- published: 04 Dec 2011
- views: 70869
- author: ComradFish
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Armenia
Armenia
i/ɑrˈmiːniə/ (Armenian: Հայաստան Hayastan [hɑjɑsˈtɑn]), officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun, [hɑjɑstɑˈni hɑnɾɑpɛtuˈtʰjun]), is a landlocked, mountainous country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.
A former republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is a unitary, multiparty, democratic nation-state with an ancient and historic cultural heritage. The Kingdom of Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its religion, in the early years of the 4th century (the traditional date is 301 AD). The modern Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. Armenians have their own unique alphabet invented by Mesrob Mashtots in 406 AD.
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Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (
i/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.
Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war. Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.
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Brussels
Brussels (French: Bruxelles, pronounced [bʁysɛl] (
listen); Dutch: Brussel, pronounced [ˈbrʏ.səɫ] ( listen); German: Brüssel, pronounced [ˈbʁyː.səl]), officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region (French: 
Région de Bruxelles-Capitale (help·info), Dutch: Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest (help·info)), is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union (EU). It is also the largest urban area in Belgium, comprising 19 municipalities, including the municipality of the City of Brussels, which is the de jure capital of Belgium, in addition to the seat of the French Community of Belgium and of the Flemish Community.
Brussels has grown from a 10th-century fortress town founded by a descendant of Charlemagne into a metropolis of more than one million inhabitants. The metropolitan area has a population of over 1.8 million, making it the largest in Belgium.
Since the end of the Second World War, Brussels has been a main centre for international politics. Hosting principal EU institutions as well as the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the city has become the polyglot home of numerous international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants.
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Cheka
Cheka (ЧК - чрезвыча́йная коми́ссия chrezvychaynaya komissiya, Emergency Commission Russian pronunciation: [tɕɛ.ˈka]) was the first of a succession of Soviet state security organizations. It was created by a decree issued on December 20, 1917, by Vladimir Lenin and subsequently led by aristocrat-turned-communist Felix Dzerzhinsky. After 1922, the Cheka underwent a series of reorganizations into bodies whose members continued to be referred to as "Chekisty" (Chekists) into the late 1980s and with Vladimir Putin's rise to power reference to the FSB people as "Chekists" returned and is very much alive still today, with an obvious negative connotation when used by the opposition.
From its founding, the Cheka was an important military and security arm of the Bolshevik communist government. In 1921 the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered 200,000. These troops policed labor camps; ran the Gulag system; conducted requisitions of food; subjected political opponents to torture and summary execution; and put down rebellions and riots by workers and peasants, and mutinies in the desertion-plagued Red Army.
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Chicago
Chicago (i/ʃɪˈkɑːɡoʊ/ or /ʃɪˈkɔːɡoʊ/) is the largest city in the US state of Illinois and the third most populous city in the United States after New York City and Los Angeles. The city has around 2.7 million residents. Its metropolitan area, sometimes called "Chicagoland", is the third largest in the United States, with an estimated 9.8 million people. Chicago is the county seat of Cook County, though a small portion also extends into DuPage County.
Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837, near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed. Today, Chicago is listed as an alpha+ global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and ranks seventh in the world on the 2012 Global Cities Index. The city retains its status as an international hub for finance, industry, telecommunications and infrastructure, with O'Hare International Airport being the second busiest airport in the world in terms of traffic movements. In 2008[update], the city hosted 45.6 million domestic and overseas visitors. Among metropolitan areas, Chicago has the 4th largest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the world, ranking just behind Tokyo, New York City, and Los Angeles. Chicago is one of the most important Worldwide Centers of Commerce and trade.
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Dnipropetrovsk
Dnipropetrovsk (Ukrainian: Дніпропетровськ [ˌdɲiprope̝ˈtrɔu̯sʲk]) or Dnepropetrovsk (Russian: Днепропетровск) formerly Yekaterinoslav (Russian: Екатеринослав, Ukrainian: Катеринослав, translit. Katerynoslav, also Catharinoslav on old maps) is Ukraine's fourth largest city with one million inhabitants. It is located southeast of Ukraine's capital Kiev on the Dnieper River, in the south-central part of the country. Dnipropetrovsk is the administrative centre of the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast (province).
Within the Dnipropetrovsk Metropolitan area the population is about 1,004,000 to 1,360,000 people.
A vital industrial centre of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk was one of the key centres of the nuclear, arms, and space industries of the former Soviet Union. In particular, it is home to Yuzhmash, a major space and ballistic missile design bureau and manufacturer. Because of its military industry, Dnipropetrovsk was a closed city until the 1990s.
In 1917 Yekaterinoslav was renamed Sicheslav by the Ukrainian People's Republic; this name lapsed in 1919.
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Finland
Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
Finlandi/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
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German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
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Gorki Leninskiye
Coordinates: 55°30′N 37°46′E / 55.5°N 37.767°E / 55.5; 37.767
Gorki Leninskiye (Russian: Го́рки Ле́нинские) is an urban locality (an urban-type settlement) in Leninsky District of Moscow Oblast, Russia, 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) south of Moscow city limits and the MKAD. Population: 3,597 (2010 Census preliminary results); 1,729 (2002 Census); 1,711 (1989 Census).
The estate of Gorki belonged to various Muscovite noblemen from the 18th century, ending up in the possession of General Anatoly Reinbot, who was Governor General of Moscow in 1905 during the First Russian Revolution. After his death the estate passed to his widow, Zinaida Morozova. She engaged the most fashionable Russian architect, Fyodor Schechtel, to remodel the mansion in the then current Neoclassical style, complete with a six-column Ionic portico.
After the Soviet government moved to Moscow in 1918, the luxurious estate was nationalized and converted into Lenin's dacha. In September 1918, the Soviet leader recuperated there from an assassination attempt. He spent an increasing amount of time there as his health declined over the following years. On 15 May 1923 Lenin followed the doctor's advice and left the Moscow Kremlin for Gorki. He lived there in semi-retirement until his death on 21 January 1924.
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Gyumri
Coordinates: 40°47′22″N 43°50′51″E / 40.78944°N 43.8475°E / 40.78944; 43.8475 Gyumri (Armenian: Գյումրի) is the capital and largest city of the Shirak Province in northwest Armenia. It is located about 120 km from the capital Yerevan, and, with a population of 168,918 (2008; up from 150,917 reported at the 2001 census), is the second-largest city in Armenia.
The name of the city has been changed many times in history. It was first known as Kumayri or Gyumri, then Alexandropol (Russian: Александрополь, Armenian: Ալեքսանդրապոլ, 1840–1924), then Leninakan (Armenian: Լենինական Russian: Ленинакан, 1924–1990), then again as Gyumri.
The city is situated on a 126 km distance north to Yerevan in the central part of the Shirak Highland, at an approximate height of 1550 meters above sea level. The Akhurian River passes through the western suburbs of Gyumri. Gyumri's climate is characterised with very severe and cold winters, where the minimum temperature could fall down to −41 °C (−42 °F). On the other hand, summers in Gyumri are relatively hot with temperatures could reach up to 36 °C (97 °F). The annual precipitation averages 500 millimetres (20 in).
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Ivanovo
Ivanovo (Russian: Ива́ново; IPA: [ɪˈvanəvə]) is a city and the administrative center of Ivanovo Oblast, Russia. Population: 409,277 (2010 Census preliminary results); 431,721 (2002 Census); 481,042 (1989 Census).
Ivanovo has traditionally been called the textile capital of Russia. Since most textile workers are women, it has also been known as the "City of Brides". Probably the most famous of the city's female natives was the postmodern French writer Nathalie Sarraute.
It is home to Ivanovo Severny, which is one of the largest military airlift bases in Russia. Civilian air services are provided at Ivanovo Yuzhny Airport.
Ivanovo has several educational institutions: Ivanovo State University, Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology, Ivanovo Medical Academy, Ivanovo Architectural Academy, Ivanovo State Power University(ISPU).
Ivanovo was created by merging the old flax-processing village Ivanovo (first documented in 1561) with the industrial Voznesensky Posad in 1871. Until 1932, its official name was Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Because of its textile manufacturing industry, Ivanovo earned the sobriquet of the "Russian Manchester" during the 19th century.
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Kazan
Kazan (Russian: Каза́нь; IPA: [kɐˈzanʲ]; Tatar Cyrillic: Казан, Latin: Qazan) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. With a population of 1,161,308, it is the eighth most populous city in Russia, while the metropolitan area has a population of 1.57 million (2011).[citation needed] Kazan lies at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka Rivers in European Russia.
The Kazan Kremlin is a World Heritage Site. In 2005, the Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" was established by Russia to denote this landmark event. The multi-ethnic city is is honored by UNESCO and famous for Muslims and Christians living side-by-side in peace.
In April 2009, the Russian Patent Office granted Kazan the right to brand itself as the "Third Capital" of Russia. In 2009 it was chosen as the "Sports capital of Russia" and it still is referred to as such. The city will host 2013 Summer Universiade, 2015 World Aquatics Championships, and 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The origin of the name Kazan is uncertain. The most accepted legends derive it from the Bulgar Turkic (and also modern Tatar) word qazan, which means 'boiler' or 'cauldron'.
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Khujand
Khujand (Tajik: Хуҷанд,خجند) (Greek: Alexandria Eschate (Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ἐσχάτη)), also transliterated as Khudzhand, Russian: Худжанд, formerly Khodjend or Khodzhent until 1936 and Leninabad (Leninobod, Ленинобод, لنینآباد) until 1991, is the second-largest city of Tajikistan. It is situated on the Syr Darya River at the mouth of the Fergana Valley. The population of the city is 149,000 (2000 census), down from 160,000 in 1989. It is also the capital of the northernmost province of Tajikistan, now called Sughd.
The population in the city and the countryside around it, are heavily Persian speaking. Except for the towns of [Kasan] and Akhsikat in the Uzbek northeastern Fergana Valley, and the town of Baghistan, northeast of Tashkent, city of Khujand is the most northerly Persian-speaking city in the world.
This is the site of Cyropolis, or the City of Cyrus. In his last expedition against the Saka tribe of Massagetae and shortly before his death in that battle, king Cyrus the Great the founder of the Persian Empire founded a city here which he named after himself. Greek authors maintain that later in time, Alexander of Macedon built a Greek settlement near Cyropolis (Khujand) in 329 BC and named it Alexandria Eschate (Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ἐσχάτη) or "Alexandria The Furthest". It would have formed a bastion for the Greek settlers against the Scythian tribes to the north of the Syr Darya, which the Greeks called the Jaxartes River. It became a major staging point on the northern Silk Road. Some famous Persian poets and scientists come from this city. Khujand is an integral part of the Iranic world and culture.
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Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv (Ukrainian: Київ [ˈkɪjiw] ( listen); Russian: Киев) is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press.
Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many high-tech industries, higher education institutions and world-famous historical landmarks. The city has an extensive infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport, including the Kiev Metro.
The name Kiev is said to derive from the name of Kyi, one of four legendary founders of the city (brothers Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv, and sister Lybid). During its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a commercial centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the great trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians (Vikings) in the mid-9th century. Under Varangians rule, the city became a capital of the Rus', the first East Slavic state. Completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a provincial capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours; first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland and Russia.
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Kuban
Coordinates: 45°02′N 38°58′E / 45.033°N 38.967°E / 45.033; 38.967
Kuban (Russian: Кубань; Adyghe: Пшызэ, Ukrainian: Кубань) is a geographic region of Southern Russia surrounding the Kuban River, on the Black Sea between the Don Steppe, Volga Delta and the Caucasus. Krasnodar Krai is often referred to as Kuban, both officially and unofficially, although the term is not exclusive to the krai and accommodates the republics of Adygea, Karachay–Cherkessia, and parts of Stavropol Krai.
The settlement of Kuban and of the adjacent Black Sea region occurred gradually for over a century, and was heavily influenced by the outcomes of the conflicts between Russia and Turkey. In the mid-18th century, the area was predominantly settled by the mountainous Adyghe tribes. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, the population of the area started to show more pro-Russian tendencies.
In order to stop Turkish ambitions to use Kuban region to facilitate the return of the Crimea, Russia started to establish a network of fortifications along the Kuban River in the 1770s. After the Russian annexation of the Crimea, right-bank Kuban, and Taman in 1783, the Kuban River became the border of the Russian Empire. New fortresses were built on the Kuban in the 1780s–1790s.
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Lena River
The Lena (Russian: Ле́на, IPA: [ˈlʲenə]; Sakha: Өлүөнэ, Ölüöne) is the easternmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean (the other two being the Ob River and the Yenisei River). It is the 11th longest river in the world and has the 9th largest watershed. It is the greatest river whose watershed is entirely within national ranges of Russia.
Rising at the height of 1,640 metres (5,381 ft) at its source Baikal Mountains south of the Central Siberian Plateau, 7 kilometres (4 mi) west of Lake Baikal, the Lena flows northeast, being joined by the Kirenga River, Vitim River and Olyokma River. From Yakutsk it enters the lowlands and flows north until joined by its right-hand affluent the Aldan River. The Verkhoyansk Range deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving its most important left-hand tributary, the Vilyuy River, it makes its way nearly due north to the Laptev Sea, a division of the Arctic Ocean, emptying south-west of the New Siberian Islands by the Lena Delta - 30,000 square kilometres (11,583 sq mi) in area, and traversed by seven principal branches, the most important being Bykov, farthest east.
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Leningrad Oblast
Leningrad Oblast (Russian: Ленингра́дская о́бласть, Leningradskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). It was established on August 1, 1927, although it was not until 1946 that the oblast's borders had been mostly settled in their present position. The oblast was named after the city of Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg).
The oblast is bordered by Finland in the northwest, Estonia in the west, as well as five federal subjects of Russia: the Republic of Karelia in the northeast, Vologda Oblast in the east, Novgorod Oblast in the south, Pskov Oblast in the southwest, and the federal city of Saint Petersburg in the west.
The first governor of Leningrad Oblast was Vadim Gustov (in 1996–1998). Since 1999 he has been succeeded by Valery Serdyukov, who was replaced by Alexander Drozdenko, since 2012.
The oblast has an area of 84,500 square miles (219,000 km2) and a population of 1,716,868 (2010 Census); up from 1,669,205 recorded in the 2002 Census. The most populous town of the oblast is Gatchina, with 88,659 inhabitants (as of the 2002 Census). Leningrad Oblast is highly industrialized.
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London
Londoni/ˈlʌndən/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is a leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence. It is the world's leading financial centre alongside New York City and has the fifth-largest city GDP in the world (and the largest in Europe). London has been described as a world cultural capital. It was the world's most visited city during 2011 and London Heathrow is the world's busiest airport by number of international passengers. London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe. In 2012 London will become the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.
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Minusinsky District
Minusinsky District (Russian: Минуси́нский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the southwest of the krai and borders with Krasnoturansky District in the north, Kuraginsky District in the east, Karatuzsky District in the southeast, Shushensky District in the south, and with the Republic of Khakassia in the west. The area of the district is 3,185 square kilometers (1,230 sq mi). Its administrative center is the town of Minusinsk (which is not administratively a part of the district). Population: 25,873 (2010 Census preliminary results); 26,729 (2002 Census); 25,803 (1989 Census).
The district is situated on the Yenisey River in the central part of Minusinsk Hollow.
The district was founded on April 4, 1924.
Administratively, the district is divided into thirteen selsoviets. The town of Minusinsk serves as the administrative center of the district, although it is not administratively a part of it. Administratively, along with one work settlement (Zelyony Bor), Minusinsk is incorporated separately as a krai town.
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Moscow
Moscow (
/ˈmɒskaʊ/ or /ˈmɒskoʊ/; Russian: Москва́, tr. Moskva; IPA: [mɐˈskva] (
listen)) is the capital and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural and scientific center of Russia and the continent. Moscow is the northernmost megacity on Earth, the most populous city in Europe, and the 6th largest city proper in the world. Its population, according to the results of the 2010 Census, is 11,503,501. Based on Forbes 2011, Moscow has the largest community of billionaires in the world.
Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia. In the course of its history the city has served as the capital of a progression of states, from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Soviet Union. Moscow is the site of the Moscow Kremlin, an ancient fortress that is today the residence of the Russian President and of the executive branch of the Government of Russia. The Kremlin is also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in Moscow.
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Odessa
Odessa (Russian: Одесса, pronounced [ɐˈdʲesːə]) or Odesa (Ukrainian: Одеса, pronounced [ɔˈdɛsɑ]) is the third largest city in Ukraine, with a population of 1,003,705. The city is a major seaport located on the northwest shore of the Black Sea and the administrative center of the Odessa Oblast.
The predecessor of Odessa, a small Tatar settlement, was founded by Hacı I Giray, the Khan of Crimea, in 1240 and originally named after him as "Hacıbey"[citation needed]. After a period of Lithuanian control, it passed into the domain of the Ottoman Sultan in 1529 and remained in Ottoman hands until the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1792. The city of Odessa was founded by a decree of the Empress Catherine the Great in 1794. From 1819 to 1858 Odessa was a free port. During the Soviet period it was the most important port of trade in the Soviet Union and a Soviet naval base. On 1 January 2000 the Quarantine Pier of Odessa trade sea port was declared a free port and free economic zone for a term of 25 years.
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Paris
Coordinates: 48°51′24″N 2°21′03″E / 48.8567°N 2.3508°E / 48.8567; 2.3508
Paris (i/ˈpærɨs/; French: [paʁi] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of France. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region (or Paris Region, French: Région parisienne). As of January 2008 the city of Paris, within its administrative limits (the 20 arrondissements) largely unchanged since 1860, has an estimated population of 2,211,297 and a metropolitan population of 12,089,098, and is one of the most populated metropolitan areas in Europe. Paris was the largest city in the Western world for about 1,000 years, prior to the 19th century, and the largest in the entire world between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Paris is today one of the world's leading business and cultural centres, and its influences in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. It hosts the headquarters of many international organizations such as UNESCO, the OECD, the International Chamber of Commerce or the European Space Agency. Paris is considered one of the greenest and most liveable cities in Europe. It is also one of the most expensive.
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Poronin
Poronin [pɔˈrɔnin], is a village in southern Poland situated in Tatra County of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship since 1999 (it was previously in Nowy Sącz Voivodeship from 1975-1998). It lies approximately 7 kilometres (4 mi) north-east of Zakopane and 80 km (50 mi) south of the regional capital Kraków.
Coordinates: 49°20′N 20°00′E / 49.333°N 20°E / 49.333; 20
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Red Square
Red Square (Russian: Красная площадь, tr. Krásnaja Plóščaď; IPA: [ˈkrasnəjə ˈploɕːətʲ]) is a city square in Moscow, Russia. The square separates the Kremlin, the former royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia, from a historic merchant quarter known as Kitai-gorod. As major streets of Moscow radiate from here in all directions, being promoted to major highways outside the city, Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow and all of Russia.
The rich history of Red Square is reflected in many artworks, including paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon and others. The square was meant to serve as Moscow's main marketplace. It was also used for various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally as the site of coronation for Russia's Tsars. The square has been gradually built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established.
The name Red Square derives neither from the colour of the bricks around it (which, in fact, were whitewashed at certain points in history) nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная (krasnaya) can mean either "red" or "beautiful" (the latter being rather archaic; cf. прекрасная, prekrasnaya). This word, with the meaning "beautiful", was originally applied to Saint Basil's Cathedral and was subsequently transferred to the nearby square. It is believed that the square acquired its current name (replacing the older Pozhar, or "burnt-out place") in the 17th century. Several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Russian Empire
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian orthography: Россійская Имперія, Modern Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean and into North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires, it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was the last absolute monarchy in Europe at the time of its demise.
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Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917 (March in the Gregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar was in use in Russia at the time). In the second revolution, during October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a Bolshevik (Communist) government.
The February Revolution (March 1917) was a revolution focused around Petrograd (now St. Petersburg). In the chaos, members of the Imperial parliament or Duma assumed control of the country, forming the Russian Provisional Government. The army leadership felt they did not have the means to suppress the revolution and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the last Tsar of Russia, abdicated. The Soviets (workers' councils), which were led by more radical socialist factions, initially permitted the Provisional Government to rule, but insisted on a prerogative to influence the government and control various militias. The February Revolution took place in the context of heavy military setbacks during the First World War (1914–18), which left much of the army in a state of mutiny.
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Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербург, tr. Sankt-Peterburg; IPA: [sankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk] ( listen)) is a city and a federal subject (a federal city) of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. In 1914 the name of the city was changed to Petrograd (Russian: Петроград; IPA: [pʲɪtrɐˈgrat]), in 1924 to Leningrad (Russian: Ленинград; IPA: [lʲɪnʲɪnˈgrat]) and in 1991 back to Saint Petersburg.
In Russian literature, informal documents, and discourse, the "Saint" (Санкт-) is usually omitted, leaving Petersburg (Петербург, Peterburg). In common parlance Russians may drop "-burg" (-бург) as well, leaving only Peter (Питер, Russian: [ˈpʲitʲɪr]).
Saint Petersburg was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 27 [O.S. 16] 1703. From 1713 to 1728 and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the Imperial capital of Russia. In 1918 the central government bodies moved from Saint Petersburg (then named Petrograd) to Moscow. It is Russia's second largest city after Moscow with almost 5 million inhabitants. Saint Petersburg is a major European cultural center, and also an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea.
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Shushenskoye
Shushenskoye (Russian: Шу́шенское) is an urban locality (a work settlement) in the southern portion of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located at the confluence of the Yenisei and Big Shush. Population: 17,514 (2010 Census preliminary results); 19,067 (2002 Census); 19,289 (1989 Census).
Vladimir Lenin was in exile here from 1897 to 1900. In 1970, a museum dedicated to Lenin's time in Siberia was opened. Presently, this museum is one of the most prominent local sights. Many visitors from all over Russia and abroad come here to see the history of Lenin's stay as well as to see the peasant way of life during the 18th century. The other feature of this area are its nature reserves.
During 2003 and 2004, a new festival was started in Shushenskoye. This is a festival of ethnic music called the Sayan Ring (Саянское кольцо). Many people come here from all over Russia and abroad. Different ethno-music styles are played during its 3–4 day duration.
The climate is very warm in summer (local people cultivate melons and watermelons), and very cold in winter (down to -40°C).
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Siberia
Coordinates: 60°0′N 105°0′E / 60°N 105°E / 60; 105
Siberia (/saɪˈbɪəriə/; Russian: Сиби́рь, tr. Sibir'; IPA: [sʲɪˈbʲirʲ] ( listen)) is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th to 19th centuries.
Encompassing much of the Eurasian Steppe, the territory of Siberia extends eastward from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins, and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and the national borders of Mongolia and China. Siberia makes up about 77% of Russia's territory (13.1 million square kilometres), but has only 28% (40 million people) of Russia's population.
Some sources say that the word Siberia originates from the Turkic for "sleeping land". Another version is that this name was the ancient tribal name of the Sabirs, Turkic nomads later assimilated to Siberian Tatars. The modern usage of the name appeared in the Russian language after the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
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Smolny Institute
The Smolny Institute (Russian: Смольный институт, Smol'niy institut) is a Palladian edifice in St Petersburg that has played a major part in the history of Russia.
The building was commissioned from Giacomo Quarenghi by the Society for Education of Noble Maidens and constructed in 1806-08 to house the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, established at the urging of Ivan Betskoy and in accordance with a decree of Catherine II (the Great) in 1764, borrowing its name from the nearby Smolny Convent. The Smolny was Russia's first educational establishment for women and continued to function under the personal patronage of the Russian Empress until just before the 1917 revolution. A nice garden and iron-work grille around the institute date from the early 19th century.
In 1917, the building was chosen by Vladimir Lenin as Bolshevik headquarters during the October Revolution. It was Lenin's residence for several months, until the national government was moved to the Moscow Kremlin. After that, the Smolny became the headquarters of the local Communist Party apparat, effectively the city hall. In 1927, a monument to Lenin was erected in front of the building, designed by the sculptor Vasily Kozlov and the architects Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Gelfreikh.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Switzerland
Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[ˈʃvaɪts]; French: Suisse [sɥis(ə)]; Italian: Svizzera [ˈzvit͡sːɛra]; Romansh: Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ]), in its full name the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western Europe, where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zurich and Geneva.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. It pursues, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. Switzerland is also the birthplace of the Red Cross and home to a large number of international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Area – although it is notably not a member of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area.
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Tajikistan
Tajikistan (i/tɑːˈdʒiːkɨstɑːn/, /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/, or /tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn/; Тоҷикистон [ˈtɔjikɪsˈtɔn]), officially the Republic of Tajikistan (Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Cumhuriyi Tocikiston; Persian: جمهوری تاجیکستان Jomhuri-ye Tajikestan; Russian: Республика Таджикистан, Respublika Tadzhikistan), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. It borders Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. Gilgit Baltistan as well as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan are separated from Tajikistan by the narrow Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan in the south.
Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Persian-speaking Tajik ethnic group, who share language, culture and history with Afghanistan and Iran. Once part of the Samanid Empire, Tajikistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union in the 20th century, known as the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR). Mountains cover over 90% of this Central Asian republic.
After independence, Tajikistan suffered from a devastating civil war which lasted from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. Trade in commodities such as cotton, aluminium and uranium has contributed greatly to this steady improvement.
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Tambov rebellion
The Tambov Rebellion (Soviet misnomer Antonovshchina) which occurred between 1920 and 1921 was one of the largest and best-organized peasant rebellions challenging the Bolshevik regime during the Russian Civil War. The uprising took place in the territories of the modern Tambov Oblast and part of the Voronezh Oblast, less than 300 miles southeast of Moscow. The leader of the rebellion, Pyotr Mikhailovich Tokmakov, was a former officer of the Russian Imperial Army, who had earlier been decorated with the highest Order of St. George. In Soviet history the rebellion was referred to as Antonov's mutiny or the Antonovschina, although Aleksandr Antonov, a former official of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, was only the Chief of Staff of one of the rebel armies. The movement was later portrayed by the Soviets as a sort of anarchical banditry like other anti-Soviet movements who opposed them during this period.
The rebellion was caused by the forced confiscation of grain by the Bolshevik authorities, a policy known in Russian as "prodrazvyorstka". In 1920 the requisitions were increased from 18 million to 27 million poods in the region. This caused the peasants to reduce their grain production knowing that anything they did not consume themselves would be immediately confiscated. Filling the state quotas meant death for many by starvation. The revolt began on 19 August 1920 in a small town of Khitrovo where a military requisitioning detachment of the Red Army appropriated everything they could and "beat up elderly men of seventy in full view of the public". The peasant army was known as the Antonovtsi or "Blue Army", as opposed to the "White Army" (anti-communist army), "Red Army" (communist army), "Green Army" (armed peasant groups) and "Black Army" (anarchists of Ukraine and Russia)—all taking part in the Civil War.
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Tambov Rebellion
The Tambov Rebellion (Soviet misnomer Antonovshchina) which occurred between 1920 and 1921 was one of the largest and best-organized peasant rebellions challenging the Bolshevik regime during the Russian Civil War. The uprising took place in the territories of the modern Tambov Oblast and part of the Voronezh Oblast, less than 300 miles southeast of Moscow. The leader of the rebellion, Pyotr Mikhailovich Tokmakov, was a former officer of the Russian Imperial Army, who had earlier been decorated with the highest Order of St. George. In Soviet history the rebellion was referred to as Antonov's mutiny or the Antonovschina, although Aleksandr Antonov, a former official of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, was only the Chief of Staff of one of the rebel armies. The movement was later portrayed by the Soviets as a sort of anarchical banditry like other anti-Soviet movements who opposed them during this period.
The rebellion was caused by the forced confiscation of grain by the Bolshevik authorities, a policy known in Russian as "prodrazvyorstka". In 1920 the requisitions were increased from 18 million to 27 million poods in the region. This caused the peasants to reduce their grain production knowing that anything they did not consume themselves would be immediately confiscated. Filling the state quotas meant death for many by starvation. The revolt began on 19 August 1920 in a small town of Khitrovo where a military requisitioning detachment of the Red Army appropriated everything they could and "beat up elderly men of seventy in full view of the public". The peasant army was known as the Antonovtsi or "Blue Army", as opposed to the "White Army" (anti-communist army), "Red Army" (communist army), "Green Army" (armed peasant groups) and "Black Army" (anarchists of Ukraine and Russia)—all taking part in the Civil War.
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Tampere
Tampere (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈtɑmpere] ( listen); Swedish: Tammerfors [tamərˈfɔrs] or [tamərˈfɔʂ]) is a city in southern Finland. It is the most populous inland city in any of the Nordic countries. The city has a population of 215,315, growing to approximately 300,000 people in the conurbation and over 340,000 in the metropolitan area. Tampere is the third most-populous municipality in Finland, after the Greater Helsinki municipalities of Helsinki and Espoo. In 2007, the entire Pirkanmaa region had around 470,000 residents, of which 230,000 were employed, and a turnover of 25 billion euros.
Tampere is located between two lakes, Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi. Since the two lakes differ in level by 18 metres (59 ft), the rapids linking them, Tammerkoski, have been an important power source throughout history, most recently for generating electricity. Tampere is dubbed the "Manchester of Finland" for its industrial past as the former center of Finnish industry, and this has given rise to its Finnish nickname "Manse" and terms such as "Manserock".
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Ulyanovsk
Ulyanovsk (Russian: Улья́новск; IPA: [ʊlʲˈjænəfsk]), formerly Simbirsk (Симби́рск), is a city and the administrative center of Ulyanovsk Oblast, Russia, located on the Volga River 893 kilometers (555 mi) east from Moscow. Population: 613,793 (2010 Census preliminary results); 635,947 (2002 Census); 625,155 (1989 Census).
The city is the birthplace of Vladimir Lenin (originally named Ulyanov), for whom it is named.
Simbirsk was founded in 1648 by the boyar Bogdan Khitrovo.[citation needed] The fort of "Simbirsk" (alternatively "Sinbirsk") was strategically placed on a hill on the Western bank of the Volga River. The fort was meant to protect the eastern frontier of the Russian Empire from the nomadic tribes and to establish a permanent Imperial presence in the area.
In 1668, Simbirsk withstood a month-long siege by a 20,000-strong army led by rebel Cossack commander Stenka Razin. Also in Simbirsk another country rebel, Yemelyan Pugachev, was imprisoned before execution. At the time Simbirsk possessed a wooden kremlin, which was destroyed by a fire during the 18th century.
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Winter Palace
The Winter Palace (Russian: Зи́мний дворе́ц; IPA: [ˈzʲimnʲɪj dvɐˈrʲɛts]) in Saint Petersburg, Russia, was, from 1732 to 1917, the official residence of the Russian monarchs. Situated between the Palace Embankment and the Palace Square, adjacent to the site of Peter the Great's original Winter Palace, the present and fourth Winter Palace was built and altered almost continuously between the late 1730s and 1837, when it was severely damaged by fire and immediately rebuilt. The storming of the palace in 1917 became an iconic symbol of the Russian Revolution.
The palace was constructed on a monumental scale that was intended to reflect the might and power of Imperial Russia. From the palace, the Tsar ruled over 22,400,000 square kilometres (8,600,000 sq mi) (almost 1/6 of the Earth's landmass) and over 125 million subjects by the end of the 19th century. It was designed by many architects, most notably Bartolomeo Rastrelli, in what came to be known as the Elizabethan Baroque style. The green-and-white palace has the shape of an elongated rectangle, and its principal façade is 250 m long and 100 ft (30 m) high. The Winter Palace has been calculated to contain 1,786 doors, 1,945 windows, 1,500 rooms and 117 staircases. The rebuilding of 1837 left the exterior unchanged, but large parts of the interior were redesigned in a variety of tastes and styles, leading the palace to be described as a "19th-century palace inspired by a model in Rococo style."
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Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg (Russian: Екатеринбу́рг; IPA: [jɪkətʲɪrʲɪnˈburk], also romanized Ekaterinburg) is the fourth-largest city in Russia with a population of 1,398,889 (2012). Yekaterinburg is situated in the middle of the Eurasian continent, on the border of Europe and Asia.
Yekaterinburg is the administrative centre of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the main industrial and cultural center of the Ural Federal District. Between 1924 and 1991, the city was named Sverdlovsk (Свердло́вск) after the Communist party leader Yakov Sverdlov.
Internationally Yekaterinburg is best known as a city where the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family were executed in 1918.
The city was founded in 1723 by Vasily Tatischev and Georg Wilhelm de Gennin and named after Tsar Peter the Great's wife Catherine I (Yekaterina). The official date of the city's foundation is November 18, 1723. It was granted town status in 1796.
Soon after the Russian Revolution, on July 17, 1918, Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, Alexandra, and their children Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei were murdered by the Bolsheviks at the Ipatiev House in this city. Other members of the Romanov family were killed at Alapayevsk the day after. In 1977, the Ipatiev House was demolished by order of Boris Yeltsin, to prevent it from being used as a rallying location for monarchists. He later became the first President of Russia and represented the people at the funeral of the Tsar in 1998.
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852 Wladilena
852 Wladilena
852 Wladilena is a minor planet orbiting the Sun. It is named after the Russian Communist leader Vladimir Lenin.
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Albert Resis
Albert Resis (born 1921) is an American historian, Professor of Northern Illinois University in 1964-1992. Since 1992 he is a Professor emeritus and a writer.
He is the author of the booksStalin, the Politburo and the Onset of the Cold War: 1945-1946 (1988) and Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (together with Russian author Felix Chuev) (1993). He is also the main author of a number of articles in Encyclopædia Britannica on Russian and Soviet history.
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Aleksandr Ulyanov
Aleksandr Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Ильи́ч Улья́нов; April 12, 1866 – May 20, 1887) was a Russian revolutionary and older brother of Vladimir Lenin.
Ulyanov graduated from the College of Simbirsk in 1883 with honours and entered Petersburg University, where he majored in Natural Sciences and earned another gold medal for his work in zoology. At university he participated in illegal meetings and demonstrations, and pamphleted and made speeches to students and workers. In 1886, he became a member of the "terrorist faction" of a successor to the Narodnaya Volya (People's Will) party. He was one of the authors of its program with Marxism being one of his obvious influences.
Acknowledging the working class as a "nucleus of the Socialist Party", the party program affirmed the revolutionary intelligentsia's initiative in fighting with autocracy; terror was seen as a means of struggle.
Ulyanov and his comrades began preparing an assassination attempt on the life of Alexander III of Russia. On March 1, 1887, the day of the sixth anniversary of Alexander II's murder, three of them, suspected by the police, were arrested in the Nevsky Prospekt, where they were going to throw their bombs into the Emperor's carriage (he always visited churches that day to pay tribute to his assassinated father). The attempt is known by "The Second The First of March". Later Ulyanov, who was both the main ideologist of the group and the chemist preparing bombs, was arrested too. In court, Ulyanov gave a political speech. All the conspirators were initially sentenced to death, but only five of them were not pardoned by Alexander III, including Ulyanov. On May 8, he and his comrades Pakhomiy Andreyushkin, Vasili Generalov, Vasili Osipanov and Petr Shevyrev were hanged at Shlisselburg. Among the pardoned co-conspirators of Ulyanov there was Bronisław Piłsudski, brother of Józef Piłsudski.
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Alexander Bogdanov
Alexander Aleksandrovich Bogdanov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Богда́нов; born Alyaksandr Malinovsky, Belarusian: Алякса́ндар Маліно́ўскі; 22 August 1873 [O.S. 10 August], Sokółka, Russian Empire (now Poland) –7 April 1928, Moscow) was a Russian physician, philosopher, science fiction writer, and revolutionary of Belarusian ethnicity.
He was a key figure in the early history of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, being one of its cofounders and a rival to Vladimir Lenin until being expelled in 1909. In the first two decades of the Soviet Union, he was an influential opponent of the government from a Marxist perspective. The polymath Bogdanov received training in medicine and psychiatry. His scientific interests ranged from the universal systems theory to the possibility of human rejuvenation through blood transfusion. He invented an original philosophy called “tectology,” now regarded as a forerunner of systems theory. He was also an economist, culture theorist, science fiction writer, and political activist.
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Alexander Guchkov
Alexander Ivanovich Guchkov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Гучко́в) (14 October 1862 – 14 February 1936) was a Russian politician, Chairman of the Duma and Minister of War in the Russian Provisional Government.
Alexander Guchkov was born in Moscow. Unlike most of the conservative politicians of that time, Guchkov did not belong to the Russian nobility. His father was the grandson of a peasant and his mother was French. He was a rich capitalist, head of a huge insurance company. In October 1906 he became the head of the Union of 17 October. By that time he was known mostly for hazardous acts which included volunteering for the Boer army in the Second Boer War, where he was wounded and taken prisoner, and (again voluntary) taking care of Russian prisoners after the Battle of Mukden. He also fought numerous duels.
In 1912 the Octobrists were defeated in elections to the Fourth Duma, losing over 30 seats. Guchkov in particular was defeated in his constituency in Moscow. The remaining Octobrists in Duma split into two fractions. By 1915 many local party branches and the main party newspaper "Voice of Moscow" ceased to exist.
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Alexander Herzen
Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (Russian: Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Ге́рцен) (April 6 [O.S. 25 March] 1812 – January 21 [O.S. 9 January] 1870) was a Russian pro-Western writer and thinker known as the "father of Russian socialism", and one of the main fathers of agrarian populism (being an ideological ancestor of the Narodniki, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Trudoviks and the agrarian American Populist Party). He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. His autobiography My Past and Thoughts, written with grace, energy, and ease, is often considered the best specimen of that genre in Russian literature. He also published the important social novel Who is to Blame? (1845–46).
Herzen was an illegitimate child of a rich Russian landowner, Ivan Yakovlev, by a young German Protestant woman, Henriette Wilhelmina Luisa Haag from Stuttgart. Yakovlev supposedly gave his son the surname Herzen because he was a "child of his heart" (German Herz).
He was first cousin to Count Sergei Lvovich Levitsky (1819–1898, Moscow, Russian: Сергей Львович Львов-Левицкий), considered the patriarch of Russian photography and one of Europe's most important early photographic pioneers, inventors and innovators. In 1860, Levitsky would immortalize Herzen in a famous photo capturing the writer's essence and being.
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Alexander Kerensky
Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский, IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksandr ˈkʲerʲɪnskʲɪj]; 4 May [O.S. 22 April] 1881 – 11 June 1970) was a major political leader before and during the Russian Revolutions of 1917.
Kerensky served as the second Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government until overthrown in the October Revolution. He died in exile.
Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga River into the family of a secondary school principal. His father, Fyodor Kerensky, was a teacher. His mother, Nadezhda Adler, who was partly Jewish, was the daughter of a nobleman, Alexander Adler, head of the Topographical Bureau of the Kazan Military District. Her mother, Nadezhda Kalmykova, was the daughter of a former serf who had bought his freedom before serfdom was abolished in 1861, allowing him to become a wealthy Moscow merchant.[unreliable source?]
Kerensky's father was the headmaster of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) at a secondary school for boys in Simbirsk, and members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends. In 1889, when Kerensky was eight, his family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools (superintendent). Kerensky graduated with honors from a Tashkent secondary school in 1899. The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology in his first year. The next year he switched to the Law Department and received a law degree in 1904, getting married in the same year to the daughter of a Russian general. He worked as a legal counsel to victims of government violence in early December 1905. At the end of the month he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group. Afterwards he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries.
