Tigris

Tuesday, 08 January 2013

Mezarkabul(Pentagram)-Tigris+Bir(2007 Bostanci Live)

38-Hitler haborus fegyverei - A Tigris.avi

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Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (/ɨˈdʒiːən/; Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος, Egeo Pelagos [eˈʝeo ˈpelaɣos] ( listen); Turkish: Ege Denizi or historically Turkish: Adalar Denizi) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
The sea was traditionally known as Archipelago (in Greek, Αρχιπέλαγος, meaning "chief sea"), but in English this word's meaning has changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally, to any island group.
The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 square kilometres (83,000 sq mi) in area, and measures about 610 kilometres (380 mi) longitudinally and 300 kilometres (190 mi) latitudinally. The sea's maximum depth is 3,543 metres (11,624 ft), east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south (generally from west to east): Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes.

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Akkadian Empire
Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.1°N 44.1°E / 33.1; 44.1
The Akkadian Empire (Akkadian ^URUAkkad KI, Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad) was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade) and its surrounding region in Mesopotamia.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of its founder Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC). Under Sargon and his successors, Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though there are earlier Sumerian claimants.^{[citation needed]}
The precise archaeological site of the city of Akkad has not yet been found.^{[citation needed]} The form Agade appears in Sumerian, for example in the Sumerian King List; the later Assyro-Babylonian form Akkadû ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. The etymology and meaning of Akkad (written a.ga.dè^KI or URI^KI) are unknown. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus mentioned in his archaeological records that Ishtar's worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, whose shrine was at Sippar—suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern Baghdad. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading Gutians with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.

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Amarah
Amarah (Arabic: العمارة‎; BGN: Al ‘Amārah; also spelled Amara), is a city in southeastern Iraq, located on a low ridge next to the Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km from the border with Iran. It lies at the northern tip of the marshlands between the Tigris and Euphrates.
Predominantly Shia Muslim, it had a population of about 340,000 as of 2002 and about 420,000 as of 2005. It is the administrative capital of the Maysan province. A major trading center for the surrounding agricultural area, it is known for woven goods and silverware.
The city was founded in the 1860s as an Ottoman military outpost from which the empire tried to control the warring Banu Lam and Al Bu Muhammad tribes.
In 1915 Amarah was captured by the British. Before the revolution in 1958 Amarah was known for its feudal system with local estate-holders maintaining private militias.
During the eight year Iran–Iraq War, Amarah and the surrounding province became the sight of several battles, notably Operation Before the Dawn launched by Iran. Since the Baghdad-Basra highway cut through the province, Iran targeted the area due to its strategic significance to the Iraqis.

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Aras River
The Aras (also known as Araks, Arax, Araxi, Araxes, Araz, or Yeraskh; Armenian: Արաքս or Երասխ (Araqs or Erasx), Azerbaijani: Aras or Araz, ارس or آراز, Persian: ارس‎ (Aras), Turkish: Aras, Kurdish: Aras or Erez; Russian: Аракс; Latin: Aboras), is a river located in and along the countries of Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. Its total length is 1,072 kilometers (666 mi). Given its length and a basin that covers an area of 102,000 km², it is one of the largest rivers of the Caucasus.

The Aras River highlighted on a map of the Kura River watershed.
Aras River in Poldasht District border region.
Aras River from Iğdır.
Astronaut photograph of the Aras River.
See Ἀράξης for the origin of the Greek name.
The Aras River rises near Erzurum, Turkey. It meets with the Akhurian River southeast of Digor, flows along the Turkish-Armenian border, and then near a corridor that connects Turkey to Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan exclave. It then flows along the Iranian-Azerbaijan and the Iranian-Armenian border. The river then flows along the border between Iran and the main territory of the Azerbaijan to meet with the Kura River at the village of Sabirabad. It then directly flows into the Caspian Sea. About 101,937 km² of the Araz River basin is located in Azerbaijan.^{[citation needed]}

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Baghdad
Baghdad (Arabic: بغداد‎, Baġdād, IPA: [bæɣˈdæːd]) is the capital of Republic of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Province. The population of Baghdad as of 2011 is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran).
Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic World. This in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom) garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arabic culture.

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Bakırçay
Bakırçay (ancient name: Caicus, also Caecus; Greek: Καϊκός, transliterated as Kaïkos; formerly Astraeus) is the ancient name of a river of Asia Minor that rises in the Temnus mountains and flows through Lydia, Mysia, and Aeolis before it debouches into the Elatic Gulf. To the Hittites, it was the Seha river. The modern Turkish name of the river is Bakırçay (formerly the Aksu), and it is located in the Asian part of Turkey.
The river is first mentioned by Hesiod, who, along with the other poets, fixes the quantity of the penultimate syllable of Caicus. Plutarch relates that the name of the river was originally Astraeus but was changed after Caicus, a son of Hermes, threw himself into it after sleeping with his sister Alcippe.
Strabo (p. 616) says that the sources of the Caicus are in a plain separated by the range of Temnus from the plain of Apiae, and that the plain of Apia lies above the plain of Thebe in the interior. He adds that there also flows from Tetanus a river (the Mysius) which joins the Caicus below its source. The Caicus enters the sea approximately 12 km from Pitane, and 3 km from Elaea. Elaea was the port of Pergamon, which was on the Caicus, approximately 25 km from Elaea. At the source of the Caicus, according to Strabo, was a place called Gergitha.

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Bartın River
Bartın River (Bartın Çayı, ancient Parthenius, Parthenios), is a small river in east of Black Sea Region of Turkey. Its source is Ilgaz Mountains, in Kastamonu Province and Karabük Province, it flows to the north, passes through in Bartın and empties into the Black Sea near Boğaz village in a delta.
The last 14 kilometers on the Bartın River, between Bartın and Black Sea coast is navigable for vessels.
Coordinates: 41°41′N 32°15′E / 41.683°N 32.25°E / 41.683; 32.25

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Basra
Basra (Arabic: البصرة‎; BGN: Al Baṣrah) is the capital of Basra Governorate, in southern Iraq near Kuwait and Iran. It had an estimated population of two million as of 2009. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is handled at the port of Umm Qasr.
The city is part of the historic location of Sumer, the home of Sinbad the Sailor, and a proposed location of the Garden of Eden. It also played an important role in early Islamic history, being built in 636 CE, or 14 AH. It is Iraq's second largest and most populous city after Baghdad.
The city was called by many names throughout its history, Basrah being the most common. Although some Chaldean Christians argue that the name has Akkadian roots, other sources claim that the name is derived from the Persian word Bas-rah, which means "where many paths meet". During the pre-Islamic era, the area was known to the Arabs as al-Khariba due to the existence of an ancient city called al-Kharba. After the present city was built, it was called by many names, including "the mother of Iraq", "the reservoir of Arabs", "the prosperous city", and "al-Faiha".

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Batman River
The Batman River is a major tributary of the Tigris, joining it near the source of Tigris called Dicle River in southeast Turkey. It originates in the Anti-Taurus Mountains (at the Sason and Genç mountains) and flows approximately from north to south, passing near the city of Batman and forming a natural border between the Batman Province and Diyarbakır Province. The historic Malabadi Bridge (built in 1146–1147) crosses the river near the town of Silvan. The region along the Batman River is known for its oil fields. The Batman Dam (Turkish: Batman Baraji, B. de Batman on the map) was built in 1999 in the upstream (38°09′36″N 41°12′06″E / 38.160088°N 41.201574°E / 38.160088; 41.201574), together with the associated reservoir and hydroelectric power plant.
The river is widest at about 100 m right after exiting the dam, but then narrows to about 50 metres and forms numerous splits along its way to the Tigris. Its riverbed is irregular in many places that promotes flooding. A tributary of Batman, the Iluh River, originates in the Raman Mountain on the south of the Batman city and flows north-west through the city into the Batman River. Despite being a small river, absent on most maps, Iluh plays an important role for the province because its spring floods affect the provincial capital. The floods of Iluh and Batman rivers occur between March and May and sometimes in October–November. Major floods occurred in 1969 (April, 60 buildings damaged), 1972 (April and May, 210 buildings damaged), 1991 (November, 500 buildings flooded), 1995 (March, nearly 1000 buildings submerged and 450 damaged) and 2006 (October, 11 people died and 20 injured).

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Biga Çayı
The Biga River (Turkish: Biga Çayı) is a small river or large creek in Çanakkale Province in northwestern Turkey. The river begins at the base of Mount Ida and trends generally northeasterly to the Sea of Marmara. It is located approximately 50 km to the east of the Dardanelles. It flows past the towns of Çan and Biga and enters the Sea of Marmara at Karabiga. It is also known as the Can (Çan Çayı) and the Kocabas (Kocabaş Çayı)
The Biga was the classical Granicus (Ancient Greek: Γρανικὸς ποταμός, Granikòs Potamós).
The banks near the modern-day town of Biga were the site of the Battle of the Granicus, fought in 334 BC between the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great and the forces of the Persian Empire under Darius III. This was Alexander's first victory over the Persians. In antiquity, the river was described as having strong, turbulent current, with steep banks and varying depth.
There is also a valley named in its honor on Mars. The Granicus Valles is located at 29.72° N, 131.0° E and runs for 750 km.

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Bismil
Bismil is a district of Diyarbakır Province of Turkey. The population is 56,887 (as of 2010) and most of the people are Kurds. The mayor is Cemile Eminoğlu (BDP).
Historians have established that, in order to settle the influx of migrants from Konya in 1936, the sixth district of Diyarbakir was established It is a South-Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and is located on the east of the Diyarbakir province. The area of this district is 1748 sq.km. Geographically it is situated 550 meters above the sea level.
The town features numerous parks. The population is 56,887 (as of 2010). The mayor is Mr. Cemile Eminoğlu who belongs to the Peace and Democratic Party (BDP) of Turkey.

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Botan River
The Botan River (Turkish: Botan Çayı, Botan Suyu aka Uluçay) is a tributary of the Tigris River in Siirt Province of southeastern Turkey.
It originates in the high mountains west of the Nordüz Plateau, which form the border of Siirt Province to Hakkari and Van, and flows eastwards before it turns to the northwest. The river has shaped a canyon on its way. The altitude difference between the valley and the top of the mountains reaches about 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
The rivers Çatak and Büyükdere join it at Çukurca in Hakkari Province, after which it is named Botan Suyu (Uluçay). Running westwards by east of Aydınlar and Siirt, it reaches Bostancık locality. Here, the rivers Zorava and Bitlis join the Botan. Finally at Çattepe in Siirt Province, it joins the Tigris River, after which the Tigris sharply turns southwards.
The discharge of Botan River from spring to mid-summer averages about 100–300 m³/s (3,500–11,000 cu ft/s), while it reaches in April and June about 400–600 m³/s (14,000–21,000 cu ft/s, and in May it peaks at about 700–1,000 m³/s (25,000–35,000 cu ft/s and sometimes more. At this time, it looks much bigger than the Tigris River. At the end of summer or in the fall, its depth is not less than 1 metre (3.3 ft), and its outflow not less than around 60–80 m³/s (2,100–2,800 cu ft/s).

