A normal rugby union team formation illustrating each of the positions and their respective numbers.

In the game rugby union, there are fifteen players on each team, comprising eight forwards (numbered 1 to 8) and seven backs (numbered 9 to 15). Depending upon the competition, there may be up to eight replacement players. Early games consisted primarily of forwards that attacked plus a number of "tends" that played back in defence. As the game became more sophisticated, different positions developed and jersey numbers were instituted to differentiate them. Players are not restricted to any single position on the field, although they generally specialise in just one or two that suit their skills and body types. The scrum (a huddle used to restart play), however must consist of eight players (providing a team still has fifteen on the field); three in the front row, two in the second, and another three loosely at the edges of the formation.

The positions as named by the International Rugby Board are fullback, wing (left and right), centre (inside and outside), fly-half, scrum-half, number eight, flanker (openside and blindside), lock, hooker and prop (loosehead and tighthead). The names have changed over time and with geography. Early names such as "three quarters" and "out-halves" are still used by some people, while in New Zealand the fly-half and inside centre are called "first-five eighth" and "second-five eighth" respectively, while the scrum-half is known as the half-back. The "tight five" consists of the props, locks and hooker; the "loosies" are the number eight and flankers; the "inside backs" are the scrum-half, fly-half and inside centre; and the "out-side backs" are the outside centre, wings and fullback.

The backs play behind the forwards and are usually smaller and faster. Successful backs are skillful at passing and kicking. Fullbacks need to be good defenders and have safe hands to field kicks. The wingers are usually the fastest players in a team and score many of the team's tries. The main attacking role of the centres is to commit defenders, so providing space for the wingers to run. The fly-half is a good kicker and generally directs the backline. The scrum-half retrieves the ball from the forwards and needs a quick and accurate pass to get the ball to the backs. Forwards compete for the ball in scrums and lineouts and are generally bigger and stronger than the backs. Props push in the scrums, while the hooker tries to "hook" the ball. Locks are tall and jump for the ball at the lineout after the hooker has thrown it in. The flankers and number eight should be the first forwards to a tackle and play an important role in securing possession of the ball for their team.

Overview[link]

The forwards are in the scrum while the backs are lined up across the field.

There are up to fifteen players from each team on a rugby field at one time. The players position at the start of the game is indicated by the number on the back of their shirts, one to fifteen. In international matches there are seven substitutes that can replace an on field team member.^[1] The substitutes, numbered sixteen to twenty-two, can either take up the position of the player they replace or the on-field players can be shuffled to make room for this player in another position. There are no personal squad numbers as a versatile player's position and number can be changed from one game to the next. Players can also change positions with players on the field during the match, and as long as the laws are followed any player can change positions with another player during the match. Common examples are the fly half playing the fullback's position in defence^[2] or a prop taking the hooker's position at lineouts.^[3] The positions are divided into two main categories; forwards (numbered one to eight) and backs (numbered nine to fifteen).

Diagram showing the relative body positions of the players in a scrum.

Different positions on the field suit certain skill sets and body types, generally leading to players specialising in one or two positions.^[4] Each position has certain roles to play on the field, although most have been established through convention rather than law. During general play, as long as they are not offside, the players can be positioned anywhere on the field. It is during the set pieces, scrum and lineout, when the positions are enforced. At lineouts there must be at least two players from each team lined up five metres from where the ball crossed the side line. They form two straight lines next to each other and a player from the team awarded the lineout throws the ball between them. A player from each team stands two metres from the lineout and the opposing team must also have someone standing two metres from the player throwing the ball in. The remainder of the team not participating in the lineout must be positioned at least ten metres back from the lineout.^[5] While anyone on the field can be part of a lineout, it is generally composed of forwards. The usual situation involves the hooker throwing the ball in, aiming for the locks that are lifted into the air by the props. The scrum-halves are usually positioned near the lineout ready to receive the ball once the forwards have gained possession.

Each team must have eight players in the scrum, unless for some reason (i.e. a send off or injury) they cannot field fifteen players. Specialised front-row players (i.e. props and hookers) must be part of the scrum, for safety reasons under the law. If a specialised player is not available, the scrum must have 'no weight', which means no player is allowed to push forward once the scrum commences. In cases where a front-row player is off the field due to a yellow card (compulsory 10 minutes off the field) or a red card (no longer allowed to participate in the game), a temporary substitution of another player is mandatory to ensure specialist front-row players participate in the scrum. If a team cannot field eight in the scrum, generally it drops the flankers or the number eight, but the props, hooker and lock positions must be maintained.^[6]

The props (1 and 3) bind on either side of the hooker (2) to form the front row of the scrum. The two locks (4 and 5) bind together and push on the props and the hooker. The flankers (6 and 7) bind to the side of the scrum and the number eight (8) pushes on the locks or a lock and a flanker. Once each team has formed its half of the scrum the two front rows are brought together under the command of the referee. The scrum-half puts the ball into the middle of the scrum and then retrieves it from under the number eight's feet if it is successfully won. The remainder of the team must be positioned at least five metres back from the scrum.

History[link]

A scrummage in a traditional football game in Basse Normandie, France, 1852.

