Hmong American
|
|
Vang Pao • Brenda Song • Mee Moua
|
| Total population |
| 260,073 (2010)[1] |
| Regions with significant populations |
| California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Carolina, Michigan, and other states. |
| Languages |
|
Hmong, American English, some Mandarin Chinese, some Lao, some Thai
|
| Religion |
|
Animism, Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity
|
A Hmong American is a resident of the United States who is of ethnic Hmong descent. Hmong Americans are one group of Asian Americans. Many Lao Hmong war refugees resettled in the U.S. following the communist takeover of Laos in 1975. Beginning in December of that year, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at this time under the Refugee Assistance Act of 1975.
A memorial in front of
Fresno County Court House commemorating Hmong service.
In May 1976, another 11,000 Hmong were allowed to enter the United States. By 1978 some 30,000 Hmong had immigrated to the U.S. This first wave was made up primarily of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's Secret Army, which had been aligned with U.S. war efforts during the Vietnam War. Vang Pao's Secret Army, which was subsidized by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, fought mostly along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, where his forces sought to disrupt North Vietnamese weapons supply efforts to the communist VietCong rebel forces in South Vietnam. Four years later, with the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980, families of the Secret Army were also permitted to immigrate to the U.S., representing the second-wave of Hmong immigration to the U.S. The clans which the Hmong take their surnames from are: Chang (Tsaab) or Cha (Tsab), Chao (Tsom), Cheng (Tsheej), Chue (Tswb), Fang (Faaj) or Fa (Faj), Hang (Haam) or Ha (Ham), Her (Hawj), Khang (Khaab) or Kha (Khab), Kong (Koo) or Soung (Xoom), Kue (Kwm), Lee (Lis), Lor (Lauj), Moua (Muas), Thao (Thoj), Vang (Vaaj) or Va (Vaj), Vue (Vwj), Xiong (Xyooj) and Yang (Yaaj) or Ya (Yaj).
Following the 1980 immigration wave, a heated global political debate developed over how the remaining Hmong refugees in Thailand should be handled. Many had been held in squalid Thailand-based refugee camps and the United Nations and the Clinton administration sought to repatriate them to Laos.
Reports of human rights violations against the Hmong, including killings and imprisonments, led most Thailand-based Hmong to oppose returning to Laos, even as the conditions of the Thailand-based camps, lacking sufficient funding, worsened.
In one of the more prominent examples of apparent Laotian abuse of the Hmong, the U.S. Embassy in Bangkok - seeking to reassure the Thai-based Hmong that their safety in Laos would be assured - recruited a former Hmong soldier, Vue Mai, to return to Laos under the repatriation program. However, Vue disappeared in Vientiane, and the U.S. Commission for Refugees later reported that he was arrested by Lao security forces and never again seen.
Especially following the Vue Mai incident, the Clinton and U.N. policy of returning the Hmong to Laos began to meet with strong political opposition by U.S. conservatives and some human rights advocates. Michael Johns, a former White House aide to President George H. W. Bush and a Heritage Foundation foreign policy analyst, along with other influential conservatives, led a campaign to grant the Thai-based Hmong immediate U.S. immigration rights. In an October 1995 National Review article, citing the Hmong's contributions to U.S. war efforts during the Vietnam War, Johns labeled Clinton's support for returning the Thai-based Hmong refugees to Laos a "betrayal" and urged Congressional Republicans to step up opposition to the repatriation.[2] Opposition to the repatriation grew in Congress and among Hmong families in the U.S., and Congressional Republicans responded by introducing and passing legislation to appropriate sufficient funds to resettle all remaining Hmong in Thailand in the United States. Clinton, however, vowed to veto the legislation.