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Alexander Pushkin
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Russian: Алекса́ндр Серге́евич Пу́шкин, tr. Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin; IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksandr sʲɪˈrɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn] ( listen); 6 June [O.S. 26 May] 1799 – 10 February [O.S. 29 January] 1837) was a Russian author of the Romantic era who is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature.
Born into the Russian nobility in Moscow, Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Imperial Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo.
While under the strict surveillance of the Tsar's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov. His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, was serialized between 1825 and 1832.
Notoriously touchy about his honour, Pushkin fought a total of twenty-nine duels, and was fatally wounded in such an encounter with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès. D'Anthès, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment, had been attempting to seduce the poet's wife, Natalya Pushkina. Pushkin's early death at the age of 37 is still regarded as a catastrophe for Russian literature.
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Alexander Puzanov
Alexander Mikhaylovich Puzanov (Russian: Александр Михайлович Пузанов; Russian Empire, 12 October [O.S. 25 October] 1906 – Moscow, 1 March 1998) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1952 to 1956 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
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Alexander Trepov
Alexander Fyodorovitch Trepov (Russian: Александр Фёдорович Трепов, 30 September 1862, Kiev – 10 November 1928, Nice) was the prime minister of Russia from November 1916 until January 1917.
Educated in His Majesty's Page Corps. Worked in the Ministry of the Interior (1889–1892). Elected Marshal of Nobility of Pereiaslavl Uezd (1892–1895). Assistant State Secretary (1899).
Member of the special commission to draft a plan for a State Duma, according to the rescript of February 18, 1905, and the Manifesto of October 17. Later, he was sent abroad to study the legislative institutions of Western Europe.
Senator in 1906. Member of the State Council since 1914. Trepov was appointed Transport Minister in November 1915 and prime minister in November 1916, keeping also his position of Transport Minister. He resigned just prior to the February Revolution as a result of disagreement with minister of interior Alexander Protopopov. He emigrated from Russia after the Bolshevik revolution.
Related to Fyodor Trepov.
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Alexander Vorontsov
Count Alexander Romanovich Vorontsov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Рома́нович Воронцо́в) (4 February 1741 – 2 December 1805) was the Russian imperial chancellor during the early years of Alexander I's reign.
He began his career at the age of fifteen in the Izmailovsky regiment of the Guards. In 1759, his uncle, the grand chancellor Mikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov, sent him to Strasbourg, Paris and Madrid to train him in diplomacy. Under Peter III, who was in love with his sister Elizabeth, he represented Russia for a short time at the court of St James's. Catherine II created him a senator and president of the Board of Trade; but she never liked him, and ultimately (1791) compelled him to retire from public life.
In 1802, Alexander I summoned him back to office and appointed him imperial chancellor. This was the period of the triumph of the Vorontsovs, who had always insisted on the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain, in opposition to Nikita Panin and his followers, who had leaned on France or Prussia till the outbreak of the French Revolution made friendship with France impossible.
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Alexandra Kollontai
Alexandra Mikhailovna Kollontai (Алекса́ндра Миха́йловна Коллонта́й — née Domontovich, Домонто́вич) (March 31 [O.S. March 19] 1872 – March 9, 1952) was a Russian Communist revolutionary, first as a member of the Mensheviks, then from 1914 on as a Bolshevik. In 1919 she became the first female government minister in Europe. In 1923, she was appointed Soviet Ambassador to Norway, becoming the world's first female ambassador in modern times.
Alexandra Mikhailovna Domontovich was born on March 31 [O.S. March 19] 1872 in St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian empire. Her father, General Mikhail Alekseevich Domontovich, from a Ukrainian family which traced its ancestry back to the 13th Century, served as a cavalry officer in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and as an advisor to the Russian administration in Bulgaria after the war until 1879. He entertained liberal political views, favoring a constitutional monarchy like that of the United Kingdom, and in the 1880s had written a study of the Bulgarian war of independence which was confiscated by the Tsarist censors, presumably for showing insufficient Russian nationalist zeal. Alexandra's mother, Alexandra Androvna Masalina-Mravinskaia, the daughter of a Finnish peasant who had made a fortune selling wood, obtained a divorce from an unhappy arranged first marriage so that she could marry Domontovich, with whom she had fallen in love. The saga of her parents' long and difficult struggle to be together in spite of the norms of society would color and inform Alexandra Kollontai's own views of relationships, sex, and marriage.[citation needed]
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Alexei Kosygin
Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (Russian: Алексе́й Никола́евич Косы́гин, tr. Aleksej Nikolajevič Kosygin; IPA: [ɐlʲɪkˈsʲej nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvʲɪtɕ kɐˈsɨgʲɪn]; (21 February [O.S. 5 March] 1904 – 18 December 1980) was a Soviet-Russian statesman during the Cold War. Kosygin was born in the city of St. Petersburg in 1904 to a Russian working class family. He was conscripted into the labor army during the Russian Civil War, and after the Red Army's demobilisation in 1921, he worked in Siberia as an industrial manager. Kosygin returned to Leningrad in the early 1930s and worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. During the Great Patriotic War (World War II), Kosygin was a member of the State Defence Committee and was tasked with moving Soviet industry out of territories soon to be overrun by the German military. He served as Minister of Finance for a year before becoming Minister of Light Industry and later, the Minister of Light and Food Industry. One year before his death in 1953, Stalin removed Kosygin from the Politburo, intentionally weakening his position within the Soviet hierarchy.
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Alexei Rykov
Alexei Ivanovich Rykov (Russian: Алексе́й Ива́нович Ры́ков) (25 February 1881 – 15 March 1938) was a Russian Bolshevik revolutionary and a Soviet politician most prominent as Premier of Russia and the Soviet Union from 1924–29 and 1924–30 respectively.
He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898, and after it split into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions in 1903, he joined the Bolsheviks—led by Vladimir Lenin. He played an active part in the 1905 Russian Revolution. Months prior to the October Revolution of 1917, he became a member of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets, and was elected to the Bolshevik Party Central Committee in July–August of the same year, during the Sixth Congress of the Bolshevik Party. Rykov, a moderate, oftentimes came into political conflict with Lenin and more radical Bolsheviks, but nonetheless proved influential when the October Revolution finally did overthrow the Russian Provisional Government, and as such served many roles in the new government, starting October–November (old style) as People's Commissar for Internal Affairs on the first roster of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), which was chaired by Lenin.
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Anastas Mikoyan
Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan (Armenian: Անաստաս Հովհաննեսի Միկոյան, Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan; Russian: Анаста́с Ива́нович Микоя́н; 25 November [O.S. 13 November] 1895 – 21 October 1978) was an Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the rules of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, and Leonid Brezhnev. He was the only Soviet politician who had managed to be a member of the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union - the Politburo ceaselessly during Stalin´s, Khrushchev´s and Brezhnev´s era.
Mikoyan became an early convert to the Bolshevik cause. Mikoyan was a strong supporter of Stalin during the immediate post-Lenin years. During Stalin's rule, Mikoyan held several high governmental posts, including that of Minister of Foreign Trade. By the end of Stalin's rule Mikoyan was starting to lose favour with him, and in 1949, Mikoyan lost his long-standing post of foreign trade minister. At the 19th Party Congress Stalin even attacked Mikoyan viciously. When Stalin died in 1953, Mikoyan again took a leading role in policy-making. He backed Khrushchev and his de-Stalinization policy, and became First Deputy Premier under Khrushchev. Mikoyan's position under Khrushchev made him the second most powerful figure in the Soviet Union at the time.
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Anatoly Lunacharsky
Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky (Russian: Анато́лий Васи́льевич Лунача́рский, November 23 [O.S. November 11] 1875 – December 26, 1933) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and the first Soviet People's Commissar of Enlightenment responsible for culture and education. He was active as an art critic and journalist throughout his career.
Lunacharsky was born in Poltava, Ukraine, Russian Empire. He was an illegitimate child of Alexander Antonov and Alexandra Lunacharskaya, née Rostovtseva. His mother was at the time married to statesman Vasily Lunacharsky, hence Anatoly's surname and patronym. Alexandra later divorced Lunacharsky and married Antonov, but Anatoly kept his old name.[citation needed]
Lunacharsky became a Marxist at the age of fifteen. He studied at the University of Zurich under Richard Avenarius for two years without taking a degree. While in Zürich, he met European socialists including Rosa Luxemburg and Leo Jogiches and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In February 1902 Lunacharsky moved in with Alexander Bogdanov who was working in a mental hospital in Vologda. By September of taht year he married Anna Alexandrovna Malinovkaya, Bogdanov's sister.
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Andrei Gromyko
Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Russian: Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко; Belarusian Андрэ́й Андрэ́евіч Грамы́ка; 18 July [O.S. 5 July] 1909 – 2 July 1989) was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War. He served as Minister of Foreign Affairs (1957–1985) and as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1985–1987). Gromyko was responsible for many top decisions on Soviet foreign policy until he retired in 1987. In the West he was given the nickname Mr. Nyet ("Mr. No").
Gromyko's political career started in 1939 with his employment at the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (later renamed Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1946). In 1943 Gromyko became the Soviet ambassador to the United States, leaving in 1946 to become the Soviet Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Upon his return to the Soviet Union he became a Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs and later the First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. He went on to become the Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1952.
Gromyko played a direct role in the Cuban Missile Crisis in his role as the Soviet Foreign Minister. Gromyko helped negotiate arms limitations treaties such as the ABM Treaty, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and SALT I and II among others. Under Leonid Brezhnev's leadership Gromyko helped build the policy of détente between the US and the USSR. He supported Mikhail Gorbachev's candidacy for General Secretary in 1985. Gromyko lost his office as foreign minister when Gorbachev became General Secretary, and was instead appointed to the largely ceremonial office of head of state. Gromyko retired from political life in 1988 and died the following year on 2 July 1989 in Moscow.
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Anna Ulyanova
Anna Ilyinichna Yelizarova-Ulyanova (Russian: Анна Ильинична Елизарова-Ульянова; 26 August [O.S. 14 August] 1864, Nizhny Novgorod - October 19, 1935, Moscow) was a Russian revolutionary and a Soviet stateswoman. She was a sister of Vladimir Lenin.
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Anton Denikin
Anton Ivanovich Denikin (Анто́н Ива́нович Дени́кин; December 16 [O.S. December 4] 1872 – August 8, 1947) was Lieutenant General of the Imperial Russian Army (1916) and one of the foremost generals of the White movement in the Russian Civil War.
Denikin was born in Szpetal Dolny village, now part of the Polish city Włocławek (then part of the Russian Empire). His father, Ivan Efimovich Denikin, had been born a serf in the province of Saratov. Sent as a recruit to do 25 years of military service, Ivan Denikin became an officer in the 22nd year of his army service, in 1856. He retired from the army in 1869 with the rank of major. In 1869 Ivan Denikin married a poor Polish seamstress, Elżbieta Wrzesińska — his second wife. Anton Denikin, the couple's only child, learned to speak two languages (Russian and Polish) at the same time. His father's commitment to Russian patriotism and the Orthodox religion led to Anton Denikin's decision to become a soldier.
The Denikins lived very close to poverty, the retired major's small pension being their only source of income. After his father's death in 1885, Denikin's family financial situation got even worse. Anton Denikin began tutoring younger schoolmates so that the family could earn additional income. In 1890 Denikin began a course at the Kiev Junker School, a military college from which he graduated in 1892. The twenty-year-old Denikin joined an artillery brigade, in which he served for three years.
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Antonie Pannekoek
Antonie (Anton) Pannekoek (2 January 1873, Vaassen, Gelderland–28 April 1960, Wageningen) was a Dutch astronomer, Marxist theorist, and social revolutionary. He was one of the main theorists of council communism (Dutch: radencommunisme).
Pannekoek studied mathematics and physics in Leiden from 1891. Even before he went to college he was interested in astronomy and studied the variability of Polaris. He published his first article, On the Necessity of Further Researches on the Milky Way, as a student. Some years after he had finished his study he started work at the Leidse Sterrewacht (Leiden observatory), where he wrote his thesis.
After reading Edward Bellamy's Equality, Pannekoek became a convinced socialist and started studying Karl Marx's theories. Soon Pannekoek became a well-known Marxist writer, writing for both Dutch and German magazines. Dissatisfaction with his job at the observatory led him to move to Berlin, where he became a lecturer at the school funded by the Social Democratic Party of Germany. His radical opinions soon got him in trouble with both the German government and the unions.
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Ben Kingsley
Sir Ben Kingsley, CBE (born Krishna Pandit Bhanji;Gujarati:કૃષ્ણા પંડિત ભાનજી; 31 December 1943) is an English actor who has won an Oscar, BAFTA, Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild awards in his career. He is known for starring as Mohandas Gandhi in the film Gandhi in 1982, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor. He is also known for his performances in the films Schindler's List (1993), Sexy Beast (2000), House of Sand and Fog (2003), and Hugo (2011).
Kingsley was born Krishna Pandit Bhanji in Snainton, North Yorkshire, England, the son of Anna Lyna Mary (née Goodman), an actress and model, and Rahimtulla Harji Bhanji, a medical doctor.
Kingsley's father, born in Kenya, is of Gujarati Indian descent; Kingsley's paternal grandfather was a spice trader who had moved from India to Zanzibar, where Kingsley's father lived until moving to England at the age of 14. Kingsley's mother, born out of wedlock, was "loath to speak of her background". Kingsley's maternal grandfather was believed by the family to have been a Russian or German Jew, while Kingsley's maternal grandmother was English and worked in the garment district of East London.
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Blank family
The Blank family is a family of Jews, some of whom converted to Orthodox Christianity in the Russian Empire, mostly notable as the immediate ancestry of the maternal grandfather of Vladimir Lenin according to various published researchers who suggest that Lenin's maternal grandfather was a Jewish convert to Christianity (Alexander Blank). Whether or not Lenin, whose matrilineal "Blank" surname also traces to non-Jewish German roots, was actually partly descended from the Jewish Blank family remains contested.
Moshe Itzkovich Blank (Russian: Моше Ицкович Бланк) baptized as Dmitry Blank (c.a. 1758- after 1844) was a Jewish vodka-franchised tavern keeper from Shtetl Starokonstantynów, Volhynian Voivodeship (now Ukraine). His tavern in Starokonastantinovo brought him around 10 silver roubles.[clarification needed] He also rented a plot of land in Novohrad-Volynskyi uyezd, Volhynian Governorate where he grew chicory. He sent his sons into a secular Russian school instead of a traditional religious Jewish cheder which was unusual in those times.
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Boris Savinkov
Boris Viktorovich Savinkov (Russian: Бори́с Ви́кторович Са́винков) (19 January 1879 – 7 May 1925) was a Russian writer and revolutionary terrorist. As one of the leaders of the Fighting Organisation of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, he was responsible for the most spectacular assassinations of imperial officials in 1904 and 1905.
Later, he became Assistant War Minister in the Provisional Government. Savinkov emigrated in 1920, but in 1924 he made an endeavour to return to Russia, was arrested and either was killed in prison or committed suicide.
Savinkov was born in Kharkov (Kharkiv), the son of a judge in Warsaw. In 1897 he entered the law department of St. Petersburg University but was expelled in 1899 because of participation in students' riots. Later he studied in Berlin and Heidelberg. Since 1898 he was a member of various socialist organizations. In 1901 he was arrested and sent to exile to Vologda. He served the exile with some prominent Russian intellectuals including Nikolai Berdyaev and Anatoly Lunacharsky. However he became disappointed with Marxism and shifted to terrorism. In 1903 Savinkov escaped abroad and joined the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, where he soon became Deputy Head of its Combat Organization under Yevno Azef.
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Boris Stürmer
Baron Boris Vladimirovich Stürmer (Russian: Бори́с Влади́мирович Штю́рмер, Boris Vladimirovich Shtyurmer) (27 July 1848 – 9 September 1917) was a Russian statesman. He served as Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, and Interior Minister of the Russian Empire for several months during 1916.
Stürmer was born into a landowning family in Baykovo, Kesovogorsky District, Tver Oblast. His father Vladimir Vilgemovich Stürmer was a retired Captain of Cavalry in the Imperial Russian Army. His mother was Ermoniya Panina.
A graduate of the Law Faculty of St. Petersburg University, Stürmer enjoyed a good relationship with a conservative court clique that engineered his appointment as Governor of Novgorod in 1894 and Yaroslavl in 1896. Despite recurrent rumours of financial mismanagement, Stürmer became one of the most trusted bureaucrats working under Vyacheslav von Plehve and was admitted into the State Council of Imperial Russia in 1904. He aspired to succeed Plehve in office and the Tsar even signed an ukase to that effect, yet the post eventually went to Prince Svyatopolk-Mirsky.
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Boris Yeltsin
Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (Russian: Бори́с Никола́евич Е́льцин; IPA: [bɐˈrʲis nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ ˈjelʲtsɨn] ( listen); 1 February 1931 – 23 April 2007) was the President of Russia, serving from 1991 to 1999.
Originally a supporter of Mikhail Gorbachev, Yeltsin emerged under the perestroika reforms as one of Gorbachev's most powerful political opponents. On 29 May 1990 he was elected the chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet. On 12 June 1991 he was elected by popular vote to the newly created post of President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SFSR), at that time one of the 15 constituent republics of the Soviet Union. He won 57% of the vote in a six-candidate contest and became the second democratically elected leader of Russia in history. Upon the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev and the final dissolution of the Soviet Union on 25 December 1991, Yeltsin remained in office as the President of the Russian Federation, the USSR's successor state. Yeltsin was reelected in the 1996 election; in the second round of the election Yeltsin defeated Gennady Zyuganov from the revived Communist Party by a margin of 13%. However, Yeltsin never recovered his early popularity after a series of economic and political crises in Russia in the 1990s.
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Charlotte Corday
Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont (27 July 1768 – 17 July 1793), known to history as Charlotte Corday, was a figure of the French Revolution. In 1793, she was executed under the guillotine for the assassination of Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat, who was in part responsible, through his role as a politician and journalist, for the more radical course the Revolution had taken. More specifically, he played a substantial role in the political purge of the Girondins, with whom Corday sympathized. His murder was memorialized in a celebrated painting by Jacques-Louis David which shows Marat after Corday had stabbed him to death in his bathtub. In 1847, writer Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the posthumous nickname l'ange de l'assassinat (the Angel of Assassination).
Born in Saint-Saturnin-des-Ligneries, a hamlet in the commune of Écorches (Orne), in Normandy, France, Charlotte Corday was a member of a minor aristocratic family. She was a fifth-generation matrilineal descendant of the dramatist Pierre Corneille. Her parents were cousins.
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Daniil Sulimov
Daniil Sulimov (Russian: Дании́л Его́рович Сули́мов; Moscow, Russian Empire, 22 December [O.S. 3 January 1891] 1890 – Moscow, 27 November 1937) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1930 to 1937 the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
He was arrested and executed during the Great Purge.
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David Remnick
David Remnick (born October 29, 1958) is an American journalist, writer, and magazine editor. He won a Pulitzer Prize in 1994 for his book, Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire. Remnick has been editor of The New Yorker magazine since 1998. He was named "Editor of the Year" by Advertising Age in 2000. Before joining The New Yorker, Remnick was a reporter and the Moscow correspondent for The Washington Post. He has also served on the New York Public Library's board of trustees. In 2010 he published his sixth book, The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama.
Remnick was born in Hackensack, New Jersey, the son of a dentist and an art teacher. He was raised in Hillsdale, New Jersey, in a secular Jewish home with, he has said, "a lot of books around". He is also childhood friends with comedian Bill Maher. He graduated from Princeton University in 1981 with an A. B. in comparative literature; there, he met writer John McPhee and helped found The Nassau Weekly. Remnick has implied that after college he wanted to write novels, but due to his parents' illnesses, he needed a paying job—there was no trust fund to rely upon. Remnick wanted to be a writer, so he chose a career in journalism, taking a job at the Washington Post. He is married to reporter Esther Fein of The New York Times and has three children, Alex, Noah, and Natasha. He enjoys jazz music and classic cinema and is fluent in Russian.
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Dmitri Volkogonov
Dmitri Antonovich Volkogonov (Russian: Дми́трий Анто́нович Волкого́нов) (22 March 1928, Chita – 6 December 1995, Moscow) was a Russian historian and officer.
A Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of History, Colonel General (1986), Volkogonov was the head of the Institute of Military History at the Ministry of Defense of the Soviet Union between 1988 and 1991. He was director of the arm of the Soviet military concerned with "psychological warfare", writing a manual on this subject for Soviet forces (The Psychological War). He also presided over a number of governmental and presidential committees.
Long known in Western military circles as one of the hardest of hardliners, Volkogonov began, by the middle of Leonid Brezhnev's rule,[citation needed] to have serious doubts about the Soviet regime. At first, these concerned only Joseph Stalin, whose purges led to the deaths of both of Volkogonov's parents. He spent nearly twenty years compiling a revisionist (by Soviet standards) biography. He forthrightly described Stalin's alleged crimes but remained an admirer of Vladimir Lenin[citation needed] and (following the Nikita Khrushchev line) believed that Stalinism was a perversion of true Leninism. (His views on Lenin changed after he went back into the archives to do his biography of Lenin. It was then that he read that Lenin too had murdered thousands of his opponents.)[citation needed]
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Dmitriy Ustinov
Dmitriy Feodorovich Ustinov (Russian: Дми́трий Фёдорович Усти́нов; 30 October 1908 – 20 December 1984) was Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union from 1976 until his death.
Dimitry Feodorovich Ustinov was born in a working-class family in Samara. During the civil war, when hunger became intolerable, his sick father went to Samarkand, leaving Dimitry as head of the family. Shortly after that, in 1922, his father died. In 1923, he and his mother, Yevrosinya Martinovna, moved to the city of Makarev (near Ivanovo-Voznesensk) where he worked as a fitter in a paper mill. Shortly after that, in 1925, his mother died.
Ustinov joined the communist party in 1927. In 1929, he started training at the Faculty of Mechanics in the Polytechnic Institute of Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Afterward, Ustinov was transferred to the Moscow Bauman Higher Technical School. Then, on March 1932, he entered the Institute of Military Mechanical Engineering in Leningrad from where he graduated in 1934. Afterward, he worked as a construction engineer at the Leningrad artillery Marine Research Institute. In 1937, he was transferred to the "Bolshevik" Arms Factory as an engineer. He later became the director of the Factory.
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Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev (Russian: Дми́трий Анато́льевич Медве́дев, tr. Dmitriy Anatolyevich Medvedev; IPA: [ˈdmʲitrʲɪj ɐnɐˈtolʲjɪvʲɪtɕ mʲɪˈdvʲedʲɪf] ( listen); born 14 September 1965) is a Russian politician who has been Prime Minister of Russia since 2012. He previously served as President of Russia from 2008 to 2012.
Born to a family of academics, Medvedev graduated from the Law Department of Leningrad State University in 1987. He defended his dissertation in 1990 and worked as a docent at his alma mater, now renamed to Saint Petersburg State University, where he taught civil and Roman law until 1999. Medvedev's political career began as the election campaign manager and later an adviser of St. Petersburg Mayor Anatoly Sobchak. During this time, Medvedev befriended Vladimir Putin. In November 1999, Medvedev was hired in the Russian presidential administration, where he worked as deputy chief of staff. In the 2000 Presidential elections, Medvedev was Putin's campaign manager. On 14 November 2005, Medvedev was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister and was tasked with overseeing National Priority Projects. He also worked as the Chairman of Gazprom's board of directors, a post which he held until 2008.
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Dmitry Pisarev
Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev (Russian: Дмитрий Иванович Писарев; 14 October [O.S. 2 October] 1840 – 16 July [O.S. 4 July] 1868) was a radical Russian writer and social critic who, according to Georgi Plekhanov, "spent the best years of his life in a fortress".
Pisarev was one of the writers who propelled the democratic-revolutionary trend in Russia during the 1860s. The next generation of Russians, made famous by the events of 1905 and 1917, acknowledged Pisarev's influence. Nadezhda Krupskaya, Lenin's wife, once wrote, "Lenin was of the generation that grew up under the influence of Pisarev".
Pisarev was also noted for his support of Russian natural science, particularly biology, and his works greatly influenced the career choice of the young Ivan Pavlov.
Pisarev wanted, more than anything else, an end to poverty and misery. This desire he pursued through philosophy, literary criticism and social and family analyses.
Lenin, in the fifth chapter of What Is To Be Done?, quoted these lines from an article by Pisarev:
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Dmitry Polyansky
Note: There is also a Russian triathlete with the same name, transliterated also as Dmitry Polyanski.
Dmitry Stepanovich Polyansky (Russian: Дми́трий Степа́нович Поля́нский; Slovianoserbsk , 25 October [O.S. 7 November] 1917 – Moscow, 8 October 2001) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union from 1965 to 1973. From 1958 to 1962 he was Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
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Donald Rayfield
Donald Rayfield (born 1942) is professor of Russian and Georgian at Queen Mary, University of London. He is an author of books about Russian and Georgian literature, and about Joseph Stalin and his secret police. He is also a series editor for books about Russian writers and intelligentsia.
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Dziga Vertov
David Abelevich Kaufman (Russian: Дави́д А́белевич Ка́уфман) (2 January 1896 – 12 February 1954), better known by his pseudonym Dziga Vertov (Russian: Дзи́га Ве́ртов), was a Soviet pioneer documentary film, newsreel director and cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories influenced the cinéma vérité style of documentary moviemaking and the Dziga Vertov Group, a radical filmmaking cooperative which was active in the 1960s.
Vertov was born David Abelevich Kaufman (Russian: Давид А́белевич Кауфман) into a family of Jewish intellectuals[citation needed] in Białystok, Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire. His father was a librarian. He Russified his Jewish name David and patronymic Abelevich to Denis Arkadievich at some point after 1918.[citation needed] Vertov studied music at Białystok Conservatory until his family fled from the invading German army to Moscow in 1915. The Kaufmans soon settled in Petrograd, where Vertov began writing poetry, science fiction and satire. In 1916-1917 Vertov was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in Saint Petersburg and experimenting with "sound collages" in his free time. He eventually adopted the name "Dziga Vertov", which translates loosely as 'spinning top'.
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Felix Dzerzhinsky
Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky (Polish: Feliks Dzierżyński [ˈfɛliks dʑerˈʐɨɲski], Russian: Фе́ликс Эдму́ндович Дзержи́нский; 11 September [O.S. 30 August] 1877 – 20 July 1926) was a Soviet state and Communist Party leader, and a prominent member of Polish and Russian revolutionary movements. He was the head of several Polish Communist revolutionary, famous as the first director of the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, known later by many names during the history of the Soviet Union. The agency became notorious for torture and mass summary executions, performed especially during the Red Terror and the Russian Civil War.
Felix Dzerzhinsky was born into a purported Polish szlachta (noble) family of the Samson coat of arms on 11 September 1877. His father, Edmund-Rufin Dzerzhinsky graduated from the Saint Petersburg University and worked as a gymnasium teacher of physics in Taganrog, Russia. In 1882 Felix's father died and the family moved to their Dziarzhynava estate near Ivyanets and Rakaw, Russian Empire (today Belarus). As a youngster Dzerzhinsky was fluent in three languages: Polish, Russian and Hebrew. He attended the Russian gymnasium at Vilnius 1887–95. One of the older students at this gymnasium was his future archenemy, Józef Piłsudski. Years later, as Marshal of Poland, Piłsudski generously recalled that Dzerzhinsky "distinguished himself as a student with delicacy and modesty. He was rather tall, thin and demure, making the impression of an ascetic with the face of an icon. ... Tormented or not, this is an issue history will clarify; in any case this person did not know how to lie."
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Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (Spanish: [fiˈðel ˈkastro]; born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. On the international stage, he also served as the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and 2006 to 2008.
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Finnish Civil War
The Finnish Civil War (Finnish: Suomen sisällissota, kansalaissota; Swedish: Finska inbördeskriget) was a part of the national, political and social turmoil caused by World War I (1914–1918) in Europe. The Civil War concerned control and leadership of the Grand Duchy of Finland as it achieved independence from Russia after the October Revolution in Petrograd. The war was fought from 27 January to 15 May 1918 between the forces of the Social Democrats led by the People's Deputation of Finland, commonly called the "Reds" (Finnish: punaiset, Swedish: röda), and the forces of the non-socialist, conservative-led Senate, commonly called the "Whites" (Finnish: valkoiset, Swedish: vita). The Reds—usually Finnish-speaking workers—were supported by the Russian Soviet Republic; they were based in the industrial cities in the south. The Whites—dominated by farmers and middle- and upper-class Swedish speakers—received military assistance from the German Empire. The Whites won the war, in which about 37,000 people died out of a population of 3 million.
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Friedrich Engels
Friedrich Engels (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɛŋəls]; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German-English industrialist, social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital.
Friedrich (Frederick) Engels was born on November 28, 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany). At the time, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropole and Frederick was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. As his father, Friederich Sr., was a Methodist. Accordingly, Fredrick was raised Christian Pietist. As he grew up, his relationship with his parents became strained because of his atheist beliefs. Parental disapproval of his revolutionary activities is recorded in an October, 1848 letter from his mother, Elizabeth Engels. In this letter his mother berates him for having "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further.". "You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest." At the point this letter was written Frederick Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium and was soon to make his way to Switzerland and then in 1849 make his way back into Germany to participate in the revolutionary uprising in Baden and Palatinate.
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Fritz Platten
Fritz Platten (8 July 1883 – 22 April 1944) was a Swiss Communist.
After the collapse of the Second International, Platten joined the Zimmerwald Movement and became a Communist.
Fritz Platten is mostly known for having been the main organizer of Lenin’s return trip from the exile in Switzerland back home to Russia after the February Revolution. Due to the First World War, the trip was not easily arranged, but Lenin and his company traveled through Germany in a sealed traincar. They then took the ferry to Sweden and were greeted in Stockholm by the Swedish communist leaders Otto Grimlund, Ture Nerman, Carl Lindhagen and Fredrik Ström, who together with Platten had helped plan the trip. The train ride then continued through northern Sweden and Finland back to Russia and St Petersburg.
Fritz Platten participated in the foundation of the Communist International, and as a representative of the Swiss Communist Party, Platten spent a great deal of his time in the Soviet Union.
Fritz Platten was also present when Lenin’s car was under attack in Petrograd on January 1, 1918. The two were riding in the back of the car after having given a public speech at Mikhailovsky Manege. When the shooting started "Platten grabbed Lenin by the head and pushed him down. ... Platten’s hand was covered in blood, having been grazed by a bullet as he was shielding Lenin."
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Frol Kozlov
Frol Romanovich Kozlov (Russian: Фрол Рома́нович Козло́в; 18 August [O.S. 5 August] 1908, Loshchinino – 30 January 1965) was a Soviet politician, Hero of Socialist Labor (1961).
He was elected a candidate member of the Presidium (as the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was then called) on 14 February 1957 and served as a full member from 29 June 1957 until he was relieved of his duties on 16 November 1964, following the ousting of his mentor, Nikita Khrushchev a month earlier.
In July 1959, he visited the secretive Bohemian Grove encampment in northern California.
He was for many years thought to be Khrushchev's likely successor as the dominant figure in the Soviet hierarchy of power. This was clearly what Khrushchev had intended[citation needed], but even before his mentor's removal from office in October 1964 Kozlov's position in the Soviet hierarchy had been undermined by the effects of his alcoholism; in 1963 he had ceased to be Secretary of the Party Central Committee, replaced by Leonid Brezhnev. At the time of his resignation in November 1964, Kozlov was already seriously ill after a stroke and died two months later. He was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, which indicates that he was not in deep disgrace under Brezhnev (later, neither Khrushchev nor Anastas Mikoyan were allowed to be buried there).
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Gennady Voronov
Gennady Ivanovich Voronov (Russian: Генна́дий Ива́нович Во́ронов; Rameshki, Tver province, 31 August [O.S. 18 August] 1910 – Moscow, 1 April 1994) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1962 to 1971 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
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Georgi Plekhanov
Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov (Russian: Гео́ргий Валенти́нович Плеха́нов) (November 29, 1856 – May 30, 1918) was a Russian revolutionary and a Marxist theoretician. He was a founder of the Social-Democratic movement in Russia and was one of the first Russians to identify himself as "Marxist." Facing political persecution, Plekhanov emigrated to Switzerland in 1880, where he continued in his political activity attempting to overthrow the Tsarist regime in Russia. During World War I Plekhanov rallied to the cause of the Entente powers against Germany and he returned home to Russia following the 1917 February Revolution. Plekhanov was hostile to the Bolshevik party headed by Vladimir Lenin, however, and was an opponent of the Soviet regime which came to power in the autumn of 1917. He died the following year. Despite his vigorous and outspoken opposition to Lenin's political party in 1917, Plekhanov was held in high esteem by the Russian Communist Party following his death as a founding father of Russian Marxism and a philosophical thinker.
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Georgy Lvov
Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov (Russian: Гео́ргий Евге́ньевич Львов; Georgij Evgen'evič L'vov) (30 November 1861 – 7 March 1925) was a Russian statesman and the first post-imperial prime minister of Russia, from 15 March to 21 July 1917.
Prince Lvov was born in Dresden into a Rurikid family, descended from sovereign Galician princes of Yaroslavl. His family moved home to Popovka in the Aleksin district of Tula Governorate from Germany soon after his birth. He graduated from the University of Moscow with a degree in law, then worked in the civil service until 1893. During the Russo-Japanese War he organized relief work in the East and in 1905, he joined the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party. A year later he won election to the First Duma and was nominated for a ministerial position. He became chairman of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos in 1914 and in 1915 he became a leader of the Union of Zemstvos as well as a member of Zemgor, a joint committee of the Union of Zemstvos and the Union of Towns that helped supply the military and tend to the wounded from World War I.
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Georgy Malenkov
Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov (Russian: Гео́ргий Максимилиа́нович Маленко́в, Georgij Maksimilianovič Malenkov; 8 January 1902 – 14 January 1988) was a Soviet politician, Communist Party leader and close collaborator of Joseph Stalin. After Stalin's death, he became Premier of the Soviet Union (1953–1955) and was considered the most powerful Soviet politician before being overshadowed and ousted by Nikita Khrushchev.
Malenkov was born at Orenburg, Russian Empire. His paternal ancestors were of Macedonian extraction (area of Ohrid), some of whom served as officers in the Russian Imperial Army. His father was a wealthy farmer in Orenburg province. Young Malenkov occasionally helped his father to do business selling harvest. His mother was the daughter of a blacksmith and the granddaughter of an Orthodox priest. Malenkov graduated from Orenburg gymnasium just a few months prior to the Russian revolution of 1917 and joined the Red Army as volunteer in 1918, fighting alingside communists against capitalists. He joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1920 and worked as a political commissar on a propaganda train in Turkestan, Central Asia, during the Russian civil war in Central Asia. There he had extensive experience of arresting and killing opponents of the Soviet communist party.
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Germans
The Germans (Deutsche) are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages. Legally, Germans are citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, about 66–75 million consider themselves Germans. There are an additional 80 million people of German ancestry mainly in the United States, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, France, Russia, Chile, Poland, Australia and Romania who most likely are not native speakers of German. Thus, the total number of Germans worldwide lies between 66 and 160 million, depending on the criteria applied (native speakers, single-ancestry ethnic Germans, partial German ancestry, etc.).
Today, peoples from countries with a German-speaking majority or significant German-speaking population groups other than Germany, such as Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, have developed their own national identity and usually do not refer to themselves as "Germans" in a modern context.
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Grigory Zinoviev
Grigory Yevseevich Zinoviev (Russian: Григо́рий Евсе́евич Зино́вьев, IPA: [ɡrʲɪˈɡorʲɪj zʲɪˈnovʲjɪf]; September 23 [O.S. September 11] 1883 – August 25, 1936), born Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich Radomyslsky Apfelbaum (Russian: Радомысльский), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a Soviet Communist politician. Zinoviev is best remembered as the longtime head of the Communist International and as the chief defendant in a 1936 show trial, the Trial of the Sixteen that marked the start of the so-called Great Terror in the USSR and resulted in his execution the day after his conviction.
Gregory Zinoviev was born in Yelizavetgrad, Imperial Russia (currently Kirovohrad, Ukraine), to Jewish dairy farmers, who educated him at home. Between 1923 and 1935 the city was known as Zinovyevsk. Gregory Zinoviev was known in early life under the names of Apfelbaum or Radomyslovsky and later adopted several designations, such as Shatski, Grigoriev, Grigori and Zinoviev, by the two last of which he is most frequently called. He studied philosophy, literature and history. He became interested in politics, and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1901. He was a member of its Bolshevik faction from the time of its creation in 1903. Between 1903 and the fall of the Russian Empire in February 1917, he was a leading Bolshevik and one of Lenin's closest associates, working both within Russia and abroad as circumstances permitted. He was elected to the RSDLP's Central Committee in 1907 and sided with Lenin in 1908 when the Bolshevik faction split into Lenin's supporters and Alexander Bogdanov's followers. Zinoviev remained Lenin's constant aide-de-camp and representative in various socialist organizations until 1917.
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Hardi Volmer
Hardi Volmer (born November 8, 1957 in Pärnu) is an Estonian film director, puppet theatre set decorator and musician. Volmer is the singer in the Estonian punkrockband Singer Vinger.
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Helen Rappaport
Helen Rappaport is a British historian, author, and former actress. As a historian, she specialises in the Victorian era and revolutionary Russia.
Born in Bromley, Rappaport grew up near the River Medway in North Kent and attended Chatham Grammar School for Girls. She studied Russian at Leeds University, where she was involved in the university theatre group and decided against a career in the Foreign Office and instead became an actress. She appeared in several television series including Crown Court, Love Hurts and The Bill. As she reveals in an interview she spent '20 years in the doldrums as an out of work, broke and miserable actress'...
In the early nineties she gave up acting and became a copy editor for academic publishers Blackwell and OUP. and also contributed to historical and biographical reference works published by for example Cassell and Readers Digest.
She became a full-time writer in 1998, writing three books for US publisher ABC-CLIO including An Encyclopaedia of Women Social Reformers in 2001, with a foreword by Marian Wright Edelman. It won an award in 2002 from the American Library Association as an Outstanding Reference Source and according to the Times Higher Educational Supplement, 'A splendid book, informative and wide-ranging'.
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Heydar Aliyev
Heydar Alirza oglu Aliyev (Azerbaijani: Heydər Əlirza oğlu Əliyev, Russian: Гейдар Алиевич Алиев; 10 May 1923[dead link] – 12 December 2003), also spelled as Heidar Aliev, Geidar Aliev, Haydar Aliyev, Geydar Aliyev was the third President of Azerbaijan for the New Azerbaijan Party from October 1993 to October 2003, when his son Ilham Aliyev succeeded him.
From 1969 to 1982, Aliyev was also the leader of Soviet Azerbaijan, practically dominating the political life of Azerbaijan for over many years. He was married to Zarifa Aliyeva, who died in 1985, and was survived by his son and daughter.
The details of much of Aliyev's early life remain obscure. According to his hagographical website he was born in Nakhchevan City. After the graduation from Nakhchivan Pedagogical School, from 1939 till 1941, Aliyev attended the Azerbaijan Industrial Institute (now the Azerbaijan State Oil Academy) where he studied architecture. In 1949-50, he studied at the USSR MGB Officer Corps Qualifications-Raising School. Aliyev's official biography also claims that he studied at the Baku State University, graduating with a degree in history in 1957. However, it seems that he actually attended the Ministry of State Security Academy in Leningrad[citation needed].