During early rugby union games there were only really two positions; most players were in the forwards, who formed part of the scrimmage (which later was called "scrummage" and then "scrum"), and a few defensive "tends" (from "goaltenders"). Eventually, the attacking possibilities of playing close behind the scrimmage were recognised. The players who stationed themselves between the forwards and tends became known as "half-tends". Later it was observed that the players outside scrimmage were not limited to a defensive role, so the tends and half-tends were renamed "backs" and "half backs". As the game became more sophisticated the backs positioned at different depths behind the forwards. They were further differentiated into half backs, three quarters (the fraction 3/4) back, and full back. Specialised roles for the scrum also evolved with "wing- forward" (modern day flankers) being employed to protect the half back.^[7] The first international between England and Scotland was played in 1871 and consisted of twenty players on each side: thirteen forwards, three half backs, one three quarter and three fullbacks.^[8] The player numbers were reduced to fifteen in 1877. Numbers were added to the backs of players jerseys in the 1920s, initially as a way for coaches and selectors to rate individual players.^[9]

Names of positions[link]

The various positions have changed names over time and many are known by different names in other countries. Players in the flanker positions were originally known as "wing forwards",^[10] while in the backs,"centre three-quarter" and "wing three-quarter" were used to describe the outside centre and wing respectively^[11] (although the terms are still sometimes used in the Northern Hemisphere)^[12][13] The International Rugby Board standard names tend to reflect Northern Hemisphere usage although fly-half is still often known as "outside half"^[14] or "stand-off half"^[15] in Britain, and "outhalf"^[16] in Ireland. In New Zealand the scrum-half is still referred to as the "half-back", the fly-half is referred to as the "first five-eighth", the inside centre is called the "second five-eighth" and the outside centre is simply known as "centre".^[17] In America and Canada the number 8 is known as "8 man".^[18][19]

Collective terms are also used to describe similar positions, with the props and hookers combining to form the "front row", the locks the "second row" and the flankers and number 8 the "loose forwards" or the "loosies".^[20] The front row and second row combined are collectively termed the "tight five".^[21] In the backs "half backs" can be used to describe the scrum half and fly-half, the "inside backs" to describe the scrum half, fly-half and inside center, "midfield" for the fly half and both centres, though in New Zealand it refers only to the 2nd five-eighth and centre, and "outside backs" for the outside centre, wings and fullback.^[22][23] The two props are distinguished by being either a "tighthead" (their head is positioned between the opposition prop and hooker) or "loosehead" (their head is positioned on the outside of the scrum).^[24] The "blindside flanker" binds to the scrum on the side closest to the side line, while the "openside flanker" binds on the side with the most space between the scrum and the sideline.^[25] Wingers usually stick to one side of the field and are termed "left wing" or "right wing".^[26]

Backs[link]

[edit] Fullback

A fullback, Pat McCabe, fields the ball from a kick.

Fullbacks usually position themselves several metres behind the back line. They field any opposition kicks and are often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line. On attack they can enter the back line, usually near the centres or wings, with the aim of providing an extra person and overlapping the defending players.^[27] Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are a safe pair of hands and a good kicking game.^[28] The fullback is the player most likely to field the high ball or "up and unders" kicked by the opposition. Good hands are needed to ensure the ball is caught cleanly to deny the opposition the chance to regain possession. As the fullback will inevitably catch the ball deep in their own territory with little support from their own players, the best option is often to kick the ball downfield. A long and accurate kick will gain more ground and reduce the pressure on the team.^[28] As they are the last line of defence, a solid tackle is also important.

To provide effective cover behind the defensive line, good fullbacks are careful not to get caught out of position and must anticipate the opposition's play. Their position behind the backline allows them to see any holes in the defensive line and they either communicate with the backs to close the gaps up or cover the gaps themselves.^[27] The fullback has the most potential for attacking the opposition, especially from a misdirected kick.^[29] If a kick is fielded and there is enough space and support the fullback may decide to counterattack by running the ball back towards the opposition.^[30] Due to their kicking skills, in some teams the fullback is also responsible for taking the goal kicks.

Notable fullbacks include Serge Blanco who scored 38 tries in 93 tests for France^[31] and was known for his counterattacking ability.^[32][33][34] In 1997 Serge Blanco was among the inaugural set of rugby players inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame and in 2011 he was also inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame.^[35] Four fullbacks who played for the British and Irish Lions are in the International Rugby Hall of Fame; Gavin Hastings and Andy Irvine from Scotland, Tom Kiernan from Ireland and JPR Williams from Wales. Hastings and Irvine were accurate goal kickers^[36] and Kiernan is credited with being the first attacking full back in Irish rugby.^[37] Williams was chosen as the greatest lions fullback at the inaugural Lions Legends Dinner at Lord's in 2008 and is praised for his safety under the high ball, tackling and calm decision making.^[38] The other fullbacks in the International Rugby Hall of Fame are Don Clarke and George Nepia from New Zealand. Clarke, nicknamed "the boot", was an accurate goal kicker^[39] and Nepia was noted for his tackling and kicking ability.^[40]

Three-quarters[link]

[edit] Wing

A winger Mark Cueto, in some space.