In addition to opposition to the repatriation by U.S. conservatives, the government of Laos also ultimately expressed reservations about the repatriation, stating that the Hmong remaining in Thailand were heavily involved in heroin and opium traficking. In a significant and unforeseen political victory for the Hmong and their U.S Republican advocates, tens of thousands of Thai-based Hmong refugees were ultimately granted U.S. immigration rights, with the majority being resettled in California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. The defeat of the repatriation initiative also led to highly emotional reunifications of long separated Hmong families in the U.S. In 2006, the Wisconsin State Elections Board translated state voting documents into the Hmong language.[3]
Throughout the Vietnam War, and for two decades following it, the U.S. government stated that there was no "Secret War" in Laos and that the U.S. was not engaged in air or ground combat operations in Laos. In the late 1990s, however, several U.S. conservatives, led by Johns and others, alleged that the Clinton administration was using the denial of this covert war to justify a repatriation of Thailand-based Hmong war veterans to Laos and persuaded the U.S. government to acknowledge the existence of the Secret War and to honor the Hmong and U.S. veterans from the war. On May 15, 1997, in a total reversal of U.S. policy, the U.S. government acknowledged that it had supported a prolonged air and ground campaign against the North Vietnamese Army and VietCong. It simultaneously dedicated the Laos Memorial on the grounds of Arlington National Cemetery in honor of the Hmong and other combat veterans from the Secret War.[citation needed] In 1999 there were about 250,000 Hmong people living in the United States, living in multiple areas.[4]
While some Hmong remain in Thailand, since the September 11, 2001 attacks and the tightening of U.S. immigration laws, especially under the Patriot Act and the Real ID Act, the immigration of Hmong refugees to the U.S. has significantly slowed, in part because most Hmong refugees in Thailand had been engaged in documented armed conflict (even though under U.S. sponsorship) during and after the Vietnam War.[5]
Hmong people in the United States of America have a rapid growth. This small group of people came from the mountains of China. The Chinese were in debt to the British at the time and were given high taxes, but the Hmong people retaliated and fought against the Chinese. The Hmong lost and moved south toward Laos and Vietnam and Thailand. There the Hmong people helped the Americans in the Vietnam War (1).
When the Americans left and fled back to the US, leaving the Hmong behind. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) helped form the Hmong Armies. The CIA officials said that if the Americans were to lose they would relocate the Hmong people (1). As of 1972, there was a population count and there were about 250,000 Hmong people (2 book). In the first migration only 1000 Hmong people were evacuated to the US (1). There are still several Hmong people in refugee camps in Thailand today (3 web).
Hmong groups were largely located in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and California. In St. Paul there are about 2,000 Hmong people that have their bachelor's degree, 150 have their master's degree, and 68 Hmong students have received their doctoral degree. [6][7][8][9]
As of 2009, there are more than 236,400 Americans of Hmong heritage (both naturalized U.S. citizens, and citizens born in the U.S.) based on U.S. Census data from the American Community Survey.[10]States with the largest Hmong population include: California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, although Hmong communities can be found throughout the U.S.[11] The metropolitan areas of Fresno and Minneapolis-St. Paul have especially large Hmong communities.[12] The City of Wausau in Wisconsin has the largest Hmong population per capita in the United States.
Today, 260,073 (40% increase from 2000) people of Hmong decent resides in the United States and the majority of whom live in California (91,224), Minnesota (66,181), and Wisconsin (49,240).[13]
In terms of metropolitan area, the largest Hmong-American community is in Minneapolis-Saint Paul-Bloomington, MN Metro Area (64,422); followed by Fresno, CA Metro Area (31,771); Sacramento, CA Metro Area (26,996); Milwaukee, WI Metro Area (11,904); and Merced, CA Metro Area (7,254). [14]
There are smaller Hmong communities scattered across the country, including cities in California; Michigan (Detroit, Michigan and Warren, Michigan), Alaska (Anchorage, Alaska); Colorado (Denver, Colorado); North Carolina; Georgia (Auburn, Duluth, Monroe, Atlanta, and Winder); Wisconsin (Eau Claire, Appleton, Green Bay, La Crosse, and Sheboygan); Kansas (Kansas City); Oklahoma (Tulsa); Southwest Missouri; Northwest Arkansas; Washington; Oregon and throughout the United States. [15]
The 2000 U.S. Census reveals that 60% of all Hmong above 24 years of age have a highest educational attainment of high school or equivalent, as many of these immigrants came to America as adults or young adults. About 7% of Hmong have a bachelor's degree or higher. The lack of formal education among Hmong immigrants is due to the fact that many were once farmers in the hills of Laos or were refugees from war who fled into remote jungles, and had little or no access to schools.[16] In addition, almost 30% of Hmong families are under the poverty level.[17]
Hmong-American children born in the United States usually have much better access to education and jobs than that which their parents had, and thus have better economic opportunities than their parents would have had in their former homes.
