Rachel Carson
Rachel Carson, 1940 Fish & Wildlife Service employee photo
Born	Rachel Louise Carson (1907-05-27)May 27, 1907 Springdale, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Died	April 14, 1964(1964-04-14) (aged 56) Silver Spring, Maryland, U.S.
Occupation	Marine biologist, writer and environmentalist
Nationality	American
Alma mater	Chatham University, Johns Hopkins University
Period	1937–1964
Genres	Nature writing
Subjects	Marine biology, ecology, pesticides
Notable work(s)	The Sea Around Us (1951) Silent Spring (1962)

Rachel Louise Carson (May 27, 1907 – April 14, 1964) was an American marine biologist and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement.

Carson began her career as a biologist in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, and became a full-time nature writer in the 1950s. Her widely praised 1951 bestseller The Sea Around Us won her a U.S. National Book Award,^[1] recognition as a gifted writer, and financial security. Her next book, The Edge of the Sea, and the reissued version of her first book, Under the Sea Wind, were also bestsellers. That so-called sea trilogy explores the whole of ocean life from the shores to the surface to the depths.

Late in the 1950s Carson turned her attention to conservation, especially environmental problems she believed were caused by synthetic pesticides. The result was Silent Spring (1962), which brought environmental concerns to an unprecedented share of the American people. Although Silent Spring met with fierce opposition by chemical companies, it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy, which led to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides, and it inspired a grassroots environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter.

Life and work[link]

Carson's childhood home now is preserved as the Rachel Carson Homestead

Early life and education[link]

Rachel Carson was born on May 27, 1907, on a small family farm near Springdale, Pennsylvania, just up the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh. An avid reader, she also spent a lot of time exploring around her family's 65-acre (26 ha) farm. She began writing stories (often involving animals) at age eight, and had her first story published at age eleven. She especially enjoyed the St. Nicholas Magazine (which carried her first published stories), the works of Beatrix Potter, and the novels of Gene Stratton Porter, and in her teen years, Herman Melville, Joseph Conrad and Robert Louis Stevenson. The natural world, particularly the ocean, was the common thread of her favorite literature. Carson attended Springdale's small school through tenth grade, then completed high school in nearby Parnassus, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1925 at the top of her class of forty-five students.^[2]

At the Pennsylvania College for Women (today known as Chatham University), as in high school, Carson was somewhat of a loner. She originally studied English, but switched her major to biology in January 1928, though she continued contributing to the school's student newspaper and literary supplement. Though admitted to graduate standing at Johns Hopkins University in 1928, she was forced to remain at the Pennsylvania College for Women for her senior year due to financial difficulties; she graduated magna cum laude in 1929. After a summer course at the Marine Biological Laboratory, she continued her studies in zoology and genetics at Johns Hopkins in the fall of 1929.^[3]

After her first year of graduate school, Carson became a part-time student, taking an assistantship in Raymond Pearl's laboratory, where she worked with rats and Drosophila, to earn money for tuition. After false starts with pit vipers and squirrels, she completed a dissertation project on the embryonic development of the pronephros in fish. She earned a master's degree in zoology in June 1932. She had intended to continue for a doctorate, but in 1934 Carson was forced to leave Johns Hopkins to search for a full-time teaching position to help support her family. In 1935, her father died suddenly, leaving Carson to care for her aging mother and making the financial situation even more critical. At the urging of her undergraduate biology mentor Mary Scott Skinker, she settled for a temporary position with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, writing radio copy for a series of weekly educational broadcasts entitled "Romance Under the Waters". The series of fifty-two seven-minute programs focused on aquatic life and was intended to generate public interest in fish biology and in the work of the bureau—a task the several writers before Carson had not managed. Carson also began submitting articles on marine life in the Chesapeake Bay, based on her research for the series, to local newspapers and magazines.^[4]

Carson's supervisor, pleased with the success of the radio series, asked her to write the introduction to a public brochure about the fisheries bureau; he also worked to secure her the first full-time position that became available. Sitting for the civil service exam, she outscored all other applicants and in 1936 became only the second woman to be hired by the Bureau of Fisheries for a full-time, professional position, as a junior aquatic biologist.^[5]

Early career and publications[link]

At the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Carson's main responsibilities were to analyze and report field data on fish populations, and to write brochures and other literature for the public. Using her research and consultations with marine biologists as starting points, she also wrote a steady stream of articles for The Baltimore Sun and other newspapers. However, her family responsibilities further increased in January 1937 when her older sister died, leaving Carson as the sole breadwinner for her mother and two nieces.^[6]

In July 1937, the Atlantic Monthly accepted a revised version of an essay, "The World of Waters", that she had originally written for her first fisheries bureau brochure; her supervisor had deemed it too good for that purpose. The essay, published as "Undersea", was a vivid narrative of a journey along the ocean floor. It marked a major turning point in Carson's writing career. Publishing house Simon & Schuster, impressed by "Undersea", contacted Carson and suggested that she expand it into book form. Several years of writing resulted in Under the Sea Wind (1941), which received excellent reviews but sold poorly. In the meantime, Carson's article-writing success continued—her features appeared in Sun Magazine, Nature, and Collier's.^[7]

Carson attempted to leave the Bureau (by then transformed into the Fish and Wildlife Service) in 1945, but few jobs for naturalists were available as most money for science was focused on technical fields in the wake of the Manhattan Project. In mid-1945, Carson first encountered the subject of DDT, a revolutionary new pesticide (lauded as the "insect bomb" after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that was only beginning to undergo tests for safety and ecological effects. DDT was but one of Carson's many writing interests at the time, and editors found the subject unappealing; she published nothing on DDT until 1962.^[8]

Carson rose within the Fish and Wildlife Service, supervising a small writing staff by 1945 and becoming chief editor of publications in 1949. Though her position provided increasing opportunities for fieldwork and freedom in choosing her writing projects, it also entailed increasingly tedious administrative responsibilities. By 1948, Carson was working on material for a second book and had made the conscious decision to begin a transition to writing full-time. That year, she took on a literary agent, Marie Rodell; they formed a close professional relationship that would last the rest of Carson's career.^[9]

Oxford University Press expressed interest in Carson's book proposal for a life history of the ocean, spurring her to complete the manuscript of what would become The Sea Around Us by early 1950.^[10] Chapters appeared in Science Digest and the Yale Review—the latter chapter, "The Birth of an Island", winning the American Association for the Advancement of Science's George Westinghouse Science Writing Prize. Nine chapters were serialized in The New Yorker beginning June 1951 and the book was published July 2, 1951, by Oxford University Press. The Sea Around Us remained on the New York Times Best Seller List for 86 weeks, was abridged by Reader's Digest, won the 1952 National Book Award for Nonfiction^[1] and the Burroughs Medal, and resulted in Carson's being awarded two honorary doctorates. She also licensed a documentary film based on it. The Sea's success led to the republication of Under the Sea Wind, which became a bestseller itself. With success came financial security, and Carson was able to give up her job in 1952 to concentrate on writing full time.^[11]

Carson was inundated with speaking engagements, fan mail and other correspondence regarding The Sea Around Us, along with work on the documentary script that she had secured the right to review.^[12] She was very unhappy with the final version of the script by writer, director and producer Irwin Allen; she found it untrue to the atmosphere of the book and scientifically embarrassing, describing it as "a cross between a believe-it-or-not and a breezy travelogue."^[13] She discovered, however, that her right to review the script did not extend to any control over its content. Allen proceeded in spite of Carson's objections to produce a very successful documentary. It won the 1953 Oscar for Best Documentary, but Carson was so embittered by the experience that she never again sold film rights to her work.^[14]

