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The terms multiracial and mixed-race describe people whose ancestries come from multiple races. Unlike the term biracial, which often is only used to refer to having parents or grandparents of two different races, the term multiracial may encompass biracial people but can also include people with more than two races in their heritage, or also may refer to the origin of more generationally distant genetic admixtures of more than one race in a person's DNA.
The actual incidence of multiracial admixture and heritage is believed to be far higher than is commonly reported, although there is evidence that this is changing as people become more comfortable with revealing personal multiracial heritage. Census records and other studies also show the real number of multiracial individuals to be increasing in the United States along with an increase in marriages across race lines. Other surveys also reflect this trend in many modern nations. The term "multiracial" may also be used to refer to groups or populations where individuals of more than one race are counted as a part of a whole group. In this sense of the word, "multiracial" refers to a racially heterogeneous rather than a homogeneous group or population.
While defining race is controversial,[1] race remains a commonly used term for categorization. Insofar as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of multiraciality will naturally be subjective.
According to U.S. sociologist Troy Duster and ethicist Pilar Ossorio:
Some percentage of people who look white will possess genetic markers indicating that a significant majority of their recent ancestors were African. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European.
In the United States:
Many state and local agencies comply with the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 1997 revised standards for the collection, tabulation, and presentation of federal data on race and ethnicity. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five racial categories:
White;
Black or African American;
American Indian and Alaska Native;
Asian; and
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Perhaps, the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to mark one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity.
Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races.
In the English-speaking world, many terms for people of various multiracial backgrounds exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato, zambo and mestizo are used in Spanish, mulato, caboclo, cafuzo, ainoko (from Japanese) and mestiço in Portuguese and mulâtre and métis in French for people of multiracial descent. These terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are a recognized ethnic group of mixed white and First Nation descent, who have status in the law similar to that of First Nations.
Terms like mulatto for people of partly African descent and mestizo for people of partly Native American descent are still used by English-speaking people of the western hemisphere[citation needed], but mostly when referring to the past or to the demography of Latin America and its diasporic population. Half-breed is a historic term that referred to people of partial Native American ancestry; it is now considered pejorative and discouraged from use. Mestee, once widely used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles, Melungeons, Redbones, Brass Ankles and Mayles. In South Africa, and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term Coloured was used to describe a mixed-race person and also Asians not of African descent.[4] While the term is socially accepted, it is becoming an outdated due to its association with the apartheid era.
In Latin America, where mixtures became tri-racial after the introduction of African slavery, a panoply of terms developed during the colonial period, including terms such as zambo for persons of Amerindian and African descent. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common. The well-known Casta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications.
At one time, Latin American census categories have used such classifications but, in Brazilian censuses since the Imperial times, for example, most persons of multiracial heritage, except the Asian Brazilians of some European descent (or any other to the extent it is not clearly perceptible) and vice-versa, tend to be thrown into the single category of "pardo", although race lines in Brazil do not denote ancestry but phenotype, and as such a westernized Amerindian of copper-colored skin is also a "pardo", a caboclo in this case, despite being not multiracial, but a European-looking person with one or more African and/or Indigenous American ancestor is not a "pardo" but a "branco", or a White Brazilian, the same applies to "negros" or Afro-Brazilians and European and/or Amerindian ancestors. Most Brazilians of all racial groups (except Asian Brazilians and Natives) are to some extent mixed-race according to genetic research.
In English, the terms miscegenation and amalgamation were used for unions between the races. These terms are now often considered offensive and are becoming obsolete. The terms mixed-race, biracial or multiracial are becoming generally accepted. In other languages, translations of miscegenation did not become politically incorrect.
Mixed-race categories are often used to whiten the racial classification of black individuals, that is to identify or be identified as whiter than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a black person identifying or being identified as mixed race. Mixed-race categories are also used to darken the racial classification of white individuals, that is to identify or be identified as darker than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a white person identifying or being identified as mixed race.