The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline with the number 11 on the left and the number 14 on the right. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries.^[27] Wingers are usually the fastest players in the team and are either elusive runners, or more recently big, strong and able to break tackles.^[41] The skills needed for the left wing and right wing are similar, although left-footed players are usually played on the left wing as they can step and kick better off their left foot.^[42] The winger on the blindside often "comes off the wing" to provide an extra man in the midfield, in the same vein as a fullback. One or both wingers will usually drop back on opposition kicks to give the fullback extra options for counterattacking.^[30]

Notable wings over the years are David Campese who played 101 times for Australia and held the world record for most tries in test matches, and was famous for his goose step and reverse pass.^[43] Welsh international Gerald Davies was influential in helping the British Lions become the only Lions touring party to win a Test series in New Zealand.^[44] Ieuan Evans played 72 games for Wales and scored 33 tries - at that time a record for Wales.^[45] In 1994 International Rugby Hall of Famer John Kirwan retired as the (then) most capped player and highest try scorer in All Black history,^[46] while Jonah Lomu, who would enter the International Hall in 2007 and the IRB Hall of Fame in 2011,^[47] debuted as the youngest ever All Black.^[48] Tony O'Reilly, also a successful businessman, played wing for Ireland between 1955 and 1970 and scored a record 38 tries on two lions tours.^[49] André Boniface is a French international that is a member of both the International Rugby Hall of Fame and the IRB Hall of Fame.^[35] Also in the IRB Hall of Fame is Bill Maclagan, a 19th-century player for Scotland and the Lions who played at three-quarters, which eventually evolved into the modern position of wing.^[50] Another 2011 inductee in the IRB Hall is Brian Lima of Samoa,^[47] who played most of his career on the wing but ended it as a centre. He participated in five World Cups for Manu Samoa and became known as "The Chiropractor" for his ferocious tackling.^[51]

[edit] Centre

Centre François Steyn passing the ball

There are two centres in a game of rugby, inside centre (number 12) and outside centre (number 13). The inside centre usually stands close to the fly half or at first receiver on the other side of the scrum or breakdown. Like the fly half, they generally possess a good kicking game and are good at reading the play and directing the attack. The outside centre is positioned outside the inside centre and is generally the faster of the two.^[27] The centres' main role is to provide space for the men outside them. They need to run good lines, have good passing skills and should be able to offload in a tackle.^[52] When the ball is moved along the opposition backline, the centres are the first players to make the tackle. They need to be solid tacklers and good at organising the defensive lines. Outside centres generally have more room to move than inside centres.^[27] Centres also provide support at the breakdowns and can run as decoys to confuse the defence.^[53]

Danie Gerber played centre for South Africa during the apartheid era and even though he was only able to play 24 tests over 12 years, he scored 19 tries.^[54] Mike Gibson played for Ireland and the Lions and his record of 69 caps for Ireland lasted for 26 years.^[55] Tim Horan won two World Cups for Australia, being named the Player of the Tournament in 1999.^[56] As a player Ian McGeechan won 32 caps for Scotland and went on two Lions tours, while as a coach he led the Lions a record four times.^[57] Welsh centre Gwyn Nicholls played from 1896 to 1906 and was known as the "Prince of Threequarters".^[58] Other centres in the International Rugby Hall of Fame are Jo Maso and Philippe Sella from France, known for their flamboyant attacking play.^[59] Gibson and Sella are also in the IRB Hall of Fame.^[47] Two centres are in the IRB Hall but not the International Hall—Frank Hancock, a 19th-century Welsh player whose skills led to the creation of the modern two-centre formation,^[60] and Guy Boniface, French international and younger brother of André.^[35]

Half-backs[link]

[edit] Fly-half

Fly-half Dan Carter lines up a kick at goal.

A fly-half is crucial to a team's game plan. They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown, lineout or scrum and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs.^[61] Good fly-halves are calm, clear thinking and have the vision to direct effective attacking plays.^[62] Fly-halves need good passing and kicking skills. Often the fly-half is the best kicker in the team and needs to be able to execute attacking kicks such as up-and-unders, grubbers and chip kicks as well as being able to kick for territory.^[61] Many fly-halves are also the team's goal kickers.

Fly-halves in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include most importantly Jonny Wilkinson considred one of the greatest fly halves of all time and former leading international points scorer, as well as Welshman Phil Bennett who unleashed two great sidesteps to set up what some have described as "the greatest try of all time".^[63] South African Naas Botha scored 312 points (including a record 17 drop goals) despite playing most of his career when the Springboks were boycotted.^[64] Australia's Mark Ella wasn't a great kicker, but had great vision, passing skills and orchestrated a new flat-back attacking style.^[65] Grant Fox was one of the most respected goal-kickers who scored more than 1000 points in all matches for New Zealand.^[66] Barry John was known simply as "the king" to Welsh rugby fans^[67] and was rated the third in the 1971 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award.^[68] Jack Kyle is widely considered Ireland's greatest player.^[69] Michael Lynagh took over Fly-half from Ella and in his first test in that position scored an Australian record of 23 points against Canada.^[70] While Cliff Morgan captained Wales and played for the Lions, he is also known as great rugby personality and an accomplished rugby broadcasters.^[71] Bennie Osler played for South Africa from 1924 until 1933, during which he played a South African record 17 consecutive games and scored a then world record 14 points in one game against New Zealand.^[72] Hugo Porta is regarded as one of the finest players that Argentina has produced and has been a member of the Laureus World Sports Academy since 2000.^[73]

Of the players mentioned above, Kyle, Morgan, Osler and Porta are members of the IRB Hall of Fame.^[47] One fly-half is in the IRB Hall but not the International Hall—Gareth Rees of Canada,^[47] who played in all of the first four Rugby World Cups, and remains the country's all-time leading Test points scorer.^[74]

[edit] Scrum-half

IRB Hall of Fame member Agustín Pichot passes the ball from the back of a scrum.