Relationship with Dorothy Freeman[link]

Carson moved with her mother to Southport Island, Maine, in 1953, and in July of that year met Dorothy Freeman (1898–1978) — the beginning of an extremely close relationship that would last the rest of Carson's life. The nature of the relationship between Carson and Freeman has been the subject of speculation. Carson met Freeman, a summer resident of the island along with her husband, after Freeman had written to Carson to welcome her. Freeman had read The Sea Around Us, a gift from her son, and was excited to have the prominent author as a neighbor. Carson's biographer, Linda Lear, writes that "Carson sorely needed a devoted friend and kindred spirit who would listen to her without advising and accept her wholly, the writer as well as the woman."^[15] She found this in Freeman. The two women had a number of common interests, nature chief among them, and began exchanging letters regularly while apart. They would share summers for the remainder of Carson's life, and meet whenever else their schedules permitted.^[16]

Though Lear does not explicitly describe the relationship as romantic, others (such as the encyclopedia glbtq^[17]) have noted that Carson and Freeman realized the letters could be interpreted as lesbian, even though "the expression of their love was limited almost wholly to letters and very occasional farewell kisses or holding of hands".^[18] Freeman shared parts of Carson's letters with her husband to help him understand the relationship, but much of their correspondence was carefully guarded.^[19]

Shortly before Carson's death, she and Freeman destroyed hundreds of letters. The surviving correspondence was published in 1995 as Always, Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman, 1952–1964: An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship, edited by Freeman's granddaughter. According to one reviewer, the pair "fit Carolyn Heilbrun's characterization of a strong female friendship, where what matters is 'not whether friends are homosexual or heterosexual, lovers or not, but whether they share the wonderful energy of work in the public sphere'".^[20]

[edit] The Edge of the Sea and transition to conservation work

Early in 1953 Carson began library and field research on the ecology and organisms of the Atlantic shore.^[21] In 1955, she completed the third volume of her sea trilogy, The Edge of the Sea, which focuses on life in coastal ecosystems (particularly along the Eastern Seaboard). It appeared in The New Yorker in two condensed installments shortly before its October 26 book release by Houghton Mifflin (again a new publisher). By this time, Carson's reputation for clear and poetical prose was well established; The Edge of the Sea received highly favorable reviews, if not quite as enthusiastic as for The Sea Around Us.^[22]

Through 1955 and 1956, Carson worked on a number of projects—including the script for an Omnibus episode, "Something About the Sky"—and wrote articles for popular magazines. Her plan for the next book was to address evolution, but the publication of Julian Huxley's Evolution in Action—and her own difficulty in finding a clear and compelling approach to the topic—led her to abandon the project. Instead, her interests were turning to conservation. She considered an environment-themed book project tentatively entitled Remembrance of the Earth and became involved with The Nature Conservancy and other conservation groups. She also made plans to buy and preserve from development an area in Maine she and Freeman called the "Lost Woods".^[23]

Early in 1957, family tragedy struck a third time when one of the nieces she had cared for in the 1940s died at the age of 31, leaving a five-year-old orphan son, Roger Christie. Carson took on that responsibility, adopting the boy, alongside continuing to care for her aging mother; this took a considerable toll on Carson. She moved to Silver Spring, Maryland, to care for Roger, and much of 1957 was spent putting their new living situation in order and focusing on specific environmental threats.^[24]

By fall 1957, Carson was closely following federal proposals for widespread pesticide spraying; the USDA planned to eradicate fire ants, and other spraying programs involving chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates were on the rise.^[25] For the rest of her life, Carson's main professional focus would be the dangers of pesticide overuse.

[edit] Silent Spring

Silent Spring is a book written by Rachel Carson and published by Houghton Mifflin on 27 September 1962.^[26] The book is widely credited with helping launch the environmental movement.^[27]

Research and writing[link]

Starting in the mid-1940s, Carson had become concerned about the use of synthetic pesticides, many of which had been developed through the military funding of science since World War II. It was the USDA's 1957 fire ant eradication program,^{[citation needed]} however, that prompted Carson to devote her research, and her next book, to pesticides and environmental poisons. The fire ant program involved aerial spraying of DDT and other pesticides (mixed with fuel oil), including the spraying of private land. Landowners in Long Island filed a suit to have the spraying stopped, and many in affected regions followed the case closely. Though the suit was lost, the Supreme Court granted petitioners the right to gain injunctions against potential environmental damage in the future; this laid the basis for later successful environmental actions.^[28]

The Washington, D.C. chapter of the Audubon Society also actively opposed such spraying programs, and recruited Carson to help make public the government's exact spraying practices and the related research.^[29] Carson began the four-year project of what would become Silent Spring by gathering examples of environmental damage attributed to DDT. She also attempted to enlist others to join the cause: essayist E. B. White, and a number of journalists and scientists. By 1958, Carson had arranged a book deal, with plans to co-write with Newsweek science journalist Edwin Diamond. However, when The New Yorker commissioned a long and well-paid article on the topic from Carson, she began considering writing more than simply the introduction and conclusion as planned; soon it was a solo project. (Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of Silent Spring.)^[30]

As her research progressed, Carson found a sizable community of scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental effects of pesticides. She also took advantage of her personal connections with many government scientists, who supplied her with confidential information. From reading the scientific literature and interviewing scientists, Carson found two scientific camps when it came to pesticides: those who dismissed the possible danger of pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof, and those who were open to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative methods such as biological pest control.^[31]

By 1959, the USDA's Agricultural Research Service responded to the criticism of Carson and others with a public service film, Fire Ants on Trial; Carson characterized it as "flagrant propaganda" that ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides (especially dieldrin and heptachlor) posed to humans and wildlife. That spring, Carson wrote a letter, published in The Washington Post, that attributed the recent decline in bird populations—in her words, the "silencing of birds"—to pesticide overuse.^[32] That was also the year of the "Great Cranberry Scandal": the 1957, 1958, and 1959 crops of U.S. cranberries were found to contain high levels of the herbicide aminotriazole (which caused cancer in laboratory rats) and the sale of all cranberry products was halted. Carson attended the ensuing FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations; she came away discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry representatives, which included expert testimony that was firmly contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been studying. She also wondered about the possible "financial inducements behind certain pesticide programs".^[33]

Research at the Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health brought Carson into contact with medical researchers investigating the gamut of cancer-causing chemicals. Of particular significance was the work of National Cancer Institute researcher and founding director of the environmental cancer section Wilhelm Hueper, who classified many pesticides as carcinogens. Carson and her research assistant Jeanne Davis, with the help of NIH librarian Dorothy Algire, found evidence to support the pesticide-cancer connection; to Carson the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array of synthetic pesticides was clear-cut, though such conclusions were very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying pesticide carcinogenesis.^[34]

By 1960, Carson had more than enough research material, and the writing was progressing rapidly. In addition to the thorough literature search, she had investigated hundreds of individual incidents of pesticide exposure and the human sickness and ecological damage that resulted. However, in January, a duodenal ulcer followed by several infections kept her bedridden for weeks, greatly delaying the completion of Silent Spring. As she was nearing full recovery in March (just as she was completing drafts of the two cancer chapters of her book), she discovered cysts in her left breast, one of which necessitated a mastectomy. Though her doctor described the procedure as precautionary and recommended no further treatment, by December Carson discovered that the tumor was in fact malignant and the cancer had metastasized.^[35] Her research was also delayed by revision work for a new edition of The Sea Around Us, and by a collaborative photo essay with Erich Hartmann.^[36] Most of the research and writing was done by the fall of 1960, except for the discussion of recent research on biological controls and investigations of a handful of new pesticides. However, further health troubles slowed the final revisions in 1961 and early 1962.^[37]