Even though most Hmong families speak a language other than English at home, many Hmong Americans are rapidly blending into mainstream American society. This is causing the younger generation to lose aspects of their cultural identity at a fast pace. Because of this, the Hmong community has set up associations and media that encourage Hmong people to maintain their language and culture. These associations and media include the Hmong National Development and Hmong Today [18] newspaper. The Hmong National Development (HND) is a national, 501(c)(3), not-for-profit organization. The goal of HND is to build capacity, develop leadership, and to empower the Hmong American community. HND works alongside with local and national organizations, public and private entities, and individuals to encourage educational opportunities, to increase community capacity, and to develop resources for the well-being, growth, and full participation of Hmong in society. There is an annual HND conference which usually takes part during the month of April and is held in a different state each year.
The Hmong Today publishes communications products for the Hmong community. These products are designed to provide important information to the Hmong community, as well as tools to promote unity in the Hmong community. The Hmong Today also informs the general community about the Hmong community. Having a newspaper like the Hmong Today creates a source for businesses, organizations, and schools to connect with the Hmong community.
As with other immigrant groups, some cultural conflicts arose when the Hmong arrived in the U.S. after the Vietnam War. One of the better documented conflicts is in medicine. In Anne Fadiman's 1997 nonfiction book The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down one such conflict regarding a young Hmong girl's health is documented. The girl's parents saw her seizures as a divine gift, whereas Western medicine views them as a dangerous medical condition. The conflict was exacerbated by communication issues and cultural reliance on alternative medicine. Due to an extreme language barrier as well as what they interpreted to be condescension and racism on the part of the doctors, the parents believed the Californian doctors did not have their daughter's best interests in mind, and on several occasions believed the medicines being administered were making their daughter's epilepsy worse. The American doctors, in the meantime, remarked that the Hmong were obstinate and were unable or unwilling to follow instructions in medicating their daughter. There is controversy over whether there was true informed consent from the illiterate parents who signed forms for procedures often without an interpreter. The book is often used in studying cross-cultural medicine, although there are reservations about its contents.[19]
In 2002, Mee Moua became the first Hmong American legislator when she was elected to fill the Minnesota State Senate seat vacated by Randy Kelly when he was elected mayor of St. Paul. She is currently a majority whip.
Hmong Americans are fully integrated into the surrounding culture in most areas.[20] Many Hmong Americans now serve in the U.S. Military.[21] At least two Hmong have been elected to public office: Cy Thao, a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives, and Mee Moua, a Minnesota State Senator. In 1996, Joe Bee Xiong was the first Hmong elected to the Eau Claire (Wisconsin) city council.[22] While Joe Bee Xiong has since died, another Hmong, Thomas T. Vue presently serves on the city council.
