The Achaeans (Greek: , ''Akhaioí'') is one of the collective names used for the Greeks in Homer's ''Iliad'' (used 598 times) and ''Odyssey''. The other names are the Danaans (, used 138 times in the ''Iliad'') and Argives (, used 29 times in the ''Iliad''). In the historical period, the Achaeans were the inhabitants of the region of Achaea, a region in the north central part of the Peloponnese. The city states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.

Homeric versus later use

The Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from ca. 1600 BC, with a history as a tribe that may have gone back to the prehistoric Hellenic immigration in the late 3rd millennium BC.

However, by the Archaic and Classical periods, the term 'Achaeans' referred to inhabitants of the much smaller region of Achaea. Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans. According to Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, the term 'Achaean' was originally given to those Greeks inhabiting the Argolis and Laconia. However, this is clearly not the manner in which Homer uses the term.

Pausanias and Herodotus both recount the legend that the Achaeans were forced from these homelands by the Dorians, during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese. They then moved into the region that later bore the name of Achaea.

A scholarly consensus has not yet been reached on the origin of the historic Achaeans relative to the Homeric Achaeans, and is still hotly debated. Former emphasis on presumed race, in which John A. Scott could write an article on Achaean blondness, compared to the dark locks of "Mediterranean" Poseidon, on the basis of hints in Homer, has been laid aside.

The contrasting view that "Achaeans", as understood through Homer, are "a name without a country", an ''ethnos'' created in the Epic tradition, has modern supporters among those who conclude that "Achaeans" were redefined in the fifth century, as contemporary speakers of Aeolic Greek.

Karl Beloch has suggested that there was no Dorian invasion, but rather that the Peloponnesian Dorians were the Achaeans. Eduard Meyer, disagreeing with Beloch, has instead put forth the suggestion that the real-life Achaeans were mainland pre-Dorian Greeks. His conclusion is based on his research on the similarity between the languages of the Achaeans and pre-historic Arcadians. William Prentice disagrees with both, noting that archeological evidence suggests that the Achaeans instead migrated from "southern Asia Minor to Greece, probably settling first in lower Thessaly" probably prior to 2000 BC.

Emil Forrer went as far to claim that there existed a "great empire" called Ahhijawa, which stood as equal by the side of the old states of the east. However, his conclusions were disproven by later researchers, especially by Ferdinand Sommer.

Hittite documents

Some Hittite texts mention a nation lying to the west called ''Ahhiyawa''. In the earliest reference to this land, a letter outlining the treaty violations of the Hittite vassal Madduwatta, it is called ''Ahhiya''. Another important example is the ''Tawagalawa Letter'' written by an unnamed Hittite king (most probably Hattusili III) of the empire period (14th-13th century BC) to the king of ''Ahhiyawa'', treating him as an equal and suggesting that Miletus (''Millawanda'') was under his control. It also refers to an earlier "''Wilusa'' episode" involving hostility on the part of ''Ahhiyawa''. Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy (note the similarity with early Greek ''Wilion'', later ''Ilion'', the name of the acropolis of Troy). However the exact relationship of the term ''Ahhiyawa'' to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars, even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute.

Egyptian sources

During the 5th year of Pharaoh Merneptah, a confederation of Libyan and northern peoples is supposed to have attacked the Western Delta. Included amongst the ethnic names of the repulsed invaders is the Ekwesh or Eqwesh, whom some have seen as Achaeans, although Egyptian texts specifically mention these Equesh to be circumcised (which does not seem to have been a general practice in the Aegaean at the time). Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the delta, and Menelaus speaks of the same in Book 4 of the ''Odyssey'' to Telemachos when he recounts his own return home from the Trojan War. Later Greek myths also say that Helen had spent the time of the Trojan War in Egypt, and not at Troy, and that after Troy the Greeks went there to recover her. There is also the strange myth of the brothers Aegyptus and Danaus, sons of Belus, with the latter supposedly coming from Egypt, that Marianne Luban has suggested may date to this time.