It was difficult finding a title for the book; "Silent Spring" was initially suggested as a title for the chapter on birds. By August 1961, Carson finally agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent Marie Rodell: Silent Spring would be a metaphorical title for the entire book—suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural world—rather than a literal chapter title about the absence of birdsong.^[38] With Carson's approval, editor Paul Brooks at Houghton Mifflin arranged for illustrations by Louis and Lois Darling, who also designed the cover. The final writing was the first chapter, "A Fable for Tomorrow", which was intended to provide a gentler introduction to what might otherwise be a forbiddingly serious topic. By mid-1962, Brooks and Carson had largely finished the editing, and were laying the groundwork for promoting the book by sending the manuscript out to select individuals for final suggestions.^[39]

Argument[link]

As biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle writes, Carson "quite self-consciously decided to write a book calling into question the paradigm of scientific progress that defined postwar American culture." The overriding theme of Silent Spring is the powerful—and often negative—effect humans have on the natural world.^[40]

Carson's main argument is that pesticides have detrimental effects on the environment; they are more properly termed "biocides", she argues, because their effects are rarely limited to the target pests. DDT is a prime example, but other synthetic pesticides come under scrutiny as well—many of which are subject to bioaccumulation. Carson also accuses the chemical industry of intentionally spreading disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically. Most of the book is devoted to pesticides' effects on natural ecosystems, but four chapters also detail cases of human pesticide poisoning, cancer, and other illnesses attributed to pesticides.^[41] About DDT and cancer, the subject of so much subsequent debate, Carson says only a little:

In laboratory tests on animal subjects, DDT has produced suspicious liver tumors. Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to classify them, but felt there was some "justification for considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas." Dr. Hueper [author of Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases] now gives DDT the definite rating of a "chemical carcinogen."^[42]

Carson predicts increased consequences in the future, especially as targeted pests develop resistance to pesticides while weakened ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated invasive species. The book closes with a call for a biotic approach to pest control as an alternative to chemical pesticides.^[43]

Promotion and reception[link]

Carson and the others involved with publication of Silent Spring expected fierce criticism. They were particularly concerned about the possibility of being sued for libel. Carson was also undergoing radiation therapy to combat her spreading cancer, and expected to have little energy to devote to defending her work and responding to critics. In preparation for the anticipated attacks, Carson and her agent attempted to amass as many prominent supporters as possible before the book's release.^[44]

Most of the book's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists with relevant expertise, among whom Carson found strong support. Carson attended the White House Conference on Conservation in May, 1962; Houghton Mifflin distributed proof copies of Silent Spring to many of the delegates, and promoted the upcoming New Yorker serialization. Among many others, Carson also sent a proof copy to Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, a long-time environmental advocate who had argued against the court's rejection of the Long Island pesticide spraying case (and who had provided Carson with some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides).^[45]

Though Silent Spring had generated a fairly high level of interest based on pre-publication promotion, this became much more intense with the serialization in The New Yorker, which began in the June 16, 1962 issue. This brought the book to the attention of the chemical industry and its lobbyists, as well as a wide swath of the American populace. Around that time Carson also learned that Silent Spring had been selected as the Book-of-the-Month for October; as she put it, this would "carry it to farms and hamlets all over that country that don't know what a bookstore looks like—much less The New Yorker."^[46] Other publicity included a positive editorial in The New York Times and excerpts of the serialized version in Audubon Magazine, with another round of publicity in July and August as chemical companies responded. The story of the birth defect-causing drug thalidomide broke just before the book's publication as well, inviting comparisons between Carson and Frances Oldham Kelsey, the Food and Drug Administration reviewer who had blocked the drug's sale in the United States.^[47]

In the weeks leading up to the September 27 publication there was strong opposition to Silent Spring. DuPont (a main manufacturer of DDT and 2,4-D) and Velsicol Chemical Company (exclusive manufacturer of chlordane and heptachlor) were among the first to respond. DuPont compiled an extensive report on the book's press coverage and estimated impact on public opinion. Velsicol threatened legal action against Houghton Mifflin as well as The New Yorker and Audubon Magazine unless the planned Silent Spring features were canceled. Chemical industry representatives and lobbyists also lodged a range of non-specific complaints, some anonymously. Chemical companies and associated organizations produced a number of their own brochures and articles promoting and defending pesticide use. However, Carson's and the publishers' lawyers were confident in the vetting process Silent Spring had undergone. The magazine and book publications proceeded as planned, as did the large Book-of-the-Month printing (which included a pamphlet endorsing the book by William O. Douglas).^[49]

American Cyanamid biochemist Robert White-Stevens and former Cyanamid chemist Thomas Jukes were among the most aggressive critics, especially of Carson's analysis of DDT.^[50] According to White-Stevens, "If man were to follow the teachings of Miss Carson, we would return to the Dark Ages, and the insects and diseases and vermin would once again inherit the earth."^[51] Others went further, attacking Carson's scientific credentials (because her training was in marine biology rather than biochemistry) and her personal character. White-Stevens labeled her "a fanatic defender of the cult of the balance of nature",^[52] while former Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson—in a letter to Dwight D. Eisenhower—reportedly concluded that because she was unmarried despite being physically attractive, she was "probably a Communist".^[53]

Many critics repeatedly asserted that she was calling for the elimination of all pesticides. Yet Carson had made it clear she was not advocating the banning or complete withdrawal of helpful pesticides, but was instead encouraging responsible and carefully managed use with an awareness of the chemicals' impact on the entire ecosystem.^[54] In fact, she concludes her section on DDT in Silent Spring not by urging a total ban, but with advice for spraying as little as possible to limit the development of resistance.^[55]

The academic community—including prominent defenders such as H. J. Muller, Loren Eisley, Clarence Cottam, and Frank Egler—by and large backed the book's scientific claims; public opinion soon turned Carson's way as well. The chemical industry campaign backfired, as the controversy greatly increased public awareness of potential pesticide dangers, as well as Silent Spring book sales. Pesticide use became a major public issue, especially after the CBS Reports TV special "The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson" that aired April 3, 1963. The program included segments of Carson reading from Silent Spring and interviews with a number of other experts, mostly critics (including White-Stevens); according to biographer Linda Lear, "in juxtaposition to the wild-eyed, loud-voiced Dr. Robert White-Stevens in white lab coat, Carson appeared anything but the hysterical alarmist that her critics contended."^[56] Reactions from the estimated audience of ten to fifteen million were overwhelmingly positive, and the program spurred a congressional review of pesticide dangers and the public release of a pesticide report by the President's Science Advisory Committee.^[57] Within a year or so of publication, the attacks on the book and on Carson had largely lost momentum.^[58][59]

In one of her last public appearances, Carson had testified before President Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee. The committee issued its report on May 15, 1963, largely backing Carson's scientific claims.^[60] Following the report's release, she also testified before a Senate subcommittee to make policy recommendations. Though Carson received hundreds of other speaking invitations, she was unable to accept the great majority of them. Her health was steadily declining as her cancer outpaced the radiation therapy, with only brief periods of remission. She spoke as much as she was physically able, however, including a notable appearance on The Today Show and speeches at several dinners held in her honor. In late 1963, she received a flurry of awards and honors: the Audubon Medal (from the National Audubon Society), the Cullum Medal (from the American Geographical Society), and induction into the American Academy of Arts and Letters.^[61]

Death[link]

Weakened from breast cancer and her treatment regimen, Carson became ill with a respiratory virus in January 1964. Her condition worsened, and in February, doctors found that she had severe anemia from her radiation treatments and in March discovered that the cancer had reached her liver. She died of a heart attack on April 14, 1964.^[62]

She was interred at Parklawn Memorial Park and Menorah Gardens in Rockville, Maryland. She greatly infuenced the use of synthetic pesticides, and lead the world to become more aware of global issues, and their long-lasting damage on all living creatures.