In many of the large cities where Hmong Americans live and work, tensions have risen up between them and neighboring ethnic groups. Hmong people have often been targets of discrimination, mainly because of job competition and stereotyping of them as welfare dependents. Many of their persecutors justified their actions by claiming that they unnecessarily took jobs, welfare money, and other services away from long-time residents.[23]
On June 4, 2007, following a lengthy federal investigation labeled "Operation Flawed Eagle," warrants were issued by a California-based U.S. federal court for the arrest of General Vang Pao, eight other Hmong people, and one non-Hmong person for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of the federal Neutrality Acts and various U.S. weapons laws.[24]
The federal charges allege that members of the group inspected weapons, including AK-47s, smoke grenades, and Stinger missiles, with the intent of purchasing them and smuggling them into Thailand in June 2007 for use in Hmong guerrilla war efforts against the Laotian government. The one non-Hmong person of the nine arrested, Harrison Jack, a 1968 West Point graduate and retired Army infantry officer, allegedly attempted to recruit Special Operations veterans to act as mercenaries.
On June 15, the defendants were indicted by a grand jury and a warrant was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man, allegedly involved in the plot. The defendants faced possible life prison terms for violation.
Vang Pao and other defendants were ultimately granted bail, following the posting of $1.5 million in property. Following the arrests, many Vang Pao supporters had called on President George W. Bush and California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger to pardon the defendants.
On September 18, 2009, the federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing in a release that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is convicted.” [25] On January 10, 2011, charges against all of the remaining defendants were dropped as well.[26]
As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the largest Hmong population by metropolitan area was the Minneapolis-St. Paul area, with 40,707 people. The following areas were Greater Fresno with 22,456 people, Greater Sacramento (Sacramento-Yolo) with 16,261, Greater Milwaukee (Milwaukee-Racine) with 8,078, Greater Merced with 6,148, Greater Stockton (Stockton-Lodi) with 5,553, Appleton-Oshkosh-Neenah with 4,741, Greater Wausau with 4,453, Hickory-Morganton-Lenoir (North Carolina) with 4,207, and Greater Detroit (Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint) with 3,926.[27]
As of 1999, California has the largest Hmong population in the United States by state.[4]
In 2002, the State of California had about 35,000 Hmong students in schools. According to Jay Schenirer, a member of the school board of the Sacramento City Unified School District, most of the students resided in the Central Valley, in an area ranging from Fresno to Marysville. Fresno Count and Sacramento County combined have almost 12,000 Hmong students.[28]
As of 2002, of the Hmong students who took the California English Language Development Test, which measures English fluency in students who are learning English, 15% of Hmong scores at the "advanced" or "early advanced" classifications, while 30% of Vietnamese English learning students and 21% of all of California's over 1.5 million English learning students scored at those levels. Suanna Gilman-Ponce, the multilingual education department head of Sacramento City Unified, said that the Hmong students have lower rates due to having parents who speak little English; therefore they enter American schools with few English skills. In addition their culture was not literate, so Hmong history was not written down and history books did not discuss Hmong history.[28]
As of 1999, Minnesota has the second largest U.S. Hmong population by state.[4] As of 2001, the largest Hmong population in the United States by city is located in St. Paul, Minnesota.[29]
Pom Siab Hmoob (Gazing into the Heart of the Hmong) Theatre, which has been described as the world's first theater group, was formed in 1990. It is based in the Twin Cities.[30] It is now known as the Center for Hmong Arts and Talent (CHAT).[31]
Mee Moua was elected as the nation's first Hmong American State Senator. She was elected in 2002 and served until 2010. She represented District 67 in the Minnesota Senate, which includes portions of the city of Saint Paul in Ramsey County.
The film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood, though filmed in Michigan, stars 5 Minnesotan Hmong Americans and the original story was based on a neighborhood in Minneapolis. It was the first mainstream U.S. film to feature Hmong Americans[32].