Greek mythology

In Greek mythology, the perceived cultural divisions among the Hellenes were represented as legendary lines of descent that identified kinship groups, with each line being derived from an eponymous ancestor. Each of the Greek ''ethne'' were said to be named in honor of their respective ancestors: Achaeus of the Achaeans, Danaus of the Danaans, Kadmos of the Kadmeioi, Hellen of the Hellenes (not to be confused with Helen of Troy), Aeolus of the Aeolians, Ion of the Ionians, and Dorus of the Dorians.

Kadmos from Phoenicia, Danaus from Egypt, and Pelops from Anatolia each gained a foothold in mainland Greece and were assimilated and Hellenized. Hellen, Graikos, Magnis, and Macedon were sons of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the only people who survived the Great Flood; the ''ethne'' were said to have originally been named after the elder son Graikoi but renamed later after Hellen who was proved to be the strongest. Sons of Hellen and the nymph Orsiis were Dorus, Xuthos, and Aeolus. Sons of Xuthos and Kreousa, daughter of Erechthea, were Ion and Achaeus.

According to Hyginus, the Achaeans killed 362 Trojans during their ten years at Troy.

See also

Achaea (modern province)

Achaea (Roman province)

Achaean League

Achaean Federation

Aegean civilization

Denyen

Historicity of the Iliad

Homer

Mycenaean Greece

Mycenaean language

Troy

Notes

External links

Detailed cultural studies of Minoan Crete and relations with the mainland "Mycenean" tribes of Achaians

The Greek Age of Bronze weapons and warfare

Homer's use of Achaeans, Argives and Danaans: a metrical analysis.

References

Tsotakou-Karveli. ''Lexicon of Greek Mythology''. Athens: Sokoli, 1990.

Category:Greek mythology Category:Mycenaean Greece Category:Ancient Greece peoples Category:Sea Peoples Category:Ancient tribes in Crete

ar:أخيون be:Ахейцы br:Akeaned bg:Ахейци ca:Aqueu cs:Achájové da:Achaier de:Achaier el:Αχαιοί es:Aqueo (pueblo) eu:Akaziar fa:آخایوس fr:Achéens gl:Aqueos it:Achei he:אכאים la:Achaei lt:Achajai mn:Ахейчууд nl:Achaeërs ja:アカイア人 no:Akajere pl:Achajowie pt:Aqueus ro:Ahei ru:Ахейцы sk:Achájci sl:Ahajci fi:Akhaijit sv:Akajer tr:Akalar uk:Ахейці vi:Achaean zh:亚该亚人

The Tuatha Dé Danann ("peoples of the goddess Danu", , ) are a race of people in Irish mythology. In the invasions tradition which begins with the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'', they are the fifth group to settle Ireland, conquering the island from the Fir Bolg.

The Tuatha Dé Danann are thought to derive from the pre-Christian deities of Ireland. When the surviving stories were written, Ireland had been Christian for centuries, and the Tuatha Dé were represented as mortal kings, queens and heroes of the distant past; however there are many clues to their former divine status. A poem in the ''Book of Leinster'' lists many of them, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them." Goibniu, Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as ''Trí Dé Dána'' ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the Dagda's name is interpreted in medieval texts as "the good god." Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lugh, the Morrígan, Aengus and Manannán mac Lir appear in stories set centuries later, showing all the signs of immortality. They also have many parallels across the Celtic world: Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens; Lugh is a reflex of the pan-Celtic deity Lugus; Tuireann is related to the Gaulish Taranis; Ogma to Ogmios; the Badb to Catubodua.

Name

The translation of ''Tuatha Dé Danann'' as "peoples of the goddess Danu" is necessarily imprecise. Old Irish ''tuath'' (plural ''tuatha'') means "people, tribe, nation"; and ''dé'' is the genitive case of ''día'', "god, goddess, supernatural being, object of worship" (they are often referred to simply as the ''Tuatha Dé'', a phrase also used to refer to the Israelites in early Irish Christian texts).

