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![Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. - April 4, 1967 - Beyond Vietnam: A Time To Break Silence [Full Speech]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130106152254im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/OC1Ru2p8OfU/default.jpg "Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the US government [was/is]")
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Alveda King
Alveda Celeste King (born January 22, 1951) is an American Christian minister,conservative, pro-life activist, and author. She is a niece of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and daughter of the late civil rights activist Rev. A. D. William King, Sr. and his wife Naomi Barber King. She is the full-time Pastoral Associate of African-American Outreach for the Roman Catholic pro-life group, Priests for Life. She once served as a Senior Fellow at the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution, a conservative Washington, D.C. think-tank. She is a former member of the Georgia House of Representatives and the founder of King for America. She has been married and divorced three times.
Alveda King was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She was the first of five children of A. D. King, the younger brother of Martin Luther King Jr., and Naomi Barber King. She says her mother wanted to abort her so she could continue college but her Grandfather was able to convince her to keep her child. When she was 12, her father became a leader of the Birmingham campaign while serving as pastor at the First Baptist Church of Ensley in Birmingham, Alabama. Later that same year, King’s house was bombed by opponents to the civil rights movement. In 1969, Ms. King married.
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Arizona
Arizona (
i/ɛrɪˈzoʊnə/; /ærɪˈzoʊnə/) (Navajo: Hoozdo Hahoodzo; O'odham: Alĭ ṣonak) is a state of the United States, located in the southwestern region of the country. Arizona is also part of the Western United States and of the Mountain West states. Arizona is the sixth most extensive and the 16th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. The second largest city is Tucson, followed in population by eight cities of the Phoenix metropolitan area: Mesa, Chandler, Glendale, Scottsdale, Gilbert, Tempe, Peoria, and Surprise.
Arizona is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, and it achieved statehood on February 14, 1912. Arizona is noted for its desert climate in its southern half, where there are very hot summers and quite mild winters. The northern half of Arizona also features forests of pine, Douglas fir, and spruce trees, a very large, high plateau (the Colorado Plateau) and some mountain ranges—such as the San Francisco Mountains—as well as large, deep canyons, where there is much more moderate weather for three seasons of the year, plus significant snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff and Alpine.
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Atlanta
Atlanta (
/ətˈlæntə/, stressed /ætˈlæntə/, locally /ætˈlænə/) is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia with a 2010 population of 420,003. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, which is home to 5,268,860 people and is the ninth largest in the U.S. It is a major component of a growing southeastern megalopolis known as the Piedmont Atlantic Megaregion. Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County.
Atlanta began as a settlement located at the terminus of a railroad line, and it was incorporated in 1845. Today, the city is a major business city and the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States (via highway, railroad, and air), with Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world's busiest airport since 1998. The World Cities Study Group at Loughborough University rated Atlanta as an "alpha(-) world city." With a gross domestic product of US$270 billion, Atlanta's economy ranks 15th among world cities and sixth in the nation. The city is a center for services, finance, information technology, government, and higher education. Metro Atlanta contains the country's third largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies, and is the world headquarters of The Coca-Cola Company, Turner Broadcasting, The Home Depot, AT&T Mobility, UPS, and Delta Air Lines. As of 2010, Atlanta is the seventh most visited city in the United States, with over 35 million visitors per year.
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Boston University
Boston University (often initialized as BU) is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. With more than 4,000 faculty members and more than 31,000 students, Boston University is one of the largest private universities in the United States and one of Boston's largest employers. The university is nonsectarian, but is historically affiliated with The United Methodist Church.
BU is categorized as an RU/VH Research University (very high research activity) in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. In 2009–2010, BU had research expenditures of $407.8 million, or $553 million if the research led by the Medical School faculty at Boston Medical Center is included. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education.
Among its faculty and alumni, BU counts 7 Nobel Prize winners, including Martin Luther King, Jr. (PhD '55); 22 Pulitzer Prize winners, and numerous[quantify]Guggenheim and MacArthur fellows.
The university offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees, and medical and dental degrees through 18 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Boston's Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, while the Boston University Medical Campus is in Boston's South End neighborhood. BU also operates 75 study abroad programs in over 33 cities in over 20 countries and has internship opportunities in 10 different countries (including the United States and abroad).