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Central Bank of Iraq
The Central Bank of Iraq (Arabic: البنك المركزي العراقي‎) is the central bank of Iraq.
The Central Bank of Iraq was established as Iraq's central bank by Central Bank of Iraq Law 2004 with authorised capital of 100 billion dinars. The current Governor of the Central Bank of Iraq is Sinan Al Shabibi.
The bank headquarters were designed by Danish architects Dissing+Weitling And completed in 1985. It is a cubical building constructed of reinforced concrete clad in marble. It has few exterior openings, and is instead organised around an inner courtyard which cuts through the heart of the structure and rises to a height of 40m. The courtyard is surrounded on all sides by offices separated by an interior glass curtain wall.
In August 2010, architect Zaha Hadid was appointed to design new headquarters for the Central Bank in Baghdad. Baghdad-born Zaha Hadid, was approached by the Iraqi authorities earlier that year; initial talks about the project were held in Istanbul on August 14, 2010 in the presence of Central Bank Governor Sinan Al-Shabibi.

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Ceyhan River
Ceyhan River (or historically Pyramos or Pyramus (Greek: Πύραμος), the Leucosyrus or Jihun in Anatolia in south of Turkey or Asia Minor
The Ceyhan River (Pyramus) has its source (known as Söğütlü Dere) at a location called Pınarbaşı 3 km on the Nurhak Mountains of the Eastern Taurus range, southeast of the town of Elbistan in the Kahramanmaraş province of Turkey . According to classical references its source is at Cataonia near the town of Arabissus. Its main tributaries are called Harman, Göksun, Mağara Gözü, Fırnız, Tekir, Körsulu, Aksu (which joins Ceyhan at on the outskirts of Kahramanmaraş), Çakur, Susas, Çeperce. Its total length is 509 km or 316 miles.
In classical times for a time it passed under ground, but then came forward again as a navigable river, and forced its way through a glen of Mount Taurus, which in some parts was so narrow that Strabo claims a god can leap across it. Its course, which to this point had been south, then turned to the southwest, and reached the sea. The river was deep and rapid ; its average breadth was 1 stadium.

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Cizre
Cizre (pronounced [dʒizˈɾe]; Kurdish: Botan or Cizîr, Classical Syriac: ܓܙܝܼܪܵܐ‎ Gzira/Gziro) is a town and district of Şırnak Province in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, located at the border to Syria, just to the north-west of the Turkish-Syrian-Iraqi tripoint. It is populated by a majority of Kurds and Assyrian/Syriac people in addition to Arabs.^{[citation needed]} It is surrounded by the Tigris from the North, East and South, which has given it its name, which means island in Arabic.
Cizre is historical Jazīrat ibn ʿUmar (or Jezira ibn Umar or Gazarta) Arabic: جزيرة ابن عمر‎, an important town during the Abbasid period and the Crusades as a gateway connecting Upper Mesopotamia to Armenia. During the Early Iron Age, Cizre was in the kingdom of Kumme, north of Assyria. In classical antiquity, it was located in Corduene (Kardu). In 19th century scholarship, it was often named as the location of Alexander's crossing of the Tigris in 331 BC, further identified with the Roman stronghold of Bezabde although Stein (1942) is sceptical of this.

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Ctesiphon
Coordinates: 33°05′37″N 44°34′50″E / 33.09361°N 44.58056°E / 33.09361; 44.58056 Ctesiphon /tɛsɨfɒn/, the imperial capital of the Parthian Arsacids and of the Persian Sassanids, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia.
The ruins of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. Today, the remains of the city lies in Baghdad Governorate, Iraq, approximately 35 km south of the city of Baghdad.
The Latin name Ctesiphon or Ctesifon derives from Greek Ktēsiphōn (Κτησιφῶν), a Hellenized form of a local name that has been reconstructed as Tosfōn or Tosbōn. In Iranian sources of the Sassanid period it is attested in Manichean Parthian, in Sassanid Middle Persian and in Christian Sogdian as Pahlavi tyspwn, continuing in New Persian as Tisfun (تيسفون). Syriac sources mention it as ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ Qṭēsfōn, and in medieval Arabic texts the name is usually Ṭaysafūn (طيسفون) or Qaṭaysfūn (قطيسفون), in Modern Arabic al-Mada'in (المدائن). "According to Yāqūt [...], quoting Ḥamza, the original form was Ṭūsfūn or Tūsfūn, which was arabicized as Ṭaysafūn." The Armenian name of the city was Tizbon (Տիզբոն). Ctesiphon is first mentioned in the Book of Ezra of the Old Testament as Kasfia/Casphia (a derivative of the ethnic name, Cas, and a cognate of Caspian and Qazvin).

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Diyala River
The Diyala River after Darban-e Khan Dam:Kurdish: Sirwan, سيروان, Arabic: نهر ديالى‎, Persian: سیروان دیاله, is a river and tributary of the Tigris that runs mainly through Eastern Iraq but also Western Iran. It covers a total distance of 445 km (277 mi).
It rises near Sanandaj, in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. It then descends through the mountains, where for some 32 km it forms the border between the two countries. It finally feeds into the Tigris below Baghdad.
Its origin in Kurdish and Persian is called "Sirwan", meaning 'roaring sea' or 'shouting river', as well as being the name of an ancient city near Ilam city in Iran.
Navigation of the upper reaches of the Diyala is not possible because of its narrow defiles, but the river's valley provides an important trade route between Iran and Iraq.
The river is controlled by the Diyala Weir on the lower Diyala valley, which controls floods and irrigates the area northeast of Baghdad.
The Diyala Governorate in Iraq is named after the river.
Coordinates: 33°13′15″N 44°30′23″E / 33.2208°N 44.5064°E / 33.2208; 44.5064

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Diyarbakır
Diyarbakır (Ottoman Turkish دیاربکر, Diyâr-ı Bekr; Armenian: Դիարբեքիր, Diarbeqir; Kurdish ئامه‌د, Amed; anc. Amida; Syriac: ܐܡܝܕ, Amid ) is one of the largest cities in southeastern Turkey. Situated on the banks of the River Tigris, it is the administrative capital of the Diyarbakır Province and with a population of about 843,460 it is the second largest city in Turkey's South-eastern Anatolia region, after Gaziantep. Within Turkey.
The name of the city is inscribed as Amid on the sheath of a sword from the Assyrian period, and the same name was used in other contemporary Syriac and Arabic works. The Romans and Byzantines called the city Amida. Among the Artukid and Akkoyunlu it was known as "Black Amid" (Kara Amid) for the dark color of its walls, while in the Zafername, or eulogies in praise of military victories, it is called "Black Fortress" (Kara Kale). In the Book of Dede Korkut and some other Turkish works it appears as Kara Hamid.
Following the Arab conquests in the 7th century, the Arab Bekr tribe occupied this region, which became known as became known as the Diyar-ı Bekir (landholdings of the Bekr tribe). In 1937, Atatürk had the city renamed Diyarbakır, which remains its current name.

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Elam
Elam was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province, as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam is a transcription from Biblical Hebrew, corresponding to the Sumerian elam(a), the Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the ancient near east. In classical literature, Elam was more often referred to as Susiana, a name derived from its capital, Susa.
Situated just to the east of Mesopotamia, Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Mesopotamian history where writing was used slightly earlier. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire, especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally treated as an isolate language.

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Gediz River
The Gediz River (Turkish: Gediz Nehri, Turkish pronunciation: [ˈɟediz]) is the second-largest river in Anatolia flowing into the Aegean Sea. The ancient names Hermos and Hermus are sometimes still used.
The ancient name of the river was Hermos (Ἕρμος) or Hermus.
The name of the river Gediz may be related to the Lydian proper name Cadys; Gediz is also the name of a town near the river's sources. The name "Gediz" may also be encountered as a male name in Turkey.</ref>
The Hermos separated Aeolia from Ionia, except for Ionic Phocaea, which was north of the Hermos. The valley of the Hermos was the heartland of the ancient Lydian Empire and overlooking the valley was the Lydian capital Sardis.
In Turkey's Aegean Region, Gediz River's length is second only to Büyük Menderes River whose flow is roughly parallel at a distance of slightly more than a hundred kilometers to the south.
Gediz River rises from Murat Mountain and Şaphane Mountain in Kütahya Province and flows through Uşak, Manisa and İzmir Provinces. It joins the sea in the northern section of the Gulf of Izmir, close to the gulf's mouth, near the village of Maltepe in Menemen district, south of the coastal town of Foça.

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Geography of Iraq
The geography of Iraq is diverse and falls into four main regions: the desert (west of the Euphrates), Upper Mesopotamia (between the upper Tigris and Euphratesh rivers), the northern highlands of Iraqi Kurdistan, and Lower Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain extending from around Tikrit to the Persian Gulf.
The mountains in the northeast are an extension of the alpine system that runs eastward from the Balkans through southern Turkey, northern Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, eventually reaching the Himalayas. The desert is in the southwest and central provinces along the borders with Saudi Arabia and Jordan and geographically belongs with the Arabian Peninsula.
Iraq holds a special distinction in the history of geography: a clay tablet generally accepted as "the earliest known map" was unearthed in 1930 during the excavation of Ga-Sur at Nuzi Yorghan Tepe, near the towns of Harran and Kirkuk, 200 miles (322 km) north of the site of Babylon. The tablet, measuring 6.8 × 7.6 in (173 × 193 mm), is usually dated from the dynasty of Sargon of Akkad between 2500-2300 BC; an even earlier date for the tablet was promulgated by archeologist Leo Bagrow, placing it in the Agade Period (3800 BC).

