsibility to criticize and resist its immoral actions.
He is also an outspoken advocate against the use of the death penalty and has spoken against the execution of Steven Woods.
I think the death penalty is a crime no matter what the circumstances, and it is particularly awful in the Steven Woods case. I strongly oppose the execution of Steven Woods on September 13, 2011.
In March 2012,[93] Chomsky endorsed Jill Stein for President of the United States in 2012, saying,
As you know, popular anger at the political and economic institutions, and the subordination of the former to the latter, has reached historic heights. And for sound reasons. There could hardly be a better time to open up political debate to the just anger and frustrations of citizens who are watching the country move towards what might be irreversible decline while a tiny sector of concentrated wealth and power implements policies of benefit to them and opposed by the general population, whom they are casting adrift.
Nick Cohen has criticised Chomsky for frequently making overly critical statements about Western governments, especially the US, and for allegedly refusing to retract his speculations when facts become available which disprove them.[94]
Media[link]
Another focus of Chomsky's political work has been an analysis of mainstream mass media (especially in the United States), its structures and constraints, and its perceived role in supporting big business and government interests. Edward S. Herman and Chomsky's book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) explores this topic in depth, presenting their "propaganda model" of the news media with numerous detailed case studies demonstrating it. According to this propaganda model, more democratic societies like the U.S. use subtle, non-violent means of control, unlike totalitarian systems, where physical force can readily be used to coerce the general population. In an often-quoted remark, Chomsky states that "propaganda is to a democracy what the bludgeon is to a totalitarian state." (Media Control)
The model attempts to explain this perceived systemic bias of the mass media in terms of structural economic causes rather than a conspiracy of people. It argues the bias derives from five "filters" that all published news must "pass through," which combine to systematically distort news coverage.
In explaining the first filter, ownership, he notes that most major media outlets are owned by large corporations. The second, funding, notes that the outlets derive the majority of their funding from advertising, not readers. Thus, since they are profit-oriented businesses selling a product—readers and audiences—to other businesses (advertisers), the model expects them to publish news that reflects the desires and values of those businesses. In addition, the news media are dependent on government institutions and major businesses with strong biases as sources (the third filter) for much of their information. Flak, the fourth filter, refers to the various pressure groups that attack the media for supposed bias. Norms, the fifth filter, refer to the common conceptions shared by those in the profession of journalism. (Note: in the original text, published in 1988, the fifth filter was "anticommunism". However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been broadened to allow for shifts in public opinion.) The model describes how the media form a decentralized and non-conspiratorial but nonetheless very powerful propaganda system, that is able to mobilize an elite consensus, frame public debate within elite perspectives and at the same time give the appearance of democratic consent.
Chomsky and Herman test their model empirically by picking "paired examples"—pairs of events that were objectively similar except for the alignment of domestic elite interests. They use a number of such examples to attempt to show that in cases where an "official enemy" does something (like murder of a religious official), the press investigates thoroughly and devotes a great amount of coverage to the matter, thus victims of "enemy" states are considered "worthy". But when the domestic government or an ally does the same thing (or worse), the press downplays the story, thus victims of US or US client states are considered "unworthy."
They also test their model against the case that is often held up as the best example of a free and aggressively independent press, the media coverage of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War. Even in this case, they argue that the press was behaving subserviently to elite interests.
Science[link]
Chomsky sees science as a straightforward search for explanation, and rejects the views of it as a catalog of facts or mechanical explanations. In this light, the majority of his contributions to science have been frameworks and hypotheses, rather than "discoveries."[95]
As such, he considers certain so-called post-structuralist or postmodern critiques of logic and reason to be nonsensical:
I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of; those condemned here as "science", "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed.[96]
Although Chomsky believes that a scientific background is important to teach proper reasoning, he holds that science in general is "inadequate" to understand complicated problems like human affairs:
Science talks about very simple things, and asks hard questions about them. As soon as things become too complex, science can’t deal with them... But it’s a complicated matter: Science studies what’s at the edge of understanding, and what’s at the edge of understanding is usually fairly simple. And it rarely reaches human affairs. Human affairs are way too complicated.[97]
Psychology[link]
Chomsky's work in linguistics has had profound implications for modern psychology.[12] For Chomsky, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology; genuine insights in linguistics imply concomitant understandings of aspects of mental processing and human nature. His theory of a universal grammar was seen by many as a direct challenge to the established behaviorist theories of the time and had major consequences for understanding how children learn language and what, exactly, the ability to use language is.