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Ho Chi Minh
Hồ Chí Minh (Vietnamese pronunciation: [hô cǐ miɲ] (Vietnamese pronunciation: [hô̤ tɕǐmɪŋ] ( listen)); 19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969), born Nguyễn Sinh Cung and also known as Nguyễn Tất Thành and Nguyễn Ái Quốc, was a Vietnamese Stalinist revolutionary leader who was prime minister (1945–1955) and president (1945–1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Việt Cộng (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam War.
He led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at Điện Biên Phủ. He officially stepped down from power in 1955 due to health problems, but remained a highly visible figurehead and inspiration for Vietnamese fighting for his cause – a united, independent Vietnam – until his death. After the war, Saigon, the capital of Republic of Vietnam, was renamed Hồ Chí Minh City in his honor.
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Inessa Armand
Inessa Armand (May 8, 1874 – September 24, 1920), born Elisabeth-Inès Stéphane d'Herbenville, was a French communist politician and feminist who spent most of her life in Russia. She was also known for supposedly having an affair with Vladimir Lenin.
She was born in Paris as the daughter of Théodore d'Herbenville, a French opera singer, and Nathalie Wild, a British comedian. Her father died when she was only five and she was brought up by her aunt and grandmother living in Moscow, both teachers.
At the age of nineteen she married Alexander Armand, the son of a wealthy Russian textile manufacturer. The marriage produced 4 children. Inessa and her husband opened a school for peasant children outside of Moscow. She also joined a charitable group dedicated to helping the city's destitute women.
In 1903 she joined the illegal Social Democratic Labour Party. Armand distributed illegal propaganda and after being arrested in June 1907, she was sentenced to two years' internal exile in Mezen in Northern Russia.
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Isaak Brodsky
Isaak Izrailevich Brodsky (Russian: Исаак Израилевич Бродский, 6 January 1884 [O.S. 25 December 1883] – August 14, 1939), was a Soviet painter whose work provided a blueprint for the art movement of socialist realism. He is known for his iconic portrayals of Lenin and idealized, carefully crafted paintings dedicated to the events of the Russian Civil War and Bolshevik Revolution.
Brodsky was born in the village of Sofiyevka in Ukraine, Russian Empire. He studied at Odessa Art Academy and the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg. In 1916 he joined the Jewish Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. When Brodsky asked Lenin to autograph his painting Lenin, he said: "I am signing to what I don't agree with for the first time".
Brodsky was on good terms with many leading Russian painters, including his mentor, Ilya Repin. He was an avid art collector who donated numerous first-class paintings to museums in his native Ukraine and elsewhere. His superb art collection included important works by Repin, Vasily Surikov, Valentin Serov, Isaak Levitan, Mikhail Vrubel, and Boris Kustodiev. After his death Brodsky's apartment on Arts Square in St. Petersburg was declared a national museum. His art collection is still on exhibit there.
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Ivan Arkhipov
Ivan Vasilyevich Arkhipov (Russian: Иван Васильевич Архипов; Kaluga , 18 April [O.S. 1 May] 1907 – Moscow, 28 February 1998) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was First Deputy of the Council of Ministers from 1980 to 1986.
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Ivan Goremykin
Ivan Logginovitch Goremykin (Russian: Ива́н Лóггинович Горемы́кин, Ivan Logginovič Goremykin) (8 November 1839 – 24 December 1917) was a Russian prime minister during World War I and politician with extremely conservative political views.
He was born on 8 November 1839.
After serving in the Ministry of Justice until 1891 he moved to the Ministry of the Interior, becoming Minister from 1895-1899. A self-described "man of the old school" who viewed the Tsar as the "anointed one, the rightful sovereign", Goremykin was a loyal supporter of Nicholas II as autocrat and accordingly pursued conservative policy. He was apparently well liked by the Empress Alexandra.
While heading the Interior Ministry he submitted a proposal to the Tsar advocating administrative reform and the expansion of the zemstvo program and representation within the existing Zemstvos. Faced with opposition to the program, he left the position. He succeeded Sergei Witte as Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) in May, 1906. His unwaivering opposition to the political reform demanded by the First Duma left him unable to work with that body and he resigned in July 1906. He was replaced by his Minister of Interior, the younger and more forceful Peter Stolypin.
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Ivan Khokhlov
Ivan Sergeyevich Khokhlov (Russian: Иван Сергеевич Хохлов; Moscow, Russian Empire, 1895 – Moscow, 11 February 1973) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1940 to 1943 the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
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Ivan Silayev
Ivan Stepanovich Silayev (Russian: Ива́н Степа́нович Сила́ев; born on 21 October 1930 in Baktyzino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union) is a former Soviet official who became a Russian politician following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He served as Premier of the Soviet Union through the offices of Chairman of the Interstate Economic Committee and Chairman of the Committee on the Operational Management of the Soviet economy from 6 September to 26 December 1991. Responsible for overseeing the economy of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era, he was the last Premier of the Soviet Union.
After graduating in the 1950s, Silayev began his political career in the Ministry of Aviation Industry in the 1970s. During the Brezhnev Era he became Minister of Aviation Industry, a Central Committee member, and Minister of Machine-Tool and Tool Building Industry. When Nikolai Tikhonov's Second Government was dissolved, Mikhail Gorbachev appointed him Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers in Nikolai Ryzhkov's First Government. He left all posts in the central government in 1990 to focus in his post as Chairman of the Council of Ministers – Government of the Russian SFSR. He faced several cabinet difficulties during his tenure, and supported the majority of Boris Yeltsin's policies. Having opposed Yeltsin's secessionist policies during his tenure as Soviet Premier, he was removed from his post as Russian SFSR Premier and succeeded in his post by acting Premier Oleg Lobov.
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Ivan Turgenev
Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (Russian: Ива́н Серге́евич Турге́нев; IPA: [ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈɡʲeɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrˈɡʲenʲɪf]; November 9 [O.S. October 28] 1818 – September 3, 1883) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright. His first major publication, a short story collection entitled A Sportsman's Sketches, is a milestone of Russian Realism, and his novel Fathers and Sons is regarded as one of the major works of 19th-century fiction.
Turgenev was born into a wealthy landed family of the Russian aristocracy in Oryol, Russia, on November 9, 1818 (October 28 OS). His father, Sergei Nikolaevich Turgenev, a colonel in the Imperial Russian cavalry, was a chronic philanderer. Ivan's mother, Varvara Petrovna Lutovinova, was a wealthy heiress, who had had an unhappy childhood and suffered in her marriage. Ivan's father died when Ivan was sixteen, leaving him and his brother Nicholas to be brought up by their abusive mother. Ivan's childhood was a lonely one, in constant fear of his mother who beat him often. After the standard schooling for a son of a gentleman, Turgenev studied for one year at the University of Moscow and then moved to the University of Saint Petersburg from 1834 to 1837, focusing on Classics, Russian literature, and philology. He then studied, from 1838 until 1841, at the University of Berlin to study philosophy, particularly Hegel, and history. He returned to Saint Petersburg to complete his master's exam. Turgenev was impressed with German society and returned home believing that Russia could best improve itself by incorporating ideas from the Age of Enlightenment. Like many of his educated contemporaries, he was particularly opposed to serfdom. In 1841, Turgenev started his career in Russian civil service and spent two years working for the Ministry of Interior (1843-1845).
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James Connolly
James Connolly (Irish: Séamas Ó Conghaile, 5 June 1868 – 12 May 1916) was an Irish republican and socialist leader. He was born in the Cowgate area of Edinburgh, Scotland, to Irish immigrant parents and spoke with a Scottish accent throughout his life. He left school for working life at the age of 11, but became one of the leading Marxist theorists of his day. He also took a role in Scottish and American politics. He was executed by a British firing squad because of his leadership role in the Easter Rising of 1916.
Connolly was born in an Irish slum in Edinburgh in 1868. His parents had emigrated to Scotland from Monaghan and settled in the Cowgate, an Irish ghetto where thousands of Irish settled.
He was born in St Patrick's Roman Catholic parish, which was known as "Little Ireland". His father and grandfathers were labourers. He had an education up to the age of about ten in the local Catholic primary school. He then left and worked in labouring jobs. Because of the economic difficulties he was having, like his eldest brother John, he joined the British Army.
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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Joseph Kuzmin
Joseph I. Kuzmin (Russian: Ио́сиф Ио́сифович Кузьми́н; Astrakhan , 19 May [O.S. 1 June] 1910 – Moscow, 12 January 1996) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was First Deputy of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union from 1957 to 1958 and Chairman of the State Planning Committee from 1957 to 1959.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Julius Martov
Julius Martov or L. Martov (Ма́ртов; real name Yuliy Osipovich Zederbaum (Russian Ю́лий О́сипович Цедерба́ум)) (November 24, 1873 – April 4, 1923) was born in Istanbul in 1873. The son of Jewish middle class parents, he became the leader of the Mensheviks in early twentieth century Russia.
Martov was originally a close colleague of Vladimir Lenin and with him founded the League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class in 1895. Both were exiled to Siberia for this but Martov was sent to Turukhansk in the Arctic while Lenin was sent to the comparatively warm 'Siberian Italy'. This was because Martov was Jewish while Lenin was a nobleman. Forced to leave Russia and with other radical political figures living in exile, Martov joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) and, in 1900, was one on the founding members, with Lenin, of the party journal Iskra. At the Second Congress of the RSDLP in London in 1903, there was a dispute between Martov and Lenin over who was to be considered a member of the RSDLP. Lenin had published his ideas for moving the party forward in his pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, which was considered to be a document putting forward the views of the entire Iskra group led by Lenin and Martov. However, in the London Congress of the party differing definitions of party membership were put forward by the two men, with Lenin arguing for a restricted membership of fully committed cadre while Martov argued for a looser interpretation of membership.
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Kalmyk people
Kalmyk people (or Kalmyks) (Kalmyk: Хальмгуд, Halm'gud) is the name given to the Oirats, western Mongols in Russia, whose descendants migrated from Dzhungaria in 1607. Today they form a majority in the autonomous Republic of Kalmykia on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. Kalmykia is Europe's only Buddhist government. Through emigration, small Kalmyk communities have been established in the United States, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic.
The Kalmyks are a branch of the Oirats whose ancient grazing lands are now located in Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the Oirats emerged as a formidable foe against the Eastern Mongols, the Ming Chinese and their successor, the Manchu who founded the Qing Dynasty, in a nearly 400 year military struggle for domination and control over both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia. The struggle ended in 1757 with the defeat of the Oirats in Dzungaria, the last of the Mongol groups to resist vassalage to China (Grousset, 1970: 502-541).
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Karl Kautsky
Karl Johann Kautsky (October 16, 1854– October 17, 1938) was a Czech-German philosopher, journalist, and Marxist theoretician. Kautsky was recognized as among the most authoritative promulgators of Orthodox Marxism after the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 until the coming of World War I in 1914 and was called by some the "Pope of Marxism." Following the war, Kautsky was an outspoken critic of the Bolshevik Revolution and its excesses, engaging in polemics with V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky on the nature of the Soviet state.
Karl Kautsky, born in Prague to artistic middle-class parents, moved with his family to Vienna at the age of seven. He studied history, philosophy and economics at the University of Vienna from 1874, and became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1875. In 1880 he joined a group of German socialists in Zurich who were supported financially by Karl Höchberg, and who smuggled socialist material into the Reich at the time of the Anti-Socialist Laws (1878- ). Influenced by Eduard Bernstein, Karl Höchberg's secretary, he became a Marxist and in 1881 visited Marx and Engels in England.
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Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
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Kenneth Cranham
Kenneth Cranham (born 12 December 1944) is a film, television, radio and stage actor. He starred in the title role in the popular 1980s comedy drama Shine on Harvey Moon. He also appeared in Layer Cake, Gangster No. 1, Rome, Oliver! and many other films. He is probably best known to horror genre fans as the deranged Dr. Philip Channard and his Cenobitic alter-ego from Hellbound: Hellraiser II. His many stage credits include West End productions of Entertaining Mr Sloane, Loot, An Inspector Calls, (both transferring to Broadway), The Ruffian on the Stair, The Birthday Party and Gaslight (at the Old Vic). Most recently, he has been heard on BBC Radio 4's Afternoon Play series as "DS Max Matthews" in the three-play series The Interrogation by Roy Williams.
Cranham was born in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland, the son of Lochgelly-born Margaret McKay Cranham (née Ferguson) and Ronald Cranham, a London-born civil servant. He has two daughters: Nancy Cranham with his first wife, Charlotte Cornwell, and Kathleen Cranham with his second wife, actress Fiona Victory.
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Kirill Mazurov
Kirill Trofimovich Mazurov (Belarusian: Кіры́ла Трафі́мавіч Ма́зураў, Russian: Кирилл Трофимович Мазуров; born 25 March 1914, Homyel Voblast, Belarus - died 19 December 1989) was a Belarusian Soviet politician.
Mazurov was originally a construction technician, and graduated from the Homyel highway technical school in 1933. He joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1940 and the Red Army in 1941. During the Great Patriotic War, he participated in military actions as a political instructor, a battalion commander and an instructor of the army's political department.[citation needed]
Mazurov left the army in 1942 to become secretary of the central committee of the Belarusian Komsomol. Mazurov then moved to a Soviet partisan unit where he became president of the central staff.[citation needed]
After the war, Mazurov returned to his position as secretary of the Belarusian Komsomol. In 1947 he joined the apparatus of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. From 1949 to 1950 he was the First Secretary of the Minsk city committee and from 1950 to 1953 first secretary of the Minsk regional committee of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. From 1950 to 1979, he was deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. After Joseph Stalin's death, he actively supported Nikita Khrushchev. He was chairman of the council of ministers of BSSR (1953–1965), then First Secretary of the Communist Party of Belarus (1956–1965). In 1964 he was appointed candidate member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee and was then a full member from 26 March 1965 to 27 November 1978. He was also the First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers(1965–1976).[citation needed]
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Konstantin Chernenko
Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (24 September 1911 – 10 March 1985) was a Soviet politician and the fifth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He led the Soviet Union from 13 February 1984 until his death thirteen months later, on 10 March 1985. Chernenko was also Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 11 April 1984 until his death.
Chernenko was born to a poor family in the village of Bolshaya Tes (now in Novosyolovsky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai). His father, Ustin Demidovich (of Ukrainian origin),[citation needed] worked in copper and gold mines while his mother took care of the farm work.
Chernenko joined the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in 1929, and became a full member of the Communist Party in 1931. From 1930 to 1933, he served in the Soviet frontier guards on the Soviet-Chinese border. After completing his military service, he returned to Krasnoyarsk as a propagandist. In 1933 he worked in the Propaganda Department of the Novosyolovsky District Party Committee. A few years later he was promoted head of the same department in Uyarsk Raykom. Chernenko then steadily rose through the Party ranks, becoming the Director of the Krasnoyarsk House of Party Enlightenment then in 1939, the Deputy Head of the AgitProp Department of Krasnoyarsk Territorial Committee and finally, in 1941 he was appointed Secretary of the Territorial Party Committee for Propaganda. It was in the 1940s that Chernenko established a close-knit relationship with Fyodor Kulakov. In 1945, he acquired a diploma from a party training school in Moscow, and in 1953 he finished a correspondence course for schoolteachers.
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Kulak
Kulaks (Russian: кула́к, kulak, "fist", by extension "tight-fisted"; kurkuls in Ukraine, also used in Russian texts in Ukrainian contexts) were a category of relatively affluent farmers in the later Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, and early Soviet Union. The word kulak originally referred to independent farmers in the Russian Empire who emerged from the peasantry and became wealthy following the Stolypin reform, which began in 1906.
According to the political theory of Marxism-Leninism of the early 20th century, the kulaks were class enemies of the poorer peasants.Vladimir Lenin described them as "bloodsuckers, vampires, plunderers of the people and profiteers, who fatten on famine.” Marxism-Leninism had intended a revolution to liberate poor peasants and farm laborers alongside the proletariat (urban and industrial workers). In addition, the planned economy of Soviet Bolshevism required the collectivization of farms and land to allow industrialization or conversion to large-scale agricultural production. In practice, these Marxist-Leninist theories led to disruption of agriculture as government officials violently seized kulak farms and murdered resistors.
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Lavr Kornilov
Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov (Russian: Лавр Гео́ргиевич Корни́лов, IPA: [ˈlavr kɐrˈnʲiləf]; August 18, 1870–April 13, 1918) was a military intelligence officer, explorer, and general in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I and the ensuing Russian Civil War. He is today best remembered for the Kornilov Affair, an unsuccessful endeavor in August/September 1917 that purported to strengthen Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government, but which led to Kerensky eventually having Kornilov arrested and charged with attempting a coup d'état.
Originally a Cossack born in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Russian Turkestan (now Kazakhstan) in a family of Cossack Chorąży and his wife of Kalmyk origin, Kornilov entered military school in Omsk in 1885 and went on to study at the Mikhailovsky Artillery School in St. Petersburg in 1889. in August 1892, he was assigned as a lieutenant to the Turkestan Military District, where he led several exploration missions in Eastern Turkestan, Afghanistan and Persia, learned several Central Asian languages, and wrote detailed reports about his observations. He returned St. Petersburg to attend the Mykolayiv General Staff Academy and graduated as a captain in 1897. Again refusing a posting at St. Peterburg, he returned again to the Turkestan Military District, where he resumed his duties as a military intelligence officer.
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Lavrentiy Beria
Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (Georgian: ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია, Lavrenti Pavles dze Beria; Russian: Лавре́нтий Па́влович Бе́рия; 29 March 1899 – 23 December 1953) was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, and Deputy Premier in the postwar years (1946–1953).
Beria was the longest lived and most influential of Stalin's secret police chiefs, wielding his most substantial influence during and after World War II. He simultaneously administered vast sections of the Soviet state and served as de facto Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of the NKVD field units responsible for anti-partisan operations on the Eastern Front during World War II, as well as for acting as barrier troops and the apprehension of thousands of "turncoats, deserters, cowards and suspected malingerers". Beria administered the vast expansion of the Gulag labor camps and was primarily responsible for overseeing the secret defense institutions known as sharashkas, critical to the war effort. He also played the decisive role in coordinating the Soviet partisans, developing an impressive intelligence and sabotage network behind German lines. He attended the Yalta Conference with Stalin, who introduced him to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as "our Himmler". After the war, he organized the communist takeover of the countries of Central Europe and Eastern Europe. Beria's uncompromising ruthlessness in his duties and skill at producing results culminated in his success in overseeing the Soviet atomic bomb project. Stalin gave it absolute priority and the project was completed in under five years in no small part due to Soviet espionage against the West organized by Beria's NKVD.
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Lazar Kaganovich
Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich (Russian: Ла́зарь Моисе́евич Кагано́вич; 22 November [O.S. 10 November] 1893 – 25 July 1991) was a Soviet politician and administrator and one of the main associates of Joseph Stalin. At his death in 1991 he was the last surviving Old Bolshevik, almost outliving the existence of the Soviet Union itself.
Kaganovich was born in 1893 to Jewish parents in the village of Kabany, Radomyshl uyezd, Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire (now named Dibrova, Poliske Raion, Kiev Oblast, Ukraine). Early in his political career, in 1915, Kaganovich became a Communist organizer for a shoe factory where he worked.
In 1911, he enlisted with the Bolshevik party (his older brother Mikhail Kaganovich was already a member). Later in 1915, Kaganovich was arrested and sent back to Kabany. During March–April 1917, he was the Chairman of the Tanners Union and the vice-chairman of the Yuzovka Soviet. In May 1917, he became the leader of the military organization of Bolsheviks in Saratov, and in August 1917, he became the leader of the Polessky Committee of the Bolshevik party in Belarus. During the October Revolution, he was the leader of the revolt in Homel.
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Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, pronounced [lʲev nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] ( listen); known in the Anglosphere as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910) was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist fiction. Many consider Tolstoy to have been one of the world's greatest novelists. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker and social reformer.
His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.
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Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky (Russian: Лев Троцкий, pronounced [ˈlʲef ˈtrot͡skʲɪj] ( listen); 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army.
Trotsky was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918–20). He was also among the first members of the Politburo.
After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was successively removed from power, expelled from the Communist Party, deported from the Soviet Union and assassinated on Stalin's orders. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, Trotsky also opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler in the late 1930s.
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Leonard Schapiro
Leonard Bertram Naman Schapiro (22 April 1908, Glasgow - 2 November 1983, London) was a British academic and scholar of Russian politics. He taught for many years at the London School of Economics, where he was Professor of Political Science with Special Reference to Russian Studies. At the age of 6, he and his family were forced to live in the streets after his father had a row with the landlord of his house. For many months they found themselves scrounging money of the floor.
Born in Glasgow, he was taken back to Russia and spent his childhood in Riga and St. Petersburg, but returned to Britain with his parents in 1920 and completed his education in London.
For many years Schapiro practised as a barrister, and it was not until 1955 that he published his first book -The Origins of the Communist Autocracy - and took up his first academic appointment at the London School of Economics.
Schapiro's most famous book was The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, first published in 1960 with a revised and expanded edition in 1970. He was chairman of the Institute for the Study of Conflict in 1970.
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Leonid Brezhnev
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (Russian: Леони́д Ильи́ч Бре́жнев; IPA: [lʲɪɐˈnʲid ɪlʲˈjitɕ ˈbrʲeʐnʲɪf] ( listen); Ukrainian: Леоні́д Іллі́ч Бре́жнєв, 19 December 1906 (O.S. 6 December) – 10 November 1982) was the General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen-year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in length. During Brezhnev's rule, the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time, but his tenure as leader has often been criticised for marking the beginning of a period of economic stagnation in which serious economic problems were overlooked, problems which eventually led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoe into a Russian worker's family. After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum, he became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industry, in Ukraine. He joined Komsomol in 1923, and in 1929 became an active member of the Communist Party. He was drafted into immediate military service during World War II and left the army in 1946 with the rank of Major General. In 1952 Brezhnev became a member of the Central Committee, and in 1964, Brezhnev succeeded Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary. Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev in his post as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
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Leonid Krasin
Leonid Borisovich Krasin (Russian: Леони́д Бори́сович Кра́син; 3 (15) July 1870, Kurgan – November 24, 1926) was a Russian engineer, social entrepreneur and Soviet Bolshevik politician and diplomat.
Krasin was born in Kurgan, near Tobol'sk in Siberia. His father, Boris Ivanovich Krasin was the local chief of police. The young Leonid was a star pupil at school and met George Kennan when he visited Siberia. Krasin joined the Social Democratic Labor Party during the 1890s. He graduated from Kharkov Technological Institute in 1901.
In the 1903 split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, Krasin supported the latter, and was elected to the Central Committee the same year.
Arrested towards the end of the 1890s, he was sent to internal exile in Siberia where he worked as a draughtsman on the Trans Siberian Railway. Release from exile in 1900, he moved to Baku where the future Stalin was also active at the same time. While there Krasin used his financial contacts to help establish an illegal printing press which was the main vehicle for Lenin’s newspaper. He left Baku in 1904 to work as the chief engineer of Savva Morozov.
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Leszek Kołakowski
Leszek Kołakowski (Polish pronunciation: [ˈlɛʂɛk kɔwaˈkɔfskʲi]; October 23, 1927 – July 17, 2009) was a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas. He is best known for his critical analyses of Marxist thought, especially his acclaimed three-volume history, Main Currents of Marxism, which is "considered by some to be one of the most important books on political theory of the 20th century.
"The three volumes progress chronologically from Karl Marx's lifetime to the years after Stalin's death. The third volume looks at what happened to Marxism in the twentieth century and makes a particular example of the career of Georg Lukacs - "Kolakowski does an even better job than Isaiah Berlin of showing how Marxism affected everything at the mental level."
Kołakowski was born in Radom, Poland. Owing to the German occupation of Poland in World War II, he did not go to school but read books and took occasional private lessons, passing his school-leaving examinations as an external student in the underground school system. After the war, he studied philosophy at Łódź University and in 1953 earned a doctorate from Warsaw University, with a thesis on Spinoza. He was a professor and chairman of Warsaw University's department of the history of philosophy from 1959 to 1968.
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Lev Kamenev
Lev Borisovich Kamenev (Russian: Лев Бори́сович Ка́менев, IPA: [ˈlʲef ˈkamʲɪnʲɪf] ( listen); 18 July [O.S. 6 July] 1883 – 25 August 1936), born Rozenfeld (Russian: Ро́зенфельд), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a prominent Soviet politician. He served briefly as the first head of state of the new republic in 1917, and from 1923-24 the acting Premier in the last year of Lenin's life.
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Lev Voronin
Lev Alekseyevich Voronin (Russian: Лев Алексеевич Воронин; 22 February 1928 – 24 June 2006) was a Soviet Russian official. He served as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, literally the Vice-Premier of the Soviet Union, from 1989 to 1990. Responsible for the "general issues" of the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era, Voronin became acting Chairman of the Council of Ministers in between Nikolai Ryzhkov's hospitalisation and Valentin Pavlov's election as Prime Minister. Voronin worked as a banker following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Voronin was born on 22 February 1928 in the city of Perm, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Union. He graduated as a mechanical engineer from the Ural Polytechnic Institute in 1949. In 1953 Voronin became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).
Voronin, along with the six other Deputy Premiers, had a career background in the Soviet military-industrial complex. He started working at an industrial plant in Sverdlovsk in 1949 as a common worker and eventually became the plant's manager. From 1959 to 1963 Voronin was a chief engineer in a plant located in the Kamensk-Ural Sverdlovsk region, and from 1963 he started to work as a chief engineer for a plant in the Urals for the Sverdlovsk Supreme Soviet of the National Economy. Later that year Voronin was appointed to the post of head of the radio and electronics industries.
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Louis Fischer
Louis Fischer (29 February 1896 – 15 January 1970) was a Jewish-American journalist. Among his works were a contribution to the ex-Communist treatise The God that Failed, The Life of Lenin, which won the 1965 National Book Awardin History and Biography, as well as a biography of Mahatma Gandhi entitled The Life of Mahatma Gandhi. This book was used as the basis for the Academy Award-winning film Gandhi. Fischer's wife, Markoosha Fischer, was also a writer.
Louis Fischer, the son of a fish peddler, was born in Philadelphia on 29 February 1896. After studying at the Philadelphia School of Pedagogy from 1914 to 1916, he became a school teacher.
In 1917, Fischer joined the Jewish Legion, a military unit based in Palestine. On his return to the United States, Fischer took up work at a news agency in New York City. In 1921, Fischer went to Germany and began contributing to the New York Evening Post as a European correspondent. The following year, he moved to Moscow, and in 1923 began working for The Nation.
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Louise Bryant
Louise Bryant (December 5, 1885 – January 6, 1936) was an American journalist and writer. She was best known for her Marxist and anarchist beliefs and her essays on radical political and feminist themes. Bryant published articles in several radical left journals during her life, including Alexander Berkman's The Blast.
Bryant was born Anna Louisa Mohan in San Francisco, California. Her father, Hugh Mohan was a coal miner from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, who made his way west with the Railroad crews. Her mother remarried Sheridan Bryant and Louise took her stepfather's name. The family moved to Nevada where Louise was a student at the University of Nevada. She later moved to the University of Oregon in Eugene. Her senior thesis was about the Modoc Indian War of Southern Oregon and was completed in 1908. Bryant returned to San Francisco to become a journalist after graduation but was soon nudged, for financial reasons, to teach "school" in Salinas, California in her words "in a remote area, forty miles from a train station". She also wrote that "Mexicans and Spaniards are my students." She moved back to Oregon and became involved with the Suffrage Movement in Portland, worked for the Spectator, and married Paul Trullinger.
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Maksim Saburov
Maksim Zakharovich Saburov (Russian: Максим Захарович Сабуров, 2 February 1900 – 24 March 1977) was a Soviet engineer, economist and politician, three-time Chairman of Gosplan and later First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union. He was involved in the Anti-Party Group's attempt to displace Nikita Khrushchev in 1957.
Saburov was born in 1900 in the town of Druzhkivka in the modern Ukraine, and joined the Communist Party in 1920, serving in a detachment with the aim of suppressing resistance to the Communist regime. He attended the Sverdlov Communist University between 1923 and 1926, then studying to become an engineer at the Bauman Institute of Menachics in Moscow.
Between 1921 and 1926, Saburov was Secretary of the Bachmut Komsomol Committee, and then that of the Kostiantynivka raion. Between 1926 and 1928, Saburov was a propagandist working in the Donets region. After five years of studying at the Bauman Institute, Saburov then became head of the Technological Bureau of a factory in Moscow in 1933, before becoming head of the instrumental division of the Stalin Novokramatorsk Machine Plant until 1937.
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Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung listen (help·info), and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976), was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution. He was the architect and founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949, and held authoritarian control over the nation until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism–Leninism, along with his military strategies and brand of policies, are collectively known as Maoism.
Mao rose to power by commanding the Long March, forming a Second United Front with Kuomintang (KMT) during the Second Sino-Japanese War to repel a Japanese invasion, and leading the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War. After solidifying the reunification of China through his Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, Mao enacted sweeping land reform, by using violence and terror to overthrow the feudal landlords before seizing their large estates and dividing the land into people's communes. During the years when Mao was China’s 'Great Helmsman', a range of positive changes came to China. These included promoting the status of women, improving popular literacy, doubling the school population, providing universal housing, abolishing unemployment and inflation, increasing health care access, and dramatically raising life expectancy. In addition, China's population almost doubled during the period of Mao's leadership (from around 550 to over 900 million). As a result, Mao is still officially held in high regard by many in China as a great political strategist, military mastermind, and savior of the nation. Maoists further promote his role as a theorist, statesman, poet, and visionary, while anti-revisionists continue to defend most of his policies.
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Max Eastman
Max Forrester Eastman (January 4, 1883 – March 25, 1969) was an American writer on literature, philosophy and society, a poet, and a prominent political activist. For many years, Eastman was a supporter of socialism, a leading patron of the Harlem Renaissance and an activist for a number of liberal and radical causes. In later life, however, his views turned sharply, and he became an advocate of free market economics and an anti-Communist.
Eastman was born in Canandaigua, Ontario County, New York. Both his parents, Samuel Elijah Eastman and Annis Bertha Ford, were Congregational Church clergy and together served as pastors at the church of Thomas K. Beecher near Elmira, New York. (In 1889, his mother had become one of the first women ordained as an American minister.) This area was part of the "Burned-over district," which earlier in the 19th century had generated much religious excitement, including the formation of the Mormon movement, and social causes, such as abolitionism and support for the Underground Railroad. Through his parents, he became acquainted with the famous author Samuel Clemens, better known as "Mark Twain," in his youth.
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Mikhail Fradkov
Mikhail Yefimovich Fradkov (Russian: Михаи́л Ефи́мович Фрадко́в; born 1 September 1950) is a Russian politician and statesman who was the Prime Minister of Russia from March 2004 to September 2007. Fradkov has been the head of Russia's Foreign Intelligence Service since 2007.
Fradkov was born near the city now known as Samara, to a family of Jewish origin on his father's side. He studied at both the Moscow Machine Tool Design (станкоинструментальный) Institute (graduated 1972) and the Foreign Trade Academy (graduated 1981). In 1973, he was posted to the economic section of the Soviet Union's embassy in India, where he remained for two years. He later held several positions back in Russia. In 1991, he was Russia's representative to General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in Geneva.
In late 1992, Fradkov was appointed Deputy Minister for Foreign Economic Relations. Less than a year later, in October 1993, he became First Deputy Minister for Foreign Economic Relations. On 15 April 1997, a presidential decree by Boris Yeltsin appointed Fradkov Minister of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade, a post which he kept for nearly a year. In the middle of 1999, another presidential decree made him Minister of Trade.
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Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (Russian: Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв, tr. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov; IPA: [mʲɪxɐˈil sʲɪrˈɡʲejəvʲɪtɕ ɡərbɐˈtɕof] ( listen); born 2 March 1931) is a former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the last head of state of the Soviet Union, having served from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991. He was the only general secretary in the history of the Soviet Union to have been born during the Communist rule.
Gorbachev was born in Stavropol Krai into a peasant Ukrainian–Russian family, and in his teens operated combine harvesters on collective farms. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1955 with a degree in law. While he was at the university, he joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and soon became very active within it. In 1970, he was appointed the First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, First Secretary to the Supreme Soviet in 1974, and appointed a member of the Politburo in 1979. Within three years of the deaths of Soviet Leaders Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko, Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo in 1985. Before he reached the post, he had occasionally been mentioned in western newspapers as a likely next leader and a man of the younger generation at the top level.
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Mikhail Kasyanov
Mikhail Mikhailovich Kasyanov (Russian: Михаи́л Миха́йлович Касья́нов; Russian pronunciation: [mʲɪxɐˈil mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ kɐˈsʲjanəf]) - (born 8 December 1957) was the Prime Minister of Russia from May 2000 to February 2004.
He is the leader of the People's Democratic Union and an ex-member of the opposition coalition "The Other Russia".
The last member of the Russian government closely associated with Yeltsin[citation needed], Kasyanov was dismissed, along with the entire Russian cabinet, by President Vladimir Putin on 24 February 2004 after more than three years in office.
During this term Kasyanov’s government made serious breakthroughs in launching and successfully finalizing reforms in many areas of the Russian economy and public sector – tax and fiscal reforms, customs reform, pension reform, reorganization of the national infrastructure (energy sector, railways). Inflation was reduced significantly and the Russian economy grew by almost one third. At the same time, the urgent policy of economic diversification had just started and was not fully implemented.
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Mikhail Pervukhin
Mikhail Georgievich Pervukhin (Russian: Михаи́л Гео́ргиевич Перву́хин; 14 October 1904 – 22 July 1978) was a Soviet official during the Stalin Era, Khrushchev Era and the early Brezhnev Era. He served as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, literally First Vice-Premier of the Soviet Union, from 1955 to 1957.
He was born on 14 October 1904 in the village of Yuryuzansky Zavod, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union to a Russian working class family. Pervukhin became a member of the Russian Communist Party in 1919. In August to September 1919 Pervukhin was a member of the Zlatoust city commission on the nationalisation of property belonging to the bourgeoisie. He began working for the Zlatoust newspaper Borba in October 1919, and worked there until February 1920 when he started to attend after-school lessons. He fought alongside the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War in the South Urals. From October to November 1920 Pervukhin was a member of the Bolshevik squad quelling the anti-Bolshevik uprising in Chrysostom.
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Mikhail Rodionov
Mikhail Ivanovich Rodionov (Russian: Михаи́л Ива́нович Родио́нов; Russian Empire, 25 October 1907 – Moscow, 1 October 1950) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1946 to 1949 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister. He was executed in the aftermath of the Leningrad Affair.
He was a close companion of Alexei Kosygin[citation needed].
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Mikhail Romm
Mikhail Ilych Romm (Russian: Михаи́л Ильи́ч Ромм; 24 January [O.S. 11 January] 1901, Irkutsk – November 1, 1971, Moscow) was a Soviet film director.
He was born in Irkutsk. His father was a social democrat of Jewish descent who had been exiled there.[citation needed] He graduated from gymnasium in 1917 and entered the Moscow College for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. From 1918 - 1921, he served in the Red Army during the Russian civil war, first as a signalman and later rising to the rank of inspector of a Special Commission concerning the numbers of the Red Army and Fleet (Russian: Особая комиссия по вопросам численности Красной Армии и Флота) of the Field Staff of the Supreme Military Soviet of the Republic (Полевой штаб Реввоенсовета Республики)[1]. As such he travelled a lot and had the opportunity to see much of the life in different parts of the country, something that he later said he "recalled with gratitude".
After the end of his military career, Romm received a scholarship from the Soviet government. In 1925 he graduated as a sculptor from the class of Anna Golubkina of the Highest Artistic-Technical Institute and worked as a sculptor and translator. In 1928-1930 he conducted research on the theory of cinema in the Institute for the methods of extra-scholastic work (Institut metodov vneshkol'noy raboty). Since 1931 he worked on the Mosfilm. In 1940-1943 he was an artistic leader for the Mosfilm films production. In 1942-1947 he was the director of a theater studio for movie actors. From 1938 he was a lecturer, from 1948 he was the leader of the actor's-producer department of the VGIK, professor (from 1962). He influenced many prominent film-directors, including Andrei Tarkovsky, Grigori Chukhrai, Vasily Shukshin, Nikita Mikhalkov, Georgi Daneliya, Aleksander Mitta, Igor Talankin, Rezo Chkheidze, Gleb Panfilov, Vladimir Basov, Tengiz Abuladze, Elem Klimov and many others.
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Mikhail Solomentsev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Solomentsev (Russian: Михаи́л Серге́евич Соло́менцев; 7 November 1913 – 15 February 2008) was a high-ranking Soviet politician. He was born near Yelets and graduated from the Leningrad Technological Institute in 1940. Solomentsev was a leading Communist party functionary in Kazakhstan in 1962–1964 and was in charge of the Rostov-on-Don obkom in 1964–1966. He served as a secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union over the years 1966–1971. Solomontsev was Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian RSFR starting from 1971 and ending in 1983. He sat in the Politburo from 1983 until he was sacked by Mikhail Gorbachev five years later.
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Mikhail Yasnov
Mikhail Alekseyevich Yasnov (Russian: Михаил Алексеевич Яснов; 23 May 1906 [O.S. 5 June] – 23 July 1991) was a Soviet politician. He was Chairman of Moscow City Executive Committee and head of Moscow in 1950–1956.
In 1956–1957 he was the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR. Between 1957–1966 he was First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR and between 1966–1985 Chairman of the RSFSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (head of state) and later deputy. In 1950–1954 Chairman of the Soviet of the Union, the higher chamber of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. He was made a Hero of Socialist Labor in 1976.
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Moisei Uritsky
Moisei Solomonovich Uritsky (Моисей Соломонович Урицкий; (1873-01-14)January 14, 1873–August 17, 1918(1918-08-17)) was a Bolshevik revolutionary leader in Russia.
He was born in the city of Cherkasy, Kiev Governorate, to a Jewish family. His father, a merchant, died when Moisei was little and his mother raised her son by herself. He attended the Bila Tserkva Gymnasium, supporting himself through teaching and became an active social democrat.
Moisei studied law at the University of Kiev. During his studies he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party and organized an underground network for importing and distributing political literature. In 1897 he was arrested and exiled for running an illegal mimeograph press. Becoming involved in the revolutionary movement, he participated in the revolutionary Jewish Bund. In 1903, he became a Menshevik. His activities in Petersburg during the 1905 revolution earned him a second term of exile. Along with Alexander Parvus he was active in dispatching revolutionary agents to infiltrate the Tsarist security apparatus.
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Nadezhda Krupskaya
Nadezhda Konstantinovna "Nadya" Krupskaya (Russian: Наде́жда Константи́новна Кру́пская, scientific transliteration Nadežda Konstantinovna Krupskaja) (26 February [O.S. 14 February] 1869 – February 27, 1939) was a Russian Bolshevik revolutionary and politician. She married the Russian revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin in 1898. She was deputy minister (Comissar) of Education in 1929–1939, Doctor of Education.