A black person seeking to whiten their race classification may also utilize “whitening” categories. Whitening categories are highly ambiguous and open ended color categories, the ambiguity of such categories can allow a black individual to avoid the stigmitized black category. The ambiguity of racial identity was, for many years, seen as an “escape hatch” allowing non-white mobility (Andrews 1992, 1993), whereas others noted the supremacy of class as “money whitened” (Guillebeau 1999). This ambiguity reflected not equality but a persistent social tendency to escape from blackness.[5]
Research has found that the growth of the mixed-race population is in part due to large numbers of blacks "whitening" (blanqueamiento) there racial classification by reporting to be mixed race. The growth of the mixed-race population can also be in part credited to white people "darkening" their racial classification. Studies have found a large trend in reclassification (blanqueamiento/whitening) from black to brown in the 1950 to 1980 period, a much smaller one from white to brown (darkening), and a similar but less pronounced pattern between 1980 and 1990. Academics attribute this switch from black to mixed race to high rates of black upward mobility during the 1970s, consistent with a “money whitens” hypothesis, that is blacks will whiten themselves by reporting as brown (mixed race) the more wealthy they become. Differences found in the percentage of blacks between census results demonstrate that many blacks self classify as mixed race. Further research confirmed a tendency for what is called blanqueamiento, that means that blacks tend to self-classify as whiter. In this case, differences found in the share of blacks between two surveys suggest that blacks tend to self-classify as mulattos (mixed race), while the differences found in the shares of blacks and mulattos pooled suggest that very few blacks or mulattos self-classify as whites. Attempting to split people in three groups, namely blacks, mulattos and whites, might get seriously biased results due to an incorrect classification of blacks as mulattos (Florez et al., 2001:30). Reclassifition from white to brown (darkening) also demonstrates that some whites self-classify as mixed race. The darkening of the racial classification of whites appears to be growing. Analyses of changes between censuses, show that people reclassify themselves from white to mixed race more often than from mixed race to white. Academics attribute this switch from white to brown to poverty among white people, consistent with a poverty darkens hypothesis, that is whites will darken themselves by reporting to be mixed race the more poorer they become.[6]
[edit] Blanqueamiento's version of the one-drop rule
The ideology of Blanqueamiento/whitening has its own version of the one-drop rule. Under blanqueamiento's version of the one-drop rule, one drop of white blood can be sufficient to make blacks and/or native Americans mixed race. Accordingly, one drop of white blood can also be enough to make a person white, or at least no longer black. Blanqueamiento's version of the one-drop rule is mostly applied in Latin/Hispanic countries. For example, in the Dominican Republic, one drop of white blood makes you white, or at least, mixed.[7][8]
Multiracial US Americans officially numbered 6.1 million in 2006, or 2.0% of the population.[9][10] There is considerable evidence that an accurate number would be much higher. Prior to the mid-20th century, many people hid their multiracial heritage. The development of binary thinking about race meant that African Americans, a high proportion of whom have also had European ancestry, were classified as black. Some are now reclaiming additional ancestries. Many Americans today are multi-racial without knowing it.
In 2010, the number of Americans who checked both "black" and "white" on their census forms was 134 percent higher than it had been a decade earlier.[11]
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white is as follows:
- white/Native American and Alaskan Native: 7,015,017,
- white/black: 737,492,
- white/Asian: 727,197, and
- white/Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 125,628.[12]
The stigma of a mixed-race heritage, associated with racial discrimination among numerous racial groups, has decreased significantly in the United States. The election of President Barack Obama, who had a European-American mother and an African father, was taken by many as a sign of progress. People of mixed-race heritage can identify themselves now in the U.S Census by any combination of races, whereas before Americans were required to select from only one category. For example they may choose more than one race from the following list:
"White" (or "Caucasian"), "Black" (or African American), "Asian", "Native American" or "Alaska Native", "Native Hawaiian", other "Pacific Islander" or "Some other race".
Many mixed-raced Americans use the term biracial. The U.S. has a growing multiracial identity movement, reflective of a desire by people to claim their full identities. Interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks, was historically deemed immoral and illegal in most states in the 18th, 19th and first half of the 20th century, due to its long association of blacks with the slave caste. California and the western US had similar laws to prohibit European-Asian marriages, which was associated with discrimination against Chinese and Japanese on the West Coast. Many states eventually repealed such laws, and a 1967 (Loving v. Virginia decision by the US Supreme Court) overturned all remaining anti-miscegenation laws in the US.