In 1959, Chomsky published an influential critique of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, a book in which Skinner offered a theoretical account of language in functional, behavioral terms. He defined "Verbal Behavior" as learned behavior that has characteristic consequences delivered through the learned behavior of others. This makes for a view of communicative behaviors much larger than that usually addressed by linguists. Skinner's approach focused on the circumstances in which language was used; for example, asking for water was functionally a different response than labeling something as water, responding to someone asking for water, etc. These functionally different kinds of responses, which required in turn separate explanations, sharply contrasted both with traditional notions of language and Chomsky's psycholinguistic approach. Chomsky thought that a functionalist explanation restricting itself to questions of communicative performance ignored important questions. (Chomsky—Language and Mind, 1968). He focused on questions concerning the operation and development of innate structures for syntax capable of creatively organizing, cohering, adapting and combining words and phrases into intelligible utterances.
In the review Chomsky emphasized that the scientific application of behavioral principles from animal research is severely lacking in explanatory adequacy and is furthermore particularly superficial as an account of human verbal behavior because a theory restricting itself to external conditions, to "what is learned," cannot adequately account for generative grammar. Chomsky raised the examples of rapid language acquisition of children, including their quickly developing ability to form grammatical sentences, and the universally creative language use of competent native speakers to highlight the ways in which Skinner's view exemplified under-determination of theory by evidence. He argued that to understand human verbal behavior such as the creative aspects of language use and language development, one must first postulate a genetic linguistic endowment. The assumption that important aspects of language are the product of universal innate ability runs counter to Skinner's radical behaviorism.
Chomsky's 1959 review has drawn fire from a number of critics, the most famous criticism being that of Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1970 paper On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 13, pages 83–99). MacCorquodale's argument was updated and expanded in important respects by Nathan Stemmer in a 1990 paper, Skinner's Verbal Behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 54, pages 307–319). These and similar critiques have raised certain points not generally acknowledged outside of behavioral psychology, such as the claim that Chomsky did not possess an adequate understanding of either behavioral psychology in general, or the differences between Skinner's behaviorism and other varieties. Consequently, it is argued that he made several serious errors. On account of these perceived problems, the critics maintain that the review failed to demonstrate what it has often been cited as doing. As such, it is averred that those most influenced by Chomsky's paper probably either already substantially agreed with Chomsky or never actually read it. The review has been further critiqued for misrepresenting the work of Skinner and others, including by quoting out of context.[98] Chomsky has maintained that the review was directed at the way Skinner's variant of behavioral psychology "was being used in Quinean empiricism and naturalization of philosophy."[99]
It has been claimed that Chomsky's critique of Skinner's methodology and basic assumptions paved the way for the "cognitive revolution", the shift in American psychology between the 1950s through the 1970s from being primarily behavioral to being primarily cognitive. In his 1966 Cartesian Linguistics and subsequent works, Chomsky laid out an explanation of human language faculties that has become the model for investigation in some areas of psychology. Much of the present conception of how the mind works draws directly from ideas that found their first persuasive author of modern times in Chomsky.
There are three key ideas. First is that the mind is "cognitive", or that the mind actually contains mental states, beliefs, doubts, and so on. Second, he argued that most of the important properties of language and mind are innate. The acquisition and development of a language is a result of the unfolding of innate propensities triggered by the experiential input of the external environment. The link between human innate aptitude to language and heredity has been at the core of the debate opposing Noam Chomsky to Jean Piaget at the Abbaye de Royaumont in 1975 (Language and Learning. The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Harvard University Press, 1980). Although links between the genetic setup of humans and aptitude to language have been suggested at that time and in later discussions, we are still far from understanding the genetic bases of human language. Work derived from the model of selective stabilization of synapses set up by Jean-Pierre Changeux, Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin,[100] and more recently developed experimentally and theoretically by Jacques Mehler and Stanislas Dehaene in particular in the domain of numerical cognition lend support to the Chomskyan "nativism". It does not, however, provide clues about the type of rules that would organize neuronal connections to permit language competence. Subsequent psychologists have extended this general "nativist" thesis beyond language. Lastly, Chomsky made the concept of "modularity" a critical feature of the mind's cognitive architecture. The mind is composed of an array of interacting, specialized subsystems with limited flows of inter-communication. This model contrasts sharply with the old idea that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other cognitive process (optical illusions, for example, cannot be "turned off" even when they are known to be illusions).