She was born to an upper-class, but impoverished, family. Her father was a Russian military officer, a nobleman of the Russian Empire. Nadya’s father, Konstantin Ignat’evich Krupski, was orphaned in 1847 at nine years of age. He was educated and given a commission as an infantry officer in the Russian Army. Just before leaving for his assignment in Poland he married Nadya’s mother. After six years of service, Krupski lost favor with his supervisors and was charged with “un-Russian activities.” He may have been suspected of being involved with revolutionaries. Following this time, he worked in factories or wherever he could find work until later in life when he was recommissioned just before his death.
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Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 15 [O.S. April 3] 1894, – September 11, 1971) led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. Khrushchev's party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier.
Khrushchev was born in the Russian village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the present-day border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar. With the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalin's purges, and approved thousands of arrests. In 1939, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War (Eastern Front of World War II), Khrushchev was again a commissar, serving as an intermediary between Stalin and his generals. Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalin's close advisers.
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Nikolai Bukharin
Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Russian: Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин; 9 October [O.S. 27 September] 1888 – 15 March 1938) was a Russian Marxist, Bolshevik revolutionary, and Soviet politician. He was a member of the Politburo (1924–1929) and Central Committee (1917–1937), chairman of the Communist International (Comintern, 1926–1929), and the editor in chief of Pravda (1918–1929), the journal Bolshevik (1924–1929), Izvestia (1934–1936), and the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. He authored Imperialism and World Economy (1918), The ABC of Communism (1919. co-authored with Yevgeni Preobrazhensky), and Historical Materialism (1921) among others. Initially a supporter of Joseph Stalin after Vladimir Lenin's death, he came to oppose a large number of Stalin's policies and was one of Stalin's most prominent victims during the "Moscow Trials" and purges of the Old Bolsheviks in the late 1930s.
Nikolai Bukharin was born on September 27 (October 9, new style), 1888 in Moscow. He was the second son of two schoolteachers, Ivan Gavrilovich and Liubov Ivanova Bukharin. His childhood is vividly recounted in his mostly autobiographic novel How It All Began.
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Nikolai Bulganin
Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin (Russian: Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Булга́нин, Nikolaj Aleksandrovič Bulganin; 30 March [O.S. 18 March] 1895 – 24 February 1975) was a prominent Soviet politician, who served as Minister of Defence (1953–55) and Premier of the Soviet Union (1955–58). The Bulganin beard is named after him.
Bulganin was born in Nizhny Novgorod, the son of an office worker. He joined the Bolshevik Party in 1917, and in 1918 he was recruited into the Cheka, the Bolshevik regime's political police, where he served until 1922. After the Russian Civil War he became an industrial manager, working in the electricity administration until 1927, and as director of the Moscow electricity supply in 1927–31. From 1931 to 1937 he was chairman of the executive committee of the Moscow City Soviet.
In 1934 the Communist Party's XVII Party Congress elected Bulganin a candidate member of the Central Committee. A loyal Stalinist, he was promoted rapidly as other leaders fell victim to Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937–38. In July 1937 he was appointed Prime Minister of the Russian Republic (RSFSR). He became a full member of the Central Committee later that year, and in September 1938 he became Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, and also head of the State Bank of the USSR.
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Nikolai Golitsyn
Prince Nikolai Dmitriyevitch Golitsyn (Russian: Николай Дмитриевич Голицын, 12 April 1850 – 2 July 1925) was a member of the Galitzine family. He was the last Imperial prime minister of Russia from January 1917 until his government fell during the revolution of March 1917, when the Tsar was also forced to abdicate.
Graduate of the Imperial Alexander Lyceum. Entered the Ministry of the Interior (1871). Governor of the gubernias of Arkhangelsk (1885), Kaluga (1893), Tver (1897). Appointed Senator (1903).
Plenipotentiary of the Red Cross in Turgai and Uralsk oblasts and Saratov Gubernia to organize help in the famine-stricken areas (1907-1908).
Member of the State Council and chairman of the commission to render assistance to the Russian prisoners of war abroad (1915).
Prior to being appointed prime minister he had been a deputy chairman of one of Empress Alexandra's charity commissions. He did not want to be prime minister and asked Tsar Nicholas II to appoint someone else.
After the assumption of power by the Bolsheviks, Golitsyn remained in Russia, earning his living by repairing shoes and by maintaining public vegetable gardens. Although he was not occupied with political activity, during the period from 1920 to 1924 he was twice arrested by the organs TO VCHK-OGPU, on the suspicion of connection with counterrevolutionaries. After his third arrest (on 12 February 1925), on the decision of the OGPU board of 22 June 1925, he was executed on 2 July 1925, in Leningrad.
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Nikolai Ryzhkov
Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov (Russian: Николай Иванович Рыжков, Nikolaj Ivanovič Ryžkov; born 28 September 1929) was a Soviet official who became a Russian politician following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He served as the last Chairman of the Council of Ministers or Premier of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. Responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era, Ryzhkov was succeeded as premier by Valentin Pavlov in 1991. The same year, he lost his seat on the Presidential Council going on to become Boris Yeltsin's leading opponent in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) 1991 presidential election.
Ryzhkov was born in the city of Dzerzhynsk, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929. After graduating in the 1950s he started work in the 1970s and began his political career in local industry, working his way up through the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries. In 1979 Ryzhkov was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the State Planning Committee. Following Nikolai Tikhonov's resignation as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Ryzhkov was voted into office in his place. During his tenure, he supported Mikhail Gorbachev's much-needed 1980s reform of the Soviet economy.
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Nikolai Talyzin
Nikolai Vladimirovich Talyzin (Russian: Никола́й Влади́мирович Талы́зин) (born 28 January 1929 - 23 January 1991) was a Soviet statesman, economist and head of the Gosplan, or the State Planning Committee.
Talyzin was Chosen by Mikhail Gorbachev in October 1985 to help start the program of economic change known as perestroika, after serving five years as the Soviet representative at Comecon, the Eastern European trade bloc. He was appointed head of the State Planning Commission, or Gosplan, when almost every sector of the Soviet economy was still firmly under state control. He became one of the three First Deputy Premiers at this time, as well as a non-voting member of the Communist Party Politburo.
The planning commission's task shifted from setting production targets to mapping out economic strategy, as Gorbachev pushed his economic reforms. Talyzin came under strong criticism, and moved to the post of head of the Bureau for Social Development in 1988, blamed for slowing reforms. In September 1989, with perestroika failing to produce the promised results, he was dismissed. along with many other conservatives in Nikolai Ryzhkov's government, whom he blamed for slowing the pace of reforms.
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Nikolai Tikhonov
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Tikhonov (Russian: Николай Александрович Тихонов; Kharkiv, 14 May [O.S. 1 May] 1905 – Moscow, 1 June 1997) was a Soviet Russian-Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War. He served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1980 to 1985, and as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, literally First Vice Premier, from 1976 to 1980. Tikhonov was responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late era of stagnation. He was replaced as Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985 by Nikolai Ryzhkov. In the same year, he lost his seat in the Politburo; however, he retained his seat in the Central Committee until 1989.
He was born in the city of Kharkiv in 1905 to a Russian-Ukrainian working class family; he graduated in the 1920s and started working in the 1930s. Tikhonov began his political career in local industry, and worked his way up the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries. He was appointed Deputy Chairman of the Gosplan in 1963. After Alexei Kosygin's resignation Tikhonov was voted into office as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. In this position, he refrained from taking effective measures to reform the Soviet economy, a need which was strongly evidenced during the early–mid 1980s. He retired from active politics in 1989 as a pensioner. Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997.
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Nikolai Voznesensky
Nikolai Alekseevich Voznesensky (Russian: Никола́й Алексе́евич Вознесе́нский, 1903 – 1 October 1950) was the Soviet economic planner who oversaw the running of Gosplan during the German-Soviet War. A protégé of Andrei Zhdanov, Voznesensky was appointed Deputy Premier in May 1940 at the age of thirty-eight. He was directly involved in the recovery of production associated with the movement of industry eastwards at the start of the war. His work The Economy of the USSR during World War II is his account of these years.
Following the war, however, his ideas on measuring and managing Soviet economic activity were at odds with Joseph Stalin's views[citation needed], and his instrumental role in reorganizing Leningrad's economic structure before the war[citation needed] led to his persecution during the Leningrad Affair[citation needed]. In a secret trial, he was found guilty of treason, sentenced to death and executed the same day.
He was a close companion of Alexei Kosygin and Mikhail Rodionov[citation needed].
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Nikolai Yudenich
Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich (Russian: Никола́й Никола́евич Юде́нич) (July 30 [O.S. July 18] , 1862 – October 5, 1933), was a commander of the Russian Imperial Army during World War I. He was a leader of the anti-communist White movement in Northwestern Russia during the Civil War.
Yudenich was born in Moscow, where his father was a minor court official. Yudenich graduated from the Alexandrovsky Military College in 1881 and the General Staff Academy in 1887. He first served with the Life Guards Regiment in Lithuania from November 1889 to December 1890. In January 1892, he was transferred to the Turkestan Military District, and was promoted to lieutenant colonal in April 1892. He was a member of the Pamir Expedition in 1894, and was promoted to colonel in 1896. From September 20, 1900 Yudenich served on the staff of the 1st Turkestan Rifle Brigade.
In 1902, Yudenich was appointed commander of the 18th Infantry Regiment, which he continued to command during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. He was wounded in the arm during the Battle of Sandepu, and wounded in the neck during the Battle of Mukden. At the end of the war, he was promoted to major general.
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Nikolay Bunge
Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge (Russian: Никола́й Христиа́нович Бу́нге) (November 23 [O.S. November 11] 1823, Kiev–June 15 [O.S. June 3] 1895, Tsarskoye Selo) was the preeminent architect of Russian capitalism under Alexander III. He was a distinguished economist, statesman, and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
Bunge was a professor of the Kiev University, of which he served as a dean between 1859 and 1880, when he was summoned to St. Petersburg to become a deputy minister and then (since 1881) Minister of Finance. Five years later, he became Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers, the highest position in the civil administration of the Russian Empire.
Bunge undertook a number of reforms with the aim of modernizing the Russian economy. He consolidated the banking system of the Empire and founded the Peasants' Land Bank (1883) which helped peasants to purchase land. He introduced important tax law changes which seriously reduced the tax burden of the peasantry. The head tax was abolished and the inheritance tax was introduced.
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Nikolay Chkheidze
Nikoloz Chkheidze (Georgian: ნიკოლოზ ჩხეიძე; Russian: Никола́й (Карло) Семёнович Чхеи́дзе; transliterated Russian: Nikolay Semyonovich Chkheidze; commonly known as Karlo Chkheidze; 1864, Kutaisi – June 13, 1926, Île-de-France) was a Georgian Menshevik politician who helped to introduce Marxism to Georgia in the 1890s and played a prominent role in the Russian and Georgian revolutions of 1917 and 1918.
Chkheidze was born into an aristocratic family in Puti, Shorapansky uyezd, Kutaisi Governorate (in present-day Imereti province of Georgia). With his brother Kalenike Chkheidze, he became in 1892 one of the founders of the first Georgian Social-Democratic group, Mesame Dasi (translated literally, the "Third Team"). From 1907 to 1916, he was the member for Tiflis Gubernyia in the Russian State Duma and gained popularity as a spokesman for the Menshevik faction within the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.
In 1917, the year of the Russian Revolution, Chkheidze became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, but failed in his attempt to prevent the rise of a more radical Bolshevism. Although he refused a post in the Russian Provisional Government, he supported its policies and advocated the idea of the "revolutionary oboronchestvo".
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Nikolay Dobrolyubov
Nikolay Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov (Russian: Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Добролю́бов [] ( listen)) (February 5, 1836 – November 29, 1861) was a Russian literary critic, journalist, poet and revolutionary democrat.
Dobrolyubov was born in Nizhny Novgorod, where his father was a priest. He attended school at a seminary from 1848 to 1853. He was considered a prodigy by his teachers in the seminary, and at home he spent most of his time in his father's library, reading books on science and art. By the age of thirteen he was writing poetry and translating verses from Roman poets such as Horace. In 1853 he went to St. Petersburg and entered the University. Following the deaths of both of his parents, in 1854, he assumed responsibility for his brothers and sisters. He worked as a tutor and translator in order to support his family and continue his studies. His heavy workload and the stress of his position had a negative effect on his health.
During his years at the University he organized an underground democratic circle, issued a manuscript newspaper, and led the student's struggle against the reactionary University administration. His poems On the 50th Birthday of N. I. Grech (1854), and Ode on the Death of Nicholas I (1855), copies of which were distributed outside the University, showed his hostile attitude toward the autocracy.
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Nikolay Nekrasov
Nikolay Alexeyevich Nekrasov (Russian: Никола́й Алексе́евич Некра́сов; IPA: [nʲɪkɐˈlaj ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ nʲɪˈkrasəf], December 10 [O.S. November 28] 1821, Nemyriv – 8 January 1878 [O.S. 28 December 1877]) was a Russian poet, writer, critic and publisher, whose deeply compassionate poems about peasant Russia won him Fyodor Dostoyevsky's admiration and made him the hero of liberal and radical circles of Russian intelligentsia, as represented by Vissarion Belinsky and Nikolay Chernyshevsky. He is credited with introducing into Russian poetry ternary meters and the technique of dramatic monologue (V doroge, 1845). As the editor of several literary journals, including Sovremennik, Nekrasov was also singularly successful.
Nikolai A. Nekrasov was born in the town of Nemyriv (now in Vinnytsia Oblast, Ukraine), Podolia Governorate. His father, Alexei Nekrasov, was a descendant from Russian landed Gentry, and an officer in the Imperial Russian Army. His mother was a Polish noblewoman named Aleksandra Zakrzewska, who was from Warsaw and belonged to szlachta.
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Nikolay Rumyantsev
Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev (Russian: Николай Петрович Румянцев; 3 April 1754 – 3 January 1826) was Russia's Foreign Minister and Imperial Chancellor in the run-up to Napoleon's invasion of Russia (1808-12). He was the son of Field Marshal Pyotr Zadunaisky from the Rumyantsev comital family.
During the first years of the 19th century, Rumyantsev was very influential with Alexander I and his mother Maria Fyodorovna, serving as Minister of Commerce (1802–1811) and President of the State Council (1810–1812).
As Foreign Minister (appointed 1808), he advocated a closer alliance with France. On receiving the news of Napoleon's invasion of Russia (1812), he suffered a stroke and lost his hearing. When Napoleon entered Moscow, he advised the Emperor to dismiss Kutuzov and to seek peace at any cost. Eventually Alexander lost all confidence in Nikolay Petrovich, who retired in 1814 just before the Congress of Vienna.
Nicholas Rumyantsev died on 3 January, 1826 in his neo-Palladian palace on English Quay in St Petersburg. His statue stands in front of the Gomel Palace in Belarus.
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Nikolay Saltykov
Prince Nikolay Ivanovich Saltykov (Russian: Николай Иванович Салтыков, 31 October 1736 – 28 May 1816), a member of the Saltykov royal family, was a Russian Field Marshal and imperial courtier.
He was the head of the Russian Army as the president of the War Collegium 1791–1802. He was also the Lieutenant Grand Master of the Order of Malta from 1801 - 1803. He was also the tutor of the eventual Tsar Paul I of Russia and his two sons, Konstantin Pavlovich Romanov, and Tsar Alexander I of Russia.
His parents were general Ivan Alexeivitch Saltykov (who was himself the nephew of Anna I of Russia) and countess Anastasia Petrovna Tolstoy. He spent a short time in the Semënovskij Regiment, of which he became a permanent member in 1748. In 1747, he and his father took part in the Russian advance to the River Rhine. During the Seven Years' War he distinguished himself in several battles against Prussian forces. After the victory at Kunersdorf over Frederick II of Prussia, Nikolay was sent to Saint Petersburg to deliver news of the victory to the commander in chief - for that service, he was made a colonel.
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Oleg Lobov
Oleg Ivanovich Lobov (Russian: Олег Иванович Лобов; born 7 September 1937 in Kiev) is a Russian politician who served as acting First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) from 19th April 1991 - 15th November 1991 and also was acting Chairman of the Council of Ministers – Government of the Russian SFSR from 26 September 1991 - 6 November 1991, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Until 17 March 1997 Lobov has served in various capacities in Russian state and government bodies. His last position was Deputy Head of the Government of the Russian Federation. As of October 2010, Lobov is the chairman of the non-governmental Association for International Cooperation and participates in various construction-related associations and unions.
Candidate of Technical Sciences (Ph. D) degree. Graduated from Rostov Institute of Engineers of Railway Transport (1960).
1960 - 1972 Employed in chemistry and construction industries in Sverdlovsk. Occupied various posts in Sverdlovsk Communist Party of the Soviet Union), where Boris Yeltsin has made a party career, rising up to the regional party head. Then worked in construction, returned to 'party work' (партийная работа) definitively since 1982.
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Orlando Figes
Orlando Figes ( /ˈfaɪdʒiːz/; born 20 November 1959) is a British historian of Russia, and Professor of History at Birkbeck, University of London.
Figes is the son of the feminist writer Eva Figes. His sister is the author and editor Kate Figes. He attended William Ellis School in north London from 1971-78. He read History at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, graduating with a rare double-starred First in 1982, and completed his PhD at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a Fellow from 1984 to 1999. He was a Lecturer in History at the University of Cambridge from 1987 to 1999, before taking the Chair of History at Birkbeck College, University of London.
He is known for his works on Russian history, in particular A People's Tragedy (1996), Natasha's Dance (2002) and The Whisperers (2007). Figes uses a broad range of methodologies, including social, cultural and oral history, and his writing combines literary and academic qualities.
A People's Tragedy, which has been translated into twenty languages, is a study of the Russian Revolution, and combines social and political history with biographical details in a historical narrative. It was awarded the Wolfson History Prize, the WH Smith Literary Award, the NCR Book Award, the Longman-History Today Book Prize, and the Los Angeles Times Book Prize.
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Patrick Stewart
Sir Patrick Stewart, OBE (born 13 July 1940) is an English film, television and stage actor, who has had a distinguished career in theatre and television. He is most widely known for his television and film roles, such as Captain Jean-Luc Picard in Star Trek: The Next Generation and its successor films, Professor Charles Xavier in the X-Men film series, and as the voice of Avery Bullock in American Dad!.
Stewart was born on 13 July 1940 in Mirfield, near Dewsbury in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. He is the son of Gladys (née Barrowclough), a weaver and textile worker, and Alfred Stewart, a Regimental Sergeant Major in the British Army who served with the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry and previously worked as a general labourer and as a postman.
In a 2008 interview, Stewart said: "My father was a very potent individual, a very powerful man who got what he wanted. It was said that when he strode onto the parade ground, birds stopped singing. It was many, many years before I realised how my father inserted himself into my work. I've grown a moustache for Macbeth. My father didn't have one, but when I looked in the mirror just before I went on stage I saw my father's face staring straight back at me."
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Pavel Milyukov
Pavel Nikolayevich Milyukov (Russian: Па́вел Никола́евич Милюко́в; 27 January [O.S. 15 January] 1859 – 31 March 1943), a Russian politician, was the founder, leader, and the most prominent member of the Constitutional Democratic party (known as the Kadets). His name is sometimes rendered in English as Paul Miliukov or Paul Milukoff.
Milyukov was born in Moscow in the middle class family of an architect who claimed in his autobiography to be a nobleman from the House of Milukoff.
Milyukov studied at the Moscow University, where he was influenced by the liberal ideas of Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin. He made a successful career as a historian, publishing the three-volume Outlines of Russian Culture over the years from 1896 to 1903. The last volume was actually finished in jail, where he spent six months for his political speech at a private event (1901).
Having lost his position at the university due to political issues, Milyukov traveled widely and visited the United States several times. He also contributed to the clandestine journal Liberation in 1902.
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Pyotr Krasnov
Pyotr Nikolayevich Krasnov (Russian: Пётр Никола́евич Красно́в, September 22 (10 old style), 1869 – January 17, 1947), sometimes referred to in English as Peter Krasnov, was Lieutenant General of the Russian army when the revolution broke out in 1917, and one of the leaders of the counterrevolutionary White movement afterward.
Pyotr Krasnov was born in 1869 in Saint Petersburg, son to lieutenant-general Nikolay Krasnov and grandson to general Ivan Krasnov. In 1888, Krasnov graduated from Pavlovsk Military School and later served in the Ataman regiment of the Life Guards. During World War I, he commanded a Cossack brigade and a division, in August–October 1917, of the 3rd Cavalry Corps. During the October Revolution, Alexander Kerensky appointed Krasnov commander of the army, which was sent to Petrograd from the front to suppress the Bolshevik revolution (see Kerensky-Krasnov uprising). However, Krasnov was defeated and taken prisoner. He was released by the Soviet authorities on the condition that he would not continue his struggle against the revolution. He agreed to this but reneged on his promise to do so.
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Pyotr Stolypin
Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin (Russian: Пётр Арка́дьевич Столы́пин, 14 April [O.S. 2 April] 1862 – September 18 [O.S. September 5] 1911) served as the leader of the third Duma, from 1906 to 1911. His tenure was marked by efforts to counter revolutionary groups and by the implementation of noteworthy agrarian reforms. Stolypin's reforms aimed to stem peasant unrest by creating a class of market-oriented smallholding landowners. He is considered one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with clearly defined public policies and the determination to undertake major reforms.
Stolypin was born in Dresden, Saxony, on 14 April 1862. His family was prominent in the Russian aristocracy, and Stolypin was related on his father's side to the poet Mikhail Lermontov. His father was Arkady Dmitrievich Stolypin (1821–99), a Russian landowner, descendant of a great noble family, a general in the Russian artillery, and later Commandant of the Kremlin Palace. His mother was Natalia Mikhailovna Stolypina (née Gorchakova; 1827–89), the daughter of the Commanding General of the Russian infantry during the Crimean War and later the Governor General of Warsaw Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov.
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Richard Pipes
Richard Edgar Pipes (born July 11, 1923) is a Polish-American academic who specializes in Russian history, particularly with respect to the Soviet Union. In 1976 he headed Team B, a team of analysts organized by the Central Intelligence Agency who analyzed the strategic capacities and goals of the Soviet military and political leadership.
Richard Pipes was born in Cieszyn, Poland to an assimilated Jewish family (whose name had originally been spelled "Piepes"). His father was a businessman. By Pipes's own account, during his childhood and youth, he never thought about the Soviet Union; the major cultural influences on him were Polish and German. The Pipes family fled occupied Poland in October 1939 and arrived in the United States in July 1940, after seven months passing through Italy. Pipes became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1943 while serving in the United States Army Air Corps. He was educated at Muskingum College, Cornell University and Harvard. He married Irene Eugenia Roth in 1946, and had two children with her. His son Daniel Pipes is a scholar of Middle Eastern affairs.
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Robert Gellately
Robert Gellately is a Newfoundland-born Canadian academic who is one of the leading historians of modern Europe, particularly during World War II and the Cold War era. He is presently Earl Ray Beck Professor of History at Florida State University. He often teaches classes about World War II and the Cold War, but his extensive interest in the Holocaust has led to his conducting research regarding other genocides as well. He is occasionally known to give lectures on specific genocides. Gellately has very strict guidelines for what he will deem a genocide, and has had several televised debates regarding his somewhat controversial views.
Gellately's most recent work is Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe (Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).
Gellately recently published a set of original documents by Leon Goldensohn dealing with the 1945-46 Nuremberg trials of war criminals in The Nuremberg Interviews: An American Psychiatrist's Conversations With The Defendants and Witnesses (Alfred A. Knopf, 2004).
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Roddy Connolly
Roderick James (Roddy) Connolly (11 February 1901 – 16 December 1980) was a socialist politician in Ireland.
The son of Irish socialist James Connolly and Lillie Connolly, he was involved in the Easter Rising in 1916, where he served in the GPO under his father. He joined the Socialist Party of Ireland in 1917.
Connolly traveled to Russia on several occasions between 1920–21 and formed a close association with Lenin and was hugely influenced by the Soviet leader. He was a delegate to the Second Congress of the Communist International.
He helped form and became President of the first Communist Party of Ireland (CPI) in October 1921. He was editor of CPI newspaper, The Workers' Republic. He opposed the Treaty of December 1921 between the IRA and the British state and fought in the Civil War on the side of the republican forces. The CPI was the first Irish political party to oppose the Treaty and urged the IRA to adopt socialist policies to defeat the new Free State government. The CPI was dissolved in 1924 by the Comintern but in 1926, Connolly helped set up a second Marxist party, the Workers Party of Ireland. Connolly was the party leader and editor of its journal, The Hammer and Plough. This party too was dissolved in 1927.
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Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg (Rosalia Luxemburg, Polish: Róża Luksemburg; 5 March 1871,Zamość, Vistula Land, Russia – 15 January 1919, Berlin, Germany) was a Marxist theorist, philosopher, economist and revolutionary socialist of Polish Jewish descent who became a naturalized German citizen. She was successively a member of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).
In 1915, after the SPD supported German involvement in World War I, she and Karl Liebknecht co-founded the anti-war Spartakusbund (Spartacist League) which eventually became the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). During the German Revolution she founded the Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag), the central organ of the Spartacist movement.
She regarded the Spartacist uprising as a blunder, but supported it after Liebknecht ordered it without her knowledge. When the revolt was crushed by the social democrat government and the Freikorps (World War I veterans who banded together into right-wing paramilitary groups), Luxemburg, Liebknecht and some of their supporters were captured and murdered. Luxemburg was shot and her body thrown in the Landwehr Canal in Berlin. After their deaths, Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht became martyrs for Marxists. According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, commemoration of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht continues to play an important role among the German far-left.
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Rudolf Hilferding
Rudolf Hilferding (10 August 1877, probably in the house of Malzgasse 9/10,Leopoldstadt, Vienna – 11 February 1941, Paris) was an Austrian-born Marxist economist, leading socialist theorist, politician and chief theoretician for the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) during the Weimar Republic, almost universally recognized as the SPD's foremost theoretician of his century, and a physician.
He was born in Vienna, where he received a doctorate having studied medicine. After becoming a leading journalist for the SPD, he participated in the November Revolution in Germany and was Finance Minister of Germany in 1923 and from 1928 to 1929. In 1933 he fled into exile, living in Zurich and then Paris, where he died in custody of the Gestapo in 1941.
Hilferding was a propounder for the "economic" reading of Karl Marx identifying with the "Austro-Marxian" group. He was the first to put forward the theory of organized capitalism. He was the main defender to the challenge to Marx by Austrian School economist and fellow Vienna resident, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. Hilferding also participated in the "Crises Debate" – disputing Marx's theory of the instability and eventual breakdown of capitalism on the basis that the concentration of capital is actually stabilizing. He edited leading publications such as Vorwärts, Die Freiheit, and Die Gesellschaft. His most famous work was Das Finanzkapital (Finance capital), one of the most influential and original contributions to Marxist economics with substantial influence on Marxist writers such as Vladimir Lenin, influencing his writings on imperialism.
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Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War (25 October 1917 – October 1922) was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire fought between the Bolshevik Red Army and the White Army, the loosely allied anti-Bolshevik forces. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces and the pro-German armies. The Red Army defeated the White Armed Forces of South Russia in Ukraine and the army led by Aleksandr Kolchak in Siberia in 1919. The remains of the White forces commanded by Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel were beaten in the Crimea and were evacuated in the autumn of 1920. A number of independent countries – Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland – emerged from the war.
After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the Russian Provisional Government was established during the February Revolution of 1917.
In the wake of the October Revolution, the old Russian Imperial Army had been demobilized; the volunteer-based Red Guard was the Bolsheviks' main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka, the Bolshevik state security apparatus. In January, after significant reverses in combat, War Commissar Leon Trotsky headed the reorganization of the Red Guard into a Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, in order to create a more professional fighting force. Political commissars were appointed to each unit of the army to maintain morale and ensure loyalty.
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Russians
The Russian people (Russian: русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries.
The English term Russians is also used to refer to the citizens of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity; the demonym Russian is translated into Russian as rossiyanin (россиянин, plural rossiyane), while the ethnic Russians are referred to as russkiye (sg. русский, russkiy).
According to the 2010 census, ethnic Russians make up about 81% of the population of Russia.
The modern Russian is formed from two groups, Northern and Southern, which were made up of Kriviches, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians East Slavic tribes. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Poles or Slovenians or Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and Ukrainians than southern Russians to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Among those peoples were Merya and Muromian.
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Sergei Eisenstein
Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (23 January 1898 – 11 February 1948), né Eizenshtein, was a pioneering Soviet Russian film director and film theorist, often considered to be the "Father of Montage". He is noted in particular for his silent films Strike (1924), Battleship Potemkin (1925) and October (1927), as well as the historical epics Alexander Nevsky (1938) and Ivan the Terrible (1944, 1958).
Eisenstein was born to a middle-class family in Riga, Latvia but his family moved frequently in his early years, as Eisenstein continued to do throughout his life. His father Mikhail Osipovich Eisenstein was of German-Jewish and Swedish descent, and his mother, Julia Ivanovna Konetskaya, was from a Russian Orthodox family. His father was an architect and his mother was the daughter of a prosperous merchant. Julia left Riga the same year as the Russian Revolution (1905), bringing Sergei with her to St. Petersburg. Her son would return at times to see his father, who later moved to join them around 1910.Divorce followed and Julia deserted the family to live in France.
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Sergei Melgunov
Sergei Petrovich Melgunov (Russian: Сергей Петрович Мельгунов) (December 24 or 25, 1879-May 26, 1956) was a Russian historian, publicist and politician best known for his opposition to the Soviet government and his numerous works on the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War.
Melgunov was born in Moscow to an old aristocratic family. His mother was Polish, née Gruszecka. Having graduated from Moscow University in 1904, he began his political and scholarly career in Imperial Russia. He became a member of the Russian Constitutional Democratic party (“Cadets”) in 1906 and joined the People’s Socialist Party in 1907. In 1911, Melgunov established a publishing house Zadruga ("Задруга") where he published over 500 books and a journal Golos minuvshego ("The Voice of the Past"). After the 1917 Bolshevik October Revolution, he became an active opponent of Lenin’s government and joined the anti-Soviet Union of Revival of Russia, which advocated an armed overthrow of the Bolshevik regime.
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Sergei Stepashin
Sergei Vadimovich Stepashin (Серге́й Вади́мович Степа́шин) (born 2 March 1952, Lüshunkou, China) is a Russian politician, current Chairman of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation and former Prime Minister of Russia. He was appointed federal security minister by President Boris Yeltsin in 1994. He resigned his position in 1995 as a consequence of the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis.
Sergei Stepashin graduated from the Higher Political School of the USSR Ministry of the Interior (1973), in 1981 - from the Military and Political Academy, in 2002 - from the Finance Academy. He is a Doctor of Law, Professor, and has a rank of the State Advisor on Justice of the Russian Federation. His Military rank is Colonel-General.
He became justice minister, serving from 1997 to March 1998, and interior minister, holding that office from March 1998 to May 1999, when he was appointed and confirmed by parliament as prime minister. Yeltsin made it fairly clear when he appointed him Prime Minister that Stepashin would only hold the position temporarily, and he was replaced in August 1999 by future president Vladimir Putin.
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Sergei Syrtsov
Sergei Ivanovich Syrtsov (Russian: Серге́й Ива́нович Сырцо́в; Moscow, Russian Empire, 17 July [O.S. 5 July] 1893 – Moscow, 10 September 1937) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR from 1929 to 1930.[citation needed]
He was arrested and executed during the Great Purge.
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Sergei Witte
Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte (Russian: Серге́й Ю́льевич Ви́тте, Sergey Yul'evich Vitte) (29 June [O.S. 17 June] 1849 – 13 March [O.S. 28 February] 1915), also known as Sergius Witte, was a highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He served under the last two emperors of Russia. He was also the author of the October Manifesto of 1905, a precursor to Russia's first constitution, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) of the Russian Empire.
Witte's father Julius Witte came from a Lutheran Baltic German (originally Dutch) family and had been member of the knightage of the City of Pskov. He converted to Russian Orthodoxy upon marriage with Witte's mother Yækaterina Fadeyeva. Sergei Witte's maternal grandfather was Andrei Mikhailovich Fadeyev, a Governor of Saratov and Privy Councillor of the Caucasus, his grandmother was Princess Helene Dolgoruki, and the mystic Madame Blavatsky was his first cousin. He was born in Tiflis, Tiflis Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Georgia) and raised in the house of his mother's parents.
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Sergei Yutkevich
Sergei Iosifovich Yutkevich (Russian: Серге́й Ио́сифович Ютке́вич, 15 September 1904 – 24 April 1985) was an award-winning Soviet film director and screenwriter.
He began work as a teen doing puppet shows. Later he helped found the Factory of the Eccentric Actor (FEKS), which was primarily concerned with circus and music hall acts. He entered films in the 1920s and began directing in 1928. His films often were cheerier than most Russian films as he was influenced by American slapstick, among other things. However he also did serious historical films, docudramas, and biopics. He won Cannes's Best Director Award twice: for Othello in 1956 and for Lenin in Poland in 1966. Of his later films Lenin in Paris is among the best known.
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Sergey Kiriyenko
Sergey Vladilenovich Kiriyenko (Russian: Серге́й Владиле́нович Кирие́нко) (born 26 July 1962) is a Russian politician. He served as the Prime Minister of Russia from 23 March to 23 August 1998 under President Boris Yeltsin. Currently, he is the head of Rosatom, the state nuclear energy corporation.
Sergei Kiriyenko's grandfather, Yakov Israitel, made his name as a devoted communist, and Vladimir Lenin awarded him with an inscribed pistol for his good service to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Sergei Kiriyenko was born in 1962 in Sukhumi, the capital of the Abkhazian ASSR of the Georgian SSR, and grew up in Sochi, in southern Russia. After graduation from high school, Kiriyenko enrolled in the shipbuilding faculty at the Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky) Water Transport Engineers Institute, where his divorced father taught.
Kirienko was appointed Prime Minister after the dismissal of Viktor Chernomyrdin's second cabinet. The State Duma, dominated by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, twice refused to confirm his appointment but president Boris Yeltsin nominated him a third time and Kiriyenko was confirmed.
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Sergey Vyazmitinov
Count Sergey Kuzmich Vyazmitinov (Russian: Сергей Кузьмич Вязьмитинов) (7 October 1744 – 15 October 1819, Saint Petersburg), was a Russian general and statesman.
He descended from the ancient noble landowner's family of Ruthenian origin, known from end of 15th century. 22 June 1759 he was recorded as corporal into the Observational Corps, but started service only 21 December 1761 as ensign of Ukrainian Narodnoe Opolcheniye Corps. In 1762 he was moved into Manezh Company (Манежная рота).
During Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774 he was aide-de-camp of the Vice President of the War Collegium Count Zakhar Chernyshev, from 1770 he was a generals-auditor-lieutenants in the rank of premier-major, manager of the affairs of the march office of Chernyshev (from October 1771 of Count Peter Rumyantsev-Zadunaysky). In 1777 he was promoted to Colonel and was appointed as the commander of Astrakhan infantry regiment.
On 22 September 1786 he obtained the rank of Major General and became the commander of the Astrakhan grenadier regiment for whose formation he was chiefly responsible. During Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 he commanded joined forces of the chasseurs and grenadiers battalions and participated in the taking of Khotin, Akkerman and Bendery.
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Swedes
Swedes (Swedish: svenskar) are a nation and ethnic group native to Sweden, mostly inhabiting Sweden and the other Nordic countries, with descendants living in a number of countries.
Most scholars agree that Suiones and the attested Germanic forms of the name derive from the same Proto-Indo-European reflexive pronominal root, *s(w)e, as the Latin suus. The word must have meant "one's own (tribesmen)". In modern Scandinavian, the same root appears in words such as svåger (brother-in-law) and svägerska (sister-in-law). The same root and original meaning is found in the ethnonym of the Germanic tribe Suebi, preserved to this day in the name Schwaben.
Sweden enters proto-history with the Germania of Tacitus in AD 98. In Germania 44, 45 he mentions the Swedes (Suiones) as a powerful tribe (distinguished not merely for their arms and men, but for their powerful fleets) with ships that had a prow in both ends (longships). Which kings (kuningaz) ruled these Suiones is unknown, but Norse mythology presents a long line of legendary and semi-legendary kings going back to the last centuries BC. As for literacy in Sweden itself, the runic script was in use among the south Scandinavian elite by at least the 2nd century AD, but all that has come down to the present from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions on artefacts, mainly of male names, demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and other North Germanic languages.
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Tatars
Tatars (Tatar: Tatarlar / Татарлар, sometimes spelled Tartars) are a Turkic people, numbering around 7 million. The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of 5.5 million, 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan, 1 million in the republic of Bashkortostan and other 2.5 million in different regions of Russia. Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Ukraine.
The Tatars originated with the Tatar confederation in the north-eastern Gobi desert in the 5th century. After subjugation in the 9th century by the Khitans, they migrated southward. In the 13th century Mongol Empire, they were subjugated under Genghis Khan and reassigned once again particularly by his son Jochi. Under the leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, they moved westwards, forming part of the Golden Horde which dominated the Eurasian steppe during the 14th and 15th centuries. In Europe, they were assimilated by the local populations or their name spread to the conquered peoples: Kipchaks, Kimaks and others; and elsewhere with Uralic-speaking peoples, as well as with remnants of the ancient Greek colonies in the Crimea and Caucasians in the Caucasus.
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Timofei Sapronov
Timofei Vladimirovich Sapronov (Russian: Тимофе́й Влади́мирович Сапро́нов; 1887, Tula Governorate–September 28, 1939, Moscow) was a Russian revolutionary, Old Bolshevik and socialist militant.
Whilst working as a house painter Sapronov joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1912. He was active during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War in the Moscow Provincial Soviet. Sapronov was a left communist of the Bukharin group in 1918. Shortly afterwards, with other Moscow Communist Party left-wingers Vladimir Smirnov and V. Osinsky, he initiated the inner-party grouping known as the Group of Democratic Centralism which presented its case at the Eighth Party Congress in 1919 that 'the party should not impose its will on the soviets’. However it obtained only a derisory number of votes and was denounced as semi-syndicalist by Vladimir Lenin.
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Tony Cliff
Tony Cliff (born Yigael Gluckstein 20 May 1917 – 9 April 2000), was a Trotskyist who was a founding member of the Socialist Review Group which went on to become the Socialist Workers Party. Born to a Jewish family in Palestine, he moved to Britain in 1947 and assumed the pen name Tony Cliff.
Although as a young man he identified with Communism, he never joined the Communist Party of Palestine, as he had not met any of its members before becoming a socialist activist. However, he did join the socialist Zionist group Hashomer Hatzair, soon becoming not only a Trotskyist in 1933, but also a confirmed opponent of Zionism. Along with other Hashomer Hatzair members, he joined the illegal Palestine Revolutionary Communist League, necessitating the use of several pseudonyms in three languages.
During World War II, Gluckstein was imprisoned by the British authorities who governed the territory. After his release, he moved to Britain in 1947, but was never able to become a citizen and remained a stateless person. To the end of his life, he spoke English with a distinct foreign accent. He was for a while deported to the Republic of Ireland and was only permitted to take up British residency due to the status of Chanie Rosenberg, his wife, as a British citizen. Living in London, he again became active with the Revolutionary Communist Party onto whose leadership he had been co-opted. For most purposes Gluckstein was a supporter of the leadership of the RCP around Jock Haston, and as such he was involved with the discussions concerning the nature of those states dominated by Russia and the Communist parties initiated by a faction within the RCP. This debate was linked to other discussions on the nationalised industries in Britain and the increasingly critical stance of Haston and the RCP as to the leadership of the Fourth International with regard to Eastern Europe and Yugoslavia in particular.