The United States is one of the most racially diverse countries in the world. The American people are mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities culturally distinct in their former countries. Assimilation and integration took place, unevenly at different periods of history, depending on the American region. The "Americanization" of foreign ethnic groups and the inter-racial diversity of millions of Americans has been a fundamental part of its history, especially on frontiers where different groups of people came together.[13]
The current[update] President of the United States, Barack Obama, is a multiracial American, as he is the son of a Luo father from Kenya and a European American mother. While he acknowledges both parents, he identifies as African-American.
Multiracial Canadians in 2006 officially totaled 1.5% of the population, up from 1.2% in 2001, although, this number may actually be far higher. The official mixed-race population grew by 25% since the previous census. Of these, the most frequent combinations were multiple visible minorities (for example, people of mixed south Asian and European heritage form the majority specifically in Toronto), followed closely by white-black, white-Chinese, white-Arab, and many other smaller mixes.[14]
During the time of Slavery in the United States a very large but unknown number of American slaves of African descent escaped to Canada, where slavery was illegal, via the underground railroad. Many of these people married in with European-Canadian and Native-Canadian populations, although their precise numbers, and the numbers of their descendants, are not known.
Another 1.2% of Canadians officially are Métis (descendants of a historical population who were partially Aboriginal-- also called "Indian" or "Native American" in other North and South American countries mixed with European, particularly French, English, Scottish, and Irish ethnic groups). Although listed as a single "race" in Canada, the Métis are therefore multi-racial. In particular the Métis population may be far higher than the official numbers state, due to earlier racism causing people to historically hide their mixed heritage. This however is changing although many Canadians may now be unaware of their mixed-race heritage, especially those of Métis descent.
This brings Canada to a total "recognized" mixed population of 2.7%, greater by percentage than that of the United Kingdom and the United States.
Mestizo is the common word used to describe multiracial people in Latin America, especially people with Native American and Spanish or other European ancestry. Mestizos make up a large portion of Latin Americans comprising a majority in most countries.
In Latin America, racial mixture was officially acknowledged from colonial times. There was official nomenclature for every conceivable mixture present in the various countries. Initially, this classification was used as a type of caste system, where rights and privileges were accorded depending on one's official racial classification. Official caste distinctions were abolished in many countries of the Spanish-speaking Americas as they became independent of Spain. Several terms have remained in common usage.
Race and racial mixture have played a significant role in the politics of many Latin American countries. In most countries, for example Mexico, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, and a majority of the population can be described as biracial or multiracial (depending on the country). In Mexico, over 80% of the population is mestizo in some degree or another.[16]
The Mexican philosopher and educator José Vasconcelos authored an essay on the subject, La Raza Cósmica, celebrating racial mixture. Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, who is himself of Spanish, indigenous and African ancestry, has made positive references to the mixed-race ancestry of most Latin Americans from time to time.
Main article:
Race in BrazilAccording to the 2000 official census, 38.5% of Brazilians identified themselves as pardo skin color.[17] That option is normally marked by people that consider themselves multiracial (mestiço). The term pardo is formally used in the official census but is not used by the population. In Brazilian society, most people who are multiracial call themselves moreno: light-moreno or dark-moreno. These terms are not considered offensive and focus more on skin color than on ethnicity (it is considered more like other human characteristics such as being short or tall).