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Göksu
The Göksu (also called Geuk Su, Goksu Nehri, Saleph, Calycadnus) is a river in Taşeli Peninsula (Turkey). Both its sources arise in the Taurus Mountains—the northern in the Geyik Mountains and the southern in the Haydar Mountains. Their confluence is south of Mut.
The river is 260 km long and empties into the Mediterranean Sea 16 km southeast of Silifke (in Mersin province). The delta of the Göksu, including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon, is one of the most important breeding areas in the Near East; over 300 bird species have been observed. Among others, flamingos, herons, bee-eaters, kingfishers, gulls, nightingales and warblers breed here. The endangered Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) lays eggs here.
Due to demand for summer vacation apartments by the locals, and since necessary precautions are not taken and public attention is minimal in this part of Turkey, the ecosystem around Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon is in heavy danger.
In 1190, while on the Third Crusade, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick Barbarossa) fell off his horse and drowned in the river, then known as Saleph. A monument in his honor may be found on the Silifke-Mut road. Coordinates: 36°17′45.6″N 34°2′52.8″E / 36.296°N 34.048°E / 36.296; 34.048

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Hamrin Mountains
The Hamrin Mountains (Arabic: جبل حمرين Jabāl Hamrīn, Kurdish: Çiyay Hemrîn) are a small mountain ridge in northeast Iraq. The westernmost ripple of the greater Zagros mountains; the Hamrin mountains extend from the Diyala Province bordering Iran, northwest to the Tigris river; crossing northern Salah ad Din Province and southern Kirkuk Province.
In antiquity, the mountains were part of the frontier region between Babylonia to the south and Assyria to the north. In medieval times, Babylonia and Assyria became linguistically Arabicized and Kurdicized respectively, and today the area forms part of the linguistic boundary between most of Arabic-speaking Iraq and Kurdish-speaking Iraq.
Coordinates: 35°01′57″N 43°38′47″E / 35.0325°N 43.6463889°E / 35.0325; 43.6463889

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Hasankeyf
Hasankeyf (Kurdish: Heskîf, Greek: Kiphas, Turkish: Hasankeyf, Latin: Cepha, from Syriac: ܚܨܢ ܟܐܦܐ Ḥéṣn Kayfa) is an ancient town and district located along the Tigris River in the Batman Province in southeastern Turkey. It was declared a natural conservation area by Turkey in 1981. Predominantly Armenian and Arab before, a steady and significant Kurdish immigration from surrounding villages in the last 20-30 years - combined with the effects of the Armenian and Assyrian Genocide - has shifted the ethnic balance. Kurdish people form the majority of the city centre today.
Much of the city and its archeological sites are at risk of being flooded with the completion of the Ilisu Dam.
Hasankeyf is an ancient city, and has been identified with the Ilanṣura of the Mari Tablet (c. 1800 BC). The Romans had built the Cephe fortress on the site and the city became the Kiphas fortress and a bishopric under the Byzantine Empire. It was conquered by the Arabs, in ca. 640, renamed Hisn Kayf. In the 12th century, the city was successively captured by the Artukids as their capital. During this period, Hasankeyf's golden age, the Artukids and Ayyubids built the Old Tigris Bridge, the Small Palace and the Great Palace. The infrastructure, location and significance of the city helped increase trade and made Hasankeyf a staging post on the Silk Road. The Ayyubids (descendants of Saladin) captured the city in 1232 and built the mosques that made Hasankeyf an important Islamic center.

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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (ⁱ/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران‎ [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.

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Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ or ⁱ/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق‎ al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.

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Iraqi Kurdistan
Iraqi Kurdistan or Kurdistan Region (Kurdish: هه‌رێمی کوردستان‎‎, Herêmî Kurdistan; Arabic: إقليم كردستان العراق‎ Iqlīm Kurdistān al-‘Irāq) is an autonomous region of Iraq. It borders Iran to the east, Turkey to the north, Syria to the west and the rest of Iraq to the south. The regional capital is Arbil, known in Kurdish as Hewlêr. The region is officially governed by the Kurdistan Regional Government.
The establishment of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq dates back to the March 1970 autonomy agreement between the Kurdish opposition and the Iraqi government after years of heavy fighting. The Iran-Iraq war during the 1980s and the Anfal genocide campaign of the Iraqi army devastated the population and nature of Iraqi Kurdistan. Following the 1991 uprising of the Iraqi people against Saddam Hussein, many Kurds were forced to flee the country to become refugees in bordering regions of Iran and Turkey. A northern no-fly zone was established following the First Gulf War in 1991 to facilitate the return of Kurdish refugees. As Kurds continued to fight government troops, Iraqi forces finally left Kurdistan in October 1991, leaving the region to function de facto independently; however, neither of the two major Kurdish parties had at any time declared independence and Iraqi Kurdistan continues to view itself as an integral part of a united Iraq but one in which it administers its own affairs. The 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent political changes led to the ratification of a new Constitution of Iraq in 2005. The new Iraqi constitution defines Iraqi Kurdistan as a federal entity of Iraq, and establishes Arabic and Kurdish as Iraq's joint official languages.

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Jemdet Nasr period
The Jemdet Nasr period is an archaeological culture in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) that is generally dated to 3100–2900 BCE. It is named after the type-site Jemdet Nasr, where the assemblage typical for this period was first recognized. Its geographical distribution is limited to south–central Iraq. The culture of the proto-historical Jemdet Nasr period is a local development out of the preceding Uruk period and continues into the Early Dynastic I period.

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Kadhimiya
al-Kāżimiyyah (Arabic: الكاظمية‎ al-Kāżimiyyah; alternatively, Arabic: الكاظمين‎ al-Kāżimayn), is a town located in what is now a northern neighbourhood of Baghdad, Iraq about five kilometres from the city center. Al-Kāżimiyyah is one of nine administrative districts in Baghdad.
Al-Kāżimayn is regarded as a holy city in Shī‘ah Islām. It received its name (lit. "the Two Kāżims" or "the Two who swallow their anger"), for the two Shī‘ah Imāms buried there: Mūsā al-Kādhim and his grandson and successor Shī‘ah Imām Muhammad at-Taqī. A shrine was first built over their tombs, and subsequently the al-Kadhimiya Mosque.
The area that now constitutes al-Kāżimiyyah was originally the location of a graveyard reserved for members of the Quraish tribe. This land was set aside for this purpose by the Abbasid caliph, Harun al-Rashid.
In its early history, the town was an important center of Shia learning, perhaps the main center, but over time the town declined, and other cities rose to prominence. The location of the city has lent it to numerous plunders, that have resulted in damage to its shrines at different times in history. Among the most damage ever experienced by the town was after the Mongol sack of Baghdad where the shrine of the Shia Imams was burnt down. The area was also an important center of resistance against the British after World War I.

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Kut
Al-Kūt (Arabic: الكوت‎; BGN: Al Kūt; also spelled Kut-Al-Imara or Kut El Amara, Kurdish: Kût) is a kurdish city in eastern Iraq, on the left bank of the Tigris River, about 160 kilometres (100 mi) south east of Baghdad. As of 2003^[update] the estimated population is about 374,000 people. It is the capital of the province long known as Al Kut, but since the 1960s renamed Wasit.
The old town of Kut is within a sharp "U" bend of the river, almost making it an island but for a narrow connection to the shore. For centuries Kut was a regional center of the carpet trade. The area around Kut is a fertile cereal grain growing region. The Kut Barrage was constructed in the city in the 1930s to provide irrigation water for the surrounding area. The Baghdad Nuclear Research Facility, looted following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, is located near Kut.
The Kut Barrage is a barrage on the Tigris river, located in the modern town of Kut in Wasit Governorate, Iraq. It is 516 metres (1,693 ft) long, 10.5 metres (34 ft) high and consists of 56 gates, each 6 metres (20 ft) wide. The maximum discharge of the barrage is 6,000 cubic metres (7,800 cu yd), but actual discharge has not exceeded 2,000 cubic metres (2,600 cu yd) in the last 10 years. The barrage supports a road and includes a lock for boats passing up and down the Tigris. Its purpose is to maintain a sufficiently high water level in the Tigris to provide water for the Gharraf irrigation canal, which branches off the Tigris just upstream from the Kut Barrage. Before the construction of the Kut Barrage, the Gharraf canal only received water during periods of flood in the Tigris. The water level in the canal is maintained by the Gharraf Head Regulator, which was constructed at the same time as the Kut Barrage.

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Lagash
Coordinates: 31°24′41″N 46°24′26″E / 31.41139°N 46.40722°E / 31.41139; 46.40722
Lagash (Sumerian: Lagaš^ki; cuneiform logogram: 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠, [NU₁₁.BUR].LA^KI or [ŠIR.BUR].LA^KI, "storehouse;"Akkadian: Nakamtu; modern Tell al-Hiba, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq) is located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about 22 kilometres (14 mi) east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah. Lagash was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East. The ancient site of Surghul/Nina is around 6 miles (9.7 km) away. Nearby Girsu, about 25 km (16 mi) northwest of Al-Hiba, was the religious center of the Lagash state. Lagash's temple was E-Ninnu, dedicated to the god Ningirsu.
From inscriptions found at Girsu such as the Gudea cylinders, it appears that Lagash was an important Sumerian city in the late 3rd millennium BC. It was at that time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nanshe (24th century BC) and his successors, who were engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of "Kienĝir" and Kish on the north. Some of the earlier works from before the Akkadian conquest are also extremely interesting, in particular Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures and Entemena's great silver vase ornamented with Ningirsu's sacred animal Anzu: a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, grasping a lion in each talon. With the Akkadian conquest Lagash lost its independence, its ruler or ensi becoming a vassal of Sargon of Akkad and his successors; but Lagash continued to be a city of much importance and above all, a centre of artistic development.

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Limonlu Çayı
The Lamus also Lamos, ( now the Turkish: Lamas or Limonlu Çayı) river is a river of ancient Cilicia, now in Mersin Province, Turkey. The river formed the boundary between Cilicia Campestris and Cilicia Trachea, and later between Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Propria. At its mouth was the city Antiochia Lamotis, earlier Lamos, formerly the capital of the surrounding region, the Lamotis. [1] (Alexander Polyhistor cited by Stephanus of Byzantium, Ptolemy Book V, ch. 8, § 6; Strabo, Geography, 14.5.6-7)
Coordinates: 36°35′N 34°16′E / 36.583°N 34.267°E / 36.583; 34.267

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Manavgat River
Manavgat River originates on the eastern slopes of Western Taurus Mountains in Turkey, and flows south over conglomerated strata for about 90 km, then over the Manavgat Waterfall and though the coastal plain and into the Mediterranean Sea. There are many caves in the river watershed area, the most interesting being the Altınbeşik cave.
The maximum flow of the Manavgat River is 500 m³/second, with an average of 147 m³/second. Using the average flow as a measure, the Manavgat River accounts for a very small amount ot the water flowing into the Mediterranean. There are two dams over the river: Oymapınar Dam and the Manavgat Dam. Studies have shown that water drains into the Manavgat River basin from its surface watershed and also from endorheic basins, especially those to the east of the river.
In 1992, the Turkish State Hydraulics Work (DSI) was given the job of developing a water supply project for domestic use from the Manavgat river.
Coordinates: 36°43′N 31°28′E / 36.717°N 31.467°E / 36.717; 31.467

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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.