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Chicago
Chicago (
i/ʃɪˈkɑːɡoʊ/ or /ʃɪˈkɔːɡoʊ/) is the largest city in the US state of Illinois and the third most populous city in the United States after New York City and Los Angeles. The city has around 2.7 million residents. Its metropolitan area, sometimes called "Chicagoland", is the third largest in the United States, with an estimated 9.8 million people. Chicago is the county seat of Cook County, though a small portion also extends into DuPage County.
Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837, near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed. Today, Chicago is listed as an alpha+ global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and ranks seventh in the world on the 2012 Global Cities Index. The city retains its status as an international hub for finance, industry, telecommunications and infrastructure, with O'Hare International Airport being the second busiest airport in the world in terms of traffic movements. In 2008[update], the city hosted 45.6 million domestic and overseas visitors. Among metropolitan areas, Chicago has the 4th largest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the world, ranking just behind Tokyo, New York City, and Los Angeles. Chicago is one of the most important Worldwide Centers of Commerce and trade.
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Communist Party USA
Coordinates: 40°44′40.8″N 73°59′48.5″W / 40.744667°N 73.996806°W / 40.744667; -73.996806
The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) is a Marxist political party in the United States, established in 1919. It has a long, complex history that is closely related to the histories of similar communist parties worldwide and the U.S. labor movement.
For the first half of the 20th century, the CPUSA was the largest and most influential communist party in the United States. It played a very prominent role in the U.S. labor movement from the 1920s through the 1940s, having a major hand in founding most of the country's first industrial unions (which would later use the McCarran Internal Security Act to expel their Communist members) while also becoming known for opposing racism and fighting for integration in workplaces and communities during the height of the Jim Crow period of U.S. racial segregation. Historian Ellen Schrecker concludes that decades of recent scholarship offers a "nuanced portrayal of the party as both a Stalinist sect tied to a vicious regime and the most dynamic organization within the American Left during the 1930s and '40s". In regards to the former charge, the CPUSA, claiming proletarian internationalism (while the U.S. Government called it espionage), sponsored an elaborate intelligence network on behalf of the Soviet Union, involving over 500 members acting as agents. The most prominent example dealt with the Manhattan Project in which the network was accused in giving the blueprints of the atomic bomb to the Soviets; Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were thereafter convicted and executed as the chief architects of this plan. Subsequent examination of the trial record shows the testimony directly tying the Rosenbergs to the atomic blueprints was conflicted and possibly false.
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Gandhi Smriti
Gandhi Smriti formerly known as Birla House or Birla Bhavan, is a museum dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi, situated on Tees January Road, in New Delhi, India. It is the location where Mahatma Gandhi spent the last 144 days of his life and was assassinated on January 30, 1948. It was originally the house of the Indian business tycoons, the Birlas. It now houses the Eternal Gandhi Multimedia Museum established in 2005.
It was acquired by the Government of India in 1971 and opened for the public on August 15, 1973, renamed the Gandhi Smriti (or Gandhi Remembrance). The museum in the building houses a number of articles associated with Gandhi's life and death. Visitors can tour the building and grounds, viewing the preserved room where Gandhi lived and the place on the grounds where he was shot while holding his nightly public walk.
The Martyr's Column now marks the place where Gandhi, the "Father of the Nation" was assassinated.
The Gandhi Smriti or Birla House is located at 5 Tees January Marg, a couple of kilometres from the Connaught Place, one of the CBDs of New Delhi.
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Indianapolis
Indianapolis /ˌɪndiəˈnæpɵlɨs/ (abbreviated Indy /ˈɪndi/) is the capital of the US state of Indiana, and the county seat of Marion County, Indiana. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population is 829,718. It is Indiana's largest city and, as of the 2010 U.S. Census, is the 12th largest city in the U.S., the second largest city in the Midwest (behind Chicago), the second most populous state capital (after Phoenix, Arizona), and the most populous state capital east of the Mississippi River. Indianapolis is also one of the fastest growing regions in the United States.