Legacy[link]

Collected papers and posthumous publications[link]

Carson bequeathed her manuscripts and papers to Yale University, to take advantage of the new state-of-the-art preservations facilities of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Her longtime agent and literary executor Marie Rodell spent nearly two years organizing and cataloging Carson's papers and correspondence, distributing all the letters to their senders so that only what each correspondent approved of would be submitted to the archive.^[63]

In 1965, Rodell arranged for the publication of an essay Carson had intended to expand into a book: A Sense of Wonder. The essay, which was combined with photographs by Charles Pratt and others, exhorts parents to help their children experience the "lasting pleasures of contact with the natural world", which "are available to anyone who will place himself under the influence of earth, sea and sky and their amazing life."^[64]

In addition to the letters in Always Rachel, in 1998 a volume of Carson's previously unpublished work was published as Lost Woods: The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson, edited by Linda Lear. All of Carson's books remain in print.^[64]

Grassroots environmentalism and the EPA[link]

Carson's work had a powerful impact on the environmental movement. Silent Spring, in particular, was a rallying point for the fledgling social movement in the 1960s. According to environmental engineer and Carson scholar H. Patricia Hynes, "Silent Spring altered the balance of power in the world. No one since would be able to sell pollution as the necessary underside of progress so easily or uncritically."^[65] Carson's work, and the activism it inspired, are at least partly responsible for the deep ecology movement, and the overall strength of the grassroots environmental movement since the 1960s. It was also influential on the rise of ecofeminism and on many feminist scientists.^[66]

Carson's most direct legacy in the environmental movement was the campaign to ban the use of DDT in the United States (and related efforts to ban or limit its use throughout the world). Though environmental concerns about DDT had been considered by government agencies as early as Carson's testimony before the President's Science Advisory Committee, the 1967 formation of the Environmental Defense Fund was the first major milestone in the campaign against DDT. The organization brought lawsuits against the government to "establish a citizen's right to a clean environment", and the arguments employed against DDT largely mirrored Carson's. By 1972, the Environmental Defense Fund and other activist groups had succeeded in securing a phase-out of DDT use in the United States (except in emergency cases).^[67]

The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency by the Nixon administration in 1970 addressed another concern that Carson had brought to light. Until then, the same agency (the USDA) was responsible both for regulating pesticides and promoting the concerns of the agriculture industry; Carson saw this as a conflict of interest, since the agency was not responsible for effects on wildlife or other environmental concerns beyond farm policy. Fifteen years after its creation, one journalist described the EPA as "the extended shadow of Silent Spring". Much of the agency's early work, such as enforcement of the 1972 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, was directly related to Carson's work.^[68]

Science, nature, DDT, and food production[link]

Carson came into her own during a time in America when the majority of the population believed all science was inherently good. Carson came to challenge the idea that it was "man against nature" as explained by historian Thomas Dunlap. "Americans assumed that science was good, that chemicals were necessary, that their use would be governed by experts, that these experts could be trusted, and that the side-effects of chemical use would be negligible." ^[69] An excellent example of this is the widespread use of DDT after World War II. "DDT was hailed as the success story of World War II. During the war, the chemical helped to exterminate lice and insect-borne disease, and saved much-needed food crops. When the war ended, the United States sought to become the top food supplier and the Department of Agriculture saw DDT as a means to achieve that end." ^[70] It is clear that financial superiority was the top priority after the war. These companies did not want people to start believing her; which would therefore lower or stop their production. The chemical companies, government and many of its scientists believed it would be ok to allow the people of the United States, and therefore the world (since at this time other countries looked to see what the USA was conducting) that the unmitigated use of DDT was not only the safest, but the most prudent way of gaining that superiority. Carson's works challenged these institutions and the assumptions they encouraged.

Rachel Carson believed the modern environmental movement of the time overused pesticides. She deplored the "culture of American abundance" as incurred by the capitalist economy whose expanding nature led to the destruction of many wildlife habitats. ^[71] Carson did not take the use of chemicals such as DDT at face value like most of the public. This is not to say that she did not want to enhance the life of the American people, or humans as a whole, but she did not support the destruction of the environment to attain that goal.

"Because it is more comfortable to believe in pleasant things, most of us continue today to believe that in our country there will always be plenty. . . This is the comfortable dream of the average American. But it is a fallacious dream. It is a dangerous dream. . . Only so long as we are vigilant to cherish and safeguard [our resources] against waste, against over exploitation, and against destruction will our country continue strong and free." ^[72]

This quote exemplifies the mindset of the average American who was looking to attain the "American Dream." This also illustrates why the people allowed the use of DDT without learning what it was doing to their environment as the quotes explains that it is more comfortable to believe in pleasant things as long as we are able to prosper. Carson also disliked the idea that Americans were ok with a "quick fix":

"One great trouble — I suppose it is the fault of the American public as a whole — is this desire for the quick and easy way of doing something, without any consideration of the consequences. Even if the consequences are strongly implied or known, there is still a great temptation to go ahead and get the job done and let the future take care of itself. Maybe we will come up with a pill to take care of it, or something like that!" ^[73]

Carson believed that this idea of the quick fix is what allowed the Americans to get into the Environmental predicament that had found themselves in. By allowing "the future to worry about itself " as Carson said, it freed scientists up to only come up with results as opposed to the best or the safest results. They were reacting after the fact and trying to fix the problem, instead of working to prevent the problem before it starts. Rachel Carson was significant in the history of the contemporary American environmental movement because through her writing and different publications she was able to change the mindset of the everyday American person. Although her job seems like it was simple and a quick fix, it took a lot of struggle on Carson’s part to get her point across. She was able to point out that the quick fix for something was not the only way to accomplish a goal and usually was not the best. In the case of DDT, the quick fix was harming the environment more than it was helping; with the help of Carson’s writing the public was able to see this error in the scientific world.

Criticisms of environmentalism and DDT restrictions[link]

Carson and the environmental movement were—and continue to be—criticized by some conservatives and libertarians as well as chemical industry trade groups, who argue that restrictions placed on pesticides, specifically DDT, have caused tens of millions of needless deaths and hampered agriculture (and, implicitly, that Carson bears responsibility for inciting such restrictions).^[74][75][76] In the 1980s, the policies of the Reagan Administration emphasized economic growth at the expense of environmental regulation, rolling back many of the environmental policies adopted in response to Carson and her work.^[77]

Carson's vocal expressions of concern about the human health effects and environmental impact of DDT has come under the most intense fire. Political scientist Charles Rubin was one of the most vociferous critics in the 1980s and 1990s, though he accused her merely of selective use of source and fanaticism (rather than the more severe criticism Carson received upon Silent Spring's release).