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Mesopotamian Marshes
The Mesopotamian Marshes are a wetland area located in southern Iraq and partially in southwestern Iran. Historically the marshlands, mainly composed of the separate but adjacent Central, Hawizeh and Hammar Marshes, used to be the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. It is a rare aquatic landscape in the desert, providing habitat for the Marsh Arabs and important populations of wildlife. Draining of portions of the marshes began in the 1950s and continued through the 1970s to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. However, in the late 1980s and 1990s, during the presidency of Saddam Hussein, this work was expanded and accelerated to evict Shia Muslims from the marshes. Before 2003, the marshes were drained to 10% of their original size. After the fall of Saddam's regime in 2003, the marshes have partially recovered but drought along with upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey, Syria and Iran have hindered the process.
In the 4th millennium BC the first literate societies emerged in Southern Mesopotamia, often referred to as the Cradle of Civilization, and the first cities and complex state bureaucracies were developed there during the Uruk period. Due to the geographical location and the ecological factors of the Fertile Crescent, a crescent-shape fertile area running from the basins of the Nile in Egypt, northwards along the Mediterranean coast in Palestine and Israel, and southwards again along the Euphrates and the Tigris towards the Persian Gulf, civilizations were able to develop agricultural and technological programmes. The crucial trigger was the availability of wild edible plant species. Farming arose early in the Fertile Crescent because the area had a great quantity of wild wheat and pulse species that were nutritious and easy to domesticate.

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Mosul
Coordinates: 36°20′N 43°08′E / 36.34°N 43.13°E / 36.34; 43.13
Mosul (Arabic: الموصل‎ al-Mawṣil; North Mesopotamian Arabic: el-Mōṣul; Syriac: ܢܝܢܘܐ Nînwe; Kurdish: Mûsil/Nînewe; Turkish: Musul), is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Nineveh Province, some 400 km (250 mi) northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial areas on both banks, with five bridges linking the two sides. The majority of its population is Arab (with Assyrians, Turcoman and Kurdish minorities). It is Iraq's third largest city after Baghdad and Basra.
The fabric Muslin, long manufactured here, is named after this city. Another historically important product of the area is Mosul marble.
In 1987, the city's population was 664,221 people; the 2002 population estimate was 1,740,000, and by 2008 was estimated to be 1,800,000. People from Mosul are called Maslawis.

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Nineveh
Coordinates: 36°21′34″N 43°09′10″E / 36.35944°N 43.15278°E / 36.35944; 43.15278
Nineveh (English pronunciation: /ˈnɪn.ɪv.ə/; Akkadian: Ninwe; Classical Syriac: ܢܸܢܘܵܐ‎; Hebrew: נינוה‎ Nīnewē; Greek: Νινευη Nineuē; Latin: Nineve; Arabic: نينوى‎ Naynuwa; Persian: نینوا‎ Nainavā) was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and capital of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, in the Ninawa Governorate of Iraq.
The origin of the name Nineveh is obscure. Possibly it meant originally the seat of Ishtar, since Nina was one of the Babylonian names of that goddess. The ideogram means "house or place of fish," and was perhaps due to popular etymology (comp. Aramaic "nuna," denoting "fish").
Ancient Nineveh's mound-ruins of Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus are located on a level part of the plain near the junction of the Tigris and the Khosr Rivers within a 7 km² (1732 acres) area circumscribed by a 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) brick rampart. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul.

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Orontes River
The Orontes (^{[pronunciation?]}; Ὀρόντης) or ‘Āṣī (Arabic: العاصي, Turkish: Asi) is a river of Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.
It was anciently the chief river of the Levant, also called Draco, Typhon and Axius. The last was a native form, from whose revival, or continuous employment in native speech, has preceded the modern name ‘Āṣī ("rebel"), because the river flows from the south to the north unlike the rest of the rivers in the region^{[citation needed]}.
The name Orontes is the Hellenized form of the Iranic (possibly Kurdish) term Harawanta/Harawand/Alwand, meaning "Of greatness, mighty".^{[citation needed]} There are many other rivers and mountains by this same Iranic name in the general area of the Fertile Crescent. These include the Alwand River on Iran-Iraq borders, east of Baghdad, and Mount Alvand to the east of the same river. The name of the eponymous Armenian dynasty, the Orontids springs from the same lexical roots.
The Orontes rises in the great springs of Labweh on the east side of the Beqaa Valley, very near the fountains of the southward-flowing Litani, and it runs due north, parallel with the coast, falling 2000 feet (600 m) through a rocky gorge. Leaving this it expands into the Lake of Homs, having been dammed back in antiquity. The valley now widens out into the rich district of Hamah (Hamaih-Epiphaneia), below which lie the broad meadow-lands of Amykes, containing the sites of ancient Apamea and Larissa. This central Orontes valley ends at the rocky barrier of Jisr al-Hadid, where the river is diverted to the west, and the plain of Antioch opens.

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Parthian Empire
The Parthian (pronounced /ˈpɑrθiən/) Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid (/ˈɑrsəsɪd/) Empire (Modern Persian: اشکانیان Ashkāniān), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Persia. Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who, as leader of the Parni tribe, founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the Parthia region in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I of Parthia (r. c. 171–138 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now south-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.

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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.

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Sakarya River
The Sakarya (Turkish: Sakarya Irmağı) is a river in Turkey. It is the third longest river of Turkey, and runs through what in ancient times was known as Phrygia.
The source of the river is the Bayat Yaylası (Bayat Plateau) which is located to the northeast of Afyon. Joined by the Porsuk Çayı (Porsuk Creek) close by the town of Polatlı, the river runs through the Adapazarı Ovası (Adapazarı Plains) before reaching the Black Sea. The Sakarya was once crossed by the Sangarius Bridge, constructed by the East Roman Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565).
In the Middle Ages, the valley of the Sakarya was the home of the Söğüt tribe, which went on to establish the Ottoman Empire.
Coordinates: 41°07′35″N 30°38′56″E / 41.1264°N 30.6489°E / 41.1264; 30.6489

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Samarra
Sāmarrā (Arabic: سامَرّاء‎) is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad-Din Governorate, 125 kilometers (78 mi) north of Baghdad and, in 2003, had an estimated population of 348,700.
Medieval Islamic writers believed that the name “Samarra” is derived from the Arabic phrase “Sarra man ra’a” (Arabic: سر من رأى‎), which translates to “A joy for all who see”. Later when the city declined the name changed to “Sa'a man ra’a” (Arabic: ساء من رأى‎), which translates to “A sadness for all who see”. Eventually the two names merged to its current form Samarra' (Arabic: سامَرّاء‎).
In 2007, UNESCO named Samarra one of its World Heritage Sites.
The remains of ancient Samarra were first excavated between 1911 and 1914 by the German Archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld. Since 1946, the notebooks, letters, unpublished excavation reports and photographs have been in the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, DC.
Though the present archaeological site covered by mudbrick ruins is vast, the site of Samarra was only lightly occupied in ancient times, apart from the Chalcolithic Samarran Culture (ca 5500–4800 BC) identified at the rich site of Tell Sawwan, where evidence of irrigation—including flax— establishes the presence of a prosperous settled culture with a highly organized social structure. The culture is primarily known by its finely-made pottery decorated against dark-fired backgrounds with stylized figures of animals and birds and geometric designs. This widely-exported type of pottery, one of the first widespread, relatively uniform pottery styles in the Ancient Near East, was first recognized at Samarra. The Samarran Culture was the precursor to the Mesopotamian culture of the Ubaid period.

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Seyhan River
Coordinates: 36°59′18″N 35°20′5″E / 36.98833°N 35.33472°E / 36.98833; 35.33472
The Seyhan River (formerly written Seihan, Sihun; ancient name: Σάρος, Sarus) is the longest river in Turkey that is flowing into Mediterranean Sea. The river is 560 km and flows southwest from its headwaters in the Tahtalı-Mountains (provinces Sivas and Kayseri) in Anti-Taurus Mountains to the Mediterranean Sea via a broad delta. Its main tributaries are Zamantı and Göksu which unite in Aladağ, Adana to form Seyhan River. Zamantı River originates from Uzun Plateau in Pınarbaşı, Kayseri and crosses Tomarza, Develi and Yahyalı districts of Kayseri.
In ancient times, it was called the Sarus, and its plain was called the Cilician plain.
50 km from its mouth, Seyhan River flows through the city of Adana, the only settlement situated on the river. Several bridges and footbridges cross the river in Adana including Stone Bridge, a 4th century Roman bridge. The river meets Mediterranean Sea at Cape Deli.
The major Seyhan Dam upstream of Adana serves for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and flood control. Yedigöze and Çatalan are the other dams on Seyhan river which also serve the same purposes.

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Simav River
The Simav (Turkish: Simav Çayı) or Susurluk River (Susurluk Çayı) is a river in Anatolian Turkey. Its course is 321 km long and its basin comprises 22 400 km². It was the classical Macestus (^{[pronunciation?]}; Greek: Μέκεστος, Mékestos). In the 19th century, it was known as the Mikalick.
The Simav has its source in Kütahya Province, from which it flows north across the plain of Simav into Balıkesir Province. There is a reservoir at the Çaygören Dam, out of which the Simav flows past Susurluk and meets the Adirnas. During the classical period, the Macestus was a tributary of the Rhyndacus (the modern Adirnas), but today the Simav forms the main course from their confluence near Karacabey down to the Sea of Marmara. Along the way, it meets the Nilüfer River (the classical Odrysses).
Its mouth faces the island of Imrali, a high-security prison.
Coordinates: 39°N 29°E / 39°N 29°E / 39; 29

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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية‎ Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎ al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).

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Syrian Desert
The Syrian Desert (Arabic: بادية الشام, bādiyat ash-shām‎), also known as the Syro-Arabian desert is a combination of steppe and true desert that is located in the northern Arabian Peninsula covering 200,000 square miles (over 500,000 square kilometers). The desert is very rocky and flat.
The Syrian desert is part of the Al-Hamad, which covers portions of Syria, Iraq, Jordan,and Saudi Arabia. Its border on the west is the Orontes Valley, and its border on the east is the Euphrates. In the north, the desert gives way to the more fertile areas of grass. In the south, it runs into the deserts of the southern Arabian Peninsula. Many mini-deserts exist in the Syrian Desert such as Palmyra. Damascus is located on an oasis. The desert's remarkable landscape was formed by lava flows from the volcanic region of the Jebel Druze in southern Syria. The Syrian Desert is the origin of the Syrian hamster.
The desert was historically inhabited by bedouin tribes, and many tribes still remain in the region, their members living mainly in towns and settlements built near oases. Some bedouin still maintain their traditional way of life in the desert. Safaitic inscriptions, proto-Arabic texts written by literate bedouin, are found throughout the Syrian Desert. These date approximately from the 1st century B.C. to the 4th century A.D.