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Valentin Pavlov
Valentin Sergeyevich Pavlov (Russian: Валентин Сергеевич Павлов; 27 September 1937 – 30 March 2003) was a Soviet official who became a Russian banker following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Born in the city of Moscow, then part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Pavlov began his political career in the Ministry of Finance in 1959. Later, during the Brezhnev Era, he became head of the Financial Department of the State Planning Committee. Pavlov was appointed to the post of Chairman of the State Committee on Prices during the Gorbachev Era, and later became Minister of Finance in Nikolai Ryzhkov's Second Government. He went on to succeed Ryzhkov as head of government in the newly established post of Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, and became de facto Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers.
As Prime Minister from 14 January 1991 to 22 August 1991 Pavlov initiated the 1991 Soviet monetary reform, commonly referred to as the Pavlov reform, in early 1991. Early on he told the media that the reform was initiated to halt the flow of Soviet roubles transported to the Soviet Union from abroad. Although ridiculed at the time, the statement was later proven to be true. In June the same year, Pavlov failed in an attempted coup against Gorbachev through a constitutional amendment. In August, he participated in the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, which tried to prevent the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Pavlov was arrested for his involvement in the coup and went on to work in the banking sector in post-Soviet Russia. He was succeeded as premier by Ivan Silayev.
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Valerian Kuybyshev
Valerian Vladimirovich Kuybyshev (Russian: Валериа́н Влади́мирович Ку́йбышев (1888–1935), was a Russian revolutionary, Red Army officer, and prominent Soviet politician.
Kuybyshev was born in Omsk in the Russian Empire on 6 June [O.S. 25 May] 1888. He studied at the Omsk Military Cadet School. He joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1904. The following year, he entered a military medical academy, but was expelled in 1906 for controversial political activities.
Between 1906-14 Kuybyshev performed subversive activities for the Bolsheviks throughout the Empire, for which he was exiled to Narym in Siberia where—together with Yakov Sverdlov—he set up a local Bolshevik organization. In May 1912 he fled and returned to Omsk, where he was arrested the next month, and imprisoned for a year. He was transferred to Tambov to live independently under police surveillance, but soon fled again, whereafter he spent 1913-14 encouraging civil unrest in the cities of St. Petersburg, Kharkov, and Vologda; relocated to Samara in 1917; and became President of the local soviet—a position he held at the time of the October Revolution and for the next year. During the Russian Civil War he chaired the revolutionary committee of Samara province and became a political commissar in the First and Fourth Red Armies.
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Vasily Vakhrushev
Vasiliy Vasilyevich Vakhrushev (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Ва́хрушев; Tula, Russian Empire, 15 February [O.S. 28 February] 1902 – Moscow, 13 January 1947) was a Soviet-Russian statesman who was from 1939 to 1940 the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR, literally meaning Premier or Prime Minister.
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Viktor Chernomyrdin
Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin (Russian: Ви́ктор Степа́нович Черномы́рдин, IPA: [t͡ɕɪrnɐˈmɨrdʲɪn]; 9 April 1938 – 3 November 2010) was the founder and the first chairman of the Gazprom energy company, the longest serving Prime Minister of Russia (1992–1998) and Acting President of Russia for a day in 1996. He was a key figure in Russian politics in the 1990s, and a participant in the Russian transition from a planned to a market economy. From 2001 to 2009, he was Russia's ambassador to Ukraine. After that he was designated as a presidential adviser.
Chernomyrdin is known in Russia and Russian-speaking countries for his unique language style, containing numerous malapropisms and syntactic errors. Many of his sayings became aphorisms and idioms in the Russian language, the most famous being his expression "We meant to do better, but it came out as always" (Russian: Хотели как лучше, а получилось как всегда).
Viktor Chernomyrdin died on 3 November 2010 after a long illness. He was buried beside his wife in Novodevichy Cemetery on 5 November, and his funeral was broadcast live on Russian federal TV channels.
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Viktor Khristenko
Viktor Borisovich Khristenko (Russian: Ви́ктор Бори́сович Христе́нко; born 28 August 1957) he was the Russian Minister of Industry since 9 March 2004 until January 2012 and former First Deputy Prime Minister.
Khristenko was born in Chelyabinsk. His second wife Tatyana Golikova has been the Minister of Health and Social Development since September 2007. They married in 2003.
Kristenko graduated in 1979 from Chelyabinsk Mechanical Engineering Institute with a specialization in construction management and Economics. In 1983, he completed his Ph.D. at the Moscow Institute of Management.
Khristenko was the briefly acting Prime Minister of Russia from 24 February to 5 March 2004.Russian President Vladimir Putin fired Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov on 24 February 2004.
At the time, The Washington Post called Kasyanov "the most powerful ally of big business remaining in the Russian government." Khristenko, 46 at the time, was promoted from Deputy Prime Minister to acting Prime Minister. Putin commented that Kasyanov's ousting was not related to the results of the government's activities, which he characterized as positive, but rather was caused by a necessity to once again confirm his position, which would guide the development of the country after 14 March 2004.
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Viktor Zubkov
Viktor Alekseyevich Zubkov (Russian: Ви́ктор Алексе́евич Зубко́в; born 15 September 1941) is a Russian politician and businessman who was the Prime Minister of Russia from September 2007 to May 2008 and again, briefly, in May 2012. He was Vladimir Putin's First Deputy Prime Minister during the Presidency of Dmitri Medvedev.
Zubkov was a financial crime investigator until 12 September 2007, when he was nominated by President Vladimir Putin to replace Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov, who resigned earlier that day. The nomination was approved in the Duma on 14 September 2007. On 7 May 2008 Zubkov's cabinet was automatically dismissed. This procedure, following an inauguration of the President of Russia is required by the Russian Constitution. After Putin became Prime Minister, Zubkov was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister.
Zubkov is also the current chairman of the board of directors of Gazprom, Russia's largest corporation and one of the largest oil and natural gas companies in the world.
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Vissarion Belinsky
Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky (Russian: Виссарио́н Григо́рьевич Бели́нский; IPA: [vʲɪsərʲɪˈon grʲɪˈgorʲjɪvʲɪtɕ bʲɪˈlʲinskʲɪj]; June 11 [O.S. May 30] 1811 – June 7 [O.S. May 26] 1848) was a Russian literary critic of Westernizing tendency. He was an associate of Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin (he at one time courted one of his sisters), and other critical intellectuals. Belinsky played one of the key roles in the career of poet and publisher Nikolay Nekrasov and his popular magazine Sovremennik.
Vissarion Belinsky was born in Sveaborg, Helsinki and lived in the town of Chembar (now Belinsky in the Belinsky District of Penza Oblast) and in Penza, where he studied in gymnazia (1825-1829). In 1829-1832 he was a student of Moscow University. In Moscow he published his first famous articles.
In 1839 Vissarion Belinsky was going to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he was a respected critic and editor of two major literary magazines: Otechestvennye Zapiski ("Notes of the Fatherland"), and Sovremennik ("The Contemporary"). In both magazines Belinsky worked with younger Nikolay Nekrasov.
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Vitaly Vorotnikov
Vitaly Ivanovich Vorotnikov (Russian: Вита́лий Ива́нович Воротнико́в; 20 January 1926 – 19 February 2012) was a Soviet statesman who was from 1983 to 1988 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR, and from 1988 to 1990 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. He was born in Voronezh. Vorotnikov died on February 19, 2012 at the age of 86.
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Vladimir Ivashko
Vladimir Antonovich Ivashko (Russian: Влади́мир Анто́нович Ива́шко; Ukrainian: Володимир Антонович Івашко) (28 October 1932 – 13 November 1994), was briefly the acting General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the period from 24 August 1991 to 29 August 1991. On 24 August Mikhail Gorbachev resigned, and on 29 August the CPSU was suspended by the Supreme Soviet. Before becoming General Secretary he had been voted Gorbachev's Deputy General Secretary within the Party on 12 July 1990, a newly created position as a result of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party
The Communist Party in between Gorbachev's resignation and its suspension was politically impotent. By the time of the 28th Congress in July 1990, the party was largely regarded as being unable to lead the country and had, in fifteen republics, split into opposing factions favouring either independent republics or the continuation of the Soviet Union. Stripped of its leading role in society the party lost its authority to lead the nation or the cohesion that kept the party united. Actual political power lay in the positions of President of the Soviet Union (held by Gorbachev) and President of the Russian SFSR (held by Boris Yeltsin). During the August coup he did not make public statements but on behalf of the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee distributed letters to local party organizations calling on them to uphold the CPSU.
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Vladimir Kokovtsov
Count Vladimir Nikolaevich Kokovtsov (Russian: Влади́мир Никола́евич Коковцо́в) (1853—1943) was a Russian politician who served as the Prime Minister of Russia from 1911—4, during the reign of Emperor Nicholas II.
Vladimir Nikolaevich Kokovtsov was born in the Russian Empire on 18 April [O.S. 6 April] 1853.
Following graduation from the Imperial Alexander Lyceum in December 1872 Kokovtsov applied for admittance to Saint Petersburg State University to study law on the recommendation of Aleksandr Gradovsky, Nikolai Tagantsev and S. Pakhman all notable legal authorities of the time. However, his father, who had promised to pay for his education suddenly died leaving the family in strained financial circumstances. As a result, instead of attending university he entered the civil service to provide him and his family an additional income.
Kokovtsov was admitted as a candidate for a civil service position in the Imperial Ministry of Justice serving first in the statistical, then the legislative and finally in the criminal office. From 1879—90 he served as Senior Inspector and Assistant Head of the Central Administration of Prisons. This period is noted for its prison reforms formulated by State Secretary K.K. Grot a senior member of the Imperial State Council. From 1890—96 he served in the State Council as Assistant State Secretary, State Secretary and finally as Assistant Imperial Secretary where he worked primarily on matters reviewed by the Russian Imperial State Council's Department of State Economy.
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Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ленин; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr ɪlʲˈjitɕ ˈlʲenʲɪn] ( listen); 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary, intellectual and politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years (1917–1924), as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a socialist economic system.
As a politician, Lenin was a persuasive and charismatic orator. As an intellectual his extensive theoretic and philosophical developments of Marxism produced Marxism–Leninism, a pragmatic Russian application of Marxism that emphasized the critical role played by a committed and disciplined political vanguard in the revolutionary process, while defending the possibility of a socialist revolution in less advanced capitalist countries through an alliance of the proletarians with the rural peasantry.
Lenin was born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ульянов) on 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. Simbirsk, a rural town on the River Volga nearly 1,500 miles from the capital Saint Petersburg, would be renamed upon Ulyanov's death fifty-four years later as "Ulyanovsk" in his honour. That same year, Saint Petersburg itself would be renamed Leningrad after Ulyanov's better-known cadre name.
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Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (Russian: Влади́мир Влади́мирович Пу́тин; IPA: [vɫɐˈdʲimʲɪr vɫɐˈdʲimʲɪrəvʲɪtɕ ˈputʲɪn] ( listen); born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician who has been the President of Russia since 7 May 2012. Putin previously served as President from 2000 to 2008 and as Prime Minister of Russia from 1999 to 2000, and again from 2008 to 2012. Putin also serves as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when president Boris Yeltsin resigned in a surprising move. Putin won the 2000 presidential election; in 2004 he was re-elected for a second term lasting until 7 May 2008.
Because of constitutionally mandated term limits, Putin was ineligible to run for a third consecutive presidential term. After his successor Dmitry Medvedev won the 2008 presidential election, Putin was nominated by Medvedev to be Russia's Prime Minister; Putin took office on 8 May 2008 and a period of so-called "tandemocracy" followed. In September 2011, Putin and Medvedev agreed he should seek a third, non-consecutive term in the 2012 presidential election, which he won in the first round on 4 March 2012.
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Vladimir Velichko
Vladimir Makarovich Velichko (Russian: Владимир Макарович Величко; Mozhayskoye Novousmanskogo, 23 April 1937) was a Soviet official and entrepreneur appointed as the First Deputy Prime Minister of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1991.
Velichko was born into a working class family in the village of Mozhayskoye Novousmanskogo in Voronezh Oblast, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Union on 23 April 1937. According to United Russia's homepage, Velichko started his career in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. He began studying at the Leningrad Military Mechanical Institute in 1955, graduating as a mechanical engineer in 1962.
In 1962, Velichko joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and began work at a factory in Leningrad belonging to the Ministry of General Machine Building. He became Deputy Chief of the plant in 1967, and Deputy Director in 1971. Between 1971 and 1975 Velichko worked as the plant's manager and from 1986 to 1990 served as a member of the CPSU Central Committee, later becoming a Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.
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Vyacheslav Molotov
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Russian: Вячесла́в Миха́йлович Мо́лотов; 9 March [O.S. 25 February] 1890 – 8 November 1986) was a Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin, to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium (Politburo) of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev. He served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (Premier) from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. Molotov served for several years as First Deputy Premier in Joseph Stalin's cabinet. He retired in 1961 after several years of obscurity.
Molotov was the principal Soviet signatory of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact of 1939 (also known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), after Britain and France repeatedly failed to join the Soviets in an anti-Nazi alliance, was involved in post-war negotiations where he became noted for his diplomatic skills, and knew of the Katyn massacre committed by the Soviet authorities. Following the aftermath of World War II (Great Patriotic War) Molotov kept his place, until 1949, as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician. In March 1949, after losing Stalin's favour, he lost the foreign affairs ministry to Andrei Vyshinsky. Molotov's relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, with Stalin complaining about Molotov's mistakes in a speech to the 19th Party Congress. However, after Stalin's death in 1953 Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation policy. He defended his policies and the legacy of Stalin until his death in 1986, and harshly criticized Stalin's successors, especially Nikita Khrushchev.
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Wikipedia Persondata
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Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, PC, DL, FRS, Hon. RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55). A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jenny Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
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Yakov Sverdlov
Yakov Mikhaylovich Sverdlov (Russian: Я́ков Миха́йлович Свердло́в); known under pseudonyms "Andrei", "Mikhalych", "Max", "Smirnov", "Permyakov" 3 June [O.S. 22 May] 1885 – 16 March 1919) was a Bolshevik party leader and president of the Russian Soviet Republic.
He was born in Nizhny Novgorod to Jewish parents. His father was an engraver. His brother was adopted by Maxim Gorky and became better-known as Zinovy Peshkov. He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1902, and then the Bolshevik faction, supporting Vladimir Lenin. He was involved in the 1905 revolution.
After his arrest in June 1906, for most of the time until 1917 he was either imprisoned or exiled. During the period 1914–1916 he was in internal exile in Turukhansk, Siberia, along with Joseph Stalin.
After the 1917 February Revolution he returned to Petrograd from exile and was re-elected to the Central Committee. He played an important role in planning the October Revolution.
A book written in 1990 by the Moscow playwright Edvard Radzinsky claims that Sverdlov had a role in the killing of Tsar Nicholas II and his family. According to this book, Sverdlov ordered their execution on 16 July 1918, which took place in the city of Yekaterinburg. This book as well as other Radzinsky's books were characterized as "folk history" (Russian term for pseudohistory) by journalists and academic historians.
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Yegor Gaidar
Yegor Timurovich Gaidar (Russian: Его́р Тиму́рович Гайда́р; pronounced [jɪˈɡor tʲɪˈmurəvʲɪtɕ ɡɐjˈdar]; 19 March 1956 – 16 December 2009) was a Soviet and Russian economist, politician and author, and was the Acting Prime Minister of Russia from 15 June 1992 to 14 December 1992.
He was best known as the architect of the controversial shock therapy reforms administered in Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which brought him both praise and harsh criticism. Many Russians held him responsible for the economic hardships that plagued the country in the 1990s that resulted in mass poverty and hyperinflation among other things, although liberals praised him as a man who did what had to be done to save the country from complete collapse.Jeffrey Sachs, director of Columbia University's Earth Institute, who advised the Russian government in the early 1990s, called Gaidar "the intellectual leader of many of Russia's political and economic reforms" and "one of the few pivotal actors" of the period.
wn.com/Yegor_Gaidar -
Yevgeny Primakov
Yevgeny Maksimovich Primakov (Евге́ний Макси́мович Примако́в, born 29 October 1929) is a Russian politician and diplomat. During his long career, he served as the Russian Foreign Minister, Prime Minister of Russia, Speaker of the Soviet of the Union of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, and chief of intelligence service. Primakov is an academician and a member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Primakov was born in Kiev, Ukrainian SSR, and grew up in Tbilisi, Georgian SSR. He was educated at the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies, graduating in 1953 and did postgraduate work at Moscow State University. From 1956 to 1970, he worked as a journalist for Soviet radio and a Middle Eastern correspondent for Pravda newspaper. During this time, he was sent frequently on intelligence missions to the Middle East and the United States as a KGB co-optee under codename MAKSIM.
As the Senior Researcher of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, Primakov entered in 1962 the scientific society. From 30 December 1970 to 1977, he served as Deputy Director of Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the USSR Academy of Sciences. From 1977 to 1985 he was Director of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences. During this time he was also First Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Peace Committee, a KGB foreign propaganda front organization.[citation needed][dead link] In 1985 he returned to the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, serving as Director until 1989.
wn.com/Yevgeny_Primakov -
Yuri Andropov
Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (Russian: Ю́рий Влади́мирович Андро́пов, tr. Yuriy Vladimirovich Andropov; IPA: [ˈjʉrʲɪj vlɐˈdʲimʲɪrəvʲɪtɕ ɐnˈdropəf]; 15 June [O.S. 2 June] 1914 – 9 February 1984) was a Soviet politician and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 12 November 1982 until his death fifteen months later.
Andropov was the son of a railway official Vladimir Konstantinovich Andropov, who was a member of a Don Cossack noble family. His mother was Yevgenia Karlovna Fleckenstein, a daughter of a wealthy Moscow businessman, Karl Franzovich Fleckenstein, a German Russian from Vyborg. Andropov was educated at the Rybinsk Water Transport Technical College.
Andropov joined the Komsomol in 1930. He became a member of the Communist Party in 1939 and was First Secretary of the Central Committee of Komsomol in the Soviet Karelo-Finnish Republic from 1940 to 1944.
During World War II, Andropov took part in partisan guerrilla activities in Finland. From 1944 onwards, he left Komsomol for Communist Party work. In 1947, he was elected Second Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Karelo-Finnish SSR.
wn.com/Yuri_Andropov -
Yuri Felshtinsky
Yuri Felshtinsky (b. 1956, Moscow) is a Russian historian of Russia living in the United States. Felshtinsky has authored several books on modern Russian and early Soviet history, including Blowing up Russia (with Alexander Litvinenko) and The Age of Assassins (with Vladimir Pribylovsky).
Born in Moscow in 1956, Felshtinsky emigrated from the Soviet Union to the United States in 1978. He graduated from Brandeis University and got his PhD in history from Rutgers University. In 1993, he also defended his Doctor of Science thesis at the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.
Felshtinsky has published a number of books on history of the Communist movement. In one of those books, Leaders the mobsters, he described the Bolshevik party as a mafia-like organization where "almost no one died by a natural cause", based on hundreds of primary and secondary sources. This includes the poisoning of Vladimir Lenin, Felix Dzerzhinsky, and Maksim Gorky by Genrikh Yagoda on the orders from Joseph Stalin, the murders of Mikhail Frunze, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky, and Leon Trotsky, the poisoning of Stalin by Lavrenty Beria, and other similar episodes.
wn.com/Yuri_Felshtinsky -
Yuri Maslyukov
Yuri Dmitriyevich Maslyukov (Russian: Юрий Дмитриевич Маслюков; 30 September 1937 – 1 April 2010) was a Russian politician who was in charge of the Gosplan for three years preceding the demise of the Soviet Union.
Yuri Maslyukov was born on 30 September 1937 in the Leninabad in Tajik SSR. He graduated from the Leningrad Mechanical Institute.
Maslyukov served several positions within both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. Within the CPSU, he was candidate member of the Central Committee's Politburo in 1988-1989 and full member from September 20, 1989 to July 14, 1990. Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, he held several high ranking positions with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, including the post of First Deputy Defense Industry Minister of the Soviet Union. Then he joined the Communist Party of Russia (CPRF).
Maslyukov was the only Communist member of the Russian Cabinet under Boris Yeltsin, serving as First Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation in the wake of the 1998 Russian financial crisis. He ultimately served as a member of the Committee on Budget Issues and Taxes of the State Duma, until his death on 1 April 2010.
wn.com/Yuri_Maslyukov
Famous quotes by Vladimir Lenin:
"It is true that liberty is precious - so precious that it must be rationed"
"Freedom in capitalist society always remains about the same as it was in ancient Greek republics: Freedom for slave owners."
"Without a revolutionary theory there cannot be a revolutionary movement."
"Give us the child for 8 years and it will be a Bolshevik forever"
"Fascism is capitalism in decay"
"If it were necessary to give the briefest possible definition of imperialism, we should have to say that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism."
"The goal of socialism is communism."
"Can a nation be free if it oppresses other nations? It cannot."
"One man with a gun can control 100 without one."
"A lie told often enough becomes truth"
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Biography of "The Great"Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:29
- Updated: 12 Feb 2013
[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 70K views, I hope you all enjoy this video! Gaming channel:www.youtube.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter:twitter.com
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[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 70K views, I hope you all enjoy this video! Gaming channel:www.youtube.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter:twitter.com
VI Lenin on Anti-Semitism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews
http://wn.com/VI_Lenin_on_Anti-Semitism
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews
- published: 09 Jan 2009
- views: 20486
- author: MARXtheCOMRADE
(Part 1) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Education" - 2/9/08
http://wn.com/Part_1_Lenin_Revolutionary_Documentary
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Education" - 2/9/08
- published: 09 Feb 2008
- views: 248290
- author: Comradeunity
Vladimir Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on your computer in order to hear the music. Again, I apologize. My video to the first Soviet Leader, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known by his alias "Lenin". Includes a brief background of the man, as well as video and examples of socialist realism.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on your computer in order to hear the music. Again, I apologize. My video to the first Soviet Leader, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known by his alias "Lenin". Includes a brief background of the man, as well as video and examples of socialist realism.
- published: 09 Dec 2007
- views: 46962
- author: Comradeunity
Biography - Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:00
- Updated: 29 Jan 2013
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl Marx, and in this documentary, viewers are given an in-depth portrait of the life of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Originally shown as part of A&E;'s acclaimed Biography cable series, Biography: Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution was released by New Video. ~ Matthew Tobey, Rovi
http://wn.com/Biography_Vladimir_Lenin_Voice_of_Revolution_Part_1
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl Marx, and in this documentary, viewers are given an in-depth portrait of the life of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Originally shown as part of A&E;'s acclaimed Biography cable series, Biography: Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution was released by New Video. ~ Matthew Tobey, Rovi
- published: 08 Nov 2011
- views: 6263
- author: EurasianUnion
Lenin still pulling crowds at 139
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:51
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maintenance work. Amid calls to relocate the Soviet leaders remains, Lenins Mausoleum is once again ready to receive visitors.
http://wn.com/Lenin_still_pulling_crowds_at_139
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maintenance work. Amid calls to relocate the Soviet leaders remains, Lenins Mausoleum is once again ready to receive visitors.
- published: 16 Apr 2009
- views: 10650
- author: RussiaToday
Vladimir Lenin's funeral
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:40
- Updated: 06 Feb 2013
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin's_funeral
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
- published: 19 Jul 2011
- views: 10822
- author: 80omar80omar80
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_1
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 14774
- author: StalinLeninMao
For Lenin!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
Video footage of Vladimir Lenin w/ "Lenin Song"
http://wn.com/For_Lenin!
Video footage of Vladimir Lenin w/ "Lenin Song"
- published: 24 Mar 2008
- views: 65013
- author: Pravda1917
Vladimir Lenin Tribute
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
Don't forget to leave a like :) The song is Ei babam, a song about Lenin from the Soviet Socialist Republic of Turkmenistan. ☭ Related Links ☭ My Channel: www.youtube.com Soviet Music Playlist: www.youtube.com Tribute Video's Playlist: www.youtube.com My blog: criticalmarxism.blogspot.com My Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_Tribute
Don't forget to leave a like :) The song is Ei babam, a song about Lenin from the Soviet Socialist Republic of Turkmenistan. ☭ Related Links ☭ My Channel: www.youtube.com Soviet Music Playlist: www.youtube.com Tribute Video's Playlist: www.youtube.com My blog: criticalmarxism.blogspot.com My Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 14 Jul 2012
- views: 826
- author: CommunistWarrior1917
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_2
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 5789
- author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 04 Jun 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_3
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 4031
- author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 4)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 25 Jul 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_4
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 3254
- author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin speech - The 3rd Communist International
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
www.georgegalloway.com
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_speech_The_3rd_Communist_International
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:03
- Updated: 02 Feb 2013
Walter Sobchak in The Big Lebowski. I am the walrus.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Ilyich_Ulyanov!
Walter Sobchak in The Big Lebowski. I am the walrus.
- published: 24 Apr 2008
- views: 78712
- author: executedtoday
Another Great Man VI Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:48
- Updated: 01 Feb 2013
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tribute to all the great things he did for the working people!
http://wn.com/Another_Great_Man_VI_Lenin
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tribute to all the great things he did for the working people!
- published: 28 Jan 2009
- views: 2091
- author: LadyScorpio981
"The State and Revolution" by VI Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:09
- Updated: 03 Feb 2013
An Interpretation of Lenin's Classic Work on the Nature of the State. Fight Imperialism - Stand Together www.fistyouth.org Workers World Newspaper http Caleb T. Maupin's Blog: www.calebmaupin.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/The_State_and_Revolution_by_VI_Lenin
An Interpretation of Lenin's Classic Work on the Nature of the State. Fight Imperialism - Stand Together www.fistyouth.org Workers World Newspaper http Caleb T. Maupin's Blog: www.calebmaupin.blogspot.com
- published: 11 Nov 2008
- views: 2436
- author: Caleb Maupin
The Real Vladimir Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:53
- Updated: 24 May 2012
You might need to adjust your volume. This video deals with the Lenin era. #84 - Top Favorited (Today) - Education - Global (12/7/2008) #67 - Top Favorited (Today) - Education - Global (12/8/2008) Please subscribe to my YouTube channel and check out my blog. Blog: partisan-news.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/The_Real_Vladimir_Lenin
You might need to adjust your volume. This video deals with the Lenin era. #84 - Top Favorited (Today) - Education - Global (12/7/2008) #67 - Top Favorited (Today) - Education - Global (12/8/2008) Please subscribe to my YouTube channel and check out my blog. Blog: partisan-news.blogspot.com
- published: 07 Dec 2008
- views: 2959
- author: RedNickII
The Attempted Assassination of Vladimir Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 12 Sep 2012
On August 30, 1918, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, approached Lenin after he had spoken at a meeting and was on the way to his car. He had his foot on the running board. She called out to Lenin, who turned to answer. She immediately fired three shots hitting Lenin twice: one bullet, relatively harmless, lodged in the arm; the second round, more seriously entering at the juncture of Lenins jaw and neck, the third shot striking a woman who was talking with Lenin when the shooting began. Lenin fell to the ground, unconscious. He was taken to his apartment in the Kremlin, refusing to venture to a hospital since he believed that other assassins would be waiting there. Doctors were summoned but decided that it was too dangerous to remove the bullets. Lenins health declined from this point. It is believed by some that the incident contributed to his later strokes.
http://wn.com/The_Attempted_Assassination_of_Vladimir_Lenin
On August 30, 1918, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, approached Lenin after he had spoken at a meeting and was on the way to his car. He had his foot on the running board. She called out to Lenin, who turned to answer. She immediately fired three shots hitting Lenin twice: one bullet, relatively harmless, lodged in the arm; the second round, more seriously entering at the juncture of Lenins jaw and neck, the third shot striking a woman who was talking with Lenin when the shooting began. Lenin fell to the ground, unconscious. He was taken to his apartment in the Kremlin, refusing to venture to a hospital since he believed that other assassins would be waiting there. Doctors were summoned but decided that it was too dangerous to remove the bullets. Lenins health declined from this point. It is believed by some that the incident contributed to his later strokes.
- published: 17 Nov 2008
- views: 15179
- author: WorldsAssassinations
My Lenin Tribute Video(The sacred Lenin Banner)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:25
- Updated: 22 Jan 2013
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner
http://wn.com/My_Lenin_Tribute_VideoThe_sacred_Lenin_Banner
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner
- published: 29 Nov 2007
- views: 23547
- author: wickedmione
Vladimir Lenin speech - Anti-semitism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:21
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
www.georgegalloway.com
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_speech_Anti-semitism
Vladimir Lenin's funeral
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:52
- Updated: 19 Jul 2011
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin's_funeral
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
- published: 19 Jul 2011
- views: 1162
- author: 80omar80omar80
![Great Russian Rap Battle - Alexey Navalny vs Vladimir Lenin [eng subtitles]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130228062419im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/qCgyOIgBjCI/default.jpg "Great Russian Rap Battle - Alexey Navalny vs Vladimir Lenin [eng subtitles]")
Great Russian Rap Battle - Alexey Navalny vs Vladimir Lenin [eng subtitles]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:31
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
It's Russian version "Epic Rap Battles of History" by spasiboeva.ru In this battle fight russian lawyer, blogger and oppositionist Alexey Navalny and father of russian communism grandpa Lenin ____ about sheep video where Navalny says his supporters "What stood like sheep fucking in mouth?" www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Great_Russian_Rap_Battle_Alexey_Navalny_vs_Vladimir_Lenin_eng_subtitles_
It's Russian version "Epic Rap Battles of History" by spasiboeva.ru In this battle fight russian lawyer, blogger and oppositionist Alexey Navalny and father of russian communism grandpa Lenin ____ about sheep video where Navalny says his supporters "What stood like sheep fucking in mouth?" www.youtube.com
- published: 10 Jul 2012
- views: 1529
- author: quest7zero
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Biography of "The Great"Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:29
- Updated: 27 Feb 2013
[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 74K views, I hope you all enjoy this video! Gaming channel:www.youtube.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter:twitter.com
http://wn.com/Biography_of_The_GreatVladimir_Lenin_Voice_of_Revolution
[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 74K views, I hope you all enjoy this video! Gaming channel:www.youtube.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter:twitter.com
- published: 04 Dec 2011
- views: 76237
- author: ComradFish
The Great Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 43:27
- Updated: 27 Feb 2013
Educational. Please Enjoy and Subscribe. Thanks!
http://wn.com/The_Great_Vladimir_Lenin_Voice_of_Revolution
Educational. Please Enjoy and Subscribe. Thanks!
- published: 27 Dec 2012
- views: 435
- author: peachythoughts
(Part 1) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Education" - 2/9/08
http://wn.com/Part_1_Lenin_Revolutionary_Documentary
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Education" - 2/9/08
- published: 09 Feb 2008
- views: 250797
- author: Comradeunity
VI Lenin on Anti-Semitism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 22 Feb 2013
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews
http://wn.com/VI_Lenin_on_Anti-Semitism
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews
- published: 09 Jan 2009
- views: 20655
- author: MARXtheCOMRADE
Meeting Hitler and Lenin: George Seldes Interview, American Investigative Journalist
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 148:53
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
George Seldes (/ˈsɛldəs/ SEL-dəs[aa]; November 16, 1890 in Alliance Colony, New Jersey -- July 2, 1995 in Windsor, Vermont) was an American investigative journalist and media critic. The writer and critic Gilbert Seldes was his younger brother. Actress Marian Seldes is his niece. Influenced by Lincoln Steffens, his career began when he was nineteen years old and was hired at the Pittsburgh Leader. In 1914, he was appointed night editor of the Pittsburgh Post. In 1916, he went to the United Press in London and, starting in 1917, during World War I, he moved to France to work at the Marshall Syndicate. While there, he interviewed Paul von Hindenburg, the supreme commander of the German Army. Hindenburg commented on the defeat of Germany in the war, including US involvement; however this interview was censored by the US military. Seldes would later comment that the publishing of this interview could have avoided the rising of the Nazis to power and, thus, World War II. After World War I, he spent ten years as a reporter for the Chicago Tribune. In 1922, he interviewed Vladimir Lenin and, in 1923, got expelled from the Soviet Union, along with three colleagues, for disguising news reports as personal letters; a letter his publisher wrote for the Soviets only facilitated his expulsion. The newspaper then sent him to Italy, where he reported on opposition leader Giacomo Matteotti's murder, implicated Benito Mussolini in Matteotti's death, and was again expelled. In 1927, he ...
http://wn.com/Meeting_Hitler_and_Lenin_George_Seldes_Interview,_American_Investigative_Journalist
George Seldes (/ˈsɛldəs/ SEL-dəs[aa]; November 16, 1890 in Alliance Colony, New Jersey -- July 2, 1995 in Windsor, Vermont) was an American investigative journalist and media critic. The writer and critic Gilbert Seldes was his younger brother. Actress Marian Seldes is his niece. Influenced by Lincoln Steffens, his career began when he was nineteen years old and was hired at the Pittsburgh Leader. In 1914, he was appointed night editor of the Pittsburgh Post. In 1916, he went to the United Press in London and, starting in 1917, during World War I, he moved to France to work at the Marshall Syndicate. While there, he interviewed Paul von Hindenburg, the supreme commander of the German Army. Hindenburg commented on the defeat of Germany in the war, including US involvement; however this interview was censored by the US military. Seldes would later comment that the publishing of this interview could have avoided the rising of the Nazis to power and, thus, World War II. After World War I, he spent ten years as a reporter for the Chicago Tribune. In 1922, he interviewed Vladimir Lenin and, in 1923, got expelled from the Soviet Union, along with three colleagues, for disguising news reports as personal letters; a letter his publisher wrote for the Soviets only facilitated his expulsion. The newspaper then sent him to Italy, where he reported on opposition leader Giacomo Matteotti's murder, implicated Benito Mussolini in Matteotti's death, and was again expelled. In 1927, he ...
- published: 19 Jun 2012
- views: 632
- author: thefilmarchives
Biography - Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:00
- Updated: 20 Feb 2013
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl Marx, and in this documentary, viewers are given an in-depth portrait of the life of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Originally shown as part of A&E;'s acclaimed Biography cable series, Biography: Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution was released by New Video. ~ Matthew Tobey, Rovi
http://wn.com/Biography_Vladimir_Lenin_Voice_of_Revolution_Part_1
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl Marx, and in this documentary, viewers are given an in-depth portrait of the life of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Originally shown as part of A&E;'s acclaimed Biography cable series, Biography: Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution was released by New Video. ~ Matthew Tobey, Rovi
- published: 08 Nov 2011
- views: 6560
- author: EurasianUnion
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_1
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 14834
- author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 26 Feb 2013
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on your computer in order to hear the music. Again, I apologize. My video to the first Soviet Leader, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known by his alias "Lenin". Includes a brief background of the man, as well as video and examples of socialist realism.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on your computer in order to hear the music. Again, I apologize. My video to the first Soviet Leader, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known by his alias "Lenin". Includes a brief background of the man, as well as video and examples of socialist realism.
- published: 09 Dec 2007
- views: 47165
- author: Comradeunity
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_2
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 5825
- author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 04 Jun 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_3
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 4045
- author: StalinLeninMao
Lenin still pulling crowds at 139
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:51
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maintenance work. Amid calls to relocate the Soviet leaders remains, Lenins Mausoleum is once again ready to receive visitors.
http://wn.com/Lenin_still_pulling_crowds_at_139
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maintenance work. Amid calls to relocate the Soviet leaders remains, Lenins Mausoleum is once again ready to receive visitors.
- published: 16 Apr 2009
- views: 10740
- author: RussiaToday
"Jesus was the first communist"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:53
- Updated: 26 Feb 2013
Despite attempts to erase vestiges of the Soviet past, the Communist Party in Russia still has support. On the anniversary of the birth of its founder, Vladimir Lenin, RT talks to its current leader, Gennady Zyuganov.
http://wn.com/Jesus_was_the_first_communist
Despite attempts to erase vestiges of the Soviet past, the Communist Party in Russia still has support. On the anniversary of the birth of its founder, Vladimir Lenin, RT talks to its current leader, Gennady Zyuganov.
- published: 22 Apr 2009
- views: 22453
- author: RussiaToday
Vladimir Lenin's funeral
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:52
- Updated: 17 Feb 2013
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin's_funeral
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
- published: 19 Jul 2011
- views: 1212
- author: 80omar80omar80
Vladimir Lenin Biography
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:44
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin 1870 - 1924 www.cloudbiography.com Vladimir Lenin was a Russian communist revolutionary.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_Biography
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin 1870 - 1924 www.cloudbiography.com Vladimir Lenin was a Russian communist revolutionary.
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 782
- author: TheCloudBiography
My Lenin Tribute Video(The sacred Lenin Banner)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:25
- Updated: 17 Feb 2013
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner
http://wn.com/My_Lenin_Tribute_VideoThe_sacred_Lenin_Banner
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner
- published: 29 Nov 2007
- views: 23637
- author: wickedmione
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 4)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 25 Jul 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_A_Great_Revolutionary_part_4
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 3280
- author: StalinLeninMao
Another Great Man VI Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:48
- Updated: 01 Feb 2013
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tribute to all the great things he did for the working people!
http://wn.com/Another_Great_Man_VI_Lenin
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tribute to all the great things he did for the working people!
- published: 28 Jan 2009
- views: 2099
- author: LadyScorpio981
Vladimir Lenin on Anti-semitism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:21
- Updated: 22 Sep 2012
"Anti-Semitism means spreading enmity towards the Jews. When the accursed tsarist monarchy was living its last days it tried to incite ignorant workers and peasants against the Jews. The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organized pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and the capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews. In other countries, too, we often see the capitalists fomenting hatred against the Jews in order to blind the workers, to divert their attention from the real enemy of the working people, capital. Hatred towards the Jews persists only in those countries where slavery to the landowners and capitalists has created abysmal ignorance among the workers and peasants. Only the most ignorant and downtrodden people can believe the lies and slander that are spread about the Jews. This is a survival of ancient feudal times, when the priests burned heretics at the stake, when the peasants lived in slavery, and when the people were crushed and inarticulate. This ancient, feudal ignorance is passing away; the eyes of the people are being opened. It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism. Among the Jews ...
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin_on_Anti-semitism
"Anti-Semitism means spreading enmity towards the Jews. When the accursed tsarist monarchy was living its last days it tried to incite ignorant workers and peasants against the Jews. The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organized pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and the capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews. In other countries, too, we often see the capitalists fomenting hatred against the Jews in order to blind the workers, to divert their attention from the real enemy of the working people, capital. Hatred towards the Jews persists only in those countries where slavery to the landowners and capitalists has created abysmal ignorance among the workers and peasants. Only the most ignorant and downtrodden people can believe the lies and slander that are spread about the Jews. This is a survival of ancient feudal times, when the priests burned heretics at the stake, when the peasants lived in slavery, and when the people were crushed and inarticulate. This ancient, feudal ignorance is passing away; the eyes of the people are being opened. It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism. Among the Jews ...