For much of its history, Indianapolis has oriented itself around government and industry, particularly manufacturing. Today, Indianapolis has a much more diversified economy, contributing to the fields of education, health care, and finance. Tourism is also a vital part of the economy of Indianapolis, and the city plays host to numerous conventions and sporting events. Of these, perhaps the most well known is the annual Indianapolis 500 and the NHRA U.S. Nationals. Other major sporting events include the Brickyard 400 and the Men's and Women's NCAA Basketball Tournaments. 2012 marked the first time Indianapolis hosted the Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI was played at Lucas Oil Stadium, on February 5, 2012 in Downtown Indianapolis. Also held in Lucas Oil Stadium is the Drum Corps International World Championships, and the Music for All Bands of America Grand National Championships.
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Jamaica
Coordinates: 18°10′57″N 77°19′18″W / 18.1823878°N 77.3217773°W / 18.1823878; -77.3217773
Jamaica (i/dʒəˈmeɪkə/), officially the Commonwealth of Jamaica, is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, 234 kilometres (145 mi) in length, up to 80 kilometres (50 mi) in width, and 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 kilometres (119 mi) west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The indigenous Arawakan-speaking Taíno name for the island was Xaymaca, meaning the "Land of Wood and Water" or the "Land of Springs".
Once a Spanish possession known as Santiago, it became an English colony in 1655 under the name "Jamaica". It achieved full independence from Britain on August 6, 1962. With 2.8 million people, it is the third most populous anglophone country in the Americas, after the United States and Canada. It remains a Commonwealth realm in concert with the Monarchy of Jamaica holding ultimate executive power, where Queen Elizabeth II is the current head of state and Queen of Jamaica.Kingston is the country's largest city and the capital.
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Jamia Millia Islamia
Jamia Millia Islamia (Urdu: جامعہ ملیہ اسلامیہ, Hindi: जामिया मिलिया इस्लामिया, translation: National Islamic University[citation needed]) is an Indian Central University located in Delhi. It was established at Aligarh in United Provinces, India in 1920. It became a Central University by an act of the Indian Parliament in 1988. In Urdu and Arabic, Jamia means University[citation needed], and Millia means National[citation needed]. Coordinates: 28°33′41.79″N 77°16′48.54″E / 28.5616083°N 77.28015°E / 28.5616083; 77.28015
The university was established by nationalist Muslim leaders in 1920 prior to partition. Its campus is located in South Delhi. The university provides undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate courses.
The Foundation Committee met on 29 October 1920. Its members were:
On 22 November 1920, Hakim Ajmal Khan was elected the first chancellor of Jamia. Mohamed Ali Jauhar became Jamia’s first Vice Chancellor, as Allama Iqbal could not accept the offer made through Mohandas K. Gandhi. It also elected a syndicate and created a syllabus subcommittee.The known freedom fighter and Muslim theologian, Maulana Mehmud Hasan, laid the foundation stone of Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh on Friday, 29 October 1920.
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Kanyakumari
Kanyakumari pronunciation (help·info) is a town in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. It was also referred to as Cape Comorin earlier. Located at the southernmost tip of India, it is the geographical end of the mainland. The district in Tamil Nadu where the town is located is called Kanyakumari District. The closest major cities are Nagercoil, the administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District, (22 km (14 mi)) and Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala (85 km (53 mi)). The town is a popular tourist place in India.
Cape Comorin was the southern limit of Tamilakam (the ancient Tamil country).
Kanyakumari takes its name from the Kumari Amman or Kanyakumari Temple, situated in the town of it`s , on the sea-shore, the very confluence of the three water-bodies – the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. In his work on ancient India, Ptolemy had identified Kanyakumari (Cape of Comorin) along with the Gulf of Mannar as a center for pearl fishery. He also identifies Korkai, a place to the east of Kanyakumari as an emporium of pearl trade, also Travancore Census 1931 says that Paravars ruled that Coast and built the temple for their reverence to [the] Sea Goddess.
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Kelly Ingram Park
Kelly Ingram Park, formerly West Park, is a four acre (16,000 m²) park located in Birmingham, Alabama. It is bounded by 16th and 17th Streets and 5th and 6th Avenues North in the Birmingham Civil Rights District. The park, just outside the doors of the 16th Street Baptist Church, served as a central staging ground for large-scale demonstrations during the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.