The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs.^[75] They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum, usually passing it to the fly-half. They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward.^[75] Along with the fly-half they make many of the tactical decisions on the field. During general play the scrum-half is generally the player who receives the ball from the forwards and passes it to the backs.^[75] They are good communicators,^[27] especially at directing the forwards around, and their aim is to provide the backs with clean ball.^[75] Good scrum-halves have an excellent pass, a good tactical kick and are deceptive runners.^[75] At defensive scrums they put pressure on the opposition scrum-half or defend the blindside. On defence in open play they generally cover for deep kicks after the ball has been passed wide.^[76] Traditionally scrum-halves have been the smallest players on the team, but many modern scrum-halves are a similar size to the other players in the team.^[27]

Ken Catchpole is an Australian scrum half who was made captain on his debut at 21 in 1961.^[77] Danie Craven from South Africa was one of the greatest scrum halves in the 1930s and a respected administrator of the South African Rugby Board.^[78] Gareth Edwards, a member of both the International Rugby and IRB Halls of Fame, played for Wales and the British and Irish Lions during the 1970s and is regarded by many as one of the greatest Welsh players.^[79] Nick Farr-Jones captained Australia through their 1991 Rugby World Cup winning campaign; he was enshrined in the International Hall in 1999^[80] and the IRB Hall in 2011.^[47] When Joost van der Westhuizen retired in 2003 he had 89 caps, at the time the most for any South African.^[81]

Two scrum-halves are in the IRB Hall but not the International Hall. New Zealander David Kirk, inducted in 2011, was captain of the All Blacks team that won the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup.^[47] Fellow 2011 inductee Agustín Pichot,^[47] who played in three World Cups for Argentina, is perhaps best known as the Pumas' captain during their surprise run to third place in the 2007 World Cup,^[82] which eventually led to their 2012 entry into The Rugby Championship, previously the Tri Nations.

Forwards[link]

Back row[link]

[edit] Number Eight

A scrum is preparing to engage. The front row consists of two props on either side of the hooker. The number eight can be seen standing up at the back, while the flankers are bound on the side.

Number eight is the only position that does not have a specific name in English and is simply referred to as "number eight" or "eighthman". They bind between the locks at the back of the scrum, providing extra weight at the push.^[83] Number eights interact with the scrum-half at the back of the scrum to control and provide clean ball for the backs.^[83] They can also pick the ball from the back of the scrum and run with it or flick it to the scrum half. At lineouts they can be either another jumper or a lifter.^[83] Around the field they have a similar set of responsibilities as the flankers at the breakdown.^[83] Number eights are often strong ball carriers and run off the backs in an attempt to break through or push past the opposition's defensive line.^[83]

Number eights in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include: Mervyn Davies (Wales and British and Irish Lions), Morne du Plessis (South Africa), Brian Lochore (New Zealand) and Hennie Muller (South Africa). Lochore is also in the IRB Hall of Fame, but primarily as a coach.^[47]

[edit] Flanker

The flanker's role is to tackle the opposition and try to steal the ball.^[27] The openside flanker binds to the side of the scrum that covers the greatest area, while the blindside covers the side nearest the side-line.^[27] They bind loosely to the side of the scrum, but still play an important role in keeping the props tight by pushing at an angle.^[84] They should be the first forward to a breakdown from a scrum or lineout and are expected to link with the backline or secure the ball at the tackle.^[84] Both positions have a high workrate, meaning the players need to be fit as well as good at reading the oppositions attacking plays.^[85] During open play if they have not made the tackle they usually stand in the loose next to the ruck or maul.^[85] This allows them to arrive quickly at the next tackle. The blindside is generally the larger of the two and usually acts as a third jumping option at the lineout.^[86] The openside flanker is usually faster than the blindside with good opensides excellent at turning over the ball at the tackle.^[84] Teams often use their openside flankers to 'charge' the opposition fly-half, putting pressure on him and forcing him to rush his decision making, kicking or passing.^[87] Blindside flankers also have the task of stopping any attempt by the opposition eighth-man to run with the ball around the blindside of a scrum.

Flankers in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include: Dave Gallaher (New Zealand), Michael Jones (New Zealand), Ian Kirkpatrick (New Zealand), Graham Mourie (New Zealand), Francois Pienaar (South Africa), Jean Prat (France), Jean-Pierre Rives (France), Fergus Slattery (Ireland and Lions), and Wavell Wakefield (England). Pienaar and Prat are also members of the IRB Hall of Fame.

[edit] Locks

Locks jumping for a ball at a lineout.