Debates[link]
Chomsky has been known to vigorously defend and debate his views and opinions, in philosophy, linguistics, and politics.[5] He has had notable debates with Jean Piaget,[101] Michel Foucault,[102] William F. Buckley, Jr.,[103] Christopher Hitchens,[104][105][106][107][108][109] George Lakoff,[110] Richard Perle,[111] Hilary Putnam,[112] Willard Quine,[113] and Alan Dershowitz,[114] to name a few. In response to his speaking style being criticized as boring, Chomsky said that "I'm a boring speaker and I like it that way.... I doubt that people are attracted to whatever the persona is.... People are interested in the issues, and they're interested in the issues because they are important."[115] "We don't want to be swayed by superficial eloquence, by emotion and so on."[116]
Influence[link]
Chomskyan models have been used as a theoretical basis in various fields of study. The Chomsky hierarchy is often taught in fundamental computer science courses as it confers insight into the various types of formal languages. This hierarchy can also be discussed in mathematical terms[117] and has generated interest among mathematicians, particularly combinatorialists. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results.[118]
The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, Niels K. Jerne, used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar ... with various features of protein structures". The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System".
Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.
Famous computer scientist Donald Knuth admits to reading Syntactic Structures during his honeymoon and being greatly influenced by it. "...I must admit to taking a copy of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures along with me on my honeymoon in 1961 ... Here was a marvelous thing: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition!".[119]
Academic achievements, awards and honors[link]
In early 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University; in January 1970, the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at University of Cambridge; in 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi; in 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden; in 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; in 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town,[120] and many others.[121]
Chomsky has received many honorary degrees from universities around the world, including from the following:
- University of London
- University of Chicago
- Loyola University of Chicago
- Swarthmore College
- University of Delhi
- Bard College
- University of Massachusetts Amherst
- University of Pennsylvania
- Georgetown University
- Amherst College
- University of Cambridge
- University of Colorado[122]
- University of Buenos Aires
- McGill University
- Rovira i Virgili University
- Columbia University
- Villanova University
- University of Connecticut
- University of Maine
- Scuola Normale Superiore
- University of Western Ontario
- University of Toronto
- Harvard University
- Universidad de Chile
- University of Bologna
- Universidad de La Frontera
- University of Calcutta
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel
- Santo Domingo Institute of Technology
- Uppsala University
- University of Athens
- University of Cyprus
- Central Connecticut State University
- National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)
- Peking University[123]
- National Tsing Hua University [124]
He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad, and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others.[125] He is twice winner of The Orwell Award, granted by The National Council of Teachers of English for "Distinguished Contributions to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language" (in 1987 and 1989).[126]
He is a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Department of Social Sciences.[127]
In 2005, Chomsky received an honorary fellowship from the Literary and Historical Society.[128] In 2007, Chomsky received The Uppsala University (Sweden) Honorary Doctor's degree in commemoration of Carolus Linnaeus.[129] In February 2008, he received the President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway.[130] Since 2009 he is an honorary member of IAPTI.[131]
In 2010, Chomsky received the Erich Fromm Prize in Stuttgart, Germany.[132] In April 2010, Chomsky became the third scholar to receive the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship.[133]
Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.[134]
Chomsky was voted the leading living public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll conducted by the British magazine Prospect. He reacted, saying "I don't pay a lot of attention to polls".[135] In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006, he was voted seventh in the list of "Heroes of our time".[136]
Actor Viggo Mortensen with avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2006 album, called Pandemoniumfromamerica, to Chomsky.[137]
On January 22, 2010, a special honorary concert for Chomsky was given at Kresge Auditorium at MIT.[138][139] The concert, attended by Chomsky and dozens of his family and friends, featured music composed by Edward Manukyan and speeches by Chomsky's colleagues, including David Pesetsky of MIT and Gennaro Chierchia, head of the linguistics department at Harvard University.