Reverends Martin Luther King, Jr. and Fred Shuttlesworth of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference directed the organized boycotts and protests of 1963 which centered on Kelly Ingram Park. It was here, during the first week of May 1963, that Birmingham police and firemen, under orders from Public Safety Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor, confronted demonstrators, many of them children, first with mass arrests and then with police dogs and firehoses. Images from those confrontations, broadcast nationwide, spurred a public outcry which turned the nation's attention to the struggle for racial equality. The demonstrations in Birmingham brought city leaders to agree to an end of public segregation. In addition, they helped ensure the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Civil Rights laws.
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Mason Temple
Mason Temple, in Memphis, Tennessee, is the international sanctuary and central headquarters of the Church of God in Christ, the largest African American Pentecostal group in the world.
Built in 1941 during World War II, the Temple was constructed to replace the original "Tabernacle" or meeting place of the Annual Holy Convocation which burned down in the late 1930s. Despite shortages of steel and other supplies, Mason Temple was the largest church building owned by a predominantly black religious denomination in the United States at its completion. It has a present seating capacity of 3,732.
The building was named for Bishop Charles Harrison Mason, founder of the Church of God in Christ, who is entombed in a marble crypt inside the Temple. It was the location of Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech on April 3, 1968, one day before his assassination.
Coordinates: 35°7′17.5″N 90°2′57.6″W / 35.121528°N 90.049333°W / 35.121528; -90.049333
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Montreal
Montreal (i/ˌmʌntriːˈɒl/;French: Montréal; pronounced [mɔ̃ʁeal] (
listen)) is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the fifteenth largest in North America. Originally called Ville-Marie, or "City of Mary", the city takes its present name from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill located in the heart of the city, or Mont Réal as it was spelled in Middle French (Mont Royal in present French). The city is located on the Island of Montreal, which took its name from the same source as the city, and a few much smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which is Île Bizard.
As of May 10, 2011, Statistics Canada identifies Montreal's Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) (land area 4,259 square kilometres (1,644 sq mi)) as Canada's second most populous with an estimated metropolitan area population of 3,824,221 and a population of 1,886,481 in the urban agglomeration of Montreal, which includes all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal. The city of Montreal proper had a population of 1,649,519.
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Morehouse College
Coordinates: 33°44′48″N 84°24′55″W / 33.74667°N 84.41528°W / 33.74667; -84.41528
Morehouse College is a private, all-male, liberal arts, historically black college located in Atlanta, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Along with Hampden–Sydney College and Wabash College, Morehouse is one of three remaining traditional men's liberal arts colleges in the United States.
Morehouse has a 61-acre (250,000 m2) campus and an enrollment of approximately 3,000 students. The student-faculty ratio is 16:1 and 100% of the school's tenure-track faculty hold tertiary degrees. Along with Clark Atlanta University, Interdenominational Theological Center, Morehouse School of Medicine and nearby women's college Spelman College, Morehouse is part of the Atlanta University Center.
Morehouse is one of two black colleges in the country to produce Rhodes Scholars, and it is the alma mater of many African-American leaders, including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., theologian Howard Thurman, filmmaker Spike Lee, actor Samuel L. Jackson, Olympic gold medalist Edwin Moses, former Bank of America Chairman Walter E. Massey, the first African-American mayor of Atlanta, Maynard Jackson, former Secretary of Health and Human Services Louis W. Sullivan, and former United States Surgeon General David Satcher, and Gregory O. Griffin (Chief Legal Counsel for the Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles) among others.
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New Hampshire
New Hampshire (i/njuːˈhæmpʃər/) is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. New Hampshire is the 5th least extensive and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States.
It became the first post-colonial sovereign nation in the Americas when it broke off from Great Britain in January 1776, and six months later was one of the original thirteen states that founded the United States of America. In June 1788, it became the ninth state to ratify the United States Constitution, bringing that document into effect. New Hampshire was the first U.S. state to have its own state constitution.
It is known internationally for the New Hampshire primary, the first primary in the U.S. presidential election cycle. Concord is the state capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state. It has no general sales tax, nor is personal income (other than interest and dividends) taxed at either the state or local level.
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Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Norwegian and Swedish: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. It is awarded to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."
Per Alfred Nobel's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a 5-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded in Oslo City Hall on 10 December each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947–89), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–46) and the Parliament (1901–04).
According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."