The locks form the second row push against the front row during the scrum providing much of the power.^[27] They are almost always the tallest players on the team and are the primary targets when the ball is thrown in at line-outs.^[27] Locks must also have good catching ability.^[88] At the lineout the locks are supported by team mates allowing them to compete for the ball, either passing or tapping it to the scrumhalf or setting up a drive.^[89] In scrums the two locks bind tightly together and slide their heads between a prop and the hooker.^[88] Locks tend to compete for the kick offs and are involved in securing the ball in rucks and mauls.^[90]

Locks in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include: Bill Beaumont (England and Lions), Gordon Brown (Scotland and Lions), Frik du Preez (South Africa), John Eales (Australia), Martin Johnson (England and Lions), Brian Lochore (New Zealand), Willie John McBride (Ireland and Lions), and Colin Meads (New Zealand). Du Preez, Eales, Johnson^[47] and McBride are also members of the IRB Hall of Fame as players; Lochore was inducted into the IRB Hall primarily as a coach.^[47] Two locks are members of the IRB Hall of Fame but not the International Hall—Fairy Heatlie, a South African great of the era around 1900 who was also one of the first Argentina internationals, and French international Lucien Mias.

Front row[link]

[edit] Hooker

A hooker getting ready to throw the ball into a line-out.

The hooker is positioned between the two props in the scrum and generally throws the ball into the lineout.^[27] After the scrumhalf has put the ball into the scrum they use their feet to "hook" the ball back and win possession for their team.^[27] Hookers can be any shape or size, but generally they have a short back and long arms to aid in binding to props.^[91] When the opposition is putting the ball into the scrum the hooker will either attempt to win the ball or try and disrupt the scrum.^[91] Hookers are usually more mobile than the props and are often used to carry the ball up during open play.^[92] Only specialist front row players can play hooker, and if a team can not field one for any reason the scrums will become uncontested.^[93]

Hookers in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include: Sean Fitzpatrick (New Zealand) and Keith Wood (Ireland and Lions). The first hooker to be inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame is John Smit of South Africa, captain of the World Cup-winning Springboks in 2007^[47] and also the most-capped Springbok in history.^[94]

[edit] Prop

The props "prop up" the hooker in the scrum.^[27] They form part of the front row of the scrum and push against the oppositions props. The loosehead prop is positioned to the left of the hooker and their head will be on the outside of the scrum when it engages. The tighthead is to the right of the hooker with their head positioned between the opposition hooker and the opposition loosehead prop.^[27] The prop's main role is to provide stability at the scrum and support the hooker in quickly winning the ball.^[95] At the lineout the prop's role is to support the jumper as they compete for the ball. They are usually positioned at the front of the lineout with a jumper in between them. They are also often involved in lifting jumpers when receiving kick-offs.^[92] While scrummaging is still seen as their main responsibility, modern props are also expected to contribute in attack and defence.^[95]

Props have to take in pressure from the locks and loose forwards pushing from behind and the opposition pushing against them, so they are often among the strongest players in a team. Some of the more successful props have short necks and broad shoulders to absorb this force as well as powerful legs to drive the scrum forward.^[95] Since the game has become professional non-specialist props or hookers cannot play in the front row. If, through sendings-off or injuries, a team does not have enough specialist front row players, the scrums become 'uncontested' (i.e. no pushing is allowed and the team putting the ball into the scrum wins it).^[93] On their own scrum the loosehead's role is to provide the hooker with a clear view to strike the ball while the tighthead tries to keep the scrum stable.^[96] When the opposition is putting the ball in the tighthead attempts to disrupt the opposing hooker or loosehead, making it difficult for them to win the ball. The loosehead is generally the stronger of the two props.^[96]

Props in the International Rugby Hall of Fame include: Jason Leonard (England and Lions), Syd Millar (Ireland and Lions) and Wilson Whineray (New Zealand).

Utility players[link]

Players that have the ability to play a number of positions in a team are called utility players.^[97] Utility players can be seen as "Jack of all trades"^[97] and they generally occupy the reserve position in a team.^[98] For this reason many try to avoid being labeled as utilities.^[99][100] Players in the forward positions are generally more specialised than those that play in the backs. However flankers can usually play number eight^[101] and sometimes the blindside may be used as a lock.^[102] The front row positions are usually very specialised, although some props can play both sides or even hooker, South African captain John Smit being one player who has played test matches in every front row position.^[103][104] Utility backs tend to cover a greater number of positions, with players commonly switching between scrum-half and fly-half, fly-half and centre or wing and fullback.

No true utility backs are in either the International Rugby or IRB Halls of Fame, although Mike Gibson has 28 caps at fly half, 48 at centre and 4 on the wing^[105] while Tim Horan played 62 tests at centre, 2 on the wing and 9 at fullback.^[106] Players that have played multiple positions within the backline include Austin Healey (who has started at scrum-half, fly-half, fullback, and wing for England throughout his career),^[107] Mike Catt (started multiple tests at fullback, fly-half and centre, and one on the wing)^[108] and François Steyn (who has Test caps at every back position except scrum-half).^[109] International Rugby Hall of Fame player Danie Craven mostly played at half-back, but has also started a Test in the forwards at number 8.^[110]

Rugby Sevens[link]

Rugby seven teams only have seven players on the field and can nominate five substitutes, but only three may play in any one game.^[111] Scrums are formed with three players, who bind together the same as the front row.^[112] One player plays a similar position to the scrum-half, feeding the ball into the scrum. The other three players form the backline. Since play is a lot more open in sevens, with rucks and mauls generally kept to a minimum, most players are backs or loose forwards in fifteen-a-side teams.^[113]