In June 2011, Chomsky was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize, which cited his "unfailing courage, critical analysis of power and promotion of human rights".[140]
In 2011, Chomsky was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for the "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems".[141][142]
Bibliography[link]
Main article: Noam Chomsky bibliography
Filmography[link]
- Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, Director: Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick (1992)
- Last Party 2000, Director: Rebecca Chaiklin and Donovan Leitch (2001)
- Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times, Director: John Junkerman (2002)
- Distorted Morality—America's War On Terror?, Director: John Junkerman (2003)
- Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (TV), Director: Will Pascoe (2003)
- The Corporation, Directors: Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott; Writer: Joel Bakan (2003)
- Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land, Directors: Sut Jhally and Bathsheba Ratzkoff (2004)
- On Power, Dissent and Racism: A discussion with Noam Chomsky, Journalist: Nicolas Rossier; Producers: Eli Choukri, Baraka Productions (2004)
- Lake of Fire, Director: Tony Kaye (2006)
- American Feud: A History of Conservatives and Liberals, Director: Richard Hall (2008)
- Chomsky & Cie Director: Olivier Azam (out in 2008)
- An Inconvenient Tax, Director: Christopher P. Marshall (out in 2009)
- The Money Fix, Director: Alan Rosenblith (2009)
- Pax Americana and the Weaponization of Space, Director: Denis Delestrac (2010)
- Article 12: Waking up in a surveillance society, Director: Juan Manuel Biaiñ (2010)
See also[link]
|
Anarchism portal |
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Liberalism portal |
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Linguistics portal |
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Mind and Brain portal |
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Psychology portal |
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Socialism portal |
- American philosophy
- Axiom of categoricity
- Chomskybot
- "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously"
- English studies
- Knowledge worker
- List of American philosophers
- Important publications in computability
- The Anti-Chomsky Reader
References[link]
- ^ Kanan Makiya, Fouad Moughrabi, Adel Safty, Rex Brynen, "Letters to the Editor" in Journal of Palestine Studies, Journal of Palestine Studies via JSTOR (Vol. 23, No. 4, Summer, 1994, pp. 196–200), accessed December 4, 2007. Relevant quotation: "On page 146 of my book, I clearly adopt the propaganda model developed by Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman..."
- ^ Noam Chomsky (2011-09-22). Noam Chomsky on the Responsibility of Intellectuals: Redux. Ideas Matter. Event occurs at 09:23. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK9W5DE7ZtQ. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
- ^ Barsky, Robert F.. "Chomsky and Bertrand Russell". Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/1/10.html. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
- ^ http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm
- ^ a b c "Noam Chomsky", by Zoltán Gendler Szabó, in Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860–1960, ed. Ernest Lepore (2004). "Chomsky's intellectual life had been divided between his work in linguistics and his political activism, philosophy coming as a distant third. Nonetheless, his influence among analytic philosophers has been enormous because of three factors. First, Chomsky contributed substantially to a major methodological shift in the human sciences, turning away from the prevailing empiricism of the middle of the twentieth century: behaviorism in psychology, structuralism in linguistics and positivism in philosophy. Second, his groundbreaking books on syntax (Chomsky (1957, 1965)) laid a conceptual foundation for a new, cognitivist approach to linguistics and provided philosophers with a new framework for thinking about human language and the mind. And finally, he has persistently defended his views against all takers, engaging in important debates with many of the major figures in analytic philosophy..."
- ^ The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1999), "Chomsky, Noam," Cambridge University Press, pg. 138. "Chomsky, Noam (born 1928), preeminent American linguist, philosopher, and political activist... Many of Chomsky's most significant contributions to philosophy, such as his influential rejection of behaviorism... stem from his elaborations and defenses of the above consequences..."
- ^ "MIT Department of Linguistics: People: Faculty: Noam Chomsky". Web.mit.edu. http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/index.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Clark, Neil (2003-07-14). "Great thinkers of our time – Noam Chomsky". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200307140016. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "Regarded as the father of modern linguistics, founder of the field of transformational-generative grammar, which relies heavily on logic and philosophy."
- ^ Fox, Margalit (1998-12-05). "A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies". New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20B1FFA3A5F0C768CDDAB0994D0494D81&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fC%2fChomsky%2c%20Noam. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "... Noam Chomsky, father of modern linguistics and the field's most influential practitioner; ..."
- ^ Thomas Tymoczko, Jim Henle, James M. Henle, Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic, Birkhäuser, 2000, p. 101.
- ^ Michael Sipser (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation. PWS Publishing. ISBN 0-534-94728-X.
- ^ a b "The Cognitive Science Millennium Project". Cogsci.umn.edu. http://www.cogsci.umn.edu/OLD/calendar/past_events/millennium/final.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "The Accidental Bestseller, Publishers Weekly, 5-5-03, accessed 05-03-11. "Chomsky's controversial political works...became mainstream bestsellers."
- ^ Arnove, Anthony (March 1997). "In Perspective: Noam Chomsky". International Socialism. http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj74/arnove.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
- ^ Matt Dellinger, "Sounds and Sites: Noam Chomsky", The New Yorker, Link, 3-31-03, accessed 1-26-09
- ^ "Noam Chomsky". Web.archive.org. 2010-05-28. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20100528222251/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/chomsky_noam.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Chomsky is Citation Champ". MIT News Office. 1992-04-15. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Hughes, Samuel (July/August 2001). "Speech!". The Pennsylvania Gazette. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/200107--.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-03. "According to a recent survey by the Institute for Scientific Information, only Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, and Freud are cited more often in academic journals than Chomsky, who edges out Hegel and Cicero."