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Pietermaritzburg
Pietermaritzburg is the capital and second largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It was founded in 1838, and is currently governed by the Msunduzi Local Municipality. Its "purist" Zulu name is umGungundlovu, and this is the name used for the district municipality. Pietermaritzburg is popularly called Maritzburg in English and Zulu alike, and often informally abbreviated to PMB. It is a regionally important industrial hub, producing aluminium, timber and dairy products. It is home to many schools and tertiary education institutions, including a campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. It had a population of 228,549 in 1991; the estimated current population is around 500,000 (including neighbouring townships) and has one of the largest populations of Indian South Africans in South Africa.
The city was originally founded by the Voortrekkers, following the defeat of Dingane at the Battle of Blood River, and was the capital of the short-lived Boer republic, Natalia. Britain took over Pietermaritzburg in 1843 and it became the seat of the Natal Colony's administration with the first lieutenant-governor, Martin West, making it his home. Fort Napier, named after the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier, was built to house a garrison. In 1893 Natal received responsibility for their own government and an assembly building was built along with the city hall. In 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed, Natal became a province of the union, and Pietermaritzburg remained the capital.
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Riverside Church
The Riverside Church in the City of New York is an interdenominational American Baptist and United Church of Christ church in New York City, famous for its elaborate Neo-Gothic architecture and its history of social justice. It was described by The New York Times in 2008 as "a stronghold of activism and political debate throughout its 75-year history ... influential on the nation’s religious and political landscapes." It has been a focal point of global and national activism since its inception.
The church was conceived by John D. Rockefeller and Harry Emerson Fosdick as a large, interdenominational church in a neighborhood important to the city, open to all who profess faith in Christ. Its congregation includes more than forty ethnic groups. As of 2007, the church had a $14 million annual operating budget and a paid staff of 130.
The Church's mission statement, adopted in 1992, is:
"...the worship of God, known in Jesus, the Christ, through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit ... to serve God through word and witness, to treat all human beings as sisters and brothers; and to foster responsible stewardship of God's creation ... The church pledges itself to education, reflection, and action for peace and justice and the realization of the vision of the heavenly banquet where all are loved and blessed."
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Stanford University
Coordinates: 37°26′N 122°10′W / 37.43°N 122.17°W / 37.43; -122.17
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is an American private research university located in Stanford, California on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha) campus near Palo Alto, California, United States. It is situated in the northwestern Silicon Valley, approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose and 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco.
Leland Stanford, a Californian railroad tycoon and politician, and his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford founded the university in 1891 in honor of their son, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid two months before his 16th birthday. The university was established as a coeducational and nondenominational institution, but struggled financially after the senior Stanford's 1893 death and after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates' entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would become known as Silicon Valley. By 1970, Stanford was home to a linear accelerator, was one of the original four ARPANET nodes, and had transformed itself into a major research university in computer science, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences.
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Tennessee
Tennessee (i/tɛnɨˈsiː/) (Cherokee: ᏔᎾᏏ) is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. Tennessee is the 36th most extensive and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States. Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, and the Mississippi River forms the state's western border. Tennessee's capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 626,144.Memphis is the state's largest city, with a population of 670,902.
The state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, and later part of the Southwest Territory. Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1, 1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War in 1861, and the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war.
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Utah
Utah (/ˈjuːtɔː/ ori/ˈjuːtɑː/) (Arapaho: Wo'tééneihí' ) is a state in the Western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896. Utah is the 13th-most extensive, the 34th-most populous, and the 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,817,222 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the sixth most urbanized in the U.S. The name "Utah" is derived from the name of the Ute tribe and means "people of the mountains" in the Ute language. Utah is bordered by Arizona on the south, Colorado on the east, Wyoming on the northeast, Idaho on the north and Nevada on the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico.
Utah is the most religiously homogeneous state in the Union. It is home to the Salt Lake Temple, and approximately 60% of Utahns are reported to be members of LDS Church which greatly influences Utah culture and daily life.
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Vietnam
Vietnam (
listen), formally the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam; listen), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 91.5 million inhabitants as of 2012, it is the world's 13th-most-populous country, and the eighth-most-populous Asian country. The name Vietnam translates as "South Viet", and was officially adopted in 1945. The country is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east.