In the 2000s, however, criticism of the real and alleged ban(s) of DDT her work prompted became much more intense.^[78][79] The conservative magazine Human Events gave Silent Spring an honorable mention for the "Ten Most Harmful Books of the 19th and 20th Centuries".^[80] In 2009 the libertarian think tank Competitive Enterprise Institute set up a website Rachelwaswrong.org, asserting "Millions of people around the world suffer the painful and often deadly effects of malaria because one person sounded a false alarm. That person is Rachel Carson."^[79]

Biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle believes these estimates unrealistic, even assuming that Carson can be "blamed" for worldwide DDT policies.^[81] John Quiggin and Tim Lambert have written that "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted." DDT was never banned for anti-malarial use,^[82] (its ban for agricultural use in the United States in 1972 did not apply outside the US or to anti-malaria spraying;^[83] the international treaty that banned most uses of DDT and other organochlorine pesticides — the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants — included an exemption for DDT for the use of malaria control until affordable substitutes could be found.^[78]) Mass outdoor spraying of DDT was abandoned in poor countries subject to malaria, such as Sri Lanka, in the 1970s and 1980s, not because of government prohibitions, but because the DDT had lost its ability to kill the mosquitoes.^[78] (Because of insects very short breeding cycle and large number of offspring, the most resistant insects that survive and pass on their genetic traits to their offspring replace the pesticide-slain insects relatively rapidly. Agricultural spraying of pesticides produces resistance to the pesticide in seven to ten years.^[84])

Other defenders point out Carson never actually called for an outright ban on DDT, and part of the argument she made in Silent Spring was that even if DDT and other insecticides had no environmental side effects, their indiscriminate overuse was counter-productive because it would created insect resistance to the pesticide(s), making them (the pesticides) useless in eliminating the target insect populations:

No responsible person contends that insect-borne disease should be ignored. The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is either wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse. The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease through the control of insect vectors of infection, but it has heard little of the other side of the story—the defeats, the short-lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts. Even worse, we may have destroyed our very means of fighting.^[85]

Carson further noted that "Malaria programmes are threatened by resistance among mosquitoes"^[86] and emphasized the advice given by the director of Holland's Plant Protection Service: "Practical advice should be 'Spray as little as you possibly can' rather than 'Spray to the limit of your capacity'…Pressure on the pest population should always be as slight as possible." ^[87]

Consequently, some experts have argued that restrictions placed on the agricultural use of DDT have increased its effectiveness as a tool for battling malaria. According to pro-DDT advocate Amir Attaran the result of the 2004 Stockholm Convention banning DDT's use in agriculture "is arguably better than the status quo ... For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before."^[88] But though Carson's legacy has been closely tied to DDT, Roger Bate of the DDT advocacy organization Africa Fighting Malaria warns that "A lot of people have used Carson to push their own agendas. We just have to be a little careful when you're talking about someone who died in 1964."^[89]

Posthumous honors[link]

A variety of groups ranging from government institutions to environmental and conservation organizations to scholarly societies have celebrated Carson's life and work since her death. Perhaps most significantly, on June 9, 1980, Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States^[90] A 17¢ Great Americans series postage stamp was issued in her honor the following year; several other countries have since issued Carson postage as well.^[91]

The Rachel Carson Bridge in Pittsburgh

Carson's birthplace and childhood home in Springdale, Pennsylvania — now known as the Rachel Carson Homestead—became a National Register of Historic Places site, and the nonprofit Rachel Carson Homestead Association was created in 1975 to manage it.^[92] Her home in Colesville, Maryland where she wrote Silent Spring was named a National Historic Landmark in 1991.^[93] Near Pittsburgh, a 35.7 miles (57 km) hiking trail, maintained by the Rachel Carson Trails Conservancy, was dedicated to Carson in 1975.^[94] A Pittsburgh bridge was also renamed in Carson's honor as the Rachel Carson Bridge.^[95] The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection State Office Building in Harrisburg is named in her honor. An elementary school in Gaithersburg, Montgomery County, Maryland, was named in her honor,^[96] as was a Rachel Carson Middle School in Herndon, Virginia,^[97] and another elementary school in Sammamish, Washington.^[98]

The ceremonial auditorium on the third floor of U.S. EPA's main headquarters, the Ariel Rios Building, is named after Rachel Carson. The Rachel Carson room is just a few feet away from the EPA administrator's office and has been the site of numerous important announcements, including the Clean Air Interstate Rule, since the Agency moved to Ariel Rios in 2001.^[99]

A number of conservation areas have been named for Carson as well. Between 1964 and 1990, 650 acres (3 km²) near Brookeville in Montgomery County, Maryland were acquired and set aside as the Rachel Carson Conservation Park, administered by the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission.^[100] In 1969, the Coastal Maine National Wildlife Refuge became the Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge; expansions will bring the size of the refuge to about 9,125 acres (37 km²).^[101] In 1985, North Carolina renamed one of its estuarine reserves in honor of Carson, in Beaufort.^[102]

Carson is also a frequent namesake for prizes awarded by philanthropic, educational and scholarly institutions. The Rachel Carson Prize, founded in Stavanger, Norway in 1991, is awarded to women who have made a contribution in the field of environmental protection.^[103] The American Society for Environmental History has awarded the Rachel Carson Prize for Best Dissertation since 1993.^[104] Since 1998, the Society for Social Studies of Science has awarded an annual Rachel Carson Book Prize for "a book length work of social or political relevance in the area of science and technology studies."^[105]

Centennial events[link]

The celebration of the 100th anniversary of Carson's birth in Springdale, Pennsylvania

2007 was the centennial of Carson's birth. On Earth Day (April 22, 2007), Courage for the Earth: Writers, Scientists, and Activists Celebrate the Life and Writing of Rachel Carson was released as "a centennial appreciation of Rachel Carson's brave life and transformative writing", thirteen essays by prominent environmental writers and scientists.^[106] Democratic Senator Benjamin L. Cardin of Maryland had intended to submit a resolution celebrating Carson for her "legacy of scientific rigor coupled with poetic sensibility" on the 100th anniversary of her birth. The resolution was blocked by Republican Senator Tom Coburn of Oklahoma,^[107] who said that "The junk science and stigma surrounding DDT—the cheapest and most effective insecticide on the planet—have finally been jettisoned."^[108] The Rachel Carson Homestead Association held a May 27 birthday party and sustainable feast at her birthplace and home in Springdale, Pennsylvania, and the first Rachel Carson Legacy Conference in Pittsburgh with E.O. Wilson as keynote speaker. Both Rachel's Sustainable Feast and the conference continue as annual events.