The most common multiracial groups are between African and European (mulato), and Amerindian and European (caboclo or mameluco). But there are also African and Amerindian (cafuzo), and East-Asian (mostly Japanese) and European/other (ainoko, or more recently, hafu). All groups are more or less found throughout the whole country. Brazilian multiracials with the following three origins, Amerindian, European and African, make up the majority. It is said today that 89% or even more of the "Pardo" population in Brazil has at least one Amerindian ancestor (most of brancos or White Brazilian population have some Amerindian and/or African ancestry too despite nearly half of the country's population self-labeling as "Caucasian" in the censuses. In Brazil, it is very common for Mulattoes to claim that they don't have any Amerindian ancestry, though studies have found that if a Brazilian multiracial can trace their ancestry to nearly 8 to 9 generations back, they will have at least one Amerindian ancestor from their maternal side of the family, which will explain many of their physical features and characteristics.[citation needed]
Since multiracial relations in Brazilian society have occurred for many generations, some people find it difficult to trace their own ethnic ancestry. Today a majority of mixed-race Brazilians do not really know their ethnic ancestry. Due to their unique features that makes them Brazilian-looking like skin color, lips and nose shape or hair texture, they are only aware that their ancestors were definitely Portuguese, African and/or Amerindian. There is also a high percentage of Brazilians of Jewish descent (10,000,000-30,000,000), mostly found in the northeast of the country who cannot be sure of their ancestry as they descend from the so-called "Crypto-Jews" (Jews who practiced Judaism in secret while outwardly pretending to be Catholics, also called Marranos or New-Christians, often considered Portuguese); according to some sources, 1 out of every 3 families to arrive there from Portugal during the colonization was of Jewish origin. There is a high level of integration between all groups. However, there exists a great social and economic difference between European descendants (found more among the upper and middle classes) and African, Amerindian and multiracial descendants (found more among the lower classes), what is called Brazilian apartheid.
In 2000, The Sunday Times reported that "Britain has the highest rate of interracial relationships in the world" and certainly the UK has the highest rate in the European Union.[18] The 2001 census showed the population of England to be 1.4% mixed-race, compared with 2.7% in Canada and 1.4% in the U.S. estimates of 1.4% in 2002, although this U.S. figure did not include mixed-race people who had a black parent. Both the US and UK have fewer people identifying as mixed race, however, than Canada. By 2020 the mixed-race population is expected to become Britain's largest ethnic minority group with the highest growth rate.[19]
In Britain, many multi-racial people have Caribbean, African or Asian heritage. For example supermodel Naomi Campbell, who has African, Jamaican, and Asian roots. Some, like Formula One driver, Lewis Hamilton, are referred to or describe themselves as 'mixed'.
The 2001 UK Census included a section entitled 'Mixed' to which 1.4% (1.6% by 2005 estimates) of people responded, which was split further into White and Black Caribbean, White and Asian, White and Black African and Other Mixed. Despite this, 2005 birth records for the country state at least 3.5% of newborn babies as mixed race.[20]
Cities / regions with notable multiracial / mixed-race populations (England and Wales)
In North Africa, some multiracial communities can also be found. Among these are the Haratin oasis-dwellers of Saharan southern Morocco and Mauritania. They are believed to be a mixture of Black Africans and Berbers, and constitute a socially and ethnically distinct group.[21] Also the case of Tunisia in which you can find many mixed races from the mediterranean sea.
Almost the entire population of Madagascar is an about equal admixture of South East Asian and Bantu-speaking settlers primarily from Borneo and Mozambique, respectively.[22] Years of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu influences.[22]
In South Africa, the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act prohibited marriage between whites and non-whites (which were classified as Black, Asian and Coloured). Multiracial South Africans are commonly referred to as coloureds. According to the 2001 South African Census, they are the second largest minority (8.9%) after white South Africans (9.2%).
Anglo-Indians are the mixed race, which originated in India during the British Raj, or the Colonial period in India. The estimated population of Anglo-Indians is 600,000 worldwide with the majority living in India and the UK.
As with India, Burma was ruled by the British, from 1826 until 1948. Many European groups vied for control of the country prior to the arrival of the British. Intermarriage and mixed-relationships between these settlers and merchants with the local Burmese population, and subsequently between British colonists and the Burmese created a local Eurasian population, known as the Anglo-Burmese. This group dominated colonial society and through the early years of independence. Most Anglo-Burmese now reside primarily in Australia, New Zealand and the UK since Burma received her independence in 1948 with an estimated 52,000 left behind in Burma.