''Danann'' is also a genitive, for which the nominative case is not attested. It has been reconstructed as Danu, which by analogy with Anu is taken to be a female name. The name of the river Danube is believed to be Celtic in origin, and Celtic river deities are usually female; Hindu mythology has a goddess called Danu, who may be an Indo-European parallel. However, this reconstruction is not universally accepted. It is also written ''Donann'' and ''Domnann'', which may link them with the Fir Domnann ("men of the Domnainn"), a people associated with the Fir Bolg in myth, who are historically attested in Connacht and may be related to the British Dumnonii.

Legendary history

The Tuatha Dé Danann were descended from Nemed, leader of a previous wave of inhabitants of Ireland. They came from four cities to the north of Ireland–Falias, Gorias, Murias and Finias–where they acquired their occult skills and attributes. According to ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'', they came to Ireland "in dark clouds" and "landed on the mountains of [the] Conmaicne Rein in Connachta; and they brought a darkness over the sun for three days and three nights". According to a later version of the story, they arrived in ships on the coast of the Conmaicne Mara's territory (modern Conamara). They immediately burnt the ships "so that they should not think of retreating to them; and the smoke and the mist that came from the vessels filled the neighboring land and air. Therefore it was conceived that they had arrived in clouds of mist".

A poem in the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' says of their arrival:

It is God who suffered them, though He restrained them they landed with horror, with lofty deed, in their cloud of mighty combat of spectres, upon a mountain of Conmaicne of Connacht.

Without distinction to descerning Ireland, Without ships, a ruthless course the truth was not known beneath the sky of stars, whether they were of heaven or of earth.

Led by their king, Nuada, they fought the First Battle of Magh Tuireadh on the west coast, in which they defeated and displaced the native Fir Bolg, who then inhabited Ireland. In the battle, Nuada lost an arm to their champion, Sreng. Since Nuada was no longer "unblemished", he could not continue as king and was replaced by the half-Fomorian Bres, who turned out to be a tyrant. The physician Dian Cecht replaced Nuada's arm with a working silver one and he was reinstated as king. However, Dian Cecht's son Miach was dissatisfied with the replacement so he recited the spell, "''ault fri halt dí & féith fri féth''" (joint to joint of it and sinew to sinew), which caused flesh to grow over the silver prosthesis over the course of nine days and nights. However, in a fit of jealous rage Dian Cecht slew his own son. Because of Nuada's restoration as leader, Bres complained to his family and his father, Balor, king of the Fomorians.

The Tuatha Dé Danann then fought the Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh against the Fomorians. Nuada was killed by the Fomorian king Balor's poisonous eye, but Balor was killed himself by Lugh, the champion of the Tuatha Dé, who then took over as king.

A third battle was fought against a subsequent wave of invaders, the Milesians, from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (present day Galicia and Northern Portugal), descendants of Míl Espáine (who are thought to represent the Goidelic Celts). The Milesians encountered three goddesses of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Ériu, Banba and Fodla, who asked that the island be named after them; Ériu is the origin of the modern name Éire, and Banba and Fodla are still sometimes used as poetic names for Ireland.

Their three husbands, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, who were kings of the Tuatha Dé Danann at that time, asked for a truce of three days, during which the Milesians would lie at anchor nine waves' distance from the shore. The Milesians complied, but the Tuatha Dé Danann created a magical storm in an attempt to drive them away. The Milesian poet Amergin calmed the sea with his verse, then his people landed and defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann at Tailtiu. When Amergin was called upon to divide the land between the Tuatha Dé Danann and his own people, he cleverly allotted the portion above ground to the Milesians and the portion underground to the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann were led underground into the Sidhe mounds by Manannán mac Lir.

The Four Treasures

The Tuatha Dé Danann brought four magical treasures with them to Ireland, one apiece from their Four Cities:

The Dagda's Cauldron

The Spear of Lugh

The Stone of Fal

The Sword of Light of Nuada

Tuatha Dé Danann High Kings of Ireland

The following is a chronology from the Annals of the Four Masters; based on reign-lengths given in Geoffrey Keating's ''Forus Feasa ar Erinn''. Nuada's original reign lacks a precise start date.