List of works[link]

• Under the Sea Wind, 1941, Simon & Schuster, Penguin Group, 1996, ISBN 0-14-025380-7
• "Fishes of the Middle West" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1943. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/6/. 
• "Fish and Shellfish of the Middle Atlantic Coast" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1945. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/3/. 
• "Chincoteague: A National Wildlife Refuge" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1947. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/1/. 
• "Mattamuskeet: A National Wildlife Refuge" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1947. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/5/. 
• "Parker River: A National Wildlife Refuge" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1947. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/4/. 
• "Bear River: A National Wildlife Refuge" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. 1950. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs/2/.  (with Vanez T. Wilson)
• The Sea Around Us, Oxford University Press, 1951; Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-19-506997-8
• The Edge of the Sea, Houghton Mifflin 1955; Mariner Books, 1998, ISBN 0-395-92496-0
• Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, 1962; Mariner Books, 2002, ISBN 0-618-24906-0
  • Silent Spring initially appeared serialized in three parts in the June 16, June 23, and June 30, 1962 issues of The New Yorker magazine
• The Sense of Wonder, 1965, HarperCollins, 1998: ISBN 0-06-757520-X published posthumously
• Always, Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman 1952–1964 An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship, Beacon Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8070-7010-6 edited by Martha Freeman (granddaughter of Dorothy Freeman)
• Lost Woods: The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson, Beacon Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8070-8547-2
• Bedrock: Writers on the Wonders of Geology, edited by Lauret E. Savoy, Eldridge M. Moores, and Judith E. Moores, Trinity University Press, 2006, ISBN 1-59534-022-X

See also[link]

• Rachel Carson House (Colesville, Maryland)
• Rachel Carson Homestead
• Environmentalism
• Rachel Carson Greenway (three trails in Central Maryland)
• Women and the environment through history
• Environmental toxicology

References[link]

Citations[link]

• Hynes, H. Patricia (1989). The Recurring Silent Spring. Athene series. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-037117-5. http://books.google.com/?id=MNjaAAAAMAAJ. 
• Lear, Linda (1997). Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-3428-5. http://books.google.com/?id=2kDGQgAACAAJ. 
• Lytle, Mark Hamilton (2007). The Gentle Subversive: Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Rise of the Environmental Movement. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517246-9. http://books.google.com/?id=SOSD4PFchmsC. 
• Murphy, Priscilla Coit (2005). What a Book Can Do: The Publication and Reception of Silent Spring. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-582-1. http://books.google.com/?id=MFWFjvY90PgC. 
• Kline, B. First Along the River. Maryland. Rowma & Littlefield. 
• Lutts, R (1985). Chemical fallout: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, Radioactive Fallout, and the Environmental Movement.. Environmental Review. 
• gottlieb, R. Forging the Spring.. Washington D.C.: Island Press. 

Further reading[link]

• Brooks, Paul (1972). The House of Life: Rachel Carson at Work. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-13517-6. http://books.google.com/?id=VIkcZTSh7skC.  This book is a personal memoir by Carson's Houghton Mifflin editor and close friend Paul Brooks.
• Jezer, Marty (1988). Rachel Carson: Biologist and Author. American women of achievement. Chelsea House Publications. ISBN 1-55546-646-X. http://books.google.com/?id=pBwVPwAACAAJ. 
• Matthiessen, Peter, ed. (2007). Courage for the Earth: Writers, Scientists, and Activists Celebrate the Life and Writing of Rachel Carson. Mariner Books. ISBN 0-618-87276-0. http://books.google.com/?id=VNXapJVwbC0C. 
• Moore, Kathleen Dean; Sideris, Lisa H. (2008). Rachel Carson: Legacy and Challenge. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-7471-2. http://books.google.com/?id=awR4kJrhQK0C. 
• Quaratiello, Arlene (2010). Rachel Carson: A Biography. Amherst, New York: Prometheus. ISBN 978-1-61614-187-5. http://www.amazon.com/Rachel-Carson-Biography-Arlene-Quaratiello/dp/1616141875/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1278211359&sr=8-3. 
• Sideris, Lisa H. (Fall–Winter 2009). "Fact and Fiction, Fear and Wonder: The Legacy of Rachel Carson". Soundings 91 (3-4): 335–69. JSTOR 41179228. 

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Rachel Carson

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rachel Carson

• Rachel Carson Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
• New York Times obituary
• RachelCarson.org—website by Carson biographer Linda Lear
• Time, Mar. 29, 1999, Environmentalist RACHEL CARSON
• Revisiting Rachel Carson—Bill Moyer's Journal, PBS.org, 9-21-2007
• "A Sense of Wonder" – two-act play about Carson, written and performed by Kaiulani Lee, based on posthumous work of the same name
• YouTube Clip of Bill Moyers television on Lee's one woman show
• The Rachel Carson Greenway Trail in Montgomery County, Maryland
• "Why Our Winters Are Getting Warmer", November 1951, Popular Science - early article by Rachel Carson about how the ocean currents affected climate (excerpt from her 1951 book, The Sea Around Us).
• (Rachel L. Carson as Interpreted by Irwin Allen – TCM Movie Morlocks on THE SEA AROUND US)

Carson-related organizations

• The Rachel Carson Homestead
• Silent Spring Institute
• Rachel Carson Trails Conservancy
• Rachel Carson Institute

Sigourney Weaver
Sigourney Weaver in September 2011.
Born	Susan Alexandra Weaver (1949-10-08) October 8, 1949 (age 62) Manhattan, New York City, U.S.
Occupation	Actress
Years active	1976–present
Spouse	Jim Simpson (m. 1984–present)
Children	Charlotte Simpson
Parents	Sylvester Weaver (deceased) Elizabeth Inglis (deceased)
Relatives	Doodles Weaver (uncle, deceased)

Sigourney Weaver (born Susan Alexandra Weaver; October 8, 1949) is an American actress. She is known for her role of Ellen Ripley in the four Alien films: Alien, Aliens, Alien 3, and Alien Resurrection, for which she has received worldwide recognition.

Other notable roles include Dana Barrett in Ghostbusters and its sequel Ghostbusters II, Gorillas in the Mist: The Story of Dian Fossey, Working Girl, Death and the Maiden, The Ice Storm, Galaxy Quest, Snow Cake, Prayers for Bobby and Grace Augustine in Avatar.

Weaver has been nominated for three Academy Awards, three BAFTA Awards (one win), two Emmy Awards, six Saturn Awards (two wins) and six Golden Globe Awards, winning two in 1988 for Gorillas in the Mist and Working Girl, becoming the first person ever to have won two acting Golden Globe Awards in the same year.^[1] She was also nominated for a Drama Desk Award and a Tony Award.

Her 1986 Academy Award nomination for Aliens is considered as a landmark in the recognition of science fiction, action, and horror genres, as well as a major step in challenging the gender role in cinema. Weaver progressively received notoriety for her numerous contributions to the science fiction film history (including minor roles in successful works such as Futurama, WALL-E and Paul) and gained the nickname of "The Sci-Fi Queen".^[2][3][4][5]

Early life[link]

Weaver was born Susan Alexandra Weaver in Manhattan, New York City, the daughter of Elizabeth Inglis (née Desiree Mary Lucy Hawkins; 1913–2007), an English actress, and the NBC television executive and television pioneer Sylvester "Pat" Weaver (1908–2002).^[6][7][8][9] Her uncle, Doodles Weaver (1911–1983), was a comedian and actor. She began using the name "Sigourney Weaver" in 1963 after a minor character (Sigourney Howard) in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby.^[10][11]

Weaver attended the Ethel Walker School, a girls' preparatory school in Simsbury, Connecticut. She also attended The Chapin School. Sigourney was reportedly 5′ 10½″ (179 cm) tall by the age of 14, although she only grew another inch during her teens to her adult height of 5′ 11½″ (182 cm). Weaver attended Sarah Lawrence College as well as Stanford University Bio where she first began her involvement in acting, by living in Stanford's co-ed Beta Chi Community for the Performing Arts.^[12] Weaver earned her Master of Fine Arts degree at the Yale University School of Drama in 1974,^[13] where one of her appearances was in the chorus in a production of Stephen Sondheim's musical version of The Frogs, and another was as one of a mob of Roman soldiers alongside Meryl Streep in another production.^[14] Weaver later acted in original plays by her friend and classmate Christopher Durang. She later appeared in an "Off Broadway" production of Durang's comedy Beyond Therapy in 1981, which was directed by the up-and-coming director Jerry Zaks.