Due to its strategic location in the Indian Ocean, the island of Sri Lanka has been a confluence for settlers from various parts of the world, which has resulted in the formation of several mixed-race ethnicities in the Island. The most notable mixed-race group are the Sri Lankan Moors, who trace their ancestry from Arab traders who settled on the island and intermarried with local women. Today, The Sri Lankan Moors live primarily in urban communities, preserving their Arab-Islamic cultural heritage while adopting many Southern Asian customs.
The Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group, consisting for the most part of male-line descendants of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries (mostly Portuguese, Dutch, German and British) and local women, with some minorities of Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.
The Kaffirs are an ethnic group who are partially descended from 16th century Portuguese traders and the African slaves who were brought by them.The Kaffirs spoke a distinctive creole based on Portuguese, the Sri Lanka Kaffir language, now extinct. Their cultural heritage includes the dance styles Kaffringna and Manja, as well as the Portuguese Sinhalese, Creole, Afro-Sinhalese varieties.
According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%.
In Singapore and Malaysia, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian", though the Malaysian government only classifies them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[23] It is, however, common for Muslims and Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[24]
The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent. This was due to the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them.
In the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, there have been many incidents of intermarriage between Chinese and native tribes such as the Murut and Dusun in Sabah, and the Iban and Bisaya in Sarawak. This phenomenon has resulted in a potpourri of cultures in both states where many people claiming to be of native descent have some Chinese blood in them, and many Chinese have native blood in them. The offspring of these mixed marriages are called "Sino-(name of tribe)", e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, if the father is Chinese, the offspring will adopt Chinese culture and if the father is native then native culture will be adopted, but this is not always the case. These Sino-natives are usually fluent in Malay and English. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects and Mandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
Philippines was a Spanish colony for about 300 years, and then by the Americans when the Spanish was defeated. This is the cause of many mixed-race Filipinos of Filipino-Spanish and Filipino-American descent.
After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish-American War in 1898, the Philippines and other remaining Spanish colonies were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. The Philippines was under U.S. sovereignty until 1946, though occupied by Japan during World War II. In 1946, in the Treaty of Manila, the U.S. Recognized the Republic of the Philippines as an independent nation. Even after 1946, the U.S. maintained a heavy military presence in the Philippines, with as many as 21 U.S. military bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there. The bases closed in 1992, leaving behind thousands of Amerasian children.[25] Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines with 5,000 in the Clark area of Angeles.[26]
A genetic study by Stanford University indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are European or of part European descent from both Spanish and American colonization.[27]
In the United States, intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[28] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed lineage, second among Asian Americans after the Japanese, and is the fastest growing.[29]
Under terms of the Geneva Accords of 1954, departing French troops took thousands of Vietnamese wives and children with them after the First Indochina War. Some 100,000 Eurasians stayed in Vietnam, though after independence from French rule.[30]
Large scale European colonisation and settlement of New Zealand since the 1840s has led to a large racial mixing of them and the local Maori and Pacific populations. There are also smaller populations of mixed European and Pacific Island people, as well as mixing between white and Asian populations. All of New Zealand's half million Maori can claim some Pakeha parentage.[31] Especially common mixtures are Irish Maori, Scottish Maori and Anglo Maori. Less common are Jewish Maori (Nathan and Benjamin are common Maori surnames) and Dutch Maori (Both mostly since 1950s). Because ones' race and culture in New Zealand is often a form of self identification, actual numbers are hard to gauge. (Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006). In the last census (2006) many New Zealanders refused to state their ethnicity, or claimed multiple ethnicities and 19% chose New Zealander (Source New Zealand Herald 2006). Examples of these people include Dame Kiri Te Kanawa (opera singer) actress Rena Owen and ex Governor General Sir Paul Reeves.
Fiji has long been a multi-ethnic country, with a vast majority of people having multi-racial heritages even if they do not self-identify in that manner. The indigenous Fijians themselves are actually a mixture of Melanesian and Polynesian ancestry resulting from years of migration of islanders from various places mixing with each other during and after the various waves of migration. Fiji Islanders from the Lau group especially physically look and are more prone to verbalise mixed-race ethnicity, after much intermarriage with Tongans and other Polynesians over the years. The overwhelming majority of the rest of the indigenous Fijians, though, can be genetically traced to having mixed Polynesian/Melanesian ancestry, as evidenced in physical and body characteristics of both groups.