- published: 22 Jun 2008
- views: 6658
- author: Ejniz
The Attempted Assassination of Vladimir Lenin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 12 Sep 2012
On August 30, 1918, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, approached Lenin after he had spoken at a meeting and was on the way to his car. He had his foot on the running board. She called out to Lenin, who turned to answer. She immediately fired three shots hitting Lenin twice: one bullet, relatively harmless, lodged in the arm; the second round, more seriously entering at the juncture of Lenins jaw and neck, the third shot striking a woman who was talking with Lenin when the shooting began. Lenin fell to the ground, unconscious. He was taken to his apartment in the Kremlin, refusing to venture to a hospital since he believed that other assassins would be waiting there. Doctors were summoned but decided that it was too dangerous to remove the bullets. Lenins health declined from this point. It is believed by some that the incident contributed to his later strokes.
http://wn.com/The_Attempted_Assassination_of_Vladimir_Lenin
On August 30, 1918, Fanya Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, approached Lenin after he had spoken at a meeting and was on the way to his car. He had his foot on the running board. She called out to Lenin, who turned to answer. She immediately fired three shots hitting Lenin twice: one bullet, relatively harmless, lodged in the arm; the second round, more seriously entering at the juncture of Lenins jaw and neck, the third shot striking a woman who was talking with Lenin when the shooting began. Lenin fell to the ground, unconscious. He was taken to his apartment in the Kremlin, refusing to venture to a hospital since he believed that other assassins would be waiting there. Doctors were summoned but decided that it was too dangerous to remove the bullets. Lenins health declined from this point. It is believed by some that the incident contributed to his later strokes.
- published: 17 Nov 2008
- views: 15278
- author: WorldsAssassinations
(Part 2) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
PLEASE READ: Sorry about not having this up earlier, I had little idea that it wasn't working originally. So I deleted that video and put this one in its place. Hopefully it works! Part 2 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
http://wn.com/Part_2_Lenin_Revolutionary_Documentary
PLEASE READ: Sorry about not having this up earlier, I had little idea that it wasn't working originally. So I deleted that video and put this one in its place. Hopefully it works! Part 2 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
- published: 27 Mar 2008
- views: 74246
- author: Comradeunity
(Part 3) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
Part 3 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
http://wn.com/Part_3_Lenin_Revolutionary_Documentary
Part 3 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
- published: 21 Feb 2008
- views: 57673
- author: Comradeunity
(Part 4) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:44
- Updated: 18 Feb 2013
Part 4 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
http://wn.com/Part_4_Lenin_Revolutionary_Documentary
Part 4 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin.
- published: 22 Feb 2008
- views: 42968
- author: Comradeunity
Biography - Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:01
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/Biography_Vladimir_Lenin_Voice_of_Revolution_Part_2
44:29
Biography of "The Great"Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution
[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 74K views, I hope you all enjoy...
published: 04 Dec 2011
author: ComradFish
Biography of "The Great"Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution
[Subscribe and become a Comrade today!] Thanks you for the 74K views, I hope you all enjoy this video! Gaming channel:www.youtube.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter:twitter.com
- published: 04 Dec 2011
- views: 76237
- author: ComradFish
43:27
The Great Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution
Educational. Please Enjoy and Subscribe. Thanks!...
published: 27 Dec 2012
author: peachythoughts
The Great Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution
Educational. Please Enjoy and Subscribe. Thanks!
- published: 27 Dec 2012
- views: 435
- author: peachythoughts
9:53
(Part 1) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Educa...
published: 09 Feb 2008
author: Comradeunity
(Part 1) Lenin: Revolutionary - Documentary
Part 1 to a documentary about Vladimir Lenin. Honors: "#70 - Top Favorites (Today) - Education" - 2/9/08
- published: 09 Feb 2008
- views: 250797
- author: Comradeunity
2:28
VI Lenin on Anti-Semitism
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews...
published: 09 Jan 2009
author: MARXtheCOMRADE
VI Lenin on Anti-Semitism
Vladimir I. Lenin on anti-semitism and his view of capitalist jews
- published: 09 Jan 2009
- views: 20655
- author: MARXtheCOMRADE
148:53
Meeting Hitler and Lenin: George Seldes Interview, American Investigative Journalist
George Seldes (/ˈsɛldəs/ SEL-dəs[aa]; November 16, 1890 in Alliance Colony, New Jersey -- ...
published: 19 Jun 2012
author: thefilmarchives
Meeting Hitler and Lenin: George Seldes Interview, American Investigative Journalist
George Seldes (/ˈsɛldəs/ SEL-dəs[aa]; November 16, 1890 in Alliance Colony, New Jersey -- July 2, 1995 in Windsor, Vermont) was an American investigative journalist and media critic. The writer and critic Gilbert Seldes was his younger brother. Actress Marian Seldes is his niece. Influenced by Lincoln Steffens, his career began when he was nineteen years old and was hired at the Pittsburgh Leader. In 1914, he was appointed night editor of the Pittsburgh Post. In 1916, he went to the United Press in London and, starting in 1917, during World War I, he moved to France to work at the Marshall Syndicate. While there, he interviewed Paul von Hindenburg, the supreme commander of the German Army. Hindenburg commented on the defeat of Germany in the war, including US involvement; however this interview was censored by the US military. Seldes would later comment that the publishing of this interview could have avoided the rising of the Nazis to power and, thus, World War II. After World War I, he spent ten years as a reporter for the Chicago Tribune. In 1922, he interviewed Vladimir Lenin and, in 1923, got expelled from the Soviet Union, along with three colleagues, for disguising news reports as personal letters; a letter his publisher wrote for the Soviets only facilitated his expulsion. The newspaper then sent him to Italy, where he reported on opposition leader Giacomo Matteotti's murder, implicated Benito Mussolini in Matteotti's death, and was again expelled. In 1927, he ...
- published: 19 Jun 2012
- views: 632
- author: thefilmarchives
15:00
Biography - Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution Part 1
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl M...
published: 08 Nov 2011
author: EurasianUnion
Biography - Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution Part 1
His name is as synonymous with the ideals of Communism as the philosophy's founder, Karl Marx, and in this documentary, viewers are given an in-depth portrait of the life of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Originally shown as part of A&E;'s acclaimed Biography cable series, Biography: Vladimir Lenin - Voice of Revolution was released by New Video. ~ Matthew Tobey, Rovi
- published: 08 Nov 2011
- views: 6560
- author: EurasianUnion
9:53
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 1)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Re...
published: 18 May 2008
author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 1)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part one of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 14834
- author: StalinLeninMao
4:01
Vladimir Lenin
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on...
published: 09 Dec 2007
author: Comradeunity
Vladimir Lenin
EDIT: Sorry about the volume, for some reason you have to have the maximum volume level on your computer in order to hear the music. Again, I apologize. My video to the first Soviet Leader, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known by his alias "Lenin". Includes a brief background of the man, as well as video and examples of socialist realism.
- published: 09 Dec 2007
- views: 47165
- author: Comradeunity
9:36
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 2)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Re...
published: 18 May 2008
author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 2)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part two of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 5825
- author: StalinLeninMao
9:45
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 3)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October ...
published: 18 May 2008
author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 3)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part three of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 4045
- author: StalinLeninMao
2:51
Lenin still pulling crowds at 139
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maint...
published: 16 Apr 2009
author: RussiaToday
Lenin still pulling crowds at 139
Vladimir Lenins tomb is reopening on the weekend before his birthday after months of maintenance work. Amid calls to relocate the Soviet leaders remains, Lenins Mausoleum is once again ready to receive visitors.
- published: 16 Apr 2009
- views: 10740
- author: RussiaToday
12:53
"Jesus was the first communist"
Despite attempts to erase vestiges of the Soviet past, the Communist Party in Russia still...
published: 22 Apr 2009
author: RussiaToday
"Jesus was the first communist"
Despite attempts to erase vestiges of the Soviet past, the Communist Party in Russia still has support. On the anniversary of the birth of its founder, Vladimir Lenin, RT talks to its current leader, Gennady Zyuganov.
- published: 22 Apr 2009
- views: 22453
- author: RussiaToday
0:52
Vladimir Lenin's funeral
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)...
published: 19 Jul 2011
author: 80omar80omar80
Vladimir Lenin's funeral
Vladimir Lenin's funeral (22 April 1870 -- 21 January 1924)
- published: 19 Jul 2011
- views: 1212
- author: 80omar80omar80
1:44
Vladimir Lenin Biography
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin 1870 - 1924 www.cloudbiography.com Vladimir Lenin was a Russian comm...
published: 03 Oct 2012
author: TheCloudBiography
Vladimir Lenin Biography
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin 1870 - 1924 www.cloudbiography.com Vladimir Lenin was a Russian communist revolutionary.
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 782
- author: TheCloudBiography
Vimeo results:
0:26
Revolutionary quote by Vladimir Lenin
A typography movie made in a school project at OCAD.
Theme: revolution.
Soundtrack: The...
published: 24 Mar 2011
author: Maren R Gyllenhammar
Revolutionary quote by Vladimir Lenin
A typography movie made in a school project at OCAD.
Theme: revolution.
Soundtrack: The Red Army Choir
Graphic design and editing: Maren G Raaum
26:15
Looking for Vladimir Lenin at Moscow apartments
2012 Project Document Video 26min 14sec
Despite the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 ther...
published: 01 May 2012
author: yoshinoriniwa
Looking for Vladimir Lenin at Moscow apartments
2012 Project Document Video 26min 14sec
Despite the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 there still remain in many homes in Moscow, the images of Vladimir Lenin. Visiting to ordinary homes around Moscow, Niwa searched for portraits, photos, propaganda posters, newspaper articles, flags, badges and many other objects, collecting these materials and exhibiting them in the gallery. Searching homes in a manner which may be likened to the KGB, the dialogue and negotiation with ordinary citizens comes to depict the memory of the former Soviet Union within contemporary Russia.
3:40
Gaza-solidaritet, Stockholm, 2009-01-10"
published: 11 Jan 2009
author: Vladimir Lenin
Gaza-solidaritet, Stockholm, 2009-01-10"
0:09
GINGIVITIS
ECLECTIC/GRIEF - GINGIVITIS...
published: 11 Jun 2010
author: vladimir lenin
GINGIVITIS
ECLECTIC/GRIEF - GINGIVITIS
Youtube results:
2:25
My Lenin Tribute Video(The sacred Lenin Banner)
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner...
published: 29 Nov 2007
author: wickedmione
My Lenin Tribute Video(The sacred Lenin Banner)
Images Of VI lenin, And a few other Soviet-Era Images. Music: The sacred Lenin Banner
- published: 29 Nov 2007
- views: 23637
- author: wickedmione
9:45
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 4)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October R...
published: 18 May 2008
author: StalinLeninMao
Vladimir Lenin: A Great Revolutionary (part 4)
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Part four of a documentary on the great leader of the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War.
- published: 18 May 2008
- views: 3280
- author: StalinLeninMao
3:48
Another Great Man VI Lenin
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tr...
published: 28 Jan 2009
author: LadyScorpio981
Another Great Man VI Lenin
I felt that I should make this video about another great man Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. And tribute to all the great things he did for the working people!
- published: 28 Jan 2009
- views: 2099
- author: LadyScorpio981
2:21
Vladimir Lenin on Anti-semitism
"Anti-Semitism means spreading enmity towards the Jews. When the accursed tsarist monarchy...
published: 22 Jun 2008
author: Ejniz
Vladimir Lenin on Anti-semitism
"Anti-Semitism means spreading enmity towards the Jews. When the accursed tsarist monarchy was living its last days it tried to incite ignorant workers and peasants against the Jews. The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organized pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and the capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews. In other countries, too, we often see the capitalists fomenting hatred against the Jews in order to blind the workers, to divert their attention from the real enemy of the working people, capital. Hatred towards the Jews persists only in those countries where slavery to the landowners and capitalists has created abysmal ignorance among the workers and peasants. Only the most ignorant and downtrodden people can believe the lies and slander that are spread about the Jews. This is a survival of ancient feudal times, when the priests burned heretics at the stake, when the peasants lived in slavery, and when the people were crushed and inarticulate. This ancient, feudal ignorance is passing away; the eyes of the people are being opened. It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism. Among the Jews ...
- published: 22 Jun 2008
- views: 6658
- author: Ejniz
photo: Creative Commons / John Harrison
25 Feb 2013
Just like Angelina Jolie's right leg last year, Oscar-winner Anne Hathaway's apparently 'alert' nipples inspired their own Twitter account and a flurry of cheeky hashtags last night. BY Bibby Sowray . 25 February 2013. Anne Hathaway's seemingly pointy nipples attracted a lot of attention. Photo. Getty. Poor Anne Hathaway, she's not been served well by fashion of late ... Related articles. Oscars 2013 fashion. red carpet hits and misses ... Photo ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
photo: AP / Mary Altaffer
26 Feb 2013
Jesus Diaz - . Scientists have found proof of a sunken continent in the Indian Ocean. According to a study published in Nature Geoscience, the continent “was separated from Madagascar and fragmented into a ribbon-like configuration by a series of mid-ocean ridge jumps during the opening of the Mascarene ocean basin.”. Its name is not Atlantis, though ... [Nature Geoscience via BBC News]. Image by Shutterstock ... Related Posts ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
photo: Russian Presidential Press and Information Office
27 Feb 2013
Russian President Vladimir Putin told the country's top brass on Wednesday to drastically upgrade the armed forces in the next few years as part of response to attempts by the United States and NATO to "tip the strategic balance" in the world. In his address to Russia's defense ministry and top military officials, Putin said Russia is witnessing "insistent attempts" to change that balance and complained about U.S ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
photo: USAF / Tech. Sgt. Effrain Lopez
26 Feb 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. During the 19th and early 20th centuries developments in technology vastly transformed warfare. The age of machine guns, steam-powered battle ships, and tanks replaced the era of flintlock muskets, sailing wooden ships, and cannonballs. But these new and more lethal innovations also altered humanity and political systems ... World War I and II ... They will subversively disrupt entire societies....(size: 4.8Kb)
photo: AP / Ibrahim Zayed
26 Feb 2013
Updated. February 26, 2013 8.35AM. LUXOR, Egypt — A hot air balloon flying over Egypt’s ancient city of Luxor caught fire and crashed into a sugar cane field on Tuesday, killing at least 19 foreign tourists in one of the world’s deadliest ballooning accidents and handing a new blow to Egypt’s ailing tourism industry ... The balloon then shot up in the air, the investigator said ... The security official said all 18 bodies have been recovered ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)
Novosti
22 Feb 2013
“The parallels are astounding,” said Vladimir Sazhin, ... The late Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and his incumbent successor Ali Khamenei look out from every street and every administrative office in Tehran, from billboards and portraits – exactly like Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin and Leonid Brezhnev in the late Soviet Union....(size: 2.3Kb)
Huffington Post
20 Feb 2013
Whether you pulled the lever for Obama or Romney may reflect how your brain copes with risk, new research finds ... By. Stephanie Pappas, LiveScience Senior Writer. Published ... The politics of risk ... 'Dr ... Dr ... Dr ... Einstein wasn't the only great thinker whose brain was removed for study--the same is true for Vladimir Lenin and mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. This April 16, 1997 file photo shows Lenin embalmed in his tomb on Moscow's Red Square ... ....(size: 8.5Kb)
The Washington Times
17 Feb 2013
NEW YORK, February 18, 2013 - The positive message that carried the 2012 national election for Barack Obama and Joe Biden was simple. “Osama bin Laden is dead and General Motors is alive”. Now we know the slogan that swayed 65.4 million Obama-Biden voters is one part false premise, the other part whopping lie ... The Problem with False Premises ... Vladimir Lenin explained how the press can become a key tool in spreading lies ... RSS ....(size: 10.2Kb)
Novosti
16 Feb 2013
KIEV, February 16 (RIA Novosti) – Police in Ukraine have opened a criminal case against nationalist activists who dismantled a statue of Bolshevik revolution leader Vladimir Lenin in the ......(size: 1.0Kb)
China Daily
15 Feb 2013
An off-beat church aims to find common thread in world religions. Erik Nilsson reports in Tay Ninh, Vietnam. Sun Yat-sen, Laozi and Buddha are venerated by most Chinese but worshiped by Vietnamese Cao Daists - along with Jesus, Mohammad, Pericles, Joan of Arc, Louis Pasteur, Vladimir Lenin, William Shakespeare and Victor Hugo. That's not to mention practitioners' ancestors ... As the religion's official website puts it....(size: 4.5Kb)
San Francisco Chronicle
12 Feb 2013
FED. Chair denies tighter policy. Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke says the end of the central bank's bond buying won't constitute a move toward tighter policy ... Bernanke said Dec ... GOLD ... When Vladimir Putin says the U.S ... He's betting on it ... Gold, coveted by Russian rulers including Czar Nicholas II and the Bolshevik leader whose forces assassinated him, Vladimir Lenin, has soared almost 400 percent in the period of Putin's purchases ... ....(size: 4.8Kb)
Sacramento Bee
11 Feb 2013
ATLANTA - Conventional wisdom says it's futile to try to figure out why a couple of seemingly ill-fit people stay together ... Because he had been in Europe during Lenin's rise to power, Communist ideals had begun to shape Rivera's world view (and that of many artists of the period) ... This was one such project, but when Rivera inserted a picture of Vladimir Lenin in the mural and refused to remove it, Rockefeller had it destroyed ... Feb ... Feb....(size: 13.9Kb)
Bloomberg
10 Feb 2013
When Vladimir Putin says the U.S ... He’s betting on it ... Gold, coveted by Russian rulers including Tsar Nicholas II and the Bolshevik leader whose forces assassinated him, Vladimir Lenin, has soared almost 400 percent in the period of Putin’s purchases ... Moscow time on Feb. 8 ... 8 report. The U.S ... Lenin’s revolutionary government reinstated the gold link along with a new currency in 1922 ... When Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd, as St ... ....(size: 9.7Kb)
Houston Chronicle
05 Feb 2013
By LINDSEY TANNER, AP Medical Writer . February 5, 2013. Comments (0) E-mail Print. Tweet. Page 1 of 1. CHICAGO (AP) — Any fan of Laura Ingalls Wilder's beloved "Little House" books knows how the author's sister Mary went blind. scarlet fever ... It's caused by the same germ that causes strep throat ... Others subjected to revisionists' microscope include Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, composer Wolfgang Mozart and Abraham Lincoln ... ___. Online. ... ___ ... ....(size: 16.4Kb)
Ohio
04 Feb 2013
CHICAGO. Any fan of Laura Ingalls Wilder’s beloved Little House books knows how the author’s sister Mary went blind. scarlet fever. But turns out that probably wasn’t the cause, medical experts say, upending one of the more dramatic elements in the classic stories ... Others subjected to revisionists’ microscope include Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, composer Wolfgang Mozart and Abraham Lincoln ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
The Wichita Eagle
04 Feb 2013
CHICAGO — Any fan of Laura Ingalls Wilder's beloved "Little House" books knows how the author's sister Mary went blind. scarlet fever. But turns out that probably wasn't the cause, medical experts say, upending one of the more dramatic elements in the classic stories ... Others subjected to revisionists' microscope include Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, composer Wolfgang Mozart and Abraham Lincoln ... ---. Online.. Pediatrics....(size: 3.4Kb)
Fox News
04 Feb 2013
Any fan of Laura Ingalls Wilder's beloved "Little House" books knows how the author's sister Mary went blind. scarlet fever. But turns out that probably wasn't the cause, medical experts say, upending one of the more dramatic elements in the classic stories ... Her study appears online Monday in Pediatrics ... Others subjected to revisionists' microscope include Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, composer Wolfgang Mozart and Abraham Lincoln ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)
New York Daily News
04 Feb 2013
Any fan of Laura Ingalls Wilder's beloved "Little House" books knows how the author's sister Mary went blind. scarlet fever. But turns out that probably wasn't the cause, medical experts say, upending one of the more dramatic elements in the classic stories ... PHOTOS ... WHERE ARE THEY NOW? ... Others subjected to revisionists' microscope include Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, composer Wolfgang Mozart and Abraham Lincoln ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
"Lenin" redirects here. For other uses, see Lenin (disambiguation).
| Vladimir Lenin | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 30 December 1922 – 21 January 1924 |
|
| Preceded by | Position created |
| Succeeded by | Alexey Rykov |
| Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR | |
| In office 8 November 1917 – 21 January 1924 |
|
| Preceded by | Position created |
| Succeeded by | Alexey Rykov |
| Informal leader of the Russian Communist Party | |
| In office 17 November 1903 – 21 January 1924 |
|
| Preceded by | Position created |
| Succeeded by | Joseph Stalin (as General Secretary) |
| Full member of the Politburo | |
| In office 25 March 1919 – 21 January 1924 |
|
| Personal details | |
| Born | Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov
(Russian: Владимир Ильич Ульянов) |
| Died | 21 January 1924(1924-01-21) (aged 53) (stroke) Gorki, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union |
| Resting place | Lenin's Mausoleum, Moscow, Russian Federation |
| Nationality | Soviet Russian |
| Political party | Russian Social Democratic Labour Party Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) |
| Spouse(s) | Nadezhda Krupskaya (1898–1924) |
| Profession | Lawyer, revolutionary, politician |
| Religion | None (atheist) |
| Signature |  |
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ленин; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr ɪlʲˈjitɕ ˈlʲenʲɪn] ( listen); 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary, intellectual and politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years (1917–1924), as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a socialist economic system.
As a politician, Lenin was a persuasive and charismatic orator. As an intellectual his extensive theoretic and philosophical developments of Marxism produced Marxism–Leninism, a pragmatic Russian application of Marxism that emphasized the critical role played by a committed and disciplined political vanguard in the revolutionary process, while defending the possibility of a socialist revolution in less advanced capitalist countries through an alliance of the proletarians with the rural peasantry.[1]
Early life and background[link]
Lenin was born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ульянов) on 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. Simbirsk, a rural town on the River Volga nearly 1,500 miles from the capital Saint Petersburg, would be renamed upon Ulyanov's death fifty-four years later as "Ulyanovsk" in his honour. That same year, Saint Petersburg itself would be renamed Leningrad after Ulyanov's better-known cadre name.
File:Lenin Age 4.jpg
"Volodya", aged three
Lenin's parents were Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova, a schoolteacher, and Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, a government education official. Lenin was baptised on 28 April [O.S. 16 April] 1870 at the local church of St. Nicholas into the Russian Orthodox Church.[2](p4)[3](p35)
Lenin came from a diverse ancestry. He was of Christian Russian, Tatar, German, and Swedish descent, while his maternal grandfather may have descended from the Jewish Blank family.[4] Lenin is also believed to have had Kalmyk ancestry on his father's side.[5][6]
Lenin was born into a comfortable middle-class family. Lenin's father Ilya was elevated into the Russian nobility for his work in the government bureaucracy, and, after being appointed director of Simbirsk's primary schools in 1874, was entitled to wear a blue gold-embroidered uniform and be addressed as "Your Excellency".[7] Although later Soviet biographies tried to disguise his background, Lenin himself never made any effort to hide the fact that he was a nobleman by birth.[5] Lenin argued explicitly in one of his most famous works What Is To Be Done? that intellectuals from "bourgeois" backgrounds have a vital revolutionary role to play bringing political ideas to the working-class movement: "By their social status the founders of modern scientific socialism, Marx and Engels, themselves belonged to the bourgeois intelligentsia."[8]
Athletically, Lenin was a good swimmer and ice skater, and later attended the Simbirsk Men's Gymnasium which was headed by the father of Alexander Kerensky and graduated in 1887 with a gold medal.
Being of the intelligentsia, the Ulyanovs educated their children (all of which except one become revolutionaries[9]) against the ills of their time (violations of human rights, servile psychology, etc.), and instilled a readiness in them to struggle for higher ideals, a free society, and equal rights. Lenin in particular was impressed by his father’s descriptions of the "darkness" of life in the villages and of the arbitrary treatment of peasants by officials.[10] Lenin, an intelligent and conscientious student who loved playing chess, also became a voracious reader, enjoying the writings of Alexander Pushkin, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, and Nikolay Nekrasov.[10] Additionally, he read the works of protorevolutionary writers such as Vissarion Belinsky, Alexander Herzen, Dmitry Pisarev, and Nikolay Dobrolyubov.[10]
Brother's execution and radicalization[link]
Following his father's death from a brain hemorrhage in January 1886, a number of events contributed to Lenin's radicalization. In May 1887 (when Lenin was 17 years old), his eldest brother Aleksandr Ulyanov was hanged for participating in an assassination attempt against the Tsar, Alexander III (1881–94).[2](p16) His sister, Anna Ulyanova, who was arrested with his brother Aleksandr, was then banished to an Ulyanov family estate at Kokushkino, a village some 40 km (25 mi.) from Kazan. These events helped transform Lenin into a political radical. During this time, Lenin was also influenced by the writings of Georgi Plekhanov, and most importantly, Nikolay Chernyshevsky's 1863 novel What is to be Done?.[11]
Complementing these personal, emotional, and political upheavals was his matriculation, in August 1887, to the Kazan University, where he studied law and read the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[11] That Marxism-derived political development involved Lenin in a student riot, and subsequent arrest, in December 1887; Kazan University expelled him and the police authorities barred him from other universities. After this, he was under continuous police surveillance as the brother of a known terrorist.[3](p36) Nevertheless, he studied independently and earned a law degree; at that time, he first read Das Kapital (1867–94). Three years later, in 1890, he was permitted to study at the University of Saint Petersburg.[12] In January 1892, he was awarded a first class diploma in law;[2](p18) moreover, he was an intellectually distinguished student in the classical languages of Latin and Greek, and the modern languages of German, French, and English, but had only limited command of the latter two. In the 1917 revolutionary period, he relied upon Inessa Armand to translate an article of his into French and English; and wrote to S. N. Ravich in Geneva, "I am unable to lecture in French".[13]
Revolutionary[link]
Lenin practised law in the Volga River port of Samara for a few years, mostly land-ownership cases, from which he derived political insight to the Russian peasants' socio-economic condition;[14] in 1893, he moved to St Petersburg, and practised revolutionary propaganda. While in St. Petersburg in the spring of 1893, Lenin wrote his New Economic Developments in Peasant Life.[15] The subject of this papaer was an critique of V. Y. Postuikov's book, Peasant Farming in South Russia which had been published in 1891. Although read in 1893 to the Marxist circle or group from Samara, Russia to which Lenin belonged, this work was not actually, published until 1923.[16] In the autumn of 1893, Lenin wrote On the So-Called Market Question which was his first attempt to reveal the true capitalist nature of the peasant economy of Russia.[17]
Later In 1895, he founded the League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, the consolidation of the city's Marxist groups; as an embryonic revolutionary party, the League was active among the Russian labour organisations. On 7 December 1895, Lenin was arrested for plotting against Tsar Alexander III, and was then imprisoned for fourteen months in solitary confinement Cell 193 of the St. Petersburg Remand Prison.[18] In February 1897, he was exiled to eastern Siberia, to the village Shushenskoye in the Minusinsky District, Yenisei Gubernia. There, he met Georgy Plekhanov, the Marxist who introduced socialism to Russia. In July 1898, Lenin married the socialist activist Nadezhda Krupskaya, and, in April 1899, he published the book The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899), under the pseudonym of Vladimir Ilyin; one of the thirty theoretical works he wrote in exile.[18]
At the end of his exile in 1900, Lenin left Russia and lived in Munich (1900–1902), London (1902–1903)—where a memorial plaque at Percy Circus, King's Cross, WC1, marks his residence—and Geneva (1903–1905).[19] In 1900 he and Julius Martov (later a leading opponent) co-founded the newspaper Iskra (Spark), and published articles and books about revolutionary politics, whilst recruiting for the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which had held its first congress in 1898 whilst Lenin was still in exile in Siberia.[20] In such clandestine political work, Vladimir Ulyanov assumed aliases, and, in 1902, adopted Lenin as his definitive nom de guerre, derived from the Siberian Lena River.[3](p35)
In 1903, Lenin attended the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which initially convened at Brussels before moving to London. Here a longstanding ideological split developed within the party between the Bolshevik faction, led by Lenin, and the Menshevik faction, led by Martov. These terms "Bolshevik" (from the Russian bol'shinstvo meaning "majority") and "Menshevik" (from the Russian menshinstvo meaning "minority") derive from the narrow Bolshevik electoral defeat of the Mensheviks to the party's newspaper editorial board, and to central committee leadership.[2](pp60–1) The break partly originated from Lenin's book What Is to Be Done? (1902), which proposed a smaller party organisation of professional revolutionaries, with Iskra in a primary ideologic role. Another issue which divided the two factions was Lenin's support of a worker-peasant alliance to overthrow the Tsarist regime as opposed to the Menshevik's support of an alliance between the working classes and the liberal bourgeoisie to achieve the same aim (whilst a small third faction led by Trotsky espoused the view that the working class alone was the instrument of revolutionary change—needing no help from either the peasants or the middle classes).[21]
In November 1905, Lenin returned to Russia to support the 1905 Russian Revolution.[2](p81) In 1906, he was elected to the Presidium of the RSDLP; and shuttled between Finland and Russia, but resumed his exile in December 1907, after the Tsarist defeat of the revolution and after the scandal of the 1907 Tiflis bank robbery.[2](p81) Until the February and October revolutions of 1917, he lived in Western Europe, where, despite relative poverty, he developed Leninism—urban Marxism adapted to agrarian Russia reversing Karl Marx's economics–politics prescription to allow for a dynamic revolution led by a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries.[22][2](p86)
In 1909, to disambiguate philosophic doubts about the proper practical course of a socialist revolution, Lenin published Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), which became a philosophic foundation of Marxism-Leninism. Throughout exile, Lenin travelled Europe, participated in socialist activities, (the 1912 Prague Party Conference). When Inessa Armand left Russia for Paris, she met Lenin and other exiled Bolsheviks. Rumour has it she was Lenin's lover; yet historian Neil Harding notes that there is a "slender stock of evidence . . . we still have no evidence that they were sexually intimate".[23]
In 1914, when the First World War (1914–18) began, most of the mass Social Democratic parties of Europe supported their homelands' war effort. At first, Lenin disbelieved such political fickleness, especially that the Germans had voted for war credits; the Social Democrats' war-authorising votes broke Lenin's mainstream connection with the Second International (1889–1916). He opposed the Great War, because the peasants and workers would be fighting the bourgeoisie's "imperialist war"—one that ought be transformed to an international civil war, between the classes. At the beginning of the war, the Austrians briefly detained him in Poronin, his town of residence; on 5 September 1914 Lenin moved to neutral Switzerland, residing first at Bern, then at Zürich.[24]
In 1915, in Switzerland, at the anti-war Zimmerwald Conference, he led the Zimmerwald Left minority, who failed, against the majority pacifists, to achieve the conference's adopting Lenin's proposition of transforming the imperialist war into a class war. In the next conference (24–30 April 1916), at Kienthal, Lenin and the Zimmerwald Left presented a like resolution; but the conference concorded only a compromise manifesto.[2](pp132–4)
In the spring of 1916, in Zürich, Lenin wrote Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). In this work Lenin synthesised previous works on the subject by Karl Kautsky, John A. Hobson (Imperialism: A Study, 1902), and Rudolf Hilferding (Das Finanzkapital, 1910), and applied them to the new circumstances of the First World War (1914–18) fought between the German and the British empires—which exemplified the imperial capitalist competition, which was the thesis of his book. This thesis posited that the merging of banks and industrial cartels gave rise to finance capital—the basis of imperialism, the zenith of capitalism. To wit, in pursuing greater profits than the home market can offer, business exports capital, which, in turn, leads to the division of the world, among international, monopolist firms, and to European states colonising large parts of the world, in support of their businesses. Imperialism, thus, is an advanced stage of capitalism based upon the establishment of monopolies, and upon the exportation of capital (rather than goods), managed with a global financial system, of which colonialism is one feature.[25][26][2](pp116–26)
In accordance with this thesis, Lenin believed that Russia was being used as a tool of French and British capitalist imperialism in World War I and that its participation in the conflict was at the behest of those interests.[2](p144)
The February Revolution[link]
In February 1917 popular demonstrations in Russia provoked by the hardship of war forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. The monarchy was replaced by an uneasy political relationship between, on the one hand, a Provisional Government of parliamentary figures and, on the other, an array of "Soviets" (most prominently the Petrograd Soviet): revolutionary councils directly elected by workers, soldiers and peasants. Lenin was still in exile in Zurich.
Lenin was preparing to go to the Altstadt library after lunch on March 15 when a fellow exile, the Pole Mieczyslav Bronski, burst in to exclaim: "Haven't you heard the news? There's a revolution in Russia!" The next day Lenin wrote to Alexandra Kollontai in Stockholm, insisting on "revolutionary propaganda, agitation and struggle with the aim of an international proletarian revolution and for the conquest of power by the Soviets of Workers' Deputies". The next day: "Spread out! Rouse new sections! Awaken fresh initiative, form new organisations in every stratum and prove to them that peace can come only with the armed Soviet of Workers' Deputies in power."[27]
Lenin was determined to return to Russia at once. But that was not an easy task in the middle of the First World War. Switzerland was surrounded by the warring countries of France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and the seas were dominated by Russia's ally Britain. Lenin considered crossing Germany with a Swedish passport, but Krupskaya joked that he would give himself away by swearing at Mensheviks in Russian in his sleep.[27]
Negotiations with the Provisional Government to obtain passage through Germany for the Russian exiles in return for German and Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war dragged on. Eventually, bypassing the Provisional Government, on March 31 the Swiss Communist Fritz Platten obtained permission from the German Foreign Minister through his ambassador in Switzerland, Baron Gisbert von Romberg, for Lenin and other Russian exiles to travel through Germany to Russia in a sealed one-carriage train. At Lenin's request the carriage would be protected from interference by a special grant of extraterritorial status.
On April 9 Lenin and Krupskaya met their fellow exiles in Bern, a group eventually numbering thirty boarded a train which took them to Zurich. From there they travelled to the specially arranged train which was waiting at Gottmadingen, just short of the official German crossing station at Singen. Accompanied by two German Army officers, who sat at the rear of the single carriage behind a chalked line, the exiles travelled through Frankfurt and Berlin to Sassnitz (arriving April 12), where a ferry took them to Trelleborg. Krupskaya noted how, looking out of the carriage window as they passed through wartime Germany, the exiles were "struck by the total absence of grown-up men. Only women, teenagers and children could be seen at the wayside stations, on the fields, and in the streets of the towns."[27] Once in Sweden the group travelled by train to Stockholm and thence back to Russia.
Just before midnight on 16 April [O.S. 3 April] 1917, Lenin's train arrived at the Finland Station in Petrograd. He was greeted, to the sound of the Marseillaise, by a crowd of workers, sailors and soldiers bearing red flags: by now a ritual in revolutionary Russia for welcoming home political exiles.[28] Lenin was formally welcomed by Chkheidze, the Menshevik Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. But Lenin pointedly turned to the crowd instead to address it on the international importance of the Russian Revolution:
The piratical imperialist war is the beginning of civil war throughout Europe ... The world-wide Socialist revolution has already dawned ... Germany is seething ... Any day now the whole of European capitalism may crash ... Sailors, comrades, we have to fight for a socialist revolution, to fight until the proletariat wins full victory! Long live the worldwide socialist revolution![29]
The April Theses[link]
On the train from Switzerland, Lenin had composed his famous April Theses: his programme for the Bolshevik Party. In the Theses, Lenin argued that the Bolsheviks should not rest content, like almost all other Russian socialists, with the "bourgeois" February Revolution. Instead the Bolsheviks should press ahead to a socialist revolution of the workers and poorest peasants:
2) The specific feature of the present situation in Russia is that the country is passing from the first stage of the revolution—which, owing to the insufficient class-consciousness and organisation of the proletariat, placed power in the hands of the bourgeoisie—to its second stage, which must place power in the hands of the proletariat and the poorest sections of the peasants.[30]
Lenin argued that this socialist revolution would be achieved by the Soviets taking power from the parliamentary Provisional Government: "No support for the Provisional Government ... Not a parliamentary republic — to return to a parliamentary republic from the Soviets of Workers' Deputies would be a retrograde step — but a republic of Soviets of Workers', Agricultural Labourers' and Peasants' Deputies throughout the country, from top to bottom."[30]
To achieve this, Lenin argued, the Bolsheviks' immediate task was to campaign diligently among the Russian people to persuade them of the need for Soviet power:
4) Recognition of the fact that in most of the Soviets of Workers' Deputies our Party is in a minority, so far a small minority, ... and that therefore our task is, as long as this government yields to the influence of the bourgeoisie, to present a patient, systematic, and persistent explanation of the errors of their tactics, an explanation especially adapted to the practical needs of the masses.[30]
The April Theses were more radical than virtually anything Lenin's fellow revolutionaries had heard. Previous Bolshevik policy had been like that of the Mensheviks in this respect: that Russia was ready only for bourgeois, not socialist, revolution. Joseph Stalin and Lev Kamenev, who had returned from exile in Siberia in mid-March and taken control of the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda, had been campaigning for support for the Provisional Government. When Lenin presented his Theses to a joint RSDLP meeting, he was booed by the Mensheviks. Boris Bogdanov called them "the ravings of a madman". Of the Bolsheviks, only Kollontai at first supported the Theses.[31]
Lenin arrived at the revolutionary April Theses thanks to his work in exile on the theory of imperialism. Through his study of worldwide politics and economics, Lenin came to view Russian politics in international perspective. In the conditions of the First World War, Lenin believed that, although Russian capitalism was underdeveloped, a socialist revolution in Russia could spark revolution in the more advanced nations of Europe, which could then help Russia achieve economic and social development. A. J. P. Taylor argued: "Lenin made his revolution for the sake of Europe, not for the sake of Russia, and he expected Russia's preliminary revolution to be eclipsed when the international revolution took place. Lenin did not invent the iron curtain. On the contrary it was invented against him by the anti-revolutionary Powers of Europe. Then it was called the cordon sanitaire."[32]
In this way, Lenin moved away from the previous Bolshevik policy of pursuing only bourgeois revolution in Russia, and towards the position of his fellow Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky and his theory of permanent revolution, which may have influenced Lenin at this time.[33]
Controversial as it was in April 1917, the programme of the April Theses made the Bolshevik party a political refuge for Russians disillusioned with the Provisional Government and the war.[34][2](pp157–60)
The October Revolution[link]
In Petrograd dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in the spontaneous July Days riots, by industrial workers and soldiers.[2](p158–61) After being suppressed, these riots were blamed by the government on Lenin and the Bolsheviks.[2](pp160–1) Aleksandr Kerensky, Grigory Aleksinsky, and other opponents, also accused the Bolsheviks, especially Lenin—of being Imperial German agents provocateurs; on 17 July, Leon Trotsky defended them:[35]
An intolerable atmosphere has been created, in which you, as well as we, are choking. They are throwing dirty accusations at Lenin and Zinoviev. Lenin has fought thirty years for the revolution. I have fought [for] twenty years against the oppression of the people. And we cannot but cherish a hatred for German militarism . . . I have been sentenced by a German court to eight months' imprisonment for my struggle against German militarism. This everybody knows. Let nobody in this hall say that we are hirelings of Germany.[36]
In the event, the Provisional Government arrested the Bolsheviks and outlawed their Party, prompting Lenin to flee to Finland. In exile again, reflecting on the July Days and its aftermath, Lenin determined that, to prevent the triumph of counter-revolutionary forces, the Provisional Government must be overthrown by an armed uprising.[2](pp162–3) Meanwhile, he published State and Revolution (1917) proposing government by the soviets (worker-, soldier- and peasant-elected councils) rather than by a parliamentary body.[37]
In late August 1917, while Lenin was in hiding in Finland, the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army General Lavr Kornilov sent troops from the front to Petrograd in what appeared to be a military coup attempt against the Provisional Government. Kerensky panicked and turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help, allowing the revolutionaries to organise workers as Red Guards to defend Petrograd. The coup petered out before it reached Petrograd thanks to the industrial action of the Petrograd workers and the soldiers' increasing unwillingness to obey their officers.[38]
However, faith in the Provisional Government had been severely shaken. Lenin's slogan since the April Theses – "All power to the soviets!" – became more plausible the more the Provisional Government was discredited in public eyes. The Bolsheviks won a majority in the Petrograd Soviet on 31 August and in the Moscow Soviet on 5 September.[39]
In October Lenin returned from Finland. From the Smolny Institute for girls, Lenin directed the Provisional Government's deposition (6–8 November 1917), and the storming (7–8 November) of the Winter Palace to realise the Kerensky capitulation that established Bolshevik government in Russia.