Weaver with her father Pat Weaver in 1989

Film career[link]

Weaver's first role was in Woody Allen's 1977 comedy Annie Hall playing a minor role opposite Allen. Weaver appeared two years later as Warrant Officer/Lieutenant Ripley in Ridley Scott's blockbuster 1979 film Alien. She reprised the role in the three sequels of the Alien movie franchise, Aliens, Alien 3, and Alien Resurrection. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe states, "One of the real pleasures of "Alien" is to watch the emergence of both Ellen Ripley as a character and Sigourney Weaver as a star."^[15] In the sequel Aliens directed by James Cameron critic Roger Ebert exclaims, "Weaver, who is onscreen almost all the time, comes through with a very strong, sympathetic performance: She's the thread that holds everything together."^[16] She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress in Aliens, one of the very few actresses honored for a role in a science fiction film. Weaver followed the success of Alien appearing opposite Mel Gibson in The Year of Living Dangerously released to critical acclaim and as Dana Barrett in Ghostbusters and Ghostbusters II.

Sigourney Weaver at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival premiere of Baby Mama; she played a role in the film.

By the end of the decade Weaver appeared in two of her most memorable and critically acclaimed performances in 1988 as Dian Fossey in Gorillas in the Mist. The same year she appeared opposite Harrison Ford in a supporting role as Katharine Parker in the film Working Girl. Weaver won Golden Globe awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for her two roles that year. She received two Academy Award nominations in 1988, for Best Supporting Actress for her role in Working Girl and Best Actress for Gorillas in the Mist, making her one of the few actors nominated for two acting awards in the same year. By the early 1990s Weaver appeared in several films including Ang Lee's The Ice Storm, earning her another Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress and winning a BAFTA Award, followed by Dave opposite Kevin Kline and Frank Langella. She played the role of agoraphobic criminal psychologist Helen Hudson in the 1995 movie Copycat. Weaver also concentrated on smaller and supporting roles throughout the decade such as Jeffrey (1994), Galaxy Quest (1999), and A Map of the World (1999) earning her another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress.

In 2001, she appeared in the comedy Heartbreakers playing the lead role of a con artist alongside Jennifer Love Hewitt, Ray Liotta, Gene Hackman and Anne Bancroft. She appeared in several films throughout the decade including Holes (2003), the M. Night Shyamalan horror film The Village (2004), Vantage Point (2008), and Baby Mama (2008). Weaver also returned to Rwanda for the BBC special Gorillas Revisited. She was voted 20th in Channel 4's countdown of the 100 Greatest Movie Stars of All Time, being one of only two women in the Top 20 (the other was Audrey Hepburn).

In 2009, Weaver starred as Mary Griffith in her first made-for-TV movie, Prayers for Bobby, for which she was nominated for an Emmy Award,^[17] Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award. She also guest starred in the TV show Eli Stone in the fall of 2008.^[18] She reunited with Aliens director James Cameron for his 2009 film Avatar with Weaver playing a major part as Dr. Grace Augustine, leader of the AVTR (avatar) program on the film's fictional moon Pandora. The film has the distinction of being the highest grossing film of all time.

Weaver in December 2009

Weaver has done voice work in television and film. She had a guest role in the Futurama episode "Love and Rocket" in February 2002, playing the female Planet Express Ship. In 2006, she was the narrator for the American version of the Emmy Award-winning series Planet Earth. Also in 2006, Weaver narrated "A Matter of Degrees", a short film that plays daily at The Natural History Museum of the Adirondacks (The Wild Center) in Tupper Lake, New York. In 2008, Weaver was featured as the voice of the ship's computer in the Pixar and Disney release, WALL•E. She also voiced a narrating role in another computer-animated film, 2008's The Tale of Despereaux, based on the novel by Kate DiCamillo. Weaver has also expressed interest in starring in a fifth Alien film. Ivan Reitman has confirmed that Weaver will reprise her role as Dana Barrett^[19] in the rumored third Ghostbusters movie due for release in 2012.^[20]

Weaver at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival

Weaver has hosted two episodes of the long-running NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live: once on the 12th season premiere in 1986, and again, on a season 35 episode in January 2010. In March 2010, she was cast for the lead role as Queen of the Vampires in Amy Heckerling's Vamps.^[21] She was honored at the 2010 Scream Awards earning The Heroine Award which honored her work in science fiction, horror and fantasy films. In May 2010, there were reports that Weaver had been cast for the lead role Margaret Matheson in the Spanish thriller film Red Lights.^[22]

In September 2011, it was confirmed that Weaver will be returning to Avatar 2, with James Cameron stating that "no one ever dies in science fiction."^[23]

Personal life[link]

Weaver was engaged to reporter Aaron Latham in 1967.^[24] She has been married to the filmmaker Jim Simpson since October 1, 1984.^{[citation needed]} They are the parents of one daughter, Charlotte Simpson, who was born on April 13, 1990.^[25]

After making Gorillas in the Mist: The Story of Dian Fossey, she became a supporter of The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund and is now the DFGFI's honorary chairperson.^[26] Weaver is an environmentalist.^[27] In October 2006, she drew international attention through a news conference at the start of a United Nations General Assembly policy deliberation. She outlined the widespread threat to ocean habitats posed by deep-sea trawling, an industrial method for harvesting fish. On April 8, 2008, she hosted the annual gala of the Trickle Up Program, a non-profit organization focusing on those in extreme poverty, mainly women and the disabled, in the Rainbow Room.^[28]

Filmography[link]

Film[link]

Television[link]

Documentaries[link]

Video games[link]

Other accolades[link]

Lifetime Achievement[link]

Theatre awards[link]

Other[link]

Stage credits[link]

• Better Dead Than Sorry (1971, Yale Cabaret) as Jenny^[31]
• Story Theatre (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival)^[32]
• Sarah B. Divine! (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Anita, the Eternal Maid^[33]
• The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Dockdaisy^[34]
• The Rat Trap (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Cynthia Muldoon^[35]
• Once in a Lifetime (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Florabel Leigh^[36]
• The Elephant Calf (1972, Williamstown Theatre Festival)^[37]
• The Tempest (1973, Yale Repertory Theatre)^[38]
• Watergate Classics (1973-4, Yale Repertory Theatre)^[38]
• Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (1974, Yale University Theatre)^[38]
• The Nature and Purpose of the Universe (1974, Direct Theatre) as Eleanor (workshop production)^[39]
• The Frogs (1974, Yale Repertory Theatre) as member of the Chorus^[40]
• The Constant Wife (1975, Shubert Theatre, understudy) as Marie-Louise Durham^[41]
• Titanic (1976, Direct Theatre) as Lidia/Annabella/Harriet^[42]
• Das Lusitania Songspiel (1976, Van Dam Theatre)^[43]
• Gemini (1976, Playwright's Horizons) as Judith Hastings^[44]
• Marco Polo Sings a Solo (1977, Public/Newman Theatre) as Freydis^[45]
• Conjuring an Event (1978, American Place Theatre) as Annabella^[46]
• A Flea in Her Ear (1978, Hartford Stage)^[47]
• New Jerusalem (1979, Public Theater)^[48]
• Das Lusitania Songspiel (new version) (1980, Westside Theatre).^[49] Also co-authored the play with Christopher Durang.
• Lone Star (1980) as Elizabeth
• Beyond Therapy (1981, Phoenix Theatre) as Prudence^[50]
• As You Like It (1981, Dallas Festival of Shakespeare) as Rosalind
• Animal Kingdom (1982, Berkshire Festival) as Cecelia Henry^[51]
• Old Times (1983, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Anna^[52]
• Hurlyburly (1984-5, Ethel Barrymore Theatre) as Darlene.^[53]
• A Streetcar Named Desire (1986, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Stella Kowalski^[54]
• The Merchant of Venice (1986-7, Classic Stage Company) as Portia^[55]
• The Show-Off (1988, Williamstown Theatre Festival) as Clara^[56]
• Sex and Longing (1996, Cort Theatre) as Lulu^[57]
• The Guys (2001-2, The Flea Theater) as Joan^[58]
• The Mercy Seat (2002, Acorn Theatre) as Abby Prescott^[59]
• Mrs Farnsworth (2004, The Flea Theater) as Marjorie Farnsworth^[60]
• Crazy Mary (2007, Playwright's Horizons) as Lydia^[61]
• Love Letters (2007, The Flea Theater, single benefit performance) as Melissa Gardner^[62]
• Love Letters (2008, The Detroit Film Theatre, single benefit performance) as Melissa Gardner^[63]