The Indo-Fijian population is also a hodge-podge of South Asian immigrants (called Girmits in Fiji), who came as indentured labourers beginning in 1879. While a few of these labourers managed to bring wives, many of them either took or were given wives once they arrived in Fiji. The Girmits, who are classified as simply "Indians" to this day, came from many parts of the Indian subcontinent of present day India, Pakistan, and to a lesser degree Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is easy to recognize the Indian mixtures present in Fiji and see obvious traces of Southern and Northern Indians and other groups who have been categorised together. To some degree, even more of this phenomenon would have likely happened if the religious groups represented (primarily Hindu, Muslim and Sikh) had not resisted to some degree marriage between religious groups, which tended to be from more similar parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Over the years, particularly in the sugar cane growing regions of Western Viti Levu and parts of Vanua Levu, Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians have mixed. It is also not uncommon to find people of Chinese/Fijian ancestry, Indo-Fijian/Samoan or Rotuman ancestry, and European/Fijian ancestry (often called "part-Fijians"). The latter are often descendents of beachcombers (particularly shipwrecked sailors) and settlers that came over during Fiji's colonial rule. Further settling and subsequent mixing of islanders from a dozen or more different Pacific countries (Tuvalu, Solomon Islands, Vanautu, Samoa, and Wallis and Futuna being the most prevalent) have added to the melting pot that is Fiji. Without a doubt, it is the most racially mixed nation in the Pacific, its only rival being the US State of Hawaii.
The following is a list of ethnic divisions that are a mixture of two or more racial groups.
African-origin
Asian-origin
Berber/Arab-Origin
European-origin
Native American-origin
Semitic-Origin
Tri-Racial-Origin
*individual members of these groups may instead be biracial
Other types
Within Native American Tribal Nations
Many Native American tribes have significant minority populations, or in some cases even majority populations, of people with multi-racial origin. However many of these individuals will identify simply as tribal members of that nation. Official standards for what degree of blood heritage constitutes a tribal member varies dramatically between different nations. Some tribal nations have strict blood standards and some use standards of cultural identification with a less strict blood standard.
- ^ "Not surprisingly, biomedical scientists are divided in their opinions about race. Some characterize it as 'biologically meaningless' or 'not based on scientific evidence', whereas others advocate the use of race in making decisions about medical treatment or the design of research studies." Lynn B. Jorde; Stephen P. Wooding (2004). "Genetic variation, classification and 'race'". Nature Genetics (Nature Genetics) 36 (11 Suppl): S28–S33. DOI:10.1038/ng1435. PMID 15508000. http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1435.html. citing Guido Barbujani; Arianna Magagni; Eric Minch; L. Luca Cavalli=Sforza (April 1997). An apportionment of human DNA diversity. 94. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. pp. 4516–4519. http://www2.webmatic.it/workO/s/113/pr-436-file_it-Proceedings%20of%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%20USA%2094.pdf. .
- ^ Carolyn Abraham, Molecular Eyewitness: DNA Gets a Human Face (quoted from Globe and Mail, June 25, 2005), RaceSci, www.racesci.org
- ^ "Modified Race Data Summary File". 2000 Census of Population and Housing. U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/popest/archives/files/MRSF-01-US1.html. Retrieved 2009-10-30.
- ^ Denis MacShane; Martin Plaut; David Ward (1984). Power!: Black workers, Their Unions and the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa. South End Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-89608-244-1. http://books.google.com/?id=rLrJ-_78SB0C.