- ^ Robinson, Paul (1979-02-25). "The Chomsky Problem". The New York Times. "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today. He is also a disturbingly divided intellectual."
- ^ "Books". chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/books.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
- ^ a b "The Life and Times of Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Amy Goodman". www.chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20041126.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
- ^ a b "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 1 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ a b Choamsky, Noam. Conversations with History, U. C. Berkeley, March 2002. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ghoXQxdk6s
- ^ "The Chomsky Tapes: Conversations with Michael Albert". Z magazine. November 2001. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Chomsky_Tapes_MAlbert.html.
- ^ Kreisler (2002), "Chapter 1: Background". http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Barsky, Robert Franklin (1997). Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent. ECW Press. pp. 47. ISBN 978-1-55022-281-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=GhwvCoZBFoYC&pg=PA47. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Marquard, Bryan (2008-12-20). "Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky interviewed by Shira Hadad". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20051110.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Eight Question on Kibbutzim: Answers from Noam Chomsky Questions from Nikos Raptis". Zmag.org. 1999-08-24. http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/186. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Kibbutzim as a Climate for Learning". Csudh.edu. http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kibbutzim01.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1967-02-23). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". The New York Review of Books 8 (3). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/12172. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Flint, Anthony (1995-11-19). "Divided Legacy". The Boston Globe. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19951119.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04. "Ask this intellectual radical why he is shunned by the mainstream, and he'll say that established powers have never been able to handle his brand of dissent."
- ^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 4". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/4/17.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04. Barsky quotes an excerpt of Edward Herman examining why "one of America's most well-known intellectuals and dissidents would be thus ignored and even ostracized by the mainstream press". For example, "Chomsky has never had an Op Ed column in the Washington Post, and his lone opinion piece in the New York Times was not an original contribution but rather excerpts from testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee".
- ^ a b c Stroumboulopoulos, George (2006-03-13). "Noam Chomsky on The Hour". CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/thehour/video.php?id=991. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "The 'Chomskyan Era' (Excerpted from The Architecture of Language)". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/books/architecture01.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Elman, J., Bates, E., Johnson, M., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Parisi, D., & Plunkett, K. (1996). Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
- ^ Tomasello, M (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01764-1.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53007-4.
- ^ Huang, Cheng-Teh James (1982). Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [1].
- ^ Matthews, G.H. (1965). Hidatsa Syntax. Mouton.
- ^ Platero, Paul Randolph (1978). Missing noun phrases in Navajo. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [2].
- ^ Schütze, Carson T. (1993). Towards a Minimalist Account of Quirky Case and Licensing in Icelandic. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 19. Available online [3]
- ^ Bhatt, Rajesh (1997). Matching Effects and the Syntax-Morphology Interface: Evidence from Hindi Correlatives. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 31. Available online [4].
- ^ Evans, N., & Levinson, S. C. (2009). The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(5), 429-492.
- ^ Everett, D. (2008). Don't sleep, there are snakes: Life and language in the Amazonian jungle. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-375-42502-0.
- ^ Van Valin, R. (2000). Linguistic diversity and theoretical assumptions. Chicago Linguistic Society Parasession Papers, 35, 373-391.
- ^ Muhlhausler, P. (1996). Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region. Routledge.
- ^ Martin, Davis. Computability, complexity, and languages: Fundamentals of theoretical computer science. Boston: Academic, Harcourt, Brace, 1994: 327. Print.
- ^ "Computer Programming and Formal Systems", Eds. P. Braffort and D. Hirschberg, pp. 124-135
- ^ "Finite Semigroups and Recognizable Languages: An Introduction", by Jean-Eric Pin, Bull Research and Development, 2002
- ^ Chomsky (1996), pp. 71.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam, "Notes on Anarchism" [5] ... "Libertarian socialism is properly to be regarded as the inheritor of the liberal ideals of the Enlightenment."
- ^ Shane, Scott (2 October 2010). "Bin Laden Resurfaces in Recordings". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/world/asia/03binladen.html. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Thomson, Desson (21 December 2003). "Morris, McNamara: Bound by 'The Fog'". The Washington Post.