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Terme River
The Terme River (Turkish: Terme Çayı; Greek: Θερμώδων, Thermōdōn) is in the border of Terme district, located in central northern Turkey between the cities of Ordu and Samsun. The river flows about 50 km east of the coastal city Samsun into the Black Sea.
The region consists of a fertile, rather secluded, plain. High mountains can be found to the south and east, and the Yeşil River flows in the west.
In Greek mythology, the legendary capital of the Amazons, Themiscyra, was found on the river Thermodon.
Coordinates: 41°12′N 37°02′E / 41.2°N 37.033°E / 41.2; 37.033

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Tigris
The Tigris River (/ˈtaɪɡrɪs/; Arabic: دجله) is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.
The Tigris is 1,850 km long, rising in the Taurus Mountains of eastern Turkey about 25 km southeast of the city of Elazig and about 30 km from the headwaters of the Euphrates. The river then flows for 400 km through Turkish territory before becoming the border between Syria and Turkey. This stretch of 44 km is the only part of the river that is located in Syria. The remaining 1,418 km are entirely within the Iraqi borders.
The Tigris unites with the Euphrates near Basra, and from this junction to the Persian Gulf the mass of moving water is known as the Shatt-al-Arab. According to Pliny and other ancient historians, the Euphrates originally had its outlet into the sea separate from that of the Tigris.
Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, stands on the banks of the Tigris. The port city of Basra straddles the Shatt al-Arab. In ancient times, many of the great cities of Mesopotamia stood on or near the Tigris, drawing water from it to irrigate the civilization of the Sumerians. Notable Tigris-side cities included Nineveh, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, while the city of Lagash was irrigated by the Tigris via a canal dug around 2400 BC.

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Tikrit
Tikrit (Arabic: تكريت‎, Tikrīt also transliterated as Takrit or Tekrit) is a town in Iraq, located 140 km northwest of Baghdad on the Tigris river (at 34.61°N, 43.68°E). The town, with an estimated population in 2002 of about 260,000 is the administrative center of the Salah ad Din Governorate.
As a fort along the Tigris (Akkadian: Idiqlat), the town is first mentioned in the Fall of Assyria Chronicle as being a refuge for the Babylonian king Nabopolassar during his attack on the city of Assur in 615 BC.
Tikrit is usually identified with the Hellenistic settlement Birtha. As Tagrit, it was the seat of the Maphrian of the Monophysites.
Over a thousand years ago, it possessed a fortress and a large Christian monastery. It was renowned as a centre for the production of woolen textiles. The Arab Uqaylid Dynasty took hold of Tikrit in 1036.
Around 1138, the legendary leader Saladin was born there; his many achievements include defending Egypt against the Christian Crusaders and recapturing Jerusalem in 1187. The modern province of which Tikrit is the capital is named after him.

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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.

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Umm Qasr
Umm Qasr (Arabic: أم قصر‎, also transliterated as : Um-qasir, Um-qasser), is a port city in southern Iraq. It stands on the canalised Khawr az-Zubayr, part of the Khawr Abd Allah estuary which leads to the Persian Gulf. It is separated from the border of Kuwait by a small inlet. A bridge across the waterway linked the port with Kuwait prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
Umm Qasr was originally a small fishing town, but was used as a military port on several occasions before advancing trades and jobs by building a deep-water port on the coast. It was said to have been the site of Alexander the Great's landing in Mesopotamia in 325 BC. During the Second World War a temporary port was established there by the Allies to unload supplies to dispatch to the Soviet Union. It fell back into obscurity after the war, but the government of King Faisal II sought to establish a permanent port there in the 1950s.
After the Iraqi Revolution of 1958, a naval base was established at Umm Qasr. The port was subsequently founded in 1961 by the Iraqi ruler General Abdul-Karim Qassem. It was intended to serve as Iraq's only "deep water" port, reducing the country's dependence on the disputed Shatt al-Arab waterway that marks the border with Iran. The port facilities were built by a consortium of companies from West Germany, Sweden and Lebanon, with a railway line connecting it to Basra and Baghdad. The port opened for business in July 1967.

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Ur
Coordinates: 30°57′45″N 46°06′11″E / 30.9625°N 46.10306°E / 30.9625; 46.10306 Ur (Sumerian: Urim;Sumerian Cuneiform: 𒋀𒀕𒆠 URIM₂^KI or 𒋀𒀊𒆠 URIM₅^KI;Akkadian: Uru) was an important city-state in ancient Sumer located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar in Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate. Once a coastal city near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, Ur is now well inland, south of the Euphrates on its right bank, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Nasiriyah.
The city's patron deity was Nanna, the Sumerian moon god, and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god's name, URIM₂^KI being the classical Sumerian spelling of LAK-32.UNUG^KI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna (LAK-32)".
The site is marked by the ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which contained the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC (short chronology), during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by Nabonidus. The ruins cover an area of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) northwest to southeast by 800 metres (2,600 ft) northeast to southwest and rise up to about 20 metres (66 ft) above the present plain level.

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Yağlıdere
Yağlıdere is a town and district of Giresun Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey.
The district covers one end of the Giresun Mountains, including part of the valley of the Yağlıdere stream, which gives the district its name. When the mountain streams that feed the Yağlıdere are in full flood, they can become a threat to the district.
Yağlıdere is an agricultural district. The hillsides are planted with hazelnuts, fruit trees, chestnuts, and other deciduous trees. Some tea and corn are grown, and animals graze on the higher slopes.
The small town of Yağlıdere was founded in 1811 with a marketplace and large mosque. 7,095 people live there. A large portion of the population has migrated to America, especially New York and New Jersey, giving the town its nicknames New Yağlıdere and Little New York.^{[citation needed]}
Yağlıdere means "fat stream". There are two hypotheses regarding the origin of the name. One says that in Cakrak village, an ancient Greek town, people use stone tubes from high parts of village to transport milk to the riverside, or town center, making the river seem fat. Others say that the river is cursed by Saint Hacı Abdullah Halife, who says "be fat, river, and take one person's life every year."^{[citation needed]}

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Yeşilırmak River
The Yeşilırmak (Turkish: Yeşilırmak 'Green River'; classical Greek: Ίρις, Iris) is a river in northern Turkey. From its source north-east of Sivas, it flows past Tokat and Amasya, and reaches the Black Sea at Samsun after 418 km (260 mi).
Its tributaries include the Çekerek (ancient Scylax) and the Kelkit (ancient Lycus).
Strabo's Geographica describes it as flowing through Comana Pontica, the plain of Dazimonitis (Kaşova), and Gaziura before receiving the waters of the Scylax, then flowing through Amaseia (Amasya) before reaching the valley of Phanaroea.
Coordinates: 41°22′54″N 36°39′37″E / 41.3816°N 36.6603°E / 41.3816; 36.6603

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Zagros Mountains
The Zagros Mountains (Arabic: جبال زغروس, Aramaic: ܛܘܪ ܙܪܓܣ, Kurdish: زنجیره‌چیاکانی زاگرۆس, Lurish: کو یه لی زاگروس, Persian: رشته كوه زاگرس‎‎) are the largest mountain range in Iran and Iraq. With a total length of 1,500 km (932 mi), from northwestern Iran, and roughly correlating with Iran's western border, the Zagros range spans the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau and ends at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest points in the Zagros Mountains are Zard Kuh-bakhtiari and Dena. The Hazaran massif in the Kerman province of Iran forms an eastern outlier of the range, the Jebal Barez reaching into Sistan.
The Zagros fold and thrust belt was formed by collision of two tectonic plates — the Eurasian and Arabian Plates. Recent GPS measurements in Iran have shown that this collision is still active and the resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country, mainly taken up in the major mountain belts like Alborz and Zagros. A relatively dense GPS network which covered the Zagros in the Iranian part also proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The GPS results show that the current rate of shortening in SE Zagros is ~10 mm/yr and ~5mm/yr in the NW Zagros. The NS strike-slip Kazerun fault divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of deformation. The GPS results also show different shortening directions along the belt, i.e. normal shortening in the South-East and oblique shortening in the NW Zagros.

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Çoruh River
The Çoruh River or Ch'orokhi River (Georgian: ჭოროხი ch'orokhi, Turkish: Çoruh, Armenian: Ճորոխ, Tchorokh, Greek: Άκαμψις, Akampsis) rises in the Mescit Mountains in north-eastern Turkey, flows through the cities of Bayburt, Ispir, Yusufeli, and Artvin, along the Kelkit-Çoruh Fault, before flowing into Georgia, where it reaches the Black Sea just south of Batumi and a few kilometers north of the Turkish-Georgian border.
In Arrian's Periplus Ponti Euxini, it is called the Άκαμψις Acampsis; Pliny may have confused it with the Bathys. In English, it was formerly known as the Boas, the Churuk, or the Chorokh.
The Çoruh valley lies within the Caucasus ecological zone, which is considered by the World Wild Fund for Nature and by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. The Çoruh Valley is recognised by Turkish conservation organisations as an important plant area, an important bird area, a key biodiversity area and has been nominated as a high priority area for protection. This valley is rich in plants and contains 104 nationally threatened plant species of which 67 are endemic to Turkey.

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Assyrian people
The Assyrian people, most commonly known as Assyrians and other later names, such as: Chaldeans, Syrians, Syriacs (see names of Syriac Christians), are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia. They are Eastern Aramaic speaking Semites who trace their ancestry back to the Sumero-Akkadian civilisation that emerged in Mesopotamia circa 4000- 3500 BC, and in particular to the northern region of the Akkadian lands, which would become known as Assyria by the 24th Century BC. The Assyrian nation existed as an independent state, and often a powerful empire, from the 24th century BC until the end of the 7th century BC.
Today that ancient territory is part of several nations; Assyria remained a Geo-political entity after its fall, and was ruled as an occupied province under the rule of various empires from the late 7th century BC until the mid 7th century AD when it was dissolved, and the Assyrian people have gradually become a minority in their homelands since that time. They are indigenous to, and have traditionally lived all over what is now Iraq, north east Syria, north west Iran, and Southeastern Turkey. They are predominantly Christian.

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Chaldea
Chaldea or Chaldaea ( /kælˈdiːə/), from Greek Χαλδαία, Chaldaia; Akkadian māt Kaldu; Hebrew כשדים, Kaśdim;Aramaic: ܟܐܠܕܘ, Kaldo) was a marshy land located in modern-day southern Iraq which came to rule Babylon briefly. Tribes of settlers who arrived in the region from the 8th Century BC became known as the Chaldeans or the Chaldees. The Hebrew Bible uses the term כשדים (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Septuagint.
The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon (6th century BC) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although only the first four rulers of this dynasty were known to be Chaldeans, and the last ruler was known not to be. Their kingdom in the southern portion of Babylonia lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of southern Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was in fact the vast plain in the far south east formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.

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Daniel
Daniel (Hebrew: דָּנִיֵּאל, Modern Daniyyel Tiberian Dāniyyêl ; Arabic: دانيال, meaning in Hebrew "God is my Judge") is the protagonist in the Book of Daniel of the Hebrew Bible. In the narrative, when Daniel was a young man, he was taken into Babylonian captivity where he was educated in Chaldean thought. However, he never converted to Neo-Babylonian ways. By Divine Wisdom from his God, Yahweh, he interpreted dreams and visions of kings, thus becoming a prominent figure in the court of Babylon. Eventually, he had apocalyptic visions of his own that have been interpreted as the Four monarchies. Some of the most famous tales of Daniel are: Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, The writing on the wall and Daniel in the lions' den.
In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim (BC 606), Daniel and his friends Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were among the young Jewish nobility carried off to Babylon. The four were chosen for their intellect and beauty to be trained as advisors to the Babylonian court,(Daniel 1) Daniel was given the name Belteshazzar, i.e., prince of Bel, or Bel protect the king!(not to be confused with the neo-Babylonian king, Belshazzar). Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were given the Babylonian names, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, respectively.