- ^ http://en.scientificcommons.org/20913428
- ^ http://asr.sagepub.com/content/72/6/940.abstractrt
- ^ http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/worts23&div=8&id=&page=
- ^ http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1548-7466.2008.00019.x/full
- ^ "B02001. RACE – Universe: TOTAL POPULATION". 2006 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-context=dt&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-tree_id=306&-redoLog=false&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02003&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_C02003&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=02000US1&-geo_id=02000US2&-geo_id=02000US3&-geo_id=02000US4&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
- ^ Jones, Nicholas A.; Amy Symens Smith. "The Two or More Races Population: 2000. Census 2000 Brief" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-6.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
- ^ Cohn, D'Vera. "Multi-Race and the 2010 Census". http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1953/multi-race-2010-census-obama. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
- ^ http://www.csupomona.edu/~mreibel/2000_Census_Files/Allen-Turner.doc
- ^ "Multiracial Dimensions in the United States and Around the World". diversityspectrum.com. http://www.diversityspectrum.com/index.php/Multi-Racial/Multiracial-Dimensions-in-the-United-States-and-Around-the-World.
- ^ "Population Groups (28) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data". 2006 Census: Data Products. Statistics Canada. 2008-06-12. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=97-562-XCB2006007&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=0&IPS=97-562-XCB2006007&METH=0&ORDER=&PID=92334&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=&StartRow=&SUB=&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=. Retrieved 2008-07-14. [dead link]
- ^ Westbrook, Caroline (2004-02-13). "Sean Paul". Something Jewish. http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/813_sean_paul.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
- ^ [Silva-Zolezzi I., Hidalgo-Miranda A., Estrada-Gil J., Fernandez-Lopez J.C., Uribe-Figueroa L., Contreras A., Balam-Ortiz E., del Bosque-Plata L., Velazquez Fernandez D., Lara C., Goya R., Hernandez-Lemus E., Davila C., Barrientos E., March S., Jimenez-Sanchez G. Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 May 26;106(21):8611-6.]
- ^ "Censo Demográfico 2000" (in Portuguese) (PDF). Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2000/populacao/cor_raca_Censo2000.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
- ^ John Harlow, The Sunday Times (London), 9 April 2000, quoting Professor Richard Berthoud of the Institute for Social and Economic Research
- ^ Changing Face of Britain, BBC, 2002.
- ^ 3.5% of newborns in the UK are mixed race
- ^ Bridget Anderson, World directory of minorities, (Minority Rights Group International: 1997), p.435.
- ^ a b On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages: "The present population, known by the general term “Malagasy,” is considered an admixed population as it shows a combination of morphological and cultural traits typical of Bantu and Austronesian speakers...[O]ur results confirmed that admixture in Malagasy was due to the encounter of people surfing the extreme edges of two of the broadest historical waves of language expansion: the Austronesian and Bantu expansions. In fact, all Madagascan living groups show a mixture of uniparental lineages typical of present African and South East Asian populations with only a minor contribution of Y lineages with different origins."
- ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 0-415-94971-8.
- ^ Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia. ColorQ World. http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=Asia&x=ArabMalays. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^ "Women and children, militarism, and human rights: International Women's Working Conference". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3693/is_199710/ai_n8759139. [dead link]
- ^ Tuesday, June 19, 2001
- ^ Stanford Publications
- ^ "Interracial Dating & Marriage". asian-nation.org. http://www.asian-nation.org/interracial.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
- ^ "Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans". asian-nation.org. http://www.asian-nation.org/multiracial.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
- ^ SOUTH VIET NAM: The Girls Left Behind. Time. September 10, 1956.
- ^ http://www.michaelbassett.co.nz/articleview.php?id=73
- The Multiracial Activist, an online activist publication registered with the Library of Congress, focused on multiracial individuals and interracial families since 1997
- Multiethnic Education Program, resources and strategies to support mixed race children in educational settings
- ProjectRACE, an organization leading the movement for a multiracial classification
- Advocacy groups
- Association of MultiEthnic Americans, Inc., US
- Blended People of America, US-based nonprofit organization representing the interests of the mixed-race community
- Brazilian Multiracial Movement, Brazilian mixed-race organization
- The Hafu Project, a study of half-Japanese people, London-, Munich-, Tokyo-based nonprofit organisation
- MAVIN Foundation, an organization advocating for mixed heritage people and families
- Mixed Race UK, UK-based nonprofit organization representing the interests of the mixed-race community
- Mosiac UK, a UK-based organisation for mixed race families
- People in Harmony UK
- Swirl, US-based mixed community
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