- ^ Folkenflik, David (27 February 2008). "William F. Buckley, Conservative Bulwark, Dies". NPR. http://m.npr.org/news/front/62983288?singlePage=true. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Gollust, David (5 January 2011). "US Sticking With Choice for Envoy Despite Venezuelan Rejection". Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com/english/news/americas/US-Sticking-With-Choice-for-Envoy-Despite-Venezuelan-Rejection--112972279.html. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Chomsky wrote the preface to an edition of Rudolf Rocker's book Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. In it Chomsky wrote: "I felt at once, and still feel, that Rocker was pointing the way to a much better world, one that is within our grasp, one that may well be the only alternative to the 'universal catastrophe' towards which 'we are driving on under full sail'..." Book Citation: Rudolph Rocker. Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. ii. 2004.
- ^ 'Industrial Workers of the World - IWW Biography Retrieved 2012-2-11
- ^ International Organization for a Participatory Society - Interim Committee Retrieved 2012-3-31
- ^ ZNet - Consider IOPS Retrieved 2012-4-3
- ^ "''Anarchism 101 with Noam Chomsky''". Youtube.com. 2007-10-10. http://youtube.com/watch?v=2G6kf7XM9Nk. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 2 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con2.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ An Evening With Noam Chomsky
- ^ "Simple Truths, Hard Problems: Some thoughts on terror, justice, and self-defence*" (PDF). http://www.chomsky.info/articles/200501--.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "International Terrorism: Image and Reality". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/articles/199112--02.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1987). On power and ideology: the Managua lectures. South End Press. pp. 51. ISBN 978-0-89608-289-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ot6pRjxv2ykC&pg=PA93#v=onepage&q=a%20huge%20power&f=false. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky: My Reaction to Osama bin Laden’s Death". Guernicamag.com. http://www.guernicamag.com/blog/2652/noam_chomsky_my_reaction_to_os/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). Chomsky on democracy & education. Psychology Press. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-0-415-92632-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=84NQ3IXpbOYC&pg=PA30. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "The Corporate Takeover of U.S. Democracy". Chomsky.info. http://chomsky.info/articles/20100124.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1993). "What Uncle Sam Really Wants". ZMag. http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/sam/sam-3-2.html. Retrieved 2007-07-27.
- ^ Noam Chomsky et al. (1999). Noam Chomsky on Drugs[dead link] (TV). ROX.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (2002-02-08). "DRCNet Interview: Noam Chomsky". DRCNet. http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle-old/223/noamchomsky.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-27.
- ^ Chomsky (1996), p. 77.
- ^ "Interview with Noam Chomsky, Bill Bennett", May 30, 2002 American Morning with Paula Zahn CNN
- ^ Adams, Tim (2003-10-30). "Noam Chomsky: Thorn in America's Side". London: The Observer. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1094708,00.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam. 2003. Chomsky on Democracy & Education. Routledge. p. 399
- ^ 'Answers by Noam Chomsky' to questions about anarchism[dead link]
- ^ “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” January 30, 1968 New York Post
- ^ "An Exchange on "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", Noam Chomsky debates with Fryar Calhoun, E. B. Murray, and Arthur Dorfman". Chomsky.info. 1967-04-20. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/19670420.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "On the Future of Israel and Palestine". Chomsky.info. 2008-06-06. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20080606.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Solomon, Deborah (November 2, 2003). "Questions for Noam Chomsky: The Professorial Provocateur". The New York Times Magazine (The New York Times). http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/02/magazine/way-we-live-now-11-02-03-questions-for-noam-chomsky-professorial-provocateur.html.
- ^ Jones, Mother (1988-10). Mother Jones Magazine. Mother Jones. pp. 30. http://books.google.com/books?id=I-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "Israel bars Noam Chomsky from West Bank". The Gazette. Agence France-Presse (Canwest Publishing Inc). May 16, 2010. http://www.montrealgazette.com/Israel+bars+Noam+Chomsky+from+West+Bank/3035253/story.html. [dead link]
- ^ a b c "Israel Roiled After Chomsky Barred From West Bank". The New York Times. May 17, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/world/middleeast/18chomsky.html?partner=rss&emc=rss.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Pateman, Barry (2005). Chomsky on anarchism. AK Press. pp. 167. ISBN 978-1-904859-20-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_HkOaB89p7YC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "WikiLeaks Cables Reveal "Profound Hatred for Democracy on the Part of Our Political Leadership"". Noam Chomsky website. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20101130.htm. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
- ^ Brockes, Emma (2005-10-31). "The Greatest Intellectual?, by Emma Brockes". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20051031.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Noam Chomsky (2005-11-13). "Open Letter to The Guardian (ZNet)". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/letters/20051113.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Noam Chomsky (1980-09-10). "Free speech in a Democracy, (Daily Camera)". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/letters/198509--.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Corrections and clarifications". The Guardian. 2005-11-17. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/17/pressandpublishing.corrections. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
- ^ New Left Review, 57, Sept. – Oct. 1969, p. 21
- ^ Ghoshroy, S. (2008). Chomsky Discusses Economy, Military Hegemony. The Tech, 128, 51. Available online [6].