See also[link]

• Rugby union numbering schemes
• List of rugby union players by country
• International Rugby Hall of Fame
• IRB Hall of Fame
• Rugby league positions

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Brown, Mathew; Guthrie, Patrick; Growden, Greg (2010). Rugby For Dummies. John Wiley and Sons. 
• Biscombe, Tony; Drewett, Peter (2009). Rugby: Steps to Success. Human Kinetics. 
• Bompa, Tudor; Claro, Frederick (2008). Periodization in Rugby. Meyer and Meyer Sport. 
• Collins, Tony (2009). A Social History of English Rugby Union. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-47660-7. 
• International Rugby Board (2011). Laws of the game: Rugby Union. International Rugby Board. ISBN 978-1-907506-09-3. http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/IRB_Laws_2011_EN.pdf. 

External links[link]

• http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rules_and_equipment/6332057.stm
• Country by country list of the names of player positions
• http://www.sarfu.org.za/default.asp?cId=7534&print=yes
• www.rugbyfootballhistory.com

Rugby union

South African Victor Matfield takes a lineout against New Zealand in 2006.
Highest governing body	International Rugby Board
Nickname(s)	Rugby, Rugger [1]
First played	Early 19th century (early forms) 1845 (first written laws)
Registered players	4,504,188
Clubs	18,630
Characteristics
Contact	Full contact
Team members	15
Mixed gender	Separate competitions
Categorization	Team sport, Outdoor
Equipment	Rugby ball
Olympic	Part of the Summer Olympic programme in 1900, 1908, 1920 and 1924 Rugby Sevens reinstated 2016

Rugby union, often simply referred to as rugby, is a full contact team sport which originated in England in the early 19th century.^[2] One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. It is played with an oval-shaped ball with a maximum length and width of 30 centimetres (12 in) and 62 centimetres (24 in) respectively. It is played on a field up to 100 metres (330 ft) long and 70 metres (230 ft) wide with H-shaped goal posts on each goal line.

William Webb Ellis is often credited with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823 at Rugby School when he allegedly caught the ball while playing football and ran towards the opposition goal. However, the evidence for the story is doubtful. In 1845, the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895. Historically an amateur sport, in 1995 the International Rugby Board (IRB) removed restrictions on payments to players, making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time.

The IRB has been the governing body for rugby union since its formation in 1886. The spread of rugby union grew from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire. Early exponents of the sport included Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji, Georgia, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga and Wales. Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents and as of November 2010 118 unions were members of the IRB.

The Rugby World Cup, first held in 1987, takes place every four years, with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup. The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere (the latter replacing the Tri Nations) are major international competitions held annually. Major domestic competitions include the Top 14 in France, the English Premiership in England, the Currie Cup in South Africa, and the ITM Cup in New Zealand. Other transnational competitions include the Celtic League, originally involving Irish, Scottish and Welsh teams and now Italian teams as well; Super Rugby (previously Super 12 and Super 14), involving South African, Australian and New Zealand teams; and the Heineken Cup, involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions.

History[link]

Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, with a rugby football pitch in the foreground

The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 when William Webb-Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it.^[3] Although the evidence for the story is doubtful,^[4] it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895.^[5] Despite the anecdotal nature of the sport's origin, the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after him. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School, which former pupils then introduced to their subsequent university. Old Rugbeian Albert Pell, a student at Cambridge, is credited with having formed the first 'football' team.^[6] During this early period different schools used different rules, with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities.^[7]

Significant events in the early development of rugby football were the production of the first set of written football laws at Rugby School in 1845,^[8] which was followed by the 'Cambridge Rules' drawn up in 1848.^[9] Other important events include the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863^[10][11] and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871.^[10] The code was originally known as "rugby football"; it was not until after the schism in England in 1895, which resulted in the separate code of rugby league, that the sport took on the name "rugby union" to differentiate it from the league game.^[12] Despite the sport's full name of rugby union, it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world.^[13][14]

The first rugby football international took place on 27 March 1871, played between England and Scotland.^[10] By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams, and in 1883 the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 was also the year the first rugby sevens tournament at Melrose, the Melrose Sevens,^[15] which is still held annually. Five years later two important overseas tours took place; a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand—although a private venture, it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours;^[16] and the 1888 New Zealand Native team brought the first overseas team to British spectators.^[17]

James Ryan, captain of the New Zealand Army team, receiving the Kings Cup from George V.

Between 1905 and 1908, all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere: New Zealand in 1905, followed by South Africa in 1906 and then Australia in 1908. All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics,^[18] and were far more successful than critics had expected.^[19] The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match, leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, as a response. After Morgan began singing, the crowd joined in: the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event.^[20] In 1905 France played England in its first international match.^[18]

No international rugby games and union-sponsored club matches were played during the First World War, but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team.^[21] During the Second World War no international matches played by most countries though Italy, Germany and Romania played a limited number of games,^[22][23][24] and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match.^[25]

Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 1900s. In 1973 the first officially sanctioned international sevens tournament took place at Murrayfield, one of Scotland's biggest stadiums, as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations.^[26] In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand and Australia, and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993. Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and is due to be added to the Olympic Games by 2016.^[27]

Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game 'open' in 1995, removing restrictions on payments to players.^[28][29] However, the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of "shamateurism",^[30] including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee.^[31][32] Following the introduction of professionalism trans-national club competitions were started, with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere.^[33][34] The Tri-nations, an annual international tournament involving South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, kicked off in 1996.^[34]

Teams and team structures[link]

A normal rugby union team formation illustrating each of the positions and their respective numbers.

Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven substitutes^[35] Players in a team are divided into eight forwards (two more than in rugby league) and seven backs.^[36]

Forwards[link]

The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball.^[37] Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and lineout.^[37] The forwards are often collectively referred to as the 'pack', especially when in the scrum formation.^[38]

Front row
The front row consists of three players, two props; the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop, and the hooker. The role of the two props are to support the hooker during scrums, to provide support for the jumpers during lineouts and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls.^[36] The third position in the front row is the hooker.^[36] The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum.^[36] Hookers normally throw the ball in at lineouts.^[36]

Second row
The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards. Locks are usually the tallest players in the team, and specialise as lineout jumpers.^[36] The main role of the lock in lineouts is to make a standing jump, often supported by the other forwards, to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side. Locks also have an important role in the scrum, binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive.^[36]

Sébastien Chabal (far left) in number eight position before entering the scrum.

Back row
The back row, not to be confused with ‘Backs’, is the third and final row of the forward positions, they are often referred to as the loose forwards.^[38] The three positions in the back row are made up of two flankers and the number 8. The two flanker positions, called the blindside flanker and openside flanker, are the final row in the scrum. Their main role is to win possession through 'turn overs'.^[36] The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum. His role in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases.^[39]

Backs[link]

The role of the backs is to create and convert point-scoring opportunities, they are generally smaller but faster and more agile than the forwards.^[37] Another distinction between the two positions is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking skills, especially in the positions of fly-half and full-back.^[37]

Half-backs
The half-backs consist of two positions, the scrum-half/half-back and the fly-half/First Five-Eighth. The fly-half is crucial to a team's game plan, orchestrating the teams performance.^[39] They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown, lineout or scrum and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs.^[39] Many fly-halfs are also their team's goal kickers. The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs.^[39] They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum, usually passing it to the fly-half.^[40] They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward.^[41]

Three quarters
There are four three quarter positions, the inside centre/Second Five-Eighth, outside centre and left and right wings. Like the fly-half they generally possess a good kicking game and are good at reading the play and directing the attack. The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences.^[39] The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries.^[42] Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are either elusive runners, or more commonly in the modern era, big, strong and able to break tackles.^[43]

Fullbacks
The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line. He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line.^[39] Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game.^[44]

Laws[link]

Diagram of a rugby union playing field showing the different marked lines and distances.

Scoring[link]

Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game. Points can be scored in several ways: a try, scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area (between the goal line and the dead ball line), is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points.^[45] The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years.^[46]

Playing field[link]

The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144m long by 70m wide.^[47] In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100m between the two trylines, with anywhere between 10 and 22m behind each try line to serve as the in-goal area.^[47] There are several lines crossing it, notably the half way line and the "twenty two," which is 22m from the goal line.^[47]

Rugby goalposts are H-shaped, and consist of two poles, 5.6m apart, connected by a horizontal crossbar 3m above the ground.^[48] The original pitch dimensions were in imperial units, but have since been converted to the metric system.^[49][50]

Match structure[link]

At the beginning of the game, the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first. Play then starts with a drop kick, with the players chasing the ball into the opposition's territory, and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it. If the player with the ball is tackled, frequently a ruck will result.^[51]

Games are divided into 40-minute halves, with a break in the middle.^[52] The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break.^[52] Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time, so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes.^[52] The referee is responsible for keeping time, even when—as in many professional tournaments—he is assisted by an official time-keeper.^[52] If time expires while the ball is in play, the game continues until the ball is "dead", and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick, the game continues.^[53]

Passing and kicking[link]

Forward passing (throwing the ball ahead to another player) is not allowed; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards.^[54] The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways — by kicking, by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul. Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked. When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his/her arms, a "knock-on" is committed, and play is restarted with a scrum.^[54]

Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory. When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play the throw-in is taken where the ball went into touch.^[54] If the player kicks directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing in-field first) from within their own 22 metre line the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch, but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22 metre line the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken.^[55]

Breakdowns[link]

A rugby tackle: tackles must be below the neck with the aim of impeding or grounding the player with the ball

The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law.