Forming a government[link]
Lenin had argued in a newspaper article in September 1917:
The peaceful development of any revolution is, generally speaking, extremely rare and difficult ... but ... a peaceful development of the revolution is possible and probable if all power is transferred to the Soviets. The struggle of parties for power within the Soviets may proceed peacefully, if the Soviets are made fully democratic[40]
The October Revolution had been relatively peaceful. The revolutionary forces already had de facto control of the capital thanks to the defection of the city garrison. Few troops had stayed to defend the Provisional Government in the Winter Palace.[41] Most citizens had simply continued about their daily business while the Provisional Government was actually overthrown.[38]
It thus appeared that all power had been transferred to the Soviets relatively peacefully. On the evening of the October Revolution, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets met, with a Bolshevik-Left SR majority, in the Smolny Institute in Petrograd. When the left-wing Menshevik Martov proposed an all-party Soviet government, the Bolshevik Lunacharsky stated that his party did not oppose the idea. The Bolshevik delegates voted unanimously in favour of the proposal.[42]
However, not all Russian socialists supported transferring all power to the Soviets. The Right SRs and Mensheviks walked out of this very first session of the Congress of Soviets in protest at the overthrow of the Provisional Government, of which their parties had been members.[43]
The next day, on the evening of 26 October O.S., Lenin attended the Congress of Soviets: undisguised in public for the first time since the July Days, although not yet having regrown his trademark beard. The American journalist John Reed described the man who appeared at about 8:40 pm to "a thundering wave of cheers":
A short, stocky figure, with a big head set down in his shoulders, bald and bulging. Little eyes, a snubbish nose, wide, generous mouth, and heavy chin; clean-shaven now, but already beginning to bristle with the well-known beard of his past and future. Dressed in shabby clothes, his trousers much too long for him. Unimpressive, to be the idol of a mob, loved and revered as perhaps few leaders in history have been. A strange popular leader—a leader purely by virtue of intellect; colourless, humourless, uncompromising and detached, without picturesque idiosyncrasies—but with the power of explaining profound ideas in simple terms, of analysing a concrete situation. And combined with shrewdness, the greatest intellectual audacity.[44]
According to Reed, Lenin waited for the applause to subside before declaring simply: "We shall now proceed to construct the Socialist order!" Lenin proceeded to propose to the Congress a Decree on Peace, calling on "all the belligerent peoples and to their Governments to begin immediately negotiations for a just and democratic peace", and a Decree on Land, transferring ownership of all "land-owners' estates, and all lands belonging to the Crown, [and] to monasteries" to the Peasants' Soviets. The Congress passed the Decree on Peace unanimously, and the Decree on Land faced only one vote in opposition.[45]
Having approved these key Bolshevik policies, the Congress of Soviets proceeded to elect the Bolsheviks into power as the Council of People's Commissars by "an enormous majority".[46] The Bolsheviks offered posts in the Council to the Left SRs: an offer which the Left SRs at first refused,[47] but later accepted, joining the Bolsheviks in coalition on 12 December O.S.[48] Lenin had suggested that Trotsky take the position of Chairman of the Council—the head of the Soviet government—but Trotsky refused on the grounds that his Jewishness would be controversial, and he took the post of Commissar for Foreign Affairs instead.[47] Thus Lenin became the head of government in Russia.
Trotsky announced the composition of the new Soviet Central Executive Committee: with a Bolshevik majority, but with places reserved for the representatives of the other parties, including the seceded Right SRs and Mensheviks. Trotsky concluded the Congress: "We welcome into the Government all parties and groups which will adopt our programme."[46]
Lenin declared in 1920 that "Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the entire country" in modernising Russia into a 20th-century country:[49]
We must show the peasants that the organisation of industry on the basis of modern, advanced technology, on electrification, which will provide a link between town and country, will put an end to the division between town and country, will make it possible to raise the level of culture in the countryside and to overcome, even in the most remote corners of land, backwardness, ignorance, poverty, disease, and barbarism.[50]
Yet the Bolshevik Government had to first withdraw Russia from the First World War (1914–18). Facing continuing Imperial German eastward advance, Lenin proposed immediate Russian withdrawal from the West European war; yet, other, doctrinaire[clarification needed] Bolshevik leaders (e.g. Nikolai Bukharin) advocated continuing in the war to foment revolution in Germany. Lead peace treaty negotiator Leon Trotsky proposed No War, No Peace, an intermediate-stance Russo–German treaty conditional upon neither belligerent annexing conquered lands; the negotiations collapsed, and the Germans renewed their attack, conquering much of the (agricultural) territory of west Russia. Resultantly, Lenin's withdrawal proposal then gained majority support, and, on 3 March 1918, Russia withdrew from the First World War via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing much of its European territory. Because of the German threat Lenin moved the Soviet Government from Petrograd to Moscow on 10–11 March 1918.[2](p212) [51]
On 19 January 1918, relying upon the soviets, the Bolsheviks, allied with anarchists and the Socialist Revolutionaries, dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly thereby consolidating the Bolshevik Government's political power. Yet, that left-wing coalition collapsed consequent to the Social Revolutionaries opposing the territorially expensive Brest-Litovsk treaty the Bolsheviks had concorded with Imperial Germany. The anarchists and the Socialist Revolutionaries then joined other political parties in attempting to depose the Bolshevik Government, who defended themselves with persecution and jail for the anti-Bolsheviks.
To initiate the Russian economic recovery, on 21 February 1920, he launched the GOELRO plan, the State Commission for Electrification of Russia (Государственная комиссия по электрификации России), and also established free universal health care and free education systems, and promulgated the politico-civil rights of women.[52] Moreover, since 1918, in re-establishing the economy, for the productive business administration of each industrial enterprise in Russia, Lenin proposed a government-accountable leader for each enterprise. Workers could request measures resolving problems, but had to abide the leader's ultimate decision. Although contrary to workers' self-management, such pragmatic industrial administration was essential for efficient production and employment of worker expertise. Yet Lenin's doctrinaire[clarification needed] Bolshevik opponents argued that such industrial business management was meant to strengthen State control of labour, and that worker self-management failures were owed to lack of resources, not incompetence. Lenin resolved that problem by licencing (for a month) all workers of most factories; thus historian S. A. Smith's observation: "By the end of the civil war, not much was left of the democratic forms of industrial administration promoted by the factory committees in 1917, but the government argued that this did not matter since industry had passed into the ownership of a workers' state."
Internationally, Lenin's admiration of the Irish socialist revolutionary James Connolly, led to the USSR's being the first country to grant diplomatic recognition to the Irish Republic that fought the Irish War of Independence from Britain. In the event, Lenin developed a friendship with Connolly's revolutionary son, Roddy Connolly.
Establishing the Cheka[link]
Main article: Cheka
On December 20, 1917, "The Whole-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage", the Cheka (Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya – Extraordinary Commission) was created by a decree issued by Lenin to defend the Russian Revolution.[53] The establishment of the Cheka, secret service, headed by Felix Dzerzhinsky, formally consolidated the censorship established earlier, when on "17 November, the Central Executive Committee passed a decree giving the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and wide powers of closing down newspapers critical of the régime. . . .";[54] non-Bolshevik soviets were disbanded; anti-soviet newspapers were closed until Pravda (Truth) and Izvestia (The News) established their communications monopoly. According to Leonard Schapiro the Bolshevik "refusal to come to terms with the [Revolutionary] socialists, and the dispersal of the Constituent assembly, led to the logical result that revolutionary terror would now be directed, not only against traditional enemies, such as the bourgeoisie or right-wing opponents, but against anyone, be he socialist, worker, or peasant, who opposed Bolshevik rule".[55] On December 19, 1918, a year after its creation, a resolution was adopted at Lenin's behest that forbade the Bolshevik's own press from publishing "defamatory articles" about the Cheka.[56] As Lenin put it: "A Good Communist is also a good Chekist."[56]
Lenin on anti-Semitism[link]
Lenin was enthusiastic about new mass communication technology like the radio and the gramophone and its capacity for educating Russia's mostly illiterate peasant population. In 1919 Lenin recorded eight speeches on to gramophone records. During the Nikita Khrushchev era (1953–64), seven were published. The eighth speech, which was not published, outlined Lenin's thoughts on anti-Semitism:[57]
The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organised pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews. ... It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism. ... The capitalists strive to sow and foment hatred between workers of different faiths, different nations and different races. ... Rich Jews, like rich Russians, and the rich in all countries, are in alliance to oppress, crush, rob, and disunite the workers. ... Shame on those who foment hatred towards the Jews, who foment hatred towards other nations.[58]
Failed assassinations[link]
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The first occasion was on 14 January 1918 in Petrograd, when assassins ambushed Lenin in his automobile after a speech. He and Fritz Platten were in the back seat when assassins began shooting, and "Platten grabbed Lenin by the head and pushed him down... Platten's hand was covered in blood, having been grazed by a bullet as he was shielding Lenin".[59]
The second event was on 30 August 1918, when the Socialist Revolutionary Fanya Kaplan approached Lenin at his automobile after a speech; he was resting a foot on the running board as he spoke with a woman. Kaplan called to Lenin, and when he turned to face her she shot at him three times. The first bullet struck his arm, the second bullet his jaw and neck, and the third missed him, wounding the woman with whom he was speaking; the wounds felled him and he became unconscious.[60] Fearing in-hospital assassins, Lenin was brought to his Kremlin apartment; physicians decided against removing the bullets lest the surgery endanger his recovery, which proved to be slow.
Pravda publicly ridiculed Fanya Kaplan as a failed assassin, a latter-day Charlotte Corday (the murderess of Jean-Paul Marat) who could not derail the Russian Revolution, reassuring readers that, immediately after surviving the assassination: "Lenin, shot through twice, with pierced lungs spilling blood, refuses help and goes on his own. The next morning, still threatened with death, he reads papers, listens, learns, and observes to see that the engine of the locomotive that carries us towards global revolution has not stopped working..."; despite unharmed lungs, the neck wound did spill blood into a lung.[61]
The Russian public remained ignorant of the gravity of the physical wounds of the Soviet Head of State[citation needed]. Other than from panegyrics of immortality (viz. the cult of personality[citation needed]), they knew nothing about the (second) failed assassination attempt, the assassin, Fanya Kaplan, or about Lenin's health[citation needed]. Historian Richard Pipes reports that "the impression one gains ... is that the Bolsheviks deliberately underplayed the event to convince the public that, whatever happened to Lenin, they were firmly in control". Moreover, in a letter to his wife (7 September 1918), Leonid Borisovich Krasin, a Tsarist and Soviet régime diplomat, describes the public atmosphere and social response to the failed assassination attempt on 30 August and to Lenin's survival:
As it happens, the attempt to kill Lenin has made him much more popular than he was. One hears a great many people, who are far from having any sympathy with the Bolsheviks, saying that it would be an absolute disaster if Lenin had succumbed to his wounds, as it was first thought he would. And they are quite right, for, in the midst of all this chaos and confusion, he is the backbone of the new body politic, the main support on which everything rests.[62]
A cult of personality originated from his having survived the second assassination attempt[citation needed]. This Lenin, per his intellectual origins and pedigree, disliked and discouraged as the revival of superstition; nevertheless, his health, as a fifty-three-year-old man, declined from the effects of the two bullet wounds, later aggravated by three strokes, culminating in his death.[63]
Red Terror[link]
Main article: Red Terror
File:Tov lenin ochishchaet.jpg
A picture saying, "Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth"
In response to Fanya Kaplan's failed assassination of Lenin on 30 August 1918, and the successful assassination of the Petrograd Cheka chief Moisei Uritsky, Stalin proposed to Lenin "open and systematic mass terror . . . [against] . . . those responsible"; the Bolsheviks instructed Felix Dzerzhinsky to commence a Red Terror, announced in the 1 September 1918 issue of the Krasnaya Gazeta (Red Gazette).[64] To that effect, among other acts, at Moscow, execution lists signed by Lenin authorised the shooting of 25 Tsarist ministers, civil servants, and 765 White Guards in September 1918.[65] In his Diaries in Exile, 1935, Leon Trotsky recollected that Lenin authorised the execution of the Russian Royal Family.[66] However, according to Greg King and Penny Wilson's investigation into the fate of the Romanovs, Trotsky's recollections on this matter, seventeen years after the events described, are unsubstantiated, inaccurate and contradicted by what Trotsky himself said on other occasions.[67] Most historians say there is enough evidence to prove Lenin ordered the killings.[68] According to the late Soviet historian Dmitri Volkogonov:[69]
Indirect evidence shows that the order to execute the royal family was given verbally by Lenin and Sverdlov. The object of 'exterminating the entire Romanov kin' is confirmed by the almost simultaneous murders of Grand Duchess Yelizaveta Feodorovna, Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich, Prince Ivan Konstantinovich, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich, Prince Igor Konstantinovich and Count Vladimir Paley (son of Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich), all of them in Alapaevsk, a hundred miles from Yekaterinburg.
Earlier, in October, Lev Kamenev and cohort, had warned the Party that terrorist rule was inevitable, given Lenin's assumption of sole command.[70] In late 1918, when he and Nikolai Bukharin tried curbing Chekist excesses, Lenin over-ruled them; in 1921, via the Politburo, he expanded the Cheka's discretionary death-penalty powers.[71][72]
The foreign-aided White Russian counter-revolution failed for want of popular Russian support, because the Bolshevik proletarian state, protected with "mass terror against enemies of the revolution", was socially organised against the previous capitalist establishment, thus class warfare terrorism in post–Tsarist Russia originated in working class (peasant and worker) anger against the privileged aristocrat classes of the deposed absolute monarchy.[73] During the Russian Civil War, anti-Bolsheviks faced torture and summary execution, and by May 1919, there were some 16,000 enemies of the people imprisoned in the Tsarist katorga labour camps; by September 1921 the prisoner populace exceeded 70,000.[74][75][76][77][78][79]
In pursuing their revolution and counter-revolution the White and the Red Russians committed atrocities, against each other and their supporting populaces, yet contemporary historians disagree about equating the terrorisms—because the Red Terror was Bolshevik Government policy (e.g. Decossackization) against given social classes, whilst the class-based White Terror was racial and political, against Jews, anti-monarchists, and Communists, (cf. White Movement).[80][81] Such numbers are recorded in cities occupied by the Bolsheviks:
In Kharkov there were between 2,000 and 3,000 executions in February–June 1919, and another 1,000–2,000 when the town was taken again in December of that year; in Rostov-on-Don, approximately 1,000 in January 1920; in Odessa, 2,200 in May–August 1919, then 1,500–3,000 between February 1920 and February 1921; in Kiev, at least 3,000 in February–August 1919; in Ekaterinodar, at least 3,000 between August 1920 and February 1921; In Armavir, a small town in Kuban, between 2,000 and 3,000 in August–October 1920. The list could go on and on.[82]
Professor Christopher Read states that though terror was employed at the height of the Civil War fighting, "from 1920 onwards the resort to terror was much reduced and disappeared from Lenin's mainstream discourses and practices".[2](p251) However, after a clerical insurrection in the town of Shuia, in a 19 March 1922 letter to Vyacheslav Molotov and the Politburo, Lenin delineated action against defiers of the decreed Bolshevik removal of Orthodox Church valuables: "We must... put down all resistance with such brutality that they will not forget it for several decades... The greater the number of representatives of the reactionary clergy and reactionary bourgeoisie we succeed in executing... the better."[83] As a result of this letter, historian Orlando Figes estimates that perhaps 8,000 priests and laymen were executed.[84] And the crushing of the revolts in Kronstadt and Tambov in 1921 resulted in tens of thousands of executions.[85]
Civil War[link]
Main article: Russian Civil War
In 1917, as an anti-imperialist, Lenin said that oppressed peoples had the unconditional right to secede from the Russian Empire; however, at end of the Civil War, the USSR annexed Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, because the White Movement used them as attack bases.[86] Lenin pragmatically defended the annexations as geopolitical protection against capitalist imperial depredations.[87]
To maintain the war-isolated cities, keep the armies fed, and to avoid economic collapse, the Bolshevik government established war communism, via prodrazvyorstka, food requisitioning from the peasantry, for little payment, which peasants resisted with reduced harvests. The Bolsheviks blamed the kulaks' withholding grain to increase profits; but statistics indicate most such business occurred in the black market economy.[88][89] Nonetheless, the prodrazvyorstka resulted in armed confrontations which the Cheka and Red Army suppressed with shooting hostages, poison gas, and labour-camp deportation; yet Lenin increased the requisitioning.[80][90][91]
The six-year long White–Red civil war, the war communism, the famine of 1921, which killed an estimated 5 million, and foreign military intervention reduced much of Russia to ruin, and provoked rebellion against the Bolsheviks, the greatest being the Tambov rebellion (1919–21). After the March 1921 left-wing Kronstadt Rebellion mutiny, Lenin replaced war communism with the New Economic Policy (NEP), and successfully rebuilt industry and agriculture. The NEP was his pragmatic recognition of the political and economic realities, despite being a tactical, ideological retreat from the socialist ideal; later, the doctrinaire Joseph Stalin reversed the NEP in consolidating his control of the Communist Party and the USSR.
Lenin and World Revolution[link]
As stated in his Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism Lenin's revolutionary project embraced not just Russia but the world. To implement world revolution the Third or Communist International was convened in Russia in 1919, to replace the discredited Second International.[92] Lenin dominated the first, second (1920) and third (1921) Congresses of the International and hoped to use the organisation as an agency of international socialist revolution.[93] After the failure of revolutionary ambitions in Poland, in the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–21, and after various revolutions in Germany and Eastern Europe in 1919 had been crushed, Lenin, increasingly, saw that anti-colonial struggles in the Third World would be the foci of the revolutionary struggle. In 1923 Lenin said:
- The outcome of the struggle will be determined by the fact that Russia, India, China, etc,. account for the overwhelming majority of the population of the globe. And during the last few years it is this majority that has been drawn into the struggle for emancipation with extraordinary rapidity, so that in this respect there cannot be the slightest doubt what the final outcome of the world struggle will be. In this sense the complete victory of socialism is fully and absolutely assured.[94]
Lenin praised Chinese socialist revolutionary leader Sun Yatsen and his Kuomintang party for their ideology and principles. Lenin praised Sun, his attempts on social reformation and congratulated him for fighting foreign Imperialism.[95][96][97] Sun also returned the praise, calling him a "great man", and sent his congratulations on the revolution in Russia.[98] Organised on Leninism,[99] the Kuomintang was a nationalist revolutionary party, which had been supported by the Soviet Union.
After Lenin's death in 1924, world revolution was soon rejected by his successor Joseph Stalin in favour of Socialism in One Country. This contributed to the split with Leon Trotsky.
Later life and death[link]
The mental strains of leading a revolution, governing, and fighting a civil war aggravated the physical debilitation consequent to the wounds from the attempted assassinations; Lenin retained a bullet in his neck, until a German surgeon removed it on 24 April 1922.[100] Among his comrades, Lenin was notable for working almost ceaselessly, fourteen to sixteen hours daily, occupied with minor, major, and routine matters. About the man at his life's end, Volkogonov said:
Lenin was involved in the challenges of delivering fuel into Ivanovo-Vosnesensk... the provision of clothing for miners, he was solving the question of dynamo construction, drafted dozens of routine documents, orders, trade agreements, was engaged in the allocation of rations, edited books and pamphlets at the request of his comrades, held hearings on the applications of peat, assisted in improving the workings at the "Novii Lessner" factory, clarified in correspondence with the engineer P. A. Kozmin the feasibility of using wind turbines for the electrification of villages... all the while serving as an adviser to party functionaries almost continuously.[101]
When already sick, Lenin remembered that, since 1917, he had only rested twice: once, whilst hiding from the Kerensky Provisional Government (when he wrote The State and Revolution), and whilst recovering from Fanya Kaplan's failed assassination.[102] In March 1922, when physicians examined him, they found evidence of neither nervous nor organic pathology, but, given his fatigue and the headaches he suffered, they prescribed rest. Upon returning to St. Petersburg in May 1922, Lenin suffered the first of three strokes, which left him unable to speak for weeks, and severely hampered motion in his right side; by June, he had substantially recovered. By August he resumed limited duties, delivering three long speeches in November. In December 1922, he suffered the second stroke that partly paralyzed his right side, he then withdrew from active politics. In March 1923, he suffered the third stroke that rendered him mute and bed-ridden until his death.
After the first stroke, Lenin dictated government papers to Nadezhda; among them was Lenin's Testament (changing the structure of the soviets), partly inspired by the 1922 Georgian Affair (Russian cultural assimilation of constituent USSR republics[citation needed]), and it criticised high-rank Communists, including Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Leon Trotsky. About the Communist Party's General Secretary (since 1922), Joseph Stalin, Lenin reported that the "unlimited authority" concentrated in him was unacceptable, and suggested that "comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post." His phrasing, "Сталин слишком груб", implies "personal rudeness, unnecessary roughness, lack of finesse", flaws "intolerable in a Secretary-General".
At Lenin's death, Nadezhda mailed his testament to the central committee, to be read aloud to the 13th Party Congress in May 1924. However, to remain in power, the ruling troika—Stalin, Kamenev, Zinoviev—suppressed Lenin's Testament; it was not published until 1925, in the United States, by the American intellectual Max Eastman. In that year, Trotsky published an article minimising the importance of Lenin's Testament, saying that Lenin's notes should not be perceived as a will, that it had been neither concealed, nor violated;[103] yet he did invoke it in later anti-Stalin polemics.[104][105]
Lenin died at 18.50 hrs, Moscow time, on 21 January 1924, aged 53, at his estate at Gorki settlement (later renamed Gorki Leninskiye). In the four days that the Bolshevik Leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin lay in state, more than 900,000 mourners viewed his body in the Hall of Columns; among the statesmen who expressed condolences to Russia (the USSR) was Chinese premier Sun Yat-sen, who said:
Through the ages of world history, thousands of leaders and scholars appeared who spoke eloquent words, but these remained words. You, Lenin, were an exception. You not only spoke and taught us, but translated your words into deeds. You created a new country. You showed us the road of joint struggle... You, great man that you are, will live on in the memories of the oppressed people through the centuries.[106]
Winston Churchill, who encouraged British intervention against the Russian Revolution, in league with the White Movement, to destroy the Bolsheviks and Bolshevism, said:
He alone could have found the way back to the causeway... The Russian people were left floundering in the bog. Their worst misfortune was his birth... their next worst his death.[107]
Three days after his death, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in his honour, so remaining until 1991, when the USSR dissolved, yet the administrative area remains "Leningrad Oblast". In the early 1920s, the Russian cosmism movement proved so popular that Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov proposed to cryonically preserve Lenin for future resurrection, yet, despite buying the requisite equipment, that was not done.[108] Instead, the body of V. I. Lenin was embalmed and permanently exhibited in Lenin's Mausoleum, in Moscow, on 27 January 1924.
Despite the official diagnosis of death from stroke consequences, the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov reported that Lenin died of neurosyphilis, according to a publication by V. Lerner and colleagues in the European Journal of Neurology in 2004. The authors also note that "It is possible that future DNA technology applied to Lenin's preserved brain material could ultimately establish or disprove neurosyphilis as the primary cause of Lenin's death."[109]
In January 2011, United Russia party created a website «goodbyelenin.ru» with voting on a question whether Lenin's body should be buried.[110][111]
Personal life and characteristics[link]
According to Leon Trotsky, who knew him well:
- Lenin's outward appearance was distinguished by simplicity and strength. He was below the middle height, with the plebeian features of the Slavonic type of face, brightened by piercing eyes; and his powerful forehead and still more powerful head gave him a marked distinction.[112]
According to most reports, in his personal life Lenin was a modest and unassuming man. He liked children and cats and his enthusiasms included bicycling, amateur photography, chess, skating, swimming, hunting, music and hiking.[113] When in exile in Switzerland, Lenin, accompanied by his wife Krupskaya, developed a considerable passion for mountain walking in the Swiss peaks.[2](pp20, 64, 132–37) Lenin's personal life is documented in detail in his wife's book Memories of Lenin.[2](pp2, 301)
Writings[link]
Lenin was a prolific political theoretician and philosopher who wrote about the practical aspects of carrying out a proletarian revolution; he wrote pamphlets, articles, and books, without a stenographer or secretary, until prevented by illness.[114] He simultaneously corresponded with comrades, allies, and friends, in Russia and world-wide. His Collected Works comprise 54 volumes, each of about 650 pages, translated into English in 45 volumes by Progress Publishers, Moscow 1960–70.[115] The most influential include:
- What is to be Done? (1902) states that a revolution requires a professional vanguard party.
- Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) explains why capitalism had not collapsed, as Marx had posited, presenting the First World War as a capitalist war for land, resources, and cheap labour.
- The State and the Revolution (1917) interprets the ideas of Marx and Engels, the October Revolution's theoretic basis, and opposes the social-democratic tendency as indecisive in effecting revolution.
- April Theses (1917) propose the socio-economic need for a socialist revolution.
- "Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder (1920) sharply criticizes the "ultra-left"
Soviet censorship of Lenin[link]
After Lenin's death, the USSR selectively censored his writings, to establish the dogma of the infallibility of Lenin, Stalin (his successor), and the Central Committee;[116] thus, the Soviet fifth edition (55 vols., 1958–65) of Lenin's œuvre deleted the Lenin–Stalin contradictions, and all that was unfavourable to the founder of the USSR.[117] The historian Richard Pipes published a documentary collection of letters and telegrams excluded from the Soviet fifth edition, proposing that edition as incomplete.[118]
Legacy[link]
| “ | As influential as he was in life, Lenin may have been more so in death. Over 100 million have lined up to view his mummified body. His memory has been used to support every change in Soviet policy and every new regime since his death. His theories inspired the successful revolutions of Fidel Castro, Mao Zedong, and Ho Chi Minh; as well as countless other revolutionaries in countries full of oppressed and powerless people. | ” |
When Lenin died on January 21, 1924, near Moscow, he was acclaimed as "the greatest genius of mankind" and "the leader and teacher of the peoples of the whole world".[10] Historian J. Arch Getty has remarked that "Lenin deserves a lot of credit for the notion that the meek can inherit the earth, that there can be a political movement based on social justice and equality".[11] Time Magazine also named Lenin one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century,[119] and one of their top 25 political icons of all time; remarking that "for decades, Marxist-Leninist rebellions shook the world while Lenin's embalmed corpse lay in repose in the Red Square".[120] Following the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, reverence for Lenin declined among the post-Soviet generations, yet he remains an important historical figure for the Soviet-era generations.[121]
According to the article in Encyclopædia Britannica written by Professor of Northern Illinois University Albert Resis:[122]
| “ | If the Bolshevik Revolution is-as some people have called it-the most significant political event of the 20th century, then Lenin must for good or ill be considered the century's most significant political leader. Not only in the scholarly circles of the former Soviet Union, but even among many non-Communist scholars, he has been regarded as both the greatest revolutionary leader and revolutionary statesman in history, as well as the greatest revolutionary thinker since Marx | ” |
In space, Lenin is commemorated by asteroid 852 Wladilena
Statues and city names[link]
Although many Eastern European countries have removed most statues of Lenin, Russia still retains some. Furthermore, also in 1991, after a contested vote between Communists and liberals, the Leningrad government reverted the city's name to St. Petersburg, whilst the surrounding Leningrad Oblast remained so named;[123] like-wise the city of Ulyanovsk (V. I. Lenin's birthplace) remains so named. Gyumri in Armenia was named Leninakan from 1924 to 1990, Khujand in Tajikistan Leninabad from 1936 to 1991.
Lenin’s Funeral Van and Lenin’s Locomotive[link]
Lenin’s locomotive U-127 (Russian Y-127) and Lenin’s funeral van No 1691 were preserved at what was the Museum of Lenin’s Funeral train. It is now the Museum of the Moscow Railway
In popular culture[link]
Film[link]
File:October film Lenin.jpg
Lenin as represented in Sergei Eisenstein's 1927 film October.
- Sergei Eisenstein's October: Ten Days That Shook the World (1927) became an influential celebratory dramatization of the 1917 October Revolution.
- Three Songs About Lenin (1934) is a documentary silent film by Russian filmmaker Dziga Vertov.
- Lenin appeared as a character in the Soviet films Lenin in October (1937) and Lenin in 1918 (1939), both directed by Mikhail Romm.
- Sergei Yutkevich directed a series of films about Lenin, featuring Maxim Straukh. These include The Man With the Gun (1938), Yakov Sverdlov (1940), Stories of Lenin (1957), Lenin in Poland (1966) and Lenin in Paris (1981).[124]
- Lenin was portrayed by Michael Bryant in the 1971 film Nicholas and Alexandra.
- All My Lenins (1997) is a historical comedy by Hardi Volmer.
Television[link]
- Lenin was portrayed by Patrick Stewart in the 1974 BBC miniseries Fall of Eagles.
- Lenin was portrayed by Kenneth Cranham in the 1983 BBC miniseries Reilly: Ace of Spies.
- Lenin was portrayed by Ben Kingsley in the 1988 television film Lenin: The Train.
See also[link]
|
References[link]
- ^ Триумф и Трагедия - И. В. Сталин: политический портрет. (Triumph and Tragedy - I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) Дмитрий Волкогонов (Dmitriy Volkogonov). Book 1, Part 1, PP. 95 - 114. Новости Publications. Moscow. 1989.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Read, Christopher (2005). Lenin: A Revolutionary Life. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-20649-5.
- ^ a b c Hill, Christopher (1971). Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-021297-6.
- ^ "Vladimir Lenin Was Part Jewish, Say Declassified KGB Files". Time. 13 June 2011. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2077413,00.html.
- ^ a b Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, London: Faber and Faber (1989), p. 4.
- ^ "Moscow Museum Puts Lenin's Jewish Roots on Display". The New York Times (New York). 23 May 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/05/23/world/europe/AP-EU-Russia-Lenins-Secrets.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=lenin%20jewish&st=cse. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, London: Faber and Faber (1989), pp. 4, 9.
- ^ Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, What Is To Be Done? (1902), Lenin Internet Archive.
- ^ Volkogonov, Dmitri. Lenin – A New Biography.
- ^ a b c d Lenin entry from the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968
- ^ a b c d Biography (TV series) - Vladimir Lenin, Voice of Revolution, A&E Network, 2005, ASIN B000AABKX6
- ^ Service, Robert. Lenin: A Biography. London: Pan. ISBN 0-330-49139-3.
- ^ Danilov, Eugene (Moscow, 2007). Lenin: Secrets of Life and Death. Zebra E. p. 181. ISBN 978-5-17-043866-2.
- ^ J. Brooks and G. Chernyavskiy (2007) Lenin and the Making of the Soviet State. Bedford/St Martin's: Boston and New York
- ^ Vladimir Iyich Lenin, "New Economic Developments in Peasant Life," contained in Lenin: Collected Works, Volume 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972) pp. 11-73.
- ^ See page 11 of Lenin: Collected Works, Volume 1.
- ^ V. I. Lenin, "On the So-Called Market Question," contained in Lenin: Collected Works, Volume 1, pp. 75-125.
- ^ a b Lenin, Vladimir I. (1899). "The Development of Capitalism in Russia: The Process of the Formation of a Home Market for Large-Scale Industry". http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1899/devel/index.htm. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- ^ Paul Le Blanc (1908) Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, Selected Writings of Lenin. London, Pluto Press p. 9
- ^ Rupert Woodfin (2004) Introducing Marxism. Royston: Icon Books: 89–90
- ^ Rupert Woodfin (2004) Introducing Marxism. Royston: Icon Books, p. 91
- ^ Balaam, David N. and Veseth, Michael (2001). Introduction to International Political Economy (2 ed.). Prentice-Hall. pp. 76-78. ISBN 978-0-13-018349-1. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/ess_leninscritique.html. "Lenin developed a perspective on IPE that took Marx's class struggle, based on the mode of production, and used it to explain capitalism's international effects as transmitted through the production and finance structures of rich industrial countries to the poorer developing regions of the world. Lenin's famous summary of his views is Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)."
- ^ Harding, Neil, Lenin's Political Thought (1986), p. 250.
- ^ Clar, Ronald W. Lenin: the Man Behind the Mask (1988) p. 154.
- ^ Paul Bowles (2007) Capitalism. Pearson: Harlow: 93
- ^ Lenin, V. I., Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (2000) New Delhi: LeftWord Books p. 34
- ^ a b c N. K. Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin (1933), Krupskaya Internet Archive.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 384.
- ^ Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, London: Faber and Faber (1989), pp. 210–1.
- ^ a b c Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution (a.k.a. The April Theses) (1917), Lenin Internet Archive.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 388.
- ^ A. J. P. Taylor, 'Introduction', in John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), xviii.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 387 n.
- ^ Read, Christopher (1996). From Czar to Soviets: The Russian People and Their Revolution, 1917–21. Oxford University Press. pp. 151–153. ISBN 0-19-521241-X.
- ^ (Russian) Biography of Grigory Aleksinsky, XPOHOC, www.hrono.ru
- ^ Trotsky, Leon. "The Month of The Great Slander". The History of the Russian Revolution; Volume 2,Chapter 27. http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1930-hrr/ch27.htm.
- ^ Lenin, Vladimir (1917). "The State and Revolution". http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/index.htm.
- ^ a b Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press (2008), p. 60.
- ^ Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press (2008), pp. 60–1.
- ^ V. I. Lenin, 'The Russian Revolution And Civil War: They Are Trying To Frighten Us With Civil War', Rabochy Put ('The Workers' Path') No. 12 (29 September 1917), Lenin Internet Archive.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), pp. 481, 491.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), pp. 489–90.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 490.
- ^ John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), p. 128. (Available online, courtesy of the Marxists Internet Archive.)
- ^ John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), pp. 129–137. (Available online, courtesy of the Marxists Internet Archive.)
- ^ a b John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), p. 143. (Available online, courtesy of the Marxists Internet Archive.)
- ^ a b Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, London: Faber and Faber (1988), p. 279.
- ^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 512.
- ^ Lenin "Collected Works", vol. 31, p. 516.
- ^ Lenin "Collected Works", vol. 30, p. 335.
- ^ LENINE'S MIGRATION A QUEER SCENE, The New York Times, 16 March 1918
- ^ "Women and Marxism - Lenin". Marxists.org. 2003-11-14. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/subject/women/index.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ The Impact of Stalin's Leadership in the USSR, 1924–1941. Nelson Thornes. 2008. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7487-8267-3.
- ^ Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union
- ^ Leonard Bertram Schapiro. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1970. ISBN 0-413-27900-6 p. 183. See also: Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions, V
- ^ a b Black Book of Communism, p. 79
- ^ Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, London: Faber and Faber (1988), ISBN 978-0-06-015802-6, p. 456.
- ^ V. I. Lenin, 'Anti-Jewish Pogroms' (1919), Lenin Internet Archive.
- ^ Volkogonov, Dimitri. Lenin – A New Biography. New York: Free Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
- ^ Pipes, Richard, The Russian Revolution (Vintage Books, 1990) p. 807
- ^ Dr. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Lenin's attending physician, Tri Pokusheniia na V. Lenina, 1924.
- ^ Krassin, Lubov, Leonid Krassin: His Life and Work, by his wife (1929) Skeffington: London
- ^ Clark, Ronald, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask (1988) p. 373
- ^ "Red Terror". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSterror.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. p. 57. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1.
- ^ Trotskii, Dnevniki i pis'ma, 100-1, cited in Figes, Orlando (1997). A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924. Penguin Books. p. 638. ISBN 0-19-822862-7.
- ^ Greg King and Penny Wilson (2003) The Fate of the Romanovs. Hoboken, Wiley: 294
- ^ Adrian Blomfield. Russia exonerates Tsar Nicholas II The Telegraph, October 1, 2008.
- ^ Volkogonov, Dmitri (2006). Lenin: A New Biography. Free Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
- ^ Orlando Figes. A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924. Penguin Books, 1997 ISBN 0-19-822862-7 p. 630
- ^ Figes, Orlando (1998). A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924. Penguin. p. 649. ISBN 0-14-024364-X.
- ^ Volkogonov, Dimitri. Lenin – A New Biography. New York: Free Press. p. 238. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
- ^ Figes, Orlando (1998). A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924. Penguin. pp. 524–25. ISBN 0-14-024364-X.
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 65
- ^ Melgunov, Sergei, Red Terror in Russia (1975) Hyperion Pr, ISBN 0-88355-187-X. See: The Record of the Red Terror
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce, Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War (1999) Da Capo Press.pp. 383–385 ISBN 0-306-80909-5
- ^ Leggett, George (1987). The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–198. ISBN 0-19-822862-7.
- ^ Orlando Figes. A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924. Penguin Books, 1997 ISBN 0-19-822862-7 p. 647
- ^ Black Book of Communism, p. 80
- ^ a b "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Russian.
- ^ Black Book of Communism, p. 82
- ^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Panne, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stephane Courtois, Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, page 106, ISBN 0-674-07608-7. Chapter 4: The Red Terror Black Book
- ^ Pipes, Richard (1996). The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive. Yale University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 0-300-06919-7.
- ^ Figes, Orlando (27 October 1996). "Censored by His Own Regime". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E1DB1230F934A15753C1A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2.
- ^ Donald Rayfield. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him. Random House, 2004. ISBN 0-375-50632-2 p. 85
- ^ Pipes, Richard (1994). Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Vintage. pp. 141–166. ISBN 0-679-76184-5.
- ^ Lenin, Vladimir (1915). "The Revolutionary Proletariat and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination". http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1915/oct/16.htm.
- ^ "An exchange of letters on the BBC documentary Lenin's Secret Files". World Socialist Web Site. 6 March 1998. Archived from the original on 13 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070213155724/http://www.wsws.org/correspo/1998/mar1998/leni-m06.shtml. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- ^ Carr, E.H. (1966). The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, Part 2. p. 233. Chase, W.J. (1987). Workers, Society and the Soviet State: Labour and Life in Moscow 1918–1929. pp. 26–27. Nove, A. (1982). An Economic History of the USSR. p. 62. "Flewers, Paul, War Communism in Retrospect". http://www.whatnextjournal.co.uk/Pages/Back/Wnext5/Warcomm.html.
- ^ Black Book of Communism pp. 92–97, 116–121.