- ^ "Chomsky endorses Stein in 2012". Jill Stein for President. http://www.jillstein.org/chomsky. Retrieved 9 March 2012.
- ^ Nick Cohen (2007). What's Left?: How Liberals Lost Their Way. Harper Collins. pp. 14, 155–62, 164–8 , 170 , 179–80, 258. ISBN 978-0-00-722969-7.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (2009). "Mysteries of Nature: How Deeply Hidden?". Journal of Philosophy 106 (4): 167–200. ISSN 0022-362X.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). Chomsky on democracy & education. RoutledgeFalmer. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-415-92632-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5Ouy4XoXPsC. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "Science in the Dock, Discussion with Noam Chomsky, Lawrence Krauss & Sean M. Carroll". Chomsky.info. 2006-03-01. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/20060301.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Journal citation PMC2774611 - An Underdiscussed Aspect of Chomsky (1959)
- ^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 3". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/3/2.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (October 1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) 70 (10): 2974–8. DOI:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=427150.
- ^ Massimo Piatelli-Palmarini, ed., Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Routledge, 1975.
- ^ "''The Chomsky–Foucault Debate: On Human Nature''". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/1971xxxx.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ William F. Buckley vs. Noam Chomsky, YouTube
- ^ Noam Chomsky "A Quick Reaction", Counterpunch September 12, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "Against Rationalization: Minority Report", The Nation, September 24, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "Of Sin, the Left & Islamic Fascism", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "A Rejoinder to Noam Chomsky", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens' 'Rejoinder'", The Nation, 2001
- ^ "The New York Review of Books, "Chomsky Replies", 1973 20;12". Nybooks.com. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1973/jul/19/chomsky-replies/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky vs. Perle, YouTube
- ^ Hilary Putnam, "Externalism: Its Motivation and Its Critics", Harvard University, 2007.
- ^ KU Leuven, "An Epistemological Reading of the Debate between Quine and Chomsky", October 2003.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky v. Alan Dershowitz: A Debate on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict", Democracy Now!, 23 December 2005.
- ^ "Chomsky Rebel". Dvdverdict.com. 2005-05-16. http://www.dvdverdict.com/reviews/chomskyrebel.php. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam. "False, False, False, and False: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Ray Suarez", January 20, 1999 Chomsky.info
- ^ Sakharov, Alex (2003-05-12). "Grammar". MathWorld. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Grammar.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ "Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence". School of Psychology. Massey University. 1996. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070117055247/http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Knuth, Donald (2003), Selected Papers on Computer Languages, CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information, http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html
- ^ "Van Zyl Slabbert to present TB Davie Memorial Lecture". Uct.ac.za. 2003-10-13. http://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=4104. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ The Current Crisis in the Middle East: About the Lecture. MIT World.
- ^ "CU Regents". Cu.edu. https://www.cu.edu/regents/Awards/AwardsMaster.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Welcome to Peking University". English.pku.edu.cn. 2010-08-13. http://english.pku.edu.cn/News_Events/News/Campus/6797.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky Lectured in Beijing". Chinatoday.com.cn. 2010-12-12. http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/ctenglish/se/txt/2010-08/23/content_293243.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky, MIT Linguistics Program". Chomsky.info. 1928-12-07. http://www.chomsky.info/bios/2002----.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Past Recipients of the NCTE Orwell Award" (PDF). http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Involved/Volunteer/Appointed%20Groups/Past_Recipients_Orwell_Award.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts - Department of Social Sciences members Retrieved 2012-2-11
- ^ "Interviews Polathicks/Society » Interview: Noam Chomsky Speaks Out On Education and Power". Soundtracksforthem. 2005-09-20. http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Uppsala University’s Honorary Doctorates in Commemoration of Linnaeus". Uppsala University. 2007-02-13. http://info.uu.se/press.nsf/pm/uppsala.universitys.id0AC.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb; excerpt:the Literary and Debating Society’s President’s Medal, the society’s achievement award, [has] been won in the past by the likes of Noam Chomsky, Senator Mike Gravel, Congressman Bruce Morrison, journalist Fintan O’Toole and, playwright, Tom Murphy.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky, honorary member of IAPTI". Aipti.org. http://www.aipti.org/eng/honorary_members/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "The 2010 Erich Fromm Prize to Noam Chomsky". International Erich Fromm Society. 2010-01-16. http://www.erich-fromm.de/biophil/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=190:the-2010-erich-fromm-prize-to-noam-chomsky&catid=54:latest-news. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