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Hittites
The Hittites were a Bronze Age Indo-European speaking people of Anatolia. They established a kingdom centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia c. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height c. the 14th century BC, encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-western Syria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River (in present-day Lebanon), and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. By the mid-14th century BC (under king Suppiluliuma I), they had carved out an empire that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. After c. 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until the 8th century BC.
Their Hittite language was a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. Natively, they referred to their land as Hatti, and to their language as Nesili (the language of Nesa). The conventional name "Hittites" is due to their initial identification with the Biblical Hittites in 19th century archaeology. Despite the use of "Hatti", the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language known as Hattic.

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Iranian languages
The Iranian languages (also called Iranic languages) form a subfamily of the Indo-Iranian languages which in turn are a subgroup of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples.
The Iranian languages are considered in three stages of Old (until 400 BCE), Middle (400 BCE – 900 CE), and New (since 900 CE). From the Old Iranian languages the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian (a language of Achaemenid Iran) and Avestan (the language of Zarathushtra). Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian (a language of Sassanid Iran) and Parthian (a language of Arsacid Iran). There are many Iranian languages, the largest amongst them are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi.
Today, there are an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. The Ethnologue lists 87 Iranian languages.Persian has about 65 million native speakers, Pashto about 50 million, Kurdish about 18 million, Balochi about 7 million, and Lurish about 2.3 million.

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Iraqi people
The Iraqi people (Arabic: العراقيون ʿIrāqīyūn, Kurdish: گه‌لی عیراق Îraqîyan, Aramaic: ܥܡܐ ܥܝܪܩܝܐ‎ ʿIrāqāyā) or Mesopotamian people (Arabic: شعب بلاد ما بين النهرين) are the native inhabitants of the country of Iraq, (also known as Mesopotamia), and their related diaspora. From late Assyrian and Babylonian times until the early Islamic era, the Iraqi people spoke Aramaic but also witnessed a minority Arab presence.
Arabic had been a minority language in Iraq since the 8th century BC, it was spoken in Hatra in the 1st and 2nd centuries, and by Iraqi Christians in Al-Hirah from the 3rd century, and from the 8th century following the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia it became the common language of Iraqi Muslims, due to Arabic being the language of the Qur'an and the Caliphate. This change was facilitated by the fact that Arabic being a Semitic language, shared a close resemblance to Iraq's traditional languages of Akkadian and Aramaic. Some of Iraq's Christians and Mandaeans retained dialects of Aramaic, since it remained the liturgical language of their faiths. Kurdish-speaking Iraqis live in the mountainous Zagros region of northeast Iraq to the east of the upper Tigris. The Kurds and Arabs of Mesopotamia have interacted and intermarried for well over a millennium. Modern genetic studies indicate that Iraqi Arabs and Kurds are very closely related. Arabic and Kurdish are Iraq's national languages.

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Mandaeans
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā‎ (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية‎ Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان‎ Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion^{[citation needed]} (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.

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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.

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Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79 AD), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes; but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting natural causes.

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Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (Arabic: صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي Ṣaddām Ḥusayn ʿAbd al-Maǧīd al-Tikrītī; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organisation Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region, which espoused ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, Saddam played a key role in the 1968 coup, later referred to as the 17 July Revolution, that brought the party to long-term power of Iraq.
As vice president under the ailing General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, and at a time when many groups were considered capable of overthrowing the government, Saddam created security forces through which he tightly controlled conflict between the government and the armed forces. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries. The state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraq's economy to grow at a rapid pace. Positions of power in the country were filled with Sunnis, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.

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Teshub
Teshub (also written Teshup or Tešup; cuneiform ^dIM) was the Hurrian god of sky and storm. He was derived from the Hattian Taru. His Hittite and Luwian name was Tarhun (with variant stem forms Tarhunt, Tarhuwant, Tarhunta), although this name is from the Hittite root *tarh- to defeat, conquer.
He is depicted holding a triple thunderbolt and a weapon, usually an axe (often double-headed) or mace. The sacred bull common throughout Anatolia was his signature animal, represented by his horned crown or by his steeds Seri and Hurri, who drew his chariot or carried him on their backs.
The Hurrian myth of Teshub's origin—he was conceived when the god Kumarbi bit off and swallowed his father Anu's genitals—is a likely inspiration for the story of Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus, which is recounted in Hesiod's Theogony. Teshub's brothers are Tigris (personification of the river), Ullikummi (stone giant) and Tashmishu.
In the Hurrian schema, Teshub was paired with Hebat the mother goddess; in the Hittite, with the sun goddess of Arinna—a cultus of great antiquity which may ultimately derive from the bull god and mother goddess worshipped at Çatalhöyük in the Neolithic era. Myths also exist of his conflict with the sea creature (possibly a snake or serpent) Hedammu (CTH 348). His son was called Sarruma the mountain god. According to Hittite myth, one of his greatest acts was the slaying of the dragon Illuyanka.

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Tigris Psarantonis

Ena video gia to tragoudi tou psarantoni "Tigris"....

published: 19 May 2008

author: Yiorgos300

Gryllus Vilmos - Tigris

Gryllus Vilmos - Maszkabál című albumáról...

published: 29 Aug 2012

author: 22erat

Mezarkabul(Pentagram)-Tigris+Bir(2007 Bostanci Live)

Mezarkabul is best metal group of turkey.Group's name is mezarkabul on world and Pentagram...

published: 11 Feb 2007

author: panteray

Panthera Tigris: LeoTigris Elite

The Tiger as a top predator in action. z6.invisionfree.com For more tiger videos and well ...

published: 30 Dec 2006

author: RoyalPanthera

Tigris - Kettőt Szívok

többi dal : www.youtube.com Egy kevésbé ismert zenekar szerintem nagyon jó száma...

published: 15 Dec 2007

author: VoooDoooZooo

38-Hitler haborus fegyverei - A Tigris.avi

...

published: 19 Jan 2012

author: kecskebeka01

Titkolt Ellenállás - Tigris

Még mindig ugyanaz(2008)...

published: 14 Aug 2008

author: ungarnuberalles

xainides-H Tigris

Η τιγρης, χαινηδες...

published: 28 Sep 2007

author: ataksch

Vango Tigris - www.simplyhike.co.uk

www.simplyhike.co.uk The Vango Tigris tent is available in a 4, 6 or 8 man style. With the...

published: 03 Oct 2010

author: simplyhike

Anankabango - Young Kay Feat' Tigris

...

published: 22 Aug 2009

author: TimveMediaGroup

Tigris 800

...

published: 18 Mar 2010

author: vangotents

Tigris - Sárga fekete

Új Tigris szám az új maxiról....

published: 19 Nov 2008

author: Zepheel

Tigris and Euphrates Review

Intro (00:00); player setup (02:19); what you can do on your turn (03:15); object of the g...

published: 25 Jul 2011

author: Joel Eddy

Tourniquet Healing Waters of the Tigris

Oh for the days of 9 minute epic songs...

published: 21 Apr 2009

author: scoobbydrew02

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photo: UN / Evan Schneider

File - Cristina Fernández, President of Argentina, is pictured during a meeting of the UN’s Special Committee on Decolonization to consider the “Question of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas)”, 14 June, 2012.

Argentina's call for return of Falklands causes a stir

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette

06 Jan 2013

LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)

photo: WN / Imran Nissar

Indian Army soldiers patrol outside their army camp at Gurez, about 180 kilometers (113 miles) north of Srinagar, India, Saturday, Aug. 20, 2011. Indian troops in Kashmir fought a deadly gunbattle with suspected rebels crossing the military Line of Control from Pakistani-controlled territory Saturday, the army said. One soldier and 11 suspected rebels were killed, army spokesman Lt. Col. J.S. Brar said, but only six suspected rebels' bodies were recovered. He said the other five bodies were lost when they fell into a river during the fighting in the disputed Himalayan region.

Pakistan accuses India of deadly cross-border raid

Herald Tribune

06 Jan 2013

ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)

photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake

File - U.S. Army Pfc. Caesar Pimentel, an infantryman attached to 3rd Platoon, Company B, 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), the security forces element for Provincial Reconstruction Team Paktiya, keeps a watchful eye on his surroundings in the Sayed Karem District market, Afghanistan, Dec. 20, 2012.

War and Any 'Vanity' Necessary

WorldNews.com

07 Jan 2013

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When Congress granted President Lyndon B. Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity....(size: 5.2Kb)

photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick

Chatraparishad Supporters participate in a Candel Light to protest against Delhi gang rape case and for reviewing “ Women Protection Law “ in kolkata on Friday 28 December 2012

Friend of Delhi gang-rape victim calls for protests to continue

Newstrack India

05 Jan 2013

Tweet. New Delhi, Jan 5 (ANI). The male friend of the 23-year-old medical student, who was gang-raped and left unclothed and bleeding in the street and later died in hospital two weeks after she was attacked on December 16 on a private bus in New Delhi, has said that things would have gone differently if someone had stopped to help ... "It would have been a very different scenario today, had even one person come to our help that day ... (ANI)....(size: 3.8Kb)

photo: AP / Joerg Koch

Eine Ein-Euro-Muenze steht in Muenchen in einer Fotoillustration auf einem Ein-Dollar-Schein (Foto vom 28.11.07).