A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds),^[56] and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap).^[57][58]

Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set.^[38] A ruck is similar to the maul, but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball.^[38]

Set pieces[link]

Ireland and Georgia contesting a lineout in the 2007 Rugby World Cup

Lineout[link]

Main article: Line-out (rugby union)

When the ball leaves the side of the field, a lineout is awarded against the team which last touched the ball.^[59] Forward players from each team line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline.^[59] The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch.^[59] The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in.^[59]

Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates.^[60] A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick.^[61]

Scrum[link]

A scrum

A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement.^[62] It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down, when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty.^[62]

A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows.^[62] The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker.^[62] The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation.^[63] Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed throws the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel.^[62] The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession.^[62] The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half.^[62]

Officials and offences[link]

There are three match officials: a referee, and two assistant referees.^[64] The latter, formerly known as touch judges, had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone "touch"; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas, such as watching for foul play and checking off-side lines.^[64] In addition, for matches in high level competitions, there is often a television match official (TMO; popularly called the "video referee"), to assist with certain decisions, linked up to the referee by radio.^[65] The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions.^[66]

Common offences include tackling above the shoulders, collapsing a scrum, ruck or maul, not releasing the ball when on the ground, or being off-side.^[67] The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty: a "tap" kick, when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand, allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it; a punt, when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand, for field position; a place-kick, when the kicker will attempt to score a goal; or a scrum.^[67] Players may be sent off (signalled by a red card) or temporarily suspended ("sin-binned") for ten minutes (yellow card) for foul play or repeated infringements, and may not be replaced.^[67]

Occasionally, infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be "cited" by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments (usually suspension for a number of weeks) imposed on the infringing player.^[68]

Replacements and substitutions[link]

During the match, players may be replaced (for injury) or substituted (for tactical reasons).^[35] A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily, to replace a player who has a blood injury, or permanently, if he is replacing a front-row forward.^[35] In international matches, up to seven replacements are allowed; in domestic or cross-border tournaments, at the discretion of the responsible national union(s), the number may be increased to eight, of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions.^[69]

Equipment[link]

A synthetic rugby ball

The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself, a rugby shirt (also known as a "jersey"), rugby shorts, socks and boots. The rugby ball is oval in shape, (technically a prolate spheroid), and is made up of four panels.^[70] The ball was historically made of leather, but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material. The IRB lays out specific dimensions for the ball, 280-300mm in length, 740-770mm in circumference of length and 580-620mm in circumference of width.^[70] Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch. The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges.^[71]

Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouthguards, which are worn by almost all players, and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations.^[72] Other protective items that are permitted include a head gear; thin (not more than 10 mm thick), non-rigid shoulder pads, and shin guards; which are worn underneath socks.^[73] Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks. Female players may also wear chest pads.^[73] Although not worn for protection, some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip.^[73]

It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game.^[74]

Governing bodies[link]

The international governing body of rugby union (and associated games such as sevens) is the International Rugby Board (IRB).^[75] The IRB headquarters are in Dublin, Ireland.^[75] The IRB, founded in 1886, governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game's laws and rankings.^[75] As of November 2010 the IRB recorded 118 unions in its membership, either full members or associate member countries.^[76] According to the IRB, rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries.^[75] The IRB controls the Rugby World Cup,^[75] the Women's Rugby World Cup,^[77] Rugby World Cup Sevens,^[78] IRB Sevens World Series,^[79] Junior World Championship,^[80] Junior World Trophy,^[81] Nations Cup^[82] and the Pacific Nations Cup.^[83] The IRB holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held, except in the case of the Sevens World Series for which the IRB contracts with several national unions to hold individual events.

Six regional associations, which are members of the IRB, form the next level of administration; these are:

• Confederation of African Rugby (CAR)^[84]
• Asian Rugby Football Union (ARFU)^[85]
• North American and Caribbean Rugby Association (NACRA)^[86]
• Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby (FIRA-AER)^[87]
• Federation of Oceania Rugby Unions (FORU)^[88]
• Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR)^[89]

SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union, the New Zealand Rugby Union and the Australian Rugby Union that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship (formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina).^[90] Although the Argentine Rugby Union initially has no representation on the SANZAR board, it has been granted input into the organisation's issues, especially with regard to The Rugby Championship.^[91]

National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to the IRB. The IRB Council has 26 seats. Each of the eight foundation unions – Scotland, Ireland, Wales, England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France – has two seats, and Argentina, Canada, Italy, Japan and the six regional associations each have one seat.^[75]

Global reach[link]

URBA Rugby 2007 Finals

Germany playing Belgium

Japanese and Welsh rugby fans in Cardiff, Wales

The earliest countries to adopt rugby union were England, the country of inception, followed by the other three Home Nations, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. The spread of rugby union as a global sport has its roots in the exporting of the game by British expatriates, military personnel and over-seas university students. A rugby club was formed in Sydney, Australia in 1864; while the sport was said to have been introduced to New Zealand by Charles Munro in 1870, who played rugby while a student at Christ's College, Finchley.^[10] The first rugby club in France was formed by British residents in Le Havre in 1872, while the next year Argentina recorded its first game: 'Banks' v 'City' in Buenos Aires.^[92] In North America a club formed in Montreal in 1868, Canada's first club. The city of Montreal also played its part in the introduction of the sport in the United States, when students of McGill University played against a team from Harvard University in 1874.^[10][92] In 1875 rugby was introduced to South Africa by British soldiers garrisoned in Cape Town.^[92]

Several island states have embraced the sport of rugby, many introduced by British service personnel, but later spread the game to neighbouring countries as they searched for international opponents. Rugby was first played in Fiji circa 1884 by European and Fijian soldiers of the Native Constabulary at Ba on Viti Levu island.^[93][94] Fiji then sent their first overseas team to Samoa in 1924, who in turn set up their own union in 1927.^[95] Other countries to have national rugby teams in Oceania include the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.^[96]