- ^ "Author, activist Noam Chomsky to receive award". News.wisc.edu. 2010-03-29. http://www.news.wisc.edu/17889. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Some Famous People with Finite Erdös Numbers". The Erdös Number Project. Oakland University. http://www.oakland.edu/enp/erdpaths/. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
- ^ "Chomsky named top intellectual: British poll". Breitbart.com. 2005-10-18. http://www.breitbart.com/news/2005/10/18/051018152652.77esbn1j.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Cowley, Jason (2006-05-22). "Heroes of Our Time". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ "Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs". Viggo Fan Base. http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds/#pfa.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky Honorary Concert". Edwardmanukyan.com. http://www.edwardmanukyan.com/concerts/chomsky_tribute.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Weininger, David (2010-01-21). "Chomsky Tribute". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/ae/music/articles/2010/01/22/fours_a_charm_for_parker_quartet/. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
- ^ "Controversy dogs Chomsky as he accepts Sydney Peace Prize". Smh.com.au. 2011-06-02. http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/controversy-dogs-chomsky-as-he-accepts-sydney-peace-prize-20110601-1fgqf.html#ixzz1O7yqP75P. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "AI's Hall of Fame". IEEE Intelligent Systems (IEEE Computer Society) 26 (4): 5–15. 2011. DOI:10.1109/MIS.2011.64. http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/homepage/2011/0811/rW_IS_AIsHallofFame.pdf. edit
- ^ "IEEE Computer Society Magazine Honors Artificial Intelligence Leaders". DigitalJournal.com. August 24, 2011 (2011-08-24). http://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/399442. Retrieved September 18, 2011 (2011-09-18). Press release source: PRWeb (Vocus).
- Chomsky, Noam (1996). Perspectives on Power. Montréal: Black Rose. ISBN 978-1-55164-048-8.
- Kreisler, Harry (2002-03-22). "Activism, Anarchism, and Power: Conversation with Noam Chomsky". Conversations with History. Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
External links[link]
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- chomsky.info official website
- Noam Chomsky at MIT
- Noam Chomsky at the Open Directory Project
- Noam Chomsky articles on libcom.org
- Noam Chomsky at Democracy Now!
- Column archive at The Guardian
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Noam Chomsky on Charlie Rose
- Noam Chomsky at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by or about Noam Chomsky in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Noam Chomsky at ZSpace
- Articles and videos featuring Noam Chomsky at AnarchismToday.org
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Noam Chomsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Noam Chomsky at the AI Genealogy Project.
- Interviews and articles
- Talks by Noam Chomsky at A-Infos Radio Project
- Interview about Human Rights by scholars (English with French subtitles) – 2009
- Chomsky media files at the Internet Archive
- Noam Chomsky interviewed by Alyssa McDonald on New Statesman, September 2010.
- Noam Chomsky Interviews on The Real News (TRNN)
- Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance – discussion on the "Bush doctrine" and its implications, C-SPAN, Feb 2004
- Philosophies of Language & Politics – talk at The Commonwealth Club, October 2009
- Thought Economics Interviews Noam Chomsky – Noam Chomsky interviewed on global democracy, April 2011
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Chomsky, Avram Noam |
| Alternative names | Chomsky, Noam |
| Short description | linguist, psychologist, and activist |
| Date of birth | December 7, 1928 |
| Place of birth | East Oak Lane, Philadelphia, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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Saint Andrew (Greek: Ἀνδρέας, Andreas; from the early 1st century—mid to late 1st century AD), called in the Orthodox tradition Prōtoklētos, or the First-called, is a Christian Apostle and the brother of Saint Peter. The name "Andrew" (Greek: manly, brave, from ἀνδρεία, Andreia, "manhood, valour"), like other Greek names, appears to have been common among the Jews, Christians, and other Hellenized peoples of the region. No Hebrew or Aramaic name is recorded for him. He is considered the founder and the first bishop of the Church of Byzantium and is consequently the patron saint of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, by which it is inferred that he was likewise a son of John, or Jonah.[Mt. 16:17] [Jn. 1:42] He was born in Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee.[Jn. 1:44] Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade, hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them "fishers of men" (Greek: ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων, halieĩs anthrōpōn). At the beginning of Jesus' public life, they were said to have occupied the same house at Capernaum.[Mk. 1:21-29]