The Post-Crisis Crises

Project Syndicate

07 Jan 2013

NEW YORK – In the shadow of the euro crisis and America’s fiscal cliff, it is easy to ignore the global economy’s long-term problems. But, while we focus on immediate concerns, they continue to fester, and we overlook them at our peril. The most serious is global warming. While the global economy’s weak performance has led to a corresponding slowdown in the increase in carbon emissions, it amounts to only a short respite ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)

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You won't go to hell

The Examiner

08 Jan 2013

Many in the LGBTQ community, especially those practicing faith, are surprised when I share hell is myth, legend, and folklore. Lucifer is Halloween fun, nothing more. If I’m wrong, there will be hell to pay ... Faith and spirituality empowers. They transcend superstition ... We make our own hell ... Historically, hell goes back four thousand years to the Land of the Dead in the pre-Christian Tigris-Euphrates Valley in present-day Iraq ... ....(size: 4.2Kb)

Syria goes from periphery to core

Asia Times

08 Jan 2013

By Derek Henry Flood. For most of the past decade, Syria, a country at the political heart of the Arab world, was mostly an afterthought for journalists ... My early jaunts into Syria had virtually nothing to do with.  . investigating domestic politics ... 2002 ... A nominal Western ally, the KDP controlled the border on the Iraqi side of the Tigris River that separates northeastern Syria and northwestern Iraq ... Credit. Derek Henry Flood ... 2006....(size: 18.9Kb)

National Zoo's Sumatran Tigers Mate As Species' Numbers Dwindle

Huffington Post

05 Jan 2013

Sumatran tiger cubs at the Oklahoma City Zoo. By Megan Gannon, LiveScience News Editor. ... But captive cats don't always approach mating as if the survival of their species depends on it ... 2 post ... <em>From Getty.</em> A white tiger (Panthera tigris) is seen at the zoo in Cali, Colombia, on April 21, 2012 ... <em>From Getty.</em> A tiger (Panthera tigris) is seen in a lake in the zoo of Cali, Colombia, on April 21, 2012 ... ....(size: 16.0Kb)

Harry is jackal hunting lions, says Afghan warlord

Newstrack India

02 Jan 2013

Tweet. London, Jan 2 (IANS) Britain's Prince Harry, currently flying on Apache chopper missions in Afghanistan, is a "jackal" who wants to "hunt lions", an Afghan mujahideen leader has said ... Harry has been flying Apache choppers in Helmand province ... Read More. Bsf Camp Tigri ... 2 ... ) .. ).. Comments. ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 2.5Kb)

Iraq’s Tuz Khurmatu caught in middle of territory dispute

Middle East Online

02 Jan 2013

Butcher Sherzad Saleh stands outside his shop in Tuz Khurmatu holding a dead chicken. He has more pressing concerns than a high-level dispute over territory ... "I am not with the army or the peshmerga," he says ... The establishment in September of the federal Tigris Operations Command, which covers disputed northern territory, drew an angry response from Kurdish leaders and increased tensions with the federal government ... "We need projects." ....(size: 4.3Kb)

Iraqi town caught in middle of territory row

Khaleej Times

02 Jan 2013

Butcher Sherzad Saleh stands outside his shop in Tuz Khurmatu holding a dead chicken. He has more pressing concerns than a high-level dispute over territory ... ‘I am not with the army or the peshmerga,’ he says ... The establishment in September of the federal Tigris Operations Command, which covers disputed northern territory, drew an angry response from Kurdish leaders and increased tensions with the federal government....(size: 4.5Kb)

Animal Photos Of The Year 2012

Huffington Post

29 Dec 2012

There were so many captivating animal photos taken in 2012 that it's hard to choose the best. In the gallery below, find some of the top animal pictures from our weekly animal photos collection ... dime ... Over 633 were killed in South Africa alone ... Loading Slideshow ... A zookeeper holds a Amur tiger cub (Panthera tigris altaica), also known as the Siberian tiger, during weighing in the Leipzig Zoo in Leipzig, central Germany Thursday, Sept ... 68k....(size: 17.5Kb)

Wildlife Conservation Society announces worldwide tiger rebound (Video)

The Examiner

28 Dec 2012

The Wildlife Conservation Society announced the results of an investigation into tiger populations world wide on December 26, 2012. The results are good news for tigers. More wild tigers have been spotted by camera traps in India, Thailand, and Russia than any previous year ... The tiger population is increasing in newer tiger reserves including Bhadra and Kudremukh. Male Panthera tigris altaica, Siberian Tiger. Photo credit.  ... Research....(size: 2.6Kb)

Ramires named in Football Team of the Year

Newstrack India

28 Dec 2012

Tweet. Rio de Janeiro, Dec 28 (IANS) Chelsea and Brazil midfielder Ramires has been named in prestigious French sports newspaper L'Equipe's 2012 Football Team of the Year. Ramires was the only Brazilian representative in the side which was made up largely of players from Spanish clubs Barcelona and Real Madrid, reports Xinhua ... Goalkeeper. Iker Casillas (Real Madrid). Defenders ... Midfielders ... Bsf Camp Tigri ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 3.1Kb)

The Failed State Under Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki

Middle East Online

28 Dec 2012

The recent unconstitutional creation of an overarching Tigris (Dijla) Operations Command Centre to oversee the internal security affairs of the Northern provinces is a stark reminder of the previous regime for our people; al-Maliki also accuses our leadership of harassing local Arabs and other ethnic minorities by piling our security and ......(size: 5.4Kb)

Virgin Birth In Animals: Parthenogenesis Is No Miracle In Animal Kingdom

Huffington Post

28 Dec 2012

by Carrie Arnold on 27 December 2012, 9.51 AM. ‘Tis the season for twinkling lights, wrapping paper, and virgin birth. For billions of Christians around the world, the holidays are a time to celebrate Jesus’s birth to the Virgin Mary. But for many animals, virgin birth is far from a miraculous event. Researchers have discovered a growing number of species that reproduce without assistance from the opposite sex ... Credit ... tigris) ... Credit ... Like....(size: 11.6Kb)

A response to Lady Emma: No, start by actually helping the Iraqis do things

Foreign Policy

27 Dec 2012

By Steve Donnelly. Best Defense guest respondent ... As the U.S ... military, and Iraqi provincial and national leaders to rebuilt the bridges over the Tigris, a complex chain of communication was required, with "anonymous" help from the former Baathist administrators, and indirect calls from current administrators and anti-Americans unwilling to be identified as direct collaborators, but needed to get their country reconstructed ... ....(size: 9.2Kb)

Antony expresses grief on accidental death of NCC cadets

Newstrack India

26 Dec 2012

Tweet. New Delhi, Dec 26 (ANI). Defence Minister AK Antony has expressed profound grief upon hearing the accidental death of five NCC Cadets by drowning in Periyar River in Ernakulam District, Kerala today ... Arrangements for their funeral are also being made ... Bsf Camp Tigri ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 2.5Kb)

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For other uses, see Tigris (disambiguation).

Tigris
River
About 100 km from its source, the Tigris enables rich agriculture outside Diyarbakır, Turkey.
Countries	Turkey, Syria, Iraq
Basin area	Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran

Tributaries
- left	Batman, Khabur, Greater Zab, Lesser Zab, 'Adhaim, Diyala, Cizre
- right	Wadi Tharthar
Cities	Diyarbakır, Mosul, Baghdad


Source	Lake Hazar
- elevation	1,150 m (3,773 ft)
- coordinates	38°29′0″N 39°25′0″E / 38.483333°N 39.416667°E / 38.483333; 39.416667
Mouth	Shatt al-Arab
- location	Al-Qurnah, Basra Governorate, Iraq

Length	1,850 km (1,150 mi)
Basin	375,000 km² (144,788 sq mi)
Discharge	for Baghdad
- average	1,014 m³/s (35,809 cu ft/s)
- max	2,779 m³/s (98,139 cu ft/s)
- min	337 m³/s (11,901 cu ft/s)

Map of the Tigris-Euphrates basin area
^[1]^[2]

The Tigris River (/ˈtaɪɡrɪs/; Arabic: دجله) is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.

1 Geography
2 Navigation
3 Etymology
4 Management and water quality
5 Religion and mythology
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links

Geography [link]

The Tigris is 1,850 km long, rising in the Taurus Mountains of eastern Turkey about 25 km southeast of the city of Elazig and about 30 km from the headwaters of the Euphrates. The river then flows for 400 km through Turkish territory before becoming the border between Syria and Turkey. This stretch of 44 km is the only part of the river that is located in Syria. The remaining 1,418 km are entirely within the Iraqi borders.^[1]

The Tigris unites with the Euphrates near Basra, and from this junction to the Persian Gulf the mass of moving water is known as the Shatt-al-Arab. According to Pliny and other ancient historians, the Euphrates originally had its outlet into the sea separate from that of the Tigris.^[3]

Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, stands on the banks of the Tigris. The port city of Basra straddles the Shatt al-Arab. In ancient times, many of the great cities of Mesopotamia stood on or near the Tigris, drawing water from it to irrigate the civilization of the Sumerians. Notable Tigris-side cities included Nineveh, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, while the city of Lagash was irrigated by the Tigris via a canal dug around 2400 BC.

Navigation [link]

The Tigris has long been an important transport route in a largely desert country. Shallow-draft vessels can go as far as Baghdad, but rafts are needed for transport upstream to Mosul.

General Francis Rawdon Chesney hauled two steamers overland through Syria in 1836 to explore the possibility of an overland and river route to India. One steamer, the Tigris, was wrecked in a storm which sank and killed twenty. Chesney proved the river navigable to powered craft. Later, the Euphrates and Tigris Steam Navigation Company was established in 1861 by the Lynch Brothers trading company. They had 2 steamers in service. By 1908 ten steamers were on the river. Tourists boarded steam yachts to venture inland as this was the first age of archaelological tourism, and the sites of Ur and Ctesiphon became popular to European travelers.

In the First World War during the British conquest of Ottoman Mesopotamia, Indian and Thames River paddlers were used to supply General Townsend's Army. See Siege of Kut and the Fall of Baghdad (1917).^[4] The Tigris Flotilla included vessels Clio, Espiegle, Lawrence, Odin, armed tug Comet, armed launches Lewis Pelly, Miner, Shaitan, Sumana, and stern wheelers Muzaffari/Mozaffir. These were joined by Royal Navy Fly-class Butterfly, Cranefly, Dragonfly, Mayfly, Sawfly, Snakefly, and Mantis, Moth, and Tarantula.

After the war, river trade declined in importance during the 20th century as the Basra-Baghdad-Mosul railway, an unfinished portion of the Baghdad Railway, was completed and roads took over much of the freight traffic.

Etymology [link]

The Ancient Greek form Tigris was borrowed from Old Persian Tigrā, which was in turn borrowed from Elamite ti-ig-ra, itself from Sumerian idigna.

The original Sumerian Idigna or Idigina was probably from *id (i)gina "running water",^[5] which can be interpreted as "the swift river", contrasted to its neighbor, the Euphrates, whose leisurely pace caused it to deposit more silt and build up a higher bed than the Tigris. The Sumerian form was borrowed into Akkadian as Idiqlat, and from there into the other Semitic languages (cf. Syriac Deqlaṯ, Arabic Dijla).

Another name for the Tigris used in Middle Persian was Arvand Rud, literally "swift river". Today, however, Arvand Rud refers to the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers - known in Arabic as Shatt al-Arab.