Nuada (first reign) ''AFM'' unknown-1897 BC; ''FFE'' unknown-1477 BC

Bres ''AFM'' 1897-1890 BC; ''FFE'' 1477-1470 BC

Nuada (final reign) ''AFM'' 1890-1870 BC; ''FFE'' 1470-1447 BC

Lugh ''AFM'' 1870-1830 BC; ''FFE'' 1447-1407 BC

Eochaid Ollathair ''AFM'' 1830-1750 BC; ''FFE'' 1407-1337 BC

Delbáeth ''AFM'' 1750-1740 BC; ''FFE'' 1337-1327 BC

Fiacha ''AFM'' 1740-1730 BC; ''FFE'' 1327-1317 BC

Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine ''AFM'' 1730-1700 BC; ''FFE'' 1317-1287 BC

Tuatha Dé Danann family tree

The following table is based on the genealogies given by Geoffrey Keating and in the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'', and references in ''Cath Maige Tuireadh''. It is not clear whether the various Elathas and Delbáeths are meant to be different figures of the same name or different traditions regarding the genealogy of the same figure. It is also notable that Fomorians such as Elatha and Balor are closely related to the Tuatha Dé.

Agnoman of Scythia | Nemed | Iarbonel Faidh | Beothach | Iobáth | Enna | Tabarn | Tat ____________________________________|__________________________________ | | Allai Indai | __________________________|__________________________ | | | Orda Nét Elatha | ____________________|______________________________________________ | | | | | | Etarlám Esar Brec Delbáeth Dot Bres | | | | | | | | Eochaid Dian Cecht Elatha Balor | | | | | ___________|___________ _________________|______________________ | Nuada | | | | | | | | | | | (Elcmar) Cu Cethen Cian Miach Airmed Dagda Fiacha Delbáeth Ogma Allód Ethniu (Nechtan) | | | | | (Lir) _____|____ | | _____________|____________ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Etarlám Nemain Bec-Felmas Lug Cermait Aengus Bodb Midir Brigid Boann Delbáeth Manannan | | | (Tuireann) | | _________|_________ ______________________|__________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ernmas Abean MacCuill MacCecht MacGréine Fiacha Brian Iuchar Iucharba Danand Goibniu Credne Luchta Ollam |__________________ | | | | | Ériu = Badb | Aoi Banba = Macha | Fódla = Mórrígan = Anu

Other members of the Tuatha Dé Danann include:

Abartach

Beag

Bé Chuille

Brea

Fand

See also

Dingle Diamond

Olympian Pantheon

Picts

Primary sources

''Mesca Ulad''

References

Category:Mythological peoples

bg:Туата Де Данан cs:Tuatha Dé Danann de:Túatha Dé Danann el:Τουάθα ντε Ντανάν es:Tuatha Dé Danann eu:Tuatha Dé Danann fr:Tuatha Dé Danann ga:Tuatha Dé Danann gd:Tuatha Dè Danann gl:Tuatha Dé Danann ko:투아하 데 다난 it:Túatha Dé Danann hu:Tuatha Dé Danann nl:Tuatha Dé Danann ja:トゥアハ・デ・ダナーン no:Tuatha de Danaan pl:Tuatha Dé Danann pt:Tuatha Dé Danann ru:Племена богини Дану fi:Tuatha Dé Danann sv:Tuatha Dé Danann

name	Robin Williamson
background	solo_singer
birth name	Robin Williamson
born	November 24, 1943Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
instrument	Vocals, guitar, harp, banjo, fiddle, flute, penny whistle, etc.
occupation	Singer, songwriter
years active	Since 1963
associated acts	The Incredible String BandThe Merry Band
website	pigswhiskermusic.co.uk
notable instruments	}}

Robin Williamson (born 24 November 1943, Edinburgh) is a Scottish multi-instrumentalist musician, singer, songwriter and storyteller, who first made his name as a founder member of The Incredible String Band.

Career

He lived in the Portobello area of Edinburgh, and attended George Watson's College before leaving at the age of 15 to become a professional musician. At first he performed in local jazz bands, with Gerard Dott (a later member of the ISB) and others, before turning to traditional music as a singer and guitarist. By 1961 he had met and begun sharing a flat with Bert Jansch, and in 1963 they traveled together to London to play the metropolitan folk circuit.