As of 1999, Wisconsin has over 39,000 Hmong people, giving it the third largest Hmong population by state. In December 1999 the Institute for Wisconsin's Future stated in a report that "Given the major cultural differences, language barriers and skill gaps facing the Hmong, a number of Wisconsin's Hmong population have relied on welfare to meet their families' basic needs during this transition."[4] Vicky Selkowe, who served as the organization's project coordinator and the cowriter of the report, said that the language barrier was the main difficulty affecting the state's Hmong population, and their inexperience with the written language worsened matters.[4]
As of 2007 almost 8,000 Hmong live in the State of Michigan. Most of them live in northeastern Detroit. As of 2007 Hmong were increasingly moving to Pontiac and Warren.[33] As of 1999, fewer than 4,000 Hmong lived in Detroit.[34]
As of 2011, according to Judy Thao, the director of the United Hmong of Massachusetts, an organization based in Lowell, the State of Massachusetts has about 2,000 Hmong. Thao said that the largest community, with 60 to 70 families, is located in the Fitchburg/Leominster area. Thao said that about 20 to 30 families each live in the second largest communities, in Springfield and Brockton.[35]
Kathleen O'Brien of The Star-Ledger said in 2009 that there are very few Hmong in New Jersey.[36]
In December 1999, according to the Hmong National Development Inc., Chicago had about 500 Hmong people.[34]
The 2008 film Gran Torino, directed by Clint Eastwood, was the first mainstream U.S. film to feature Hmong Americans.[32]
- ^ [1]
- ^ "Acts of Betrayal: Persecution of Hmong", by Michael Johns, National Review, October 23, 1995.
- ^ http://elections.state.wi.us/docview.asp?docid=11397&locid=47
- ^ a b c d e Kaiser, Robert L. "After 25 Years In U.s., Hmong Still Feel Isolated ." Chicago Tribune. December 27, 1999. 1. Retrieved on April 14, 2012.
- ^ http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/nation/16736791.htm?source=rss&channel=inquirer_nation[dead link]
- ^ Bankston, Carl L., III. "Hmong Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 832-843. Gale U.S. History In Context. Web. 25 Nov. 2010.
- ^ Lindsey, Jeff. The Hmong in America. N.p.: Jeff Lindsey, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2010.
- ^ Yang, Dao. Hmong Turning Point. Minneapolis: worldbridge Associates, Ltd., 1993. 1-5. Print.
- ^ Yang, Dao. Hmong American Residence and Business Directory. Minnesota: L&W communications, 1999. 11. Print.
- ^ "Southeast Asian Americans at a Glance". Southeast Asia Resource Action Center. http://www.searac.org/sites/default/files/SEAAs_At_A_Glance_Jan_2011.pdf. Retrieved September 28, 2011.
- ^ Data Center States Results
- ^ "Top 50 Metropolitan Areas by Hmong Population." The Hmong Culture Center. Data compiled by Mark Pfeifer. accessed 29 January 2006
- ^ http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/hmongstudies/message/470
- ^ http://www.hmong.org/page334122813.aspx
- ^ www.factfinder2.census.gov
- ^ Chan, Sucheng (1994). Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-163-4.
- ^ "Southeast Asian Americans at a Glance". Southeast Asia Resource Action Center. http://www.searac.org/sites/default/files/SEAAs_At_A_Glance_Jan_2011.pdf. Retrieved September 28, 2011.
- ^ Welcome to Hmong Today - The Nation's Hmong newspaper, community news & opinions, xov-xwm hmoob
- ^ The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down
- ^ Teresa Moua-Her brief bio on TV-13 website. Accessed 29 January 2006.
- ^ Hmong veterans are home again
- ^ Hmong Leader from Eau Claire dies in Laos
A Hmong leader from Eau Claire has died while traveling in Laos. Joe Bee Xiong was with family in his native country when he died, possibly of heart-related complications. Xiong was the first Hmong to be elected to a city council in Wisconsin. He won election to the Eau Claire council in 1996 and ran for the state Assembly in 2004. At age 14, Xiong fought alongside American soldiers like his father had done. When their village fell to Communists, Xiong and his family fled to a refugee camp in Thailand and eventually ended up in Eau Claire in 1980. Congressman Ron Kind worked with Xiong to investigate reports of human rights abuses against Hmong still in Laos and southeast Asia. Kind says Xiong was a great community leader and an inspiration to many.