The name of the Tigris in languages that have been important in the region:

Outside of Mosul, Iraq

Language	Name for Tigris
Akkadian	Idiqlat
Arabic	دجلة, Dijla; حدٌاقل, Ḥudaqil
Aramaic	ܕܝܓܠܐܬ, Diglath
Armenian	Տիգրիս, Tigris
Greek	ἡ Τίγρης, -ητος, hē Tígrēs, -ētos; ἡ, ὁ Τίγρις, -ιδος, hē, ho Tígris, -idos
Hebrew	חידקל , Ḥîddeqel Biblical
Hurrian	Aranzah^[6]
Kurdish	Dîcle دیجلە
Persian	Old Persian:Tigrā; Middle Persian:Tigr; Modern Persian:دجله Dijle
Sumerian	Idigna/Idigina
Syriac	ܕܹܩܠܵܬ Deqlaṯ
Turkish	Dicle

Baghdad

Management and water quality [link]

Mosul, Iraq

The Tigris is heavily dammed in Iraq and Turkey to provide water for irrigating the arid and semi-desert regions bordering the river valley. Damming has also been important for averting floods in Iraq, to which the Tigris has historically been notoriously prone following melting of snow in the Turkish mountains around April.

Recent Turkish damming of the river has been the subject of some controversy, for both its environmental effects within Turkey and its potential to reduce the flow of water downstream. Mosul Dam is the largest dam in Iraq.

Religion and mythology [link]

The Tigris appears twice in the Bible. In the Book of Genesis, the Tigris is the third of the four rivers branching off the river issuing out of the Garden of Eden.^[7] Daniel received one of his visions "when I was by that great river the Tigris".^[8]

In Sumerian mythology, the Tigris was created by the god Enki, who ejaculated and filled the river with flowing water.^[9]

In Hittite and Hurrian mythology, Aranzah (or Aranzahas in the Hittite nominative form) is the Hurrian name of the Tigris River, which was divinized. He was the son of Kumarbi and the brother of Teshub and Tašmišu, one of the three gods spat out of Kumarbi's mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colluded with Anu and the Teshub to destroy Kumarbi (The Kumarbi Cycle).

Notes [link]

^ ^a ^b Isaev, V.A.; Mikhailova, M.V. (2009). "The hydrology, evolution, and hydrological regime of the mouth area of the Shatt al-Arab River". Water Resources 36 (4): 380–395. DOI:10.1134/S0097807809040022.
^ Kolars, J.F.; Mitchell, W.A. (1991). The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-8093-1572-6.
^ Pliny: Natural History, VI, XXVI, 128-131
^ http://www.naval-history.net/WW1Battle1408Mesopotamia.htm
^ F. Delitzsch, Sumerisches Glossar, Leipzig (1914), IV, 6, 21.
^ E. Laroche, Glossaire de la langue Hourrite, Paris (1980), p. 55.
^ Genesis 2:14
^ Daniel 10:4
^ Jeremy A. Black, The Literature of Ancient Sumer, Oxford University Press 2004, ISBN 0-19-926311-6 p. 220-221

External links [link]

Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) article Tigris.

Livius.org: Tigris
Hausleiter, A., M. Roaf, St J. Simpson, R. Wenke, P. Flensted Jensen, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 912964 (Tigris/Diglitus fl.)". Pleiades. http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/912964. Retrieved March 9, 2012 8:45 am.
Managing the Tigris and Euphrates Watershed
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library
[1]

Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography

Modern	Euphrates Jezirah Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains

Ancient	Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hatti Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities

History

Pre- and protohistory	Acheulean Mousterian Zarzian Natufian PPNA PPNB Halaf Samarra Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr

History	Early Dynastic Akkadian Ur III Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sassanid Muslim conquest

Languages

Culture
and society

Archaeology

Portal

v t e Iraq topics

Society	Iraqi people · Iraqi diaspora · Demographics · Minorities (Kurds · Assyrians · Turkmen · Mandaeans) · Languages (Arabic · Kurdish · Aramaic · Turkmen) · Religion (Islam · Christianity · Mandaeism) · Culture · Cuisine · Music · Education · Health · Sports

History	Ancient Iraq (Sumer · Akkadian Empire · Babylonia · Assyria · Neo-Assyrian Empire · Neo-Babylonian Empire · Achaemenid Assyria · Seleucid Babylonia · Parthian Babylonia · Sassanid Asuristan) · Islamic conquest of Iraq · Abbasid Caliphate · Ottoman Iraq · Mandatory Mesopotamia · Kingdom of Iraq · Arab Federation · Iraqi Republic (1958–1968) · Ba'athist Iraq · U.S. occupation · Republic of Iraq (2011-present) Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party · Saddam Hussein · Kurdish–Iraqi conflict · Iran–Iraq War · Invasion of Kuwait · Gulf War · Sanctions · Iraq War (Invasion · Iraqi insurgency)

Economy	Iraqi Dinar · Stock Exchange · Central Bank · Oil reserves · Media

Infrastructure	Communications · Transportation · Schools · Hospitals · Roads · Reconstruction

Government	Constitution · Legislative branch · Executive branch (President · Cabinet · Prime Minister) · Judiciary · Law · Police · Iraqi Armed Forces (Army · Air Force · Navy)

Politics	Political parties · Elections · Minority politics · Foreign relations · Human rights · Foreign aid · War conflicts

Geography	Mesopotamia · Tigris · Euphrates · Provinces · Districts · Notable Places · Syrian Desert · Zagros Mountains · Hamrin Mountains · Umm Qasr · Al-Faw Peninsula · Shatt al-Arab · Al-Jazira · Mesopotamian Marshes · Lake Habbaniyah · Lake Tharthar · Lake Hammar · Lake Milh · Islands

v t e The Tigris

Countries	Turkey (523 km) Syria (40 km) Iraq (1,377 km)

Cities	Diyarbakır Bismil Hasankeyf Cizre Mosul Tikrit Samarra Kadhimiya Baghdad Amarah Al-Kūt

Tributaries	Ambar Kuru Pamuk Hazro Batman Garzan Göksu Savur Botan Little Khabur Great Zab Little Zab ‛Adhaim Diyala

List of crossings

v t e Rivers of Turkey

Black Sea basin	Sakarya Bartın Kızılırmak Terme Yeşilırmak Yağlıdere Aksu Gelevara Kara Dere Çoruh

Marmara basin	Biga Susurluk (Simav)

Aegean basin	Meriç (Maritsa) Karamenderes Bakırçay Gediz Küçükmenderes Büyükmenderes

Mediterranean basin	Aksu Manavgat Köprüçay Göksu Limonlu Müftü (Efrenk) Berdan Seyhan Ceyhan Asi (Orontes)

Persian Gulf basin	Fırat (Euphrates) Dicle (Tigris) Hezil

Caspian basin	Aras Kura

Coordinates: 38°26′0″N 39°46′22″E / 38.433333°N 39.77278°E / 38.433333; 39.77278

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Sokratis Malamas, 2007

Sokratis Malamas (Greek: Σωκράτης Μάλαμας) (b. September 29, 1957 in Sykia in Chalkidiki, Greece) is a Greek singer and songwriter.^[1]

One of the great songwriters of his generation with a very personal and identifiable musical style in his narrative songs. As of 2010, he is considered one of the most influential songwriters in Greece.

1 Biography
2 Discography
3 Productions
4 References
5 External links

Biography [link]

Sokratis Malamas was born on September 29, 1957 in Sykia in Chalkidiki, Greece. His family moved to Stuttgart, Germany for a few years, he later moved to Thessaloniki. There, he sang bouzouki songs and he learned from his father about his music. At age thirteen, he bought his first guitar and practiced for his presentations at schoolworks and when he was seventeen, he followed his guitar studies at the Macedonian Conservatory of Thessaloniki (Μακεδονικό Ωδείο Θεσσαλονίκης = Makedoniko Odeio Thessalonikis). He returned to Germany after he finished school and later went to the Stuttgart Odeon. In one difficult period of his life, he came back to Greece and attended studies at the National Conservatory of Athens (Εθνικό Ωδείο Αθηνών = Ethniko Odeio Athinon). He was taught by Vangelis Assimakopoulos and Notis Mavroudis. At 23, he began his professional career, worked as a guitar teacher and a singer in some public shops. Before he continued into his personal way, he was a guitarist at the orchestra of Nikos Papazoglou.

He continued to play music in public shops, he tried and put his songs on programs. Not until the time that Nikos Papazoglou made him enter the studio and began his first album Aspromavres Istories in 1989. Sokratis Malamas wrote songs for theatrical releases and made his performance in the odeon. His direction of his works was better known and loved his charts.

He performed with famous musicians including Manolis Rasoulis, composers including Nikos Xydakis, Melina Kana and more composers including Giannis Tsatsopoulos, Giorgos Athanassopoulos, Alkis Alkaiou, Fotini Lambridis, Thodoros Gonis, Michalis Gkanas, Odysseas Ioannou and Thanasis Papakonstantinou. He also had enough participants of works of famous people including Dionyssis Tsaknis, Maria Thoidou, B.D. Foxmoor and Sadahzinia (of Active Member), Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Thanos Mikroutsikos, Michalis Siganidis, Takis Vouis, Maria Papanikolaou and others.

Malamas also wrote songs and featured them in movies including To Kynigi To Lagou (Το Κυνήγι του Λαγού) [1] and interpreted a song called To Chrono na Lavoso (Το χρόνο να λαβώσω) in a short-length film Ypsoma 33 (Ύψωμα 33) [2], [3]

Productions [link]

1994 - To Fantasma Apo to Parelthon (Το φάντασμα από το παρελθόν) (Akti)
1995 - Stin Andromeda Kai Stin Gi (Στην Ανδρομέδα και στη γη = On Andromeda And On Earth) (Lyra)
1997 - I Gynaika Kai To Milo (Η γυναίκα και το μήλο) (Mylos)
1997 - Pyli Tis Ammou (Πύλη της άμμου = Sand Gate) (Mylos)
1997 - San Petalouda (Σαν πεταλούδα = Like A Butterfly) Virgin
1999 - Me tin Platy ston Tycho (Με την πλάτη στον τοίχο = With The Back On The Wall)
1999 - Mikres Angelies (Μικρές αγγελίες = Little Tidings)

References [link]

^ "Myth and history, past and present". Kathimerini. 15 April 2004. http://archive.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/news/content.asp?aid%3D41760. Retrieved 19 September 2011.

External links [link]

Songs of Sokratis Malamas (requires cookies)
http://www.malamas.tk/
http://users.hol.gr/~dougas/
http://users.hol.gr/~dougas/htmls/ARTICLES/DIFONO43.htm - courtesy of Trypes
http://perso.wanadoo.fr/ilios/musique/malamas.htm - French

Persondata
Name	Malamas, Sokratis
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	September 29, 1957
Place of birth
Date of death
Place of death

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Make changes yourself !

Contents

Geography [link]

Navigation [link]

Etymology [link]

Management and water quality [link]

Religion and mythology [link]

See also [link]

Notes [link]

External links [link]

http://wn.com/Tigris

Related pages:

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http://de.wn.com/Tigris

http://hi.wn.com/दजला नदी

http://pt.wn.com/Rio Tigre

Contents

Biography [link]

Discography [link]

Productions [link]

References [link]

External links [link]

http://wn.com/Sokratis_Malamas