By 1965 he had returned to Edinburgh and formed a duo with Clive Palmer, specialising in fiddle and banjo arrangements of traditional Scots and Irish songs. Joe Boyd signed them to Elektra Records in 1966, by which time they had recruited third member Mike Heron. As resident band at Clive’s Incredible Folk Club in Glasgow, they called themselves the Incredible String Band.

Between 1966 and 1974 the Incredible String Band, based around the duo of Williamson and Heron, released some 13 albums, becoming in the UK one of the most popular, best-loved and influential groups of the era. The group also included Williamson's sometime girlfriend Licorice McKechnie.

Williamson released his first solo LP, "Myrrh", in 1971 when still a member of the Incredible String Band. After the band split up in 1974, he began living in Los Angeles and, for a while, turned his attention to writing, co-writing an espionage novel, "The Glory Trap".

By 1976 he had returned to music, forming The Merry Band with Sylvia Woods (Celtic harp), Jerry McMillan (fiddle), and Chris Caswell (flutes, and wire-strung harp). They toured extensively for three years throughout the US, Canada, and Europe, and released three albums "Journey’s Edge", "American Stonehenge", and "A Glint At The Kindling".

After the breakup of the Merry Band, Williamson returned to the UK and started to tour solo, offering sets dominated by traditional stories set to song. Releases of this period include "Songs of Love and Parting" and "Legacy of the Scottish Harpers". Williamson's concern with the British bardic tradition also manifested itself in several books and tapes containing spoken renditions of traditional tales. He has also written a tutorial book of English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish Fiddle Tunes (ISBN 0-8256-0165-7) as well as one for the penny whistle (ISBN 0-8256-0190-8).

Williamson's live album with John Renbourn, 'Wheel Of Fortune' (1995), was nominated for a Grammy, (as was the ISB album 'Hangman's Beautiful Daughter', in 1968).

In the late 1990s he took part, with Palmer and Heron, in a reformed ISB. Williamson left the band some time around the start of 2003 - some rumours had it that he was forced out in acrimonious circumstances. The reformed band disbanded once again in 2006.

Meanwhile Williamson resumed his solo career, notably on record with a series of albums for the ECM label. "Seed-at-zero' (2000), 'Skirting The River Road' (2002) and 'The Iron Stone' (2006) featured him combining his own words with those of the likes of Dylan Thomas, William Blake, and Walt Whitman. Musically these records show him increasingly working in a fusion style (similar in some ways to the avant-garde work of the Incredible String Band in the 60's) which incorporates folk, jazz, Renaissance, Classical and Eastern influences. A group of distinguished jazz musicians accompany Williamson on the two most recent ECM records, notably violist Mat Maneri, bassist Barre Phillips, Swedish multi-instrumentalist Ale Moller, and English sax player Paul Dunmall.

Solo discography

- Myrrh (1972)

- Journey's Edge (1977) (with The Merry Band)

- American Stonehenge (1978) (with The Merry Band)

- A Glint At The Kindling (1979) (with The Merry Band)

- Songs of Love & Parting (1981)

- The Fisherman's Son And The Gruagach of Tricks (1981)

- Prince Dougie And The Swan Maiden (1982)

- Rory Mor And The Gruagach Gaire (1982)

- Music for the Mabinogi (1983)

- Selected Writings (1984)

- Five Humorous Tales of Scotland and Ireland (1984)

- The Dragon Has Two Tongues (1985)

- Five Celtic Tales of Enchantment (1985)

- Five Legendary Histories Of Britain (1985)

- Five Bardic Mysteries (1985)

- Five Tales of Prodigies and Marvels (1985)

- Legacy of the Scottish Harpers (1986)

- Legacy of the Scottish Harpers Volume Two (1986)

- Winter's Turning (1986)

- Songs For Children of All Ages (1987)

- Ten of Songs (1988)

- Music For The Newly Born (1990)

- Wheel Of Fortune (1995, with John Renbourn)

- The Island Of The Strong Door (1996)