- ^ The Hmong in America: A Story of Tragedy and Hope
- ^ Walsh, Denny, "Ten Accused of Conspiring to Oust Government of Laos," The Sacramento Bee, June 5, 2007 http://www.sacbee.com/292/story/206120.html (accessed June 5, 2007).
- ^ U.S. Drops Case Against Exiled Hmong Leader," The New York Times, September 18, 2009.
- ^ Saad, Nardine (January 10, 2011). "Charges dropped against 12 Hmong men accused in plot to overthrow Laotian government". LA Times. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2011/01/charges-dropped-against-12-hmong-men-accused-in-plot-to-overthrow-laotian-government.html. Retrieved 2011-01-15.
- ^ O'Malley, Julia. "Hmong and Mormon." Anchorage Daily News. Sunday October 8, 2006. A1. Retrieved on March 13, 2012.
- ^ a b Chavez, Erika. "Hmong cry for help has been heard A state forum will seek ways to improve student achievement." The Sacramento Bee. Tuesday May 28, 2002. B1. Retrieved on March 12, 2012.
- ^ Her, Lucy Y. "Ceremony is Hmong welcome to educators - Culture-sharing event aims to aid students, educate parents and elders.." Minneapolis Star Tribune. Saturday March 31, 2001. News 9B. Retrieved on March 12, 2012.
- ^ Lee, Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp. Culture and Customs of the Hmong. Greenwood Publishing Group. ABC-CLIO, 2010. 76-77. Retrieved from Google Books on April 14, 2012. ISBN 0-313-34526-0, ISBN 978-0-313-34526-5.
- ^ Lee, Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp. Culture and Customs of the Hmong. Greenwood Publishing Group. ABC-CLIO, 2010. 77. Retrieved from Google Books on April 14, 2012. ISBN 0-313-34526-0, ISBN 978-0-313-34526-5.
- ^ a b Yuen, Laura. "Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film." Minnesota Public Radio. December 18, 2008. Retrieved on March 18, 2012.
- ^ "Michigan Hmong." The Michigan Daily. January 10, 2007. 1. Retrieved on April 12, 2012.
- ^ a b Kaiser, Robert L. "After 25 Years In U.s., Hmong Still Feel Isolated ." Chicago Tribune. December 27, 1999. 2. Retrieved on April 14, 2012.
- ^ West, Nancy Shohet. "Hmong stories woven into art in Groton show." Boston Globe. March 31, 2011. 1. Retrieved on March 12, 2012.
- ^ O'Brien, Kathleen. "http://www.nj.com/entertainment/tv/index.ssf/2009/01/rutgers_scholar_helps_eastwood.html Rutgers scholar sheds light on 'Gran Torino' ethnic stars." The Star-Ledger. Thursday January 15, 2009. Retrieved on March 15, 2012.
- Lomation's Hmong Text Reader - free online program that can read Hmong words/text.
- Hmong Cultural Center, Saint Paul, Minnesota.
- Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center.
- Hmong Studies Journal.
- WWW Hmongnet.org.
- Hmong-American Partnership.
- Lao Family Community..
- Hmong Times, Minnesota-based Hmong newspaper.
- Hmong Today, United States nationally-based Hmong newspaper.
- "Hmong in the Modern World." D.C. Everest School District.
- The Critical Hmong Studies Collective. ""Persistent Invisibility: Hmong Americans are silenced." AsianWeek. September 13, 2008.
- "Acts of Betrayal: Persecution of Hmong", by Michael Johns, National Review, October 23, 1995.
- "An Overview of Recent Developments in Hmong-American and Lao-American Studies Research", by Dr. Mark Pfeiffer.
- Hmong Americans, by Carl L. Bankston III.
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