Soundtrack discography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sigourney Weaver

• Sigourney Weaver at the Internet Movie Database
• Sigourney Weaver at the Internet Broadway Database
• Sigourney Weaver at the Internet Off-Broadway Database
• BBC News article on Sigourney Weaver
• Daily Telegraph interview with Sigourney Weaver
• Sigourney Weaver at Emmys.com

Marian McPartland
St. Joseph's Villa school for disadvantaged children, 1975
Background information
Birth name	Margaret Marian Turner
Born	(1918-03-20) March 20, 1918 (age 94)
Origin	Slough, England, UK
Genres	Classical jazz Cool jazz Bebop Mainstream jazz Swing music Post bop Standards
Occupations	Pianist Radio host Writer Composer
Instruments	Piano
Years active	1938–present
Labels	Halcyon Records Concord Jazz Jazz Alliance Bainbridge Records Savoy Records Capitol Records RCA Records
Associated acts	Jimmy McPartland Hickory House Trio
Notable instruments
Baldwin SF10 Artist Grand [1]

Margaret Marian McPartland, OBE (née Turner;^[2] born March 20, 1918) is an English-born jazz pianist, composer, writer, and was the host of Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz on National Public Radio until she stepped down^[3] on November 10, 2011.

Early life[link]

Marian Turner was a musical prodigy from the time she could sit at the piano, about the age of three. She studied classical music and the violin, in addition to the piano.

Career[link]

She pursued classical studies at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London. Much to the dismay of her family, she developed a love for American jazz and musicians such as Duke Ellington, Fats Waller, Teddy Wilson, Mary Lou Williams, and many others. In 1938, despite her family's efforts to keep her at Guildhall, Marian left to join Billy Mayerl's Claviers, a four-piano vaudeville act, performing under the stage name of Marian Page. The group toured throughout Europe during World War II, entertaining Allied troops.

Jazz pianist Marian McPartland at the Village Jazz Lounge in Walt Disney World

While touring with USO shows in Belgium, she met and began performing with Chicago cornetist Jimmy McPartland in 1944. The couple soon married, playing at their own military base wedding in Germany.

After the war, they moved to Chicago to be near Jimmy's family. Then, in 1949, the McPartlands settled in Manhattan, living in an apartment in the same building as the Nordstrom Sisters. With Jimmy's help and encouragement, Marian started her own trio which enjoyed a long residency at a New York City jazz club, the Hickory House, during 1952-1960. The drummer Joe Morello was a member of the group until he departed to join Dave Brubeck's Quartet. She also played at The Embers.^[4]

In the 1953-1954 season, McPartland appeared as a regular on NBC's Judge for Yourself quiz program emceed by Fred Allen, with Dennis James as the announcer.^[5]

After many years of recording for labels such as Capitol, Savoy, Argo, Sesac, Time, and Dot, in 1969 she founded her own record label, Halcyon Records, before having a long association with the Concord Jazz label.

Radio career[link]

In 1964, Marian McPartland launched a new venture on WBAI-FM (New York City), conducting a weekly radio program that featured recordings and interviews with guests. Pacifica Radio's West Coast stations also carried this series, which paved the way for Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz, a National Public Radio series that began on June 4, 1978. It is the longest-running cultural program on NPR as well as being one of the longest-running jazz programs ever produced on public radio.

Several programs in the new series, which features McPartland at the keyboard with guest performers (usually pianists), have been released on CD by the Concord Records label. McPartland celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of the NPR series with a live taping at the Kennedy Center for which Peter Cincotti was the guest.

After not having recorded a new show since September 2010, NPR announced on November 10, 2011 that Ms. McPartland is stepping down as host of Piano Jazz.

Awards and compositions[link]

Marian was awarded a Grammy in 2004, a Trustees' Lifetime Achievement Award, for her work as an educator, writer, and host of NPR Radio's long-running Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz. Although a master at adapting to her guest's musical styles and having a well-known affinity for beautiful and harmonically-rich ballads, she also has recorded many tunes of her own. Her compositions include "Ambiance", "There'll Be Other Times", "With You In Mind", "Twilight World", and "In the Days of Our Love".

Just before her 90th birthday, she composed and performed a symphonic piece, A Portrait of Rachel Carson to mark the centennial of the environmental pioneer.^[6]

She was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 New Year Honours.^[7]

Musical style[link]

McPartland's encyclopedic knowledge of jazz standards, highly musical ear, involvement in over 60 years of evolving jazz styles, and rich experience blending with radio guests^[8] has led to a musical style that has been described as: "flexible and complex, and almost impossible to pigeonhole".^[9] She is known as a harmonically and rhythmically complex and inventive improviser: "She was never content to be in one place, and always kept improving. She has great ears and great harmonics. Because of her ear, she can go into two or three different keys in a tune and shift with no problem."^[10]

She also is a synesthete, associating different musical keys with colors, stating that: "The key of D is daffodil yellow, B major is maroon, and B flat is blue".^[11]

Awards[link]

Honorary degrees[link]

• Ithaca College
• Hamilton College
• Union College
• Bates College
• Bowling Green University
• University of South Carolina
• Eastman School of Music
• Berklee College of Music
• City University of New York

Other awards[link]

• Down Beat Lifetime Achievement Award
• 2007 - National Radio Hall of Fame
• 2006 - Long Island Music Hall of Fame induction
• 2004 - Grammy Trustees Award from the Recording Academy
• 2001 - American Eagle Award from the National Music Council
• 2001 - Gracie Allen Award from the American Women in Radio and Television
• 2000 - NEA Jazz Masters Award
• 2000 - Mary Lou Williams Women in Jazz Award
• 1991 - ASCAP-Deems Taylor Award
• 1986 - International Jazz Association of Jazz Education Hall of Fame induction
• 1983 - Peabody Award

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• The Sweet and Lovely Legacy of Marian McPartland
• Marian McPartland's Official Facebook Page
• Marian McPartland bio
• Piano Jazz: Meet Marian McPartland
• Marian McPartland, Grande Dame of 'Piano Jazz'
• NPR's version of Marian McPartland's biography
• "Marian McPartland Plays Ornette Coleman (and Everything Else!") by Ted Gioia, Jazz.com.
• "Interview with Marian McPartland" by Arnold Jay Smith, Jazz.com.
• "Marian McPartland, Jazz Pianist: An Overview Of A Musical Career"
• "ETV Radio celebrates 90th birthday of jazz legend Marian McPartland"