- Songs For The Calendarium (1996)

- Farewell Concert At McCabe's (1997, with The Merry Band)

- Mirrorman's Sequences (1997)

- Celtic Harp Airs And Dance Tunes (1997)

- Memories/Erinnerungen (1997)

- Dream Journals (1997)

- Bloomsbury 1997 (1998, with Mike Heron)

- Gems Of Celtic Story 1 (1998)

- Ring Dance (1998)

- Gems Of Celtic Story 2 (1998)

- A Job Of Journey Work (1998)

- The Old Fangled Tone (1999)

- Music For Macbeth (1999)

- At The Pure Fountain (1999, with Clive Palmer)

- The Seed-at-Zero (2000)

- Just Like The Ivy (2000, with Clive Palmer)

- Bloomsbury 2000 (2001, with reformed ISB)

- Carmina (2001)

- Skirting The River Road (2002)

- Gems Of Celtic Story 3 (2002)

- The Iron Stone (2006)

- The Celtic Bard (2008)

- Just Like The River And Other Songs For Guitar (2008)

Bibliography

Robin Williamson

- English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish Fiddle Tunes (1976)

Robin Williamson

- Penny Whistle Book (1977)

Robin Williamson

- Five Denials on Merlin's Grave: A Poem With Annotations (1979)

Dan Sherman and Robin Williamson

- The Glory Trap (1981) (novel)

Robin Williamson

- Holy Howlers (1987)

- The Craneskin Bag: Celtic Stories and Poems (1989)

- Wise and Foolish Tongue: Celtic Stories and Poems (1991)

Robin Williamson and John Matthews

- From the Isles of Dream: Visionary Stories and Poems of the Celtic Renaissance (1993)

R.J. Stewart and Robin Williamson

- Celtic Bards, Celtic Druids (1996)

Robin Williamson and John Matthews

- The Bardic Source Book: Inspirational Legacy and Teachings of the Ancient Celts (1998)

References

External links

Official Robin and Bina Williamson website

2003 Robin Williamson interview by Richie Unterberger

Robin Williamson fansite

A cartoon for one of Robin Williamson's songs

Full discography

Robin Williamson, interview documentary in Andalucia (Spain).

Category:1943 births Category:Scottish multi-instrumentalists Category:Living people Category:People from Edinburgh Category:People educated at George Watson's College Category:Scottish folk musicians Category:Scottish songwriters Category:Scottish male singers Category:British storytellers

nl:Robin Williamson

Since 1949, the government of People's Republic of China has actively promoted the social, economic and political roles of women in society. While advancing progress in promoting equality among men and women, the efforts met resistance in a traditionally Neo-Confucian society of male superiority.

Ancient China

All-China Women's Federation

In 1949, All-China Women's Federation was founded to "represent and to protect women’s rights and interests, and to promote equality between men and women." It was a multi-tier GONGO organization "with local women’s federations and group members at every divisional level of government."

Progress in promoting equality

"In 1949, when the PRC was founded, employed women accounted for only 7% of the workforce; in 1992, however, the figure was 38%. Women's contribution to family income went from 20% in the 1950s to 40% in the 1990s. In 1982, Chinese working women made up 43% of the total population, higher than the percentages enjoyed by American women (35.3%) or Japanese women (36%)."

Gender disparity

Mainland China has a highly masculine sex ratio. The sex ratio at birth (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117:100 in the year 2000, substantially more masculine than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100 in 1981—at the boundary of the natural baseline—to 111:100 in 1990. According to a report by the State Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability. The correlation between the increase of masculine sex ratio disparity on birth and the deployment of one child policy would appear to have been caused by the one-child policy.

However, other Asian regions also have higher than average ratios, including Taiwan (110:100) , which do not have a family planning policy. Many studies have explored the reason for the gender-based birthrate disparity in China as well as other countries. A study in 1990 attributed the high preponderance of reported male births in mainland China to four main causes: diseases which affect females more severely than males; the result of widespread under-reporting of female births; the illegal practice of sex-selective abortion made possible by the widespread availability of ultrasound; and finally, acts of child abandonment and infanticide.