- ^ "Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions, VII". Gmu.edu. http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/museum/his1g.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ E. H. Carr (1979) The Russian Revolution From Lenin to Stalin 1917–1929. London, Macmillan: 14
- ^ E.H. Carr (1979) The Russian Revolution From Lenin to Stalin 1917–1929. London, Macmillan: 14, 16–17, 46–8
- ^ Lenin, quoted in Prabhat Patnaik "Introduction" to Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Revolution. New Delhi, Leftward Books, p. 8
- ^ Robert Payne (2008). Mao Tse-tung: Ruler of Red China (reprint ed.). Brownell Press. p. 324. ISBN 1-4437-2521-8.
- ^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 1980. p. 237. http://books.google.com/books?id=vnOFYI3g-N4C. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Aleksandr Mikhaĭlovich Prokhorov, ed. (1982). Great Soviet encyclopedia, Volume 25. Macmillan. http://books.google.com/books?id=mF0NAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA237. Retrieved 2010-06-28. (Original from the University of Michigan)
- ^ Bernice A Verbyla (2010). Aunt Mae's China. Xulon Press. p. 358. ISBN 1-60957-456-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=lSVK8qxOsG8C&pg=PA170. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Jonathan Fenby (2005). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost (illustrated ed.). Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 562. ISBN 0-7867-1484-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=GTgEPrlfvG4C&pg=PA337. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ "LENIN UNDER THE KNIFE. - Surgeon Extracts a Bullet Which Troubled Him for Three Years. - View Article - NYTimes.com". New York Times. 1922-04-26. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9400E6D91739EF3ABC4E51DFB2668389639EDE. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ Триумф и Трагедия – И. В. Сталин: политический портрет. (Triumph and Tragedy – I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) Дмитрий Волкогонов (Dmitriy Volkogonov). Book 1, Part 1, pp. 114. Новости Publications. Moscow. 1989.
- ^ Триумф и Трагедия – И. В. Сталин: политический портрет. (Triumph and Tragedy – I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) Дмитрий Волкогонов (Dmitriy Volkogonov). Book 1, Part 1, pp. 111. Новости Publications. Moscow. 1989.
- ^ Trotsky, L. D., "Concerning Eastman's Book Since Lenin Died", Bolshevik 16; 1 September 1925; p. 68. Concerning Eastman's Book Since Lenin Died minimising its significance. "In several parts of his book, Eastman says that the Central Committee concealed from the Party a number of exceptionally important documents written by Lenin in the last period of his life (it is a matter of letters on the national question, the so-called 'will', and others); there can be no other name for this, than slander against the Central Committee of our Party. . . . Vladimir Ilyich did not leave any 'will', and the very character of his attitude towards the Party, as well as the character of the Party, itself, precluded any possibility of such a 'will'. What is usually referred to as a 'will' in the émigré and foreign bourgeois and Menshevik press (in a manner garbled beyond recognition) is one of Vladimir Ilyich's letters containing advice on organisational matters. The 13th Congress of the Party paid the closest attention to that letter, as to all of the others, and drew from it the conclusions appropriate to the conditions and circumstances of the time. All talk about concealing or violating a 'will' is a malicious invention."
- ^ Trotsky, Leon. My Life (1930) The Marxists Internet Archive
- ^ Trotsky, Leon (1932). On the Suppressed Testament of Lenin. The Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1932/12/lenin.htm. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- ^ Gorin, Vadim, Lenin: A Biography (1983) Progress Publishers, pp. 469–70
- ^ Mauchline Roberts, Elizabeth, Lenin and the Downfall of Tsarist Russia (1966) p. 92.
- ^ See the article: А.М. и А.А. Панченко «Осьмое чудо света», in the book Панченко А.М. О русской истории и культуре. St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2003. p. 433.
- ^ V. Lerner, Y. Finkelstein and E. Witztum, "The enigma of Lenin's (1870–1924) malady". European Journal of Neurology, 2004, 11: 371–376
- ^ "RUSSIE • En finir avec la momie de Lénine". Courrier international. 2011-01-21. http://www.courrierinternational.com/revue-de-presse/2011/01/21/en-finir-avec-la-momie-de-lenine. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ "Радио ЭХО Москвы :: Новости / Голосование за и против захоронения тела Владимира Ленина началось в интернете". Echo.msk.ru. 2011-01-22. http://www.echo.msk.ru/news/743877-echo.html. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ Leon Trotsky (1939) "Lenin" in The Encyclopædia Britannica (Fourteenth Edition): 911–914
- ^ Paul Le Blanc (2008) Revolution, Democracy, Socialism – Selected Writings of Lenin. London, Pluto Press: 24–5
- ^ Триумф и Трагедия – И. В. Сталин: политический портрет. (Triumph and Tragedy – I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) Дмитрий Волкогонов (Dmitri Volkogonov). Book 1, Part 1, pp. 110. Новости Publications. Moscow. 1989.
- ^ "Lenin Collected Works". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/cw/index.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
- ^ Trotsky, Leon (1930). Volume Three: The Triumph of the Soviets; Appendix No. 1.
- ^ Figes, Orlando (27 October 1996). "Censored by His Own Regime". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E1DB1230F934A15753C1A960958260.
- ^ Pipes, Richard (1999). The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive. Yale University Press. pp. 2-3. ISBN 978-0-300-07662-2. "It has long been known to scholars that the fifth, the "complete" edition was in fact far from complete. The two-volume Trotsky Papers, based on the Trotsky Archive at the Harvard Houghton Library, brought to light a number of previously unpublished documents by Lenin. It was also apparent to Western scholars that in addition to omitting entire documents, the editors of the fifth edition had occasionally tampered with Lenin's texts, censoring passages which for one reason or another they judged unfit of republic consumption. But just how incomplete the fifth edition was did not become known until the breakup of the Soviet Union in late 1991, when President Boris Yeltsin ordered Russian archives to be removed from the control of the Communist Party and placed under the authority of state organs. It then transpired that the Central Party Archive, now renamed the Russian Center for the Preservation and Study of Documents of Recent History, or RTsKhIDNI, held no fewer than 6,7724 unpublished Lenin manuscripts—that is, twice the number included in the so-called complete collection!"
- ^ TIME 100: Vladimir Lenin by David Remnick, April 13, 1998.
- ^ Top 25 Political Icons: Lenin by Feifei Sun, Time, February 4, 2011
- ^ Pipes, Richard (May/June 2004). "Flight From Freedom: What Russians Think and Want". Foreign Affairs. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20040501facomment83302-p20/richard-pipes/flight-from-freedom-what-russians-think-and-want.html.
- ^ Resis, Albert. "Vladimir lenin". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335881/Vladimir-Ilich-Lenin. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
- ^ Maryland Government, St Petersburg/Leningrad Oblast
- ^ David Robinson (1981) World Cinema 1895–1980. London, Methuen: 223
Further reading[link]
- Blackledge, Paul (3 July 2006). "What was done". International Socialism (London: Socialist Workers Party (Britain)) (111). ISSN 1754-4653. http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=218&issue=111. Retrieved 2010-06-25. A review of Lars T Lih, Lenin Rediscovered: What is to be Done? in Context
- Cliff, Tony (1986). Building the Party: Lenin, 1893–1914. Haymarket Books. ISBN 1-931859-01-9.
- Felshtinsky, Yuri (2010). Lenin and His Comrades: The Bolsheviks Take Over Russia 1917–1924. Enigma Books. ISBN 1-929631-95-2.
- Fischer, Louis (2001). The Life of Lenin. Orion Publishing Co.. ISBN 1-84212-230-4.
- Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1.
- Gooding, John (2002). Socialism In Russia: Lenin and His Legacy, 1890–1991. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-97235-X.
- Hill, Christopher (1971). Lenin and the Russia Revolution. Pelican Books Ltd.. ISBN 978-0-14-021297-6.
- Kolakowski, Leszek and Falla, P. S. (2005). Main Currents of Marxism. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-06054-3.
- Leggett, George (1987). The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822862-7.
- Lih, Lars T. (2008) [2006]. Lenin Rediscovered: What is to be Done? in Context. Chicago: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-931859-58-5.
- Lenin, Vladimir (2002). Revolution at the Gates: A Selection of Writings from February to October 1917 by V. I. Lenin. Verso Books. ISBN 1-85984-661-0.
- Pannekoek, Anton; Richey, Lance Byron (2003). Lenin as Philosopher. Marquette University Press. ISBN 0-87462-654-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=L89oAAAAMAAJ.
- Payne, Robert (1967). The Life And Death Of Lenin. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-41640-5.
- Pipes, Richard (1999). The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07662-2.
- Rappaport, Helen (2010). Conspirator: Lenin in Exile. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01395-1.
- Service, Robert (2002). Lenin: A Biography. Belknap Press. ISBN 0-674-00828-6.
- Shub, David (1965). Lenin: A Biography. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020809-7.
- Toynbee, Arnold (July 1970). "A Centenary View of Lenin". International Affairs (Blackwell Publishing) 46 (3): 490–500. DOI:10.2307/2613225. JSTOR 2613225.
- Trotsky, Leon (1971). On Lenin: Notes Towards a Biography. Harrap. ISBN 0-245-50302-1.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1975). The Lenin Anthology. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-09236-4.
- Volkogonov, Dmitri (2006). Lenin: A New Biography. Free Press. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
External links[link]
| Find more about Vladimir Lenin on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
- Works by or about Vladimir Lenin in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Marx2Mao.org – Lenin Internet Library
- Lenin's speech (video) – Lenin's speech with subtitles
- Article on Lenin written by Trotsky for the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Reminiscences of Lenin by N. K. Krupskaya
- The Lenin Museum in Tampere, Finland
- Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions
- Lenin Internet Archive Biography includes interviews with Lenin and essays on the leader
- Mirrors of Moscow: Nikolai Lenin by Louise Bryant
- Nicolai Lenin His Life and Work by G. Zinovieff, Indiana State University
- The Personality and Power of Nikolai Lenin From Raymond Robins' Own Story by William Hard (1920)
- TIME 100: V.I. Lenin by David Remnick, 13 April 1998
- Re: Lenin in color – high quality edition on YouTube
- The Ghosts of Lenin Abound by The Moscow News Weekly, January 15, 2009
- Lenin's Fight to Defend Working-class Power and Revolutionary Internationalism by The Militant
- Lenin's Funeral Train in its own museum next to Paveletsky Rail Terminal
- Works by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin at Project Gutenberg
- Museum of Communists
- Marxists.org Lenin Internet Archive – Extensive compendium of writings, a biography, and many photographs
Selected works[link]
- Main website Lenin's Works
- Lenin's Speeches on Gramophone Records
- The Development of Capitalism in Russia
- What is to be Done? [1]
- One Step Forward, Two Steps Back
- Reply by N. Lenin to Rosa Luxemburg
- Two Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratic Revolution
- Materialism and Empirio-Criticism
- The Right of Nations to Self-Determination
- Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
- The State and Revolution [2]
- How to Organise Competition?
- The April Theses [3]
- The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky
- Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder [4]
- Lenin's Testament
- Lenin's last letter to Stalin
- Lenin's Complete Collected Works, in 55 volumes. (Russian)
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by None |
Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR 1917–1924 |
Succeeded by Alexey Rykov |
| Preceded by None |
Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union 1922–1924 |
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| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by None |
Chairman of the Council of Labour and Defence 1918–1920 |
Succeeded by Himself as Chair of the Sovnarkom |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich |
| Alternative names | Vladimir Illyich Ulyanov, Владимир Ильич Ульянов (Ленин) (Russian) |
| Short description | Russian politician, led October Revolution |
| Date of birth | (1870-04-22)22 April 1870 |
| Place of birth | Simbirsk, Russia |
| Date of death | 21 January 1924(1924-01-21) |
| Place of death | Moscow, Russia |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the city in Russia. For other uses of "Vladimir", see Vladimir (disambiguation).
| Vladimir (English) Владимир (Russian) |
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| - City[citation needed] - | |
 View of Vladimir |
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.svg) Location of Vladimir Oblast in Russia |
|
 Vladimir
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| Coordinates: 56°09′N 40°25′E / 56.15°N 40.417°E / 56.15; 40.417Coordinates: 56°09′N 40°25′E / 56.15°N 40.417°E / 56.15; 40.417 | |
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| City Day | The first Sunday of September[citation needed] |
| Administrative status (as of April 2011) | |
| Country | Russia |
| Federal subject | Vladimir Oblast[1] |
| Administratively subordinated to | City of Vladimir[1] |
| Administrative center of | Vladimir Oblast[1] |
| Municipal status (as of August 2009) | |
| Urban okrug | Vladimir Urban Okrug[2] |
| Administrative center of | Vladimir Urban Okrug[2] |
| Head[citation needed] | Sergey Sakharov[citation needed] |
| Representative body | Council of People's Deputies[citation needed] |
| Statistics | |
| Area | 308 km2 (119 sq mi)[citation needed] |
| Population (2010 Census, preliminary) |
345,598 inhabitants[3] |
| - Rank in 2010 | 51st |
| Population (2002 Census) | 315,954 inhabitants[4] |
| - Rank in 2002 | 58th |
| Density | 1,122 /km2 (2,910 /sq mi)[5] |
| Time zone | MSK (UTC+04:00)[6] |
| Founded | 990 or 1108(see text) |
| Dialing code(s) | +7 4922[citation needed] |
| Official website | |
| Vladimir on WikiCommons | |
Vladimir (Russian: Влади́мир; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr]) is a city and the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Klyazma River, 200 kilometers (120 mi) to the east of Moscow along the M7 motorway. Population: 345,598 (2010 Census preliminary results);[3] 315,954 (2002 Census);[4] 349,702 (1989 Census).[7]
Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, and two of its cathedrals are a World Heritage Site. It is served by the Semyazino Airport, and during the Cold War Vladimir was host to Dobrynskoye air base.
Contents |
History[link]
Foundation date controversy[link]
The area occupied by the city of Vladimir has been inhabited by humans (at least intermittently) for approximately 25,000 years (see Sungir). Traditionally, the founding date of Vladimir has been acknowledged as 1108, as the first mention of Vladimir in the Primary Chronicle appears under that year. This view attributes the founding of the city, and its name, to Vladimir Monomakh, who inherited the region as part of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality in 1093. In 1958, the 850th anniversary of the city foundation was celebrated, with many monuments from the celebrations adorning the city squares.
In the 1990s, a new opinion developed that the city is older than this. Scholars reinterpreted certain passages in the Hypatian Codex, which mentions that the region was visited by Vladimir the Great, the "father" of Russian Orthodoxy, in 990, so as to move the city foundation date to that year. The defenders of the previously uncontested founding year of 1108 dispute the claims of those who support the new date, arguing that the new theory was fabricated in order to provide a reason to have a celebration in 1995.
The neighboring town of Suzdal, for instance, was mentioned in 1024, and yet its 12th century inhabitants alluded to Vladimir as a young town and treated its rulers with arrogance. In the words of a major chronicle, they said that the people of Vladimir were "their kholops and scions". In the seniority conflicts of the 12th and early 13th centuries, Vladimir was repeatedly described as a "young town" compared to Suzdal and Rostov. The Charter of Vladimir, the basic law of the city passed in 2005, explicitly mentions 990 as the date of the city's foundation.[8]
Golden Age[link]
Main article: Vladimir-Suzdal
Regardless of which founding date is most accurate, the city's most historically significant events occurred after the turn of the 12th century. Serving its original purpose as a defensive outpost for the Rostov-Suzdal principality, Vladimir had little political or military influence throughout the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125), or his son Yury Dolgoruky ("long arms") (1154–1157).
It was only under Dolgoruky's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157–1175), that it became the center of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Thus began the city's Golden Age, which lasted until the Mongol invasion of Russia in 1237. During this time Vladimir enjoyed immense growth and prosperity, and Andrei oversaw the building of the Golden Gates and the Cathedral of the Assumption. In 1164, Andrei even attempted to establish a new metropolitanate in Vladimir, separate from that of Kiev, but was rebuffed by the Patriarch of Constantinople.[9]
Scores of Russian, German, and Georgian masons worked on Vladimir's white stone cathedrals, towers, and palaces. Unlike any other northern buildings, their exterior was elaborately carved with the high relief stone sculptures. Only three of these edifices stand today: the Assumption Cathedral, the Cathedral of Saint Demetrius, and the Golden Gate. During Andrei's reign, a royal palace in Bogolyubovo was built, as well as the world-famous Intercession Church on the Nerl, now considered one of the jewels of ancient Russian architecture. Andrei was assassinated at his palace at Bogolyubovo in 1175.
Decline[link]
Vladimir was besieged by the Mongol-Tatar hordes under Batu Khan, and finally overrun on February 8, 1238. A great fire destroyed thirty-two limestone buildings on the first day alone, while the grand prince's family perished in a church where they sought refuge from the flames. The grand prince himself managed to escape, only to fall at the Battle of the Sit River the following month.
After the Mongols, Vladimir never fully recovered, and even though the most important Rus prince (usually the Prince of Moscow, but sometimes of Tver or another principality) was styled the Grand Prince of Vladimir, the title had become merely an honorific symbol of majesty. From 1299 to 1325, the city was seat of the metropolitans of Kiev and All Rus, until Metropolitan Peter moved the see to Moscow. The Grand Prince of Vladimir were originally crowned in Vladimir's Assumption Cathedral, but when Moscow superseded Vladimir as the seat of the Grand Prince, the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, loosely copied by the Italian architect Aristotele Fioravanti from Vladimir's original, became the site where the grand princes were crowned. Even after the rise of Moscow though, Grand Princes of Moscow built several new churches in Vladimir, notably the Annunciation church at Snovitsy (ca. 1501), three kilometers north-west of the city, and a charming church in the Knyaginin nunnery (ca. 1505), with murals dating to 1648.
Remains of the prince-saint Alexander Nevsky were kept in the ancient Nativity abbey of Vladimir until 1703, when Peter the Great had them transferred to the Monastery (now Lavra) of Aleksandr Nevsky in St. Petersburg. The Nativity church itself (1191–1196) collapsed several years later, when an attempt was made to make more windows in its walls in an effort to brighten the interior.
Administrative and municipal status[link]
Administratively, along with seventeen rural localities, it is incorporated as the City of Vladimir—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.[1] Municipally, the City of Vladimir is incorporated as Vladimir Urban Okrug.[2]
Climate[link]
Vladimir experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with long, cold winters and short, warm summers.
| Climate data for Vladimir | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | −7.6 (18.3) |
−5.2 (22.6) |
0.7 (33.3) |
10.1 (50.2) |
18.5 (65.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
23.6 (74.5) |
21.8 (71.2) |
15.4 (59.7) |
7.7 (45.9) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
−4.9 (23.2) |
8.50 (47.30) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −11.8 (10.8) |
−8.7 (16.3) |
−3 (26.6) |
5.7 (42.3) |
13.5 (56.3) |
16.8 (62.2) |
18.6 (65.5) |
16.9 (62.4) |
11.3 (52.3) |
4.7 (40.5) |
−2.4 (27.7) |
−7.5 (18.5) |
4.51 (40.11) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −13.9 (7.0) |
−12.1 (10.2) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
1.3 (34.3) |
7.6 (45.7) |
11.5 (52.7) |
13.6 (56.5) |
12.0 (53.6) |
7.1 (44.8) |
1.6 (34.9) |
−4.6 (23.7) |
−10.4 (13.3) |
0.58 (33.05) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 37 (1.46) |
32 (1.26) |
32 (1.26) |
38 (1.5) |
51 (2.01) |
65 (2.56) |
84 (3.31) |
59 (2.32) |
57 (2.24) |
58 (2.28) |
53 (2.09) |
47 (1.85) |
613 (24.13) |
| Avg. precipitation days | 10 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 113 |
| Source: World Meteorological Organisation (UN) [10] | |||||||||||||
Sightseeing[link]
Modern Vladimir is a part of the Golden ring of the ancient Russian cities and a significant tourist center. Its three chief monuments, White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal, inscribed by UNESCO on the World Heritage List, are the following:
- The magnificent five-domed Assumption Cathedral was designed as a sepulcher of grand princes and dedicated to the holy icon Theotokos of Vladimir, which had been brought to the city by Andrew the Pious. The cathedral was constructed in 1158–1160, expanded in 1185–1189, and painted by the great Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chyorny in 1408. In 1810, they added a lofty bell-tower in Neoclassical style.
- The warrior-like cathedral of St. Demetrius was built in 1194–1197 as a private chapel of Vsevolod the Big Nest in the courtyard of his palace and was consecrated to his holy patron, St. Demetrius. For all its formal unity, the cathedral represents a truly international project of Russian and Byzantine masters, Friedrich Barbarossa's masons, and carvers sent by Queen Tamar of Georgia.
- The Golden Gate, originally a tower over the city's main gate, was built in 1158–1164. The gate acquired its present form after having been grossly reconstructed in the late 18th century, to prevent the dilapidated structure from tumbling down.
Other remarkable monuments of pre-Mongol Russian architecture are scattered in the vicinity. For more information on them, see Suzdal, Yuriev-Polsky, Bogolyubovo, and Kideksha.
Modern Vladimir[link]
Economy[link]
Vladimir is home to several electrical and chemical factories, several food processing plants, two large thermal power stations, and the headquarters of the 27th Guards Missile Army of the Strategic Rocket Forces. Tourism related to the historical sites is a major contributor to the city economy.
Education[link]
Vladimir is home to the following education establishments:
- Vladimir State University
- Vladimir Judicial Institute of the Ministry of Justice
- Vladimir Business Institute
- The American Home English & Russian Language School
Vladimir is also home to the Federal Centre for Animal Health and Welfare.
Transport[link]
Vladimir is linked to Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod by railway and the M7 highway. Local transport includes buses, trolleybuses,fixed-route minivans, and taxis. Taxi and some minivan service is available 24 hours a day.
Sports[link]
The city association football team, FC Torpedo Vladimir, currently plays in the Football Championship of the National League (former Russian First Division), having entered the second level of Russian professional football after seventeen years of competing in Russian Second Division and Russian Third League. Vladimir VC (previously known as Skat and Dinamo Vladimir) represents the city in Volleyball Major League B – Zone Europe.
Vladimir is also home to Polaris-Vladimir ice hockey club, which competes in regional hockey competitions and Russian minor leagues, and both male and female Luch table-tennis teams.
International relations[link]
Main article: List of twin towns and sister cities in Russia
Twin towns and sister cities[link]
Anghiari, Italy
Baotze, China
Bloomington-Normal, United States- Campobasso, Italy
Canterbury, United Kingdom
Cebu, Philippines[12]- Chongqing, China
Erlangen, Germany
Kerava, Finland
Kardzhali, Bulgaria
Nara, Japan- Sarasota, United States
- Trento, Italy
Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Jelenia Góra, Poland
Notable people[link]
- Valentin Afonin, association football player
- Nikolai Andrianov, gymnast
- Vladimir Artemov, gymnast
- Aleksey Batalov, actor
- Mikhail Lazarev, admiral
- Yuri Levitan, radio announcer
- Alexey Prokurorov, cross-country skier
- Yuri Ryazanov, gymnast
- Vasily Shulgin, politician
- Mikhail Speransky, statesman
- Aleksandr Stoletov, physicist
- Nikolai Stoletov, general
- Sergei Taneyev, composer
- Dmitri Vyazmikin, association football player
- Denis Yevsikov, association football player
- Nikolay Zhukovsky, scientist
- Anna Loginova, fashion model
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d Law #130-OZ
- ^ a b c Law #189-OZ
- ^ a b Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (2011). "Предварительные итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года (Preliminary results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census)" (in Russian). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (2010 All-Russia Population Census). Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/results-inform.php. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ a b Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (May 21, 2004). "Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек (Population of Russia, its federal districts, federal subjects, districts, urban localities, rural localities—administrative centers, and rural localities with population of over 3,000)" (in Russian). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (All-Russia Population Census of 2002). Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/1_TOM_01_04.xls. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ The value of density was calculated automatically by dividing the 2010 Census population by the area specified in the infobox. Please note that this value may not be accurate as the area specified in the infobox does not necessarily correspond to the area of the entity proper or is reported for the same year as the population.
- ^ Правительство Российской Федерации. Постановление №725 от 31 августа 2011 г. «О составе территорий, образующих каждую часовую зону, и порядке исчисления времени в часовых зонах, а также о признании утратившими силу отдельных Постановлений Правительства Российской Федерации». Вступил в силу по истечении 7 дней после дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Российская Газета", №197, 6 сентября 2011 г. (Government of the Russian Federation. Resolution #725 of August 31, 2011 On the Composition of the Territories Included into Each Time Zone and on the Procedures of Timekeeping in the Time Zones, as Well as on Abrogation of Several Resolutions of the Government of the Russian Federation. Effective as of after 7 days following the day of the official publication.).
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров. (All Union Population Census of 1989. Present population of union and autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and okrugs, krais, oblasts, districts, urban settlements, and villages serving as district administrative centers.)" (in Russian). Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года (All-Union Population Census of 1989). Demoscope Weekly (website of the Institute of Demographics of the State University—Higher School of Economics. 1989. http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus89_reg.php. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ http://www.vladimir-city.ru/city/info/ustav.pdf
- ^ Janet Martin, Medieval Russia: 980-1584 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), 100.
- ^ "World Weather Information Service – Vladimir". United Nations. http://worldweather.wmo.int/107/c00987.htm. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ Sister cities of Vladimir
- ^ Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of the Philippines 2008
Sources[link]
- Законодательное Собрание Владимирской области. Закон №130-ОЗ от 10 декабря 2001 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Владимирской области и о порядке его изменения», в ред. Закона №24-ОЗ от 27 апреля 2011 г «О внесении изменений в статьи 8, 9 Закона Владимирской области "Об административно-территориальном устройстве Владимирской области и о порядке его изменения"». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования (13 декабря 2001 г.). Опубликован: "Владимирские ведомости", №232, 13 декабря 2001 г. (Legislative Assembly of Vladimir Oblast. Law #130-OZ of December 10, 2001 On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Vladimir Oblast and on Procedures for Its Change, as amended by the Law #24-OZ of April 27, 2011 On Amending Articles 8, 9 of the Law of Vladimir Oblast "On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Vladimir Oblast and on Procedures for Its Change". Effective as of the day of the official publication (December 13, 2001).).
- Законодательное Собрание Владимирской области. Закон №189-ОЗ от 26 ноября 2004 г. «О наделении статусом городского округа муниципального образования город Владимир Владимирской области», в ред. Закона №108-ОЗ от 10 августа 2009 г «О внесении изменений в Закон Владимирской области "О наделении статусом городского округа муниципального образования город Владимир Владимирской области"». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования (1 декабря 2004 г.). Опубликован: "Владимирские ведомости", №333, 1 декабря 2004 г. (Legislative Assembly of Vladimir Oblast. Law #189-OZ of November 26, 2004 On Granting Urban Okrug Status to the Municipal Formation of the City of Vladimir of Vladimir Oblast, as amended by the Law #108-OZ of August 10, 2009 On Amending the Law of Vladimir Oblast "On Granting Urban Okrug Status to the Municipal Formation of the City of Vladimir of Vladimir Oblast". Effective as of the day of the official publication (December 1, 2004).).
Further reading[link]
- Craft Brumfield, William (2004). A History of Russian Architecture. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98394-3.
External links[link]
- Official website of Vladimir (Russian)
- Vladimir travel guide from Wikitravel
- Tourist information on Vladimir
- The American Home in Vladimir
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Related pages:
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http://ru.wn.com/Владимир (город)
http://nl.wn.com/Vladimir (stad)
http://id.wn.com/Vladimir
http://pl.wn.com/Włodzimierz (Rosja)
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Alexey Navalny | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | (1976-06-04) June 4, 1976 (age 36) Butyn, Odintsovsky District, Moscow Oblast |
| Nationality | Russian |
| Alma mater | Peoples' Friendship University of Russia Finance University under the Government of the Russian Federation Yale University |
| Occupation | Lawyer |
| Known for | Political and social activism, blogging |
| Website | |
| navalny.ru | |
Alexei Anatolievich Navalny (Russian: Алексей Анатольевич Навальный, born June 4, 1976) is a Russian lawyer, politician, and political and financial activist.[1] Since 2009, he has gained prominence within Russia, and notably within the Russian media, as a critic of corruption in Russia, and especially of Russian leader Vladimir Putin. He has used his popular LiveJournal blog to organize large-scale demonstrations to address these issues. He also regularly writes articles in several top Russian publications, such as Forbes Russia. In a 2011 interview with Reuters, he stated that Putin's political system is so weakened by corruption that Russia could face an Arab Spring-style revolt within five years.[2]
Navalny was named "Person of the Year 2009" by Russian business newspaper Vedomosti.[3] In 2011, the BBC described Navalny as "arguably the only major opposition figure to emerge in Russia in the past five years".[4] In 2012, The Wall Street Journal called him "the man Vladimir Putin fears most".[5] He was the only Russian to be named in Time magazine's 2012 list of the 100 most influential people.[6]
Contents |
Early life and career[link]
Navalny is of Russian/Ukrainian decent.[7] His father Anatoliy Navalny comes from the village Zalissia in Ivankiv Raion, Kiev Oblast, Ukraine. Although Navalny grew up in Obninsk about 100 km southwest of Moscow, he spent his childhood summers at his grandmother in Ukraine.[8][7]
Navalny graduated from Peoples' Friendship University of Russia in 1998 with a law degree. He then studied securities and exchanges at the Finance University under the Government of the Russian Federation.[9][10]
In 2000, Navalny joined the Russian United Democratic Party "Yabloko",[11] where he was a member of the Federal Political Council of the party. In 2002, he was elected to the regional council of the Moscow branch of Yabloko.[12]
Activity[link]
In December 2007, a meeting was held by the Bureau of the "Yabloko" party, on the issue of Navalny's exclusion from the party, with demands of "the immediate resignation of party chairman and all his deputies, and the re-election of at least 70% of the Bureau."[13] Navalny was expelled from Yabloko "for causing political damage to the party; in particular, for nationalist activities."[14]
Navalny is a minor stockholder in several major Russian state-related corporations and some of his activities are aimed at making the financial properties of these companies transparent. This is required by law, but there are allegations that some of the top managers of these companies are involved in thefts and are obscuring transparency.[15] Other activities deal with wrongdoings by Russian Militsiya, such as Sergei Magnitsky's case, improper usage of state's budget funds, quality of state services and so on.
In October 2010, Navalny was the decisive winner of virtual "Mayor of Moscow elections" held in the Russian Internet by Kommersant and Gazeta.ru. He received about 30,000 votes, or 45%, with the closest rival being "Against all candidates" with some 9,000 votes (14%), followed by Boris Nemtsov with 8,000 votes (12%) out of a total of about 67,000 votes.[16]
In November 2010, Navalny published[17] confidential documents about Transneft's auditing. He claims that the published scan is the one of original document. According to Navalny's blog, about four billion dollars were stolen by Transneft's leaders during the construction of the Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.[18][19]
In February 2011, in an interview with the radio station finam.fm, Navalny called the main Russian party, United Russia, a "party of crooks and thieves". Shortly after, a pro-party lawyer declared that some regular members of United Russia had asked him to proceed against Navalny.[citation needed] In May 2011, the Russian government began criminal investigation into Navalny, widely described in Western media as "revenge", and by Navalny himself as "a fabrication by the security services".[20][21][22] Meanwhile, "crooks and thieves" became a popular nickname for the party.[23]
In August 2011 Navalny publicized papers related to a scandalous real estate deal[24] between Hungarian and Russian governments.[25][26] According to the papers, Hungary sold a former embassy building in Moscow for $21mln to an offshore company of V.Vekselberg, who immediately resold it to the Russian government for $111mln. Irregularities in the paper trail implied a collusion. Hungarian officials responsible for the deal were detained in February 2011, but no investigation was started on the Russian side.
Involvement in 2011 Russian legislative election[link]
In December 2011, after parliamentary elections and accusations of electoral fraud,[27] some 6,000 gathered in Moscow to protest the fraud and some 300 were arrested including Navalny. After a period of uncertainty, Navalny was produced at court and thereafter sentenced to the maximum 15 days "for defying a government official. He plans to appeal the verdict." Alexei Venediktov called the arrest "'a political mistake: jailing Navalny transforms him from an online leader into an offline one.'"[28] Navalny was kept in the same prison as several other activists, including Ilya Yashin and Sergei Udaltsov, the unofficial leader of the Vanguard of Red Youth, a radical Russian communist youth group. Udaltsov has gone on hunger strike to protest against the conditions.[29]
Navalny was arrested December 5, 2011, convicted and sentenced to 15 days in jail. Since Navalny was arrested, his blog has become available in English.[30] On December 7, President Dmitry Medvedev's official Twitter account retweeted a statement by United Russia member Konstantin Rykov which claimed that "a person who writes in their blog the words 'party of crooks and thieves' is a stupid, c*cksucking sheep". This retweet was quickly deleted and described as a mistake by the Kremlin, but gained wide attention in Russia and abroad.[31]
Involvement in 2012 Russian presidential election[link]
On his release on December 20, Navalny called on Russians to unite against Putin, who he said would try to snatch victory in the March 4, 2012 presidential election.[32]
Navalny told reporters on his release that it would be senseless for him to run in the presidential elections because the Kremlin would not allow them to be fair. But he said that if free elections were held, he would "be ready" to run.[32] He then on December 24 helped lead a demonstration much larger than the post-election one (50,000 strong, in one Western-media account), telling the "wildly cheering crowd": "I see enough people to take the Kremlin right now."[33]
In March 2012, after Putin was elected president, Navalny helped lead an anti-Putin rally in Moscow's Pushkin Square, attended by between 14,000 and 20,000 people. After the rally, Navalny was detained by authorities for several hours, then released.[34]
On May 8, 2012, the day after Putin was inaugurated, Navalny and another opposition leader, Sergei Udaltsov, were both arrested after an anti-Putin rally at Clean Ponds, and were each given 15-day jail sentences.[35] In response, Amnesty International designated the two men prisoners of conscience.[36]
Other awards and honors[link]
Navalny was a World Fellow at Yale University's "World Fellows Program", aimed at "creating a global network of emerging leaders and to broaden international understanding" in 2010.[37]
See also[link]
- 2006 Russian March
- 2011 Russian protests
- Rustem Adagamov - Russian influential blogger
References[link]
 |
Wikinews has related news: Russia's main airport faces high danger from dump birds |
- ^ Schreck, Carl (9 March 2010). "Russia's Erin Brockovich: Taking On Corporate Greed". Time. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1970475,00.html. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ Guy Faulconbridge, Reuters, "Putin's Russia could face revolt: whistleblower" June 1, 2011
- ^ "Персоны года — 2009: Частное лицо года" (in Russian). Vedomosti. 30 December 2009. http://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/article/2009/12/30/222496. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Profile: Russian blogger Alexei Navalny". BBC News. 21 December 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16057045.
- ^ Matthew Kaminski (March 3, 2012). "The Man Vladimir Putin Fears Most (the weekend interview)". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203986604577257321601811092.html.
- ^ Garry Kasparov (April 18, 2012). "Alexei Navalny". Time. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112167,00.html.
- ^ a b (Ukrainian) Олексій Навальний як дзеркало російської революції, Den (14 February 2012)
- ^ "АЛЕКСЕЙ НАВАЛЬНЫЙ". esquire.ru. http://esquire.ru/wil/alexey-navalny. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^ "Alexei Navalny - The Moscow Times profile". The Moscow Times. 02/28/2012. http://www.themoscowtimes.com/mt_profile/alexei-navalny/433932.html.
- ^ Guy Faulconbridge, Reuters, 'NEWSMAKER-Protests pitch Russian blogger against Putin' December 11, 2011
- ^ "Navalny, Alexey Anatolich". Kommersant.ru. http://www.kommersant.ru/factbook/191904?stamp=634592611516054051. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
- ^ "About Navalny". http://www.navalny.ru/about. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ "Navalny, Alexey". Lenta.ru. http://www.lenta.ru/lib/14159595. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
- ^ "Azar, Ilya". Gazeta.ru. http://www.gazeta.ru/politics/elections2008/2007/12/21_a_2454702.shtml. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ "Activist presses Russian corporations for openness". Forbes. http://billionaires.forbes.com/article/0bpI0xnfuce5J. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Выборы мэра Москвы" (in Russian). Gazeta.ru. http://www.gazeta.ru/politics/2010/10/07_a_3426748.shtml. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Как пилят в Транснефти" (in Russian). LiveJournal. http://navalny.livejournal.com/526563.html. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Russia checks claims of $4bn oil pipeline scam". BBC News. 17 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11779154. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ Soldatkin, Vladimir (2011-01-14). "Russia's Transneft denies $4 bln theft". Reuters. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/14/transneft-shareholder-idUKLDE70C1PF20110114. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- ^ "Russian blogger Alexei Navalny faces criminal investigation", The Guardian, May 10, 2011
- ^ Catherine Belton, "Russia targets anti-graft blogger", Financial Times, May 10, 2011
- ^ Alexander Bratersky, "Navalny Targeted in Fraud Inquiry", The Moscow Times, May 11, 2011
- ^ Daniel Sandford, BBC News: "Russians tire of corruption spectacle", http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15972326
- ^ http://hetivalasz.hu/english_world_affairs/its-ugly-but-it-was-ours-25964
- ^ http://navalny.livejournal.com/609880.html
- ^ http://themoscownews.com/business/20110221/188433935.html
- ^ Ioffe, Julia, "Russian Elections: Faking It", The New Yorker blogpost, December 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
- ^ Ioffe, Julia, "Putin’s Big Mistake?", The New Yorker blogpost, December 6, 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
- ^ Vladimir Putin's persecution campaign targets protest couple, Guardian, retrieved 17/12/2011
- ^ "The Blog on Navalny in English". LiveJournal. http://navalny-en.livejournal.com. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
- ^ Elder, Miriam, "Medvedev 'tweet' sends the Russian blogosphere into a frenzy", The Guardian, 7 December 2011 10.53 EST.
- ^ a b Guy Faulconbridge, Reuters, "Navalny challenges Putin after leaving Russian jail" December 20, 2011
- ^ Weir, Fred, "Huge protest demanding fair Russian elections hits Moscow", Christian Science Monitor, December 24, 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-25.
- ^ "Russia election: Police arrest 550 at city protests". BBC News. March 5, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17265820.
- ^ Police keep anti-Putin protesters on the run, Associated Press, May 8, 2012.
- ^ "Amnesty Calls Navalny, Udaltsov 'Prisoners Of Conscience'". Radio Free Europe. 18 May 2012. http://www.rferl.org/content/amnesty-navalny-udaltsov-prisoners-of-conscience/24584838.html. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
- ^ "The World Fellows: Alexey Navalny". Yale University. http://www.yale.edu/worldfellows/fellows/navalny.html. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
Links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alexey Navalny |
- Navalny's site (Russian)
- Navalny's blog (Russian)
- Navalny's blog translated to English, since 6-Dec-2011 (English)
- His project to fight corruption (Russian)
- Ioffe, Julia, "Net Impact: One man’s cyber-crusade against Russian corruption", The New Yorker, 2011-04-04.
- Navalny at Yale World Fellows program
- Photos of Alexey Navalny
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Navalny, Alexey |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | June 4, 1976 |
| Place of birth | Butyn, Odintsovsky District, Moscow Oblast |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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http://fr.wn.com/Alexeï Navalny
http://de.wn.com/Alexei Anatoljewitsch Nawalny
http://pl.wn.com/Aleksiej Nawalny
http://cs.wn.com/Alexej Navalnyj
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexey_Navalny
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