Prostitution

Shortly after taking power in 1949, the Communist Party of China embarked upon a series of campaigns that purportedly eradicated prostitution from mainland China by the early 1960s. However, since the loosening of government controls over society in the early 1980s, prostitution in mainland China not only has become more visible, but also can now be found throughout both urban and rural areas. In spite of government efforts, prostitution has now developed to the extent that it comprises an industry, one that involves a great number of people and produces a considerable economic output. Prostitution has also become associated with a number of problems, including organized crime, government corruption and sexually transmitted diseases.

Second wives

The phenomenon of de facto polygamy, or so-called "second wives" (二奶 èrnǎi in Chinese), has reemerged in recent years. There are many villages in southern part of China where predominantly such women live. This situation has created many social and legal issues

Abuse

It has been reported that there has been an outbreak of domestic violence in China involving Chinese women committing violence against Chinese men. In 2003 10% of violence in families involved male victims. The wives beat their husbands, and some cut off their penises. In Wuxi in Jiangsu province a man had his penis cut off by his wife.

On July 21, 2008, the All China women's Federation reported that in Nanjing, China, it was reported that several wives cut off their husband's penis because they could not stand that their husbands were gambling or cheating on them. These are classified as a "crime of impulsion" by prosecutors in Nanjing, because the women go through an "emotional crisis". Most of these female criminals were younger than 35, and receive only a suspended sentence or one below three years, and are sent back home.

See also

Gender equality

Gender inequality

Urban and Rural society in the People's Republic of China

Women in ancient China

Women's healthcare in the People's Republic of China

Feminism in China

Impact of globalization on women in China

Globalization and women in China

Further reading

(pdf doc.) Women in the People's Republic of China (Country Briefing Paper) by the Asian Development Bank (Pub. Date: 1998)

References

External links

中国妇女网 All-China Women's Federation — Official website.

Category:Chinese women Category:Society of the People's Republic of China Category:Social history of China

cy:Merched yng Ngweriniaeth Pobl Tsieina

This is a list of people whose names in English are commonly appended with the phrase "''the Great''", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as ''e Bozorg'' and ''e azam'' in Persian and Urdu respectively.

In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.

The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "''the Great''".

The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.

As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.

Rulers

Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran

Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India

Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia

Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia

Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias

Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex

Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire

Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty

Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),

Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire

Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand

Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)

Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)

Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden

Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland

Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia

Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India

Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans

Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)

Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks

Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen

Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor

Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media

Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire

Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire

Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent

Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse

Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile

Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia

Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader

Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea

Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC

Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)

Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre

Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea

Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris

Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France

Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)

Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat

Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia

John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve

John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre

Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor

Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i

Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India

Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia

Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty

Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales

Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland

Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand

Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan

Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)

Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)

Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom

Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus

Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)

Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya

Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)

K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque

Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka

Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia

Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia

Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily

Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar

Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar

Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.

Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India

Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt

Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)

Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties

Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)

Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev

Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders

Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent

Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre

Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire

Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king

Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia

Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire

Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)

Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks

Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)

Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty

Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie

Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire

Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor

Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia

Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia

Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire

Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark

Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor

Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus

Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy

William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon

William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou

Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)

Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China

Religious figures

Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East

Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia

Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian

Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt

Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader

Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)

Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint

Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint

Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)

Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine

Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)

Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)

Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit

Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)

Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople

William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites

Other

Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies

Emmy the Great, folk singer

Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III

Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia

See also

Epithet

List of monarchs by nickname

List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I

James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus

Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater

Notes

Category:Monarchs Great, List of people known as The Category:Greatest Nationals Category:Epithets

bs:Spisak osoba znanih kao Veliki id:Daftar tokoh dengan gelar yang Agung jv:Daftar pamimpin ingkang dipun paringi julukan Ingkang Agung la:Magnus lt:Sąrašas:Žmonės, vadinami Didžiaisiais ja:称号に大が付く人物の一覧 ru:Великий (прозвище) sl:Seznam ljudi z vzdevkom Veliki sv:Lista över personer kallade den store th:รายพระนามกษัตริย์ที่ได้รับสมัญญานามมหาราช vi:Đại đế