The Vietnamese became independent from Imperial China in 938 AD, following the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Successive Vietnamese royal dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century. The First Indochina War eventually led to the expulsion of the French in 1954, leaving Vietnam divided politically into two states, North and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified, with heavy foreign intervention, during the Vietnam War, which ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.
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White House
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., the house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban, and built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the Neoclassical style. It has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) expanded the building outward, creating two colonnades that were meant to conceal stables and storage.
In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed house in October 1817. Construction continued with the addition of the South Portico in 1824 and the North in 1829. Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. The third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the house's load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load-bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
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14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama (religious name: Tenzin Gyatso, shortened from Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, born Lhamo Dondrub, 6 July 1935) is the 14th and current Dalai Lama, as well as the longest lived incumbent. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, and is also well known for his lifelong advocacy for Tibetans inside and outside Tibet. Tibetans traditionally believe him to be the reincarnation of his predecessors and a manifestation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The Dalai Lama was born in Taktser, Qinghai (also known to Tibetans as Amdo), and was selected as the rebirth of the 13th Dalai Lama two years later, although he was only formally recognized as the 14th Dalai Lama on 17 November 1950, at the age of 15. He inherited control over a government controlling an area roughly corresponding to the Tibet Autonomous Region just as the nascent People's Republic of China wished to assert central control over it. There is a dispute over whether the respective governments reached an agreement for a joint Chinese-Tibetan administration.
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Aaron Henry
Aaron Henry (July 2, 1922 – May 19, 1997) was an American civil rights leader, politician, and head of the Mississippi branch of the NAACP. He was one of the founders of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party which tried to seat their delegation at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.
Henry was born in Dublin, Mississippi to Ed and Mattie Henry who were sharecroppers. He enlisted in the Army after high school and later attended Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans on the GI Bill. He graduated with a degree in Pharmacy, and opened a drug store in Clarksdale, Mississippi.
In 1951, Henry was a founding member of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL). The main instigator and head of the organization was Dr. T.R.M. Howard, a prominent black surgeon, fraternal organization leader, and entrepreneur in the all-black town of Mound Bayou, Mississippi.
The RCNL promoted a program of civil rights, voting rights, self-help, and business ownership. Instead of starting from the “grass roots," it sought to “reach the masses through their chosen leaders” by harnessing the talents of blacks with a proven record in business, the professions, education, and the church. Henry headed the RCNL's committee on "Separate but equal" which zeroed in on the need to guarantee the "equal."
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Abbas Tyabji
Abbas Tyabji (Gujarati: અબ્બાસ તૈયબજી, Hindi: अब्बास तैयबजी; 1853 – June 9, 1936) was an Indian freedom fighter from Gujarat, who once served as the Chief Justice of the (Baroda) Gujarat High Court. Mahatma Gandhi appointed Tyabji, at age seventy-six, to replace him as leader of the Salt Satyagraha in May, 1930 after Gandhi’s arrest. Tyabji was arrested soon afterward and imprisoned by the British Indian Government. Gandhi and others respectfully called Tyabji the "Grand Old Man of Gujarat".
A Sulaimani Bohra Muslim and grandson of the merchant prince Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian, Abbas Tyabji was educated in England, where he lived for eleven years. He was an early proponent of women’s rights, supporting women’s education and social reform. He broke with the prevailing custom of the times by disregarding purdah restrictions and sending his daughters to school.
His nephew, Salim Ali, states that before 1919 Tyabji:
Though a moderate nationalist at heart, he would stand no adverse criticism of the British as a people, or of the Raj, and even a mildly disparaging remark about the King-Emperor or the royal family was anathema to him. . . If he had any strong sentiments about Swadeshi he certainly didn't show it by precept or example. . . This being so, he naturally disagreed vehemently with Gandhiji and his methods of political mass agitation. . . In other respects his moderate but simmering nationalism and his absolute integrity and fairness as a judge were widely recognized and lauded, even by leftist Congressmen and anti-British extremists.
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Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincolni/ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən/ (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led his country through its greatest constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union while ending slavery, and promoting economic and financial modernization. Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, Lincoln was mostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, a Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator in the 1830s, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives in the 1840s. After a series of debates in 1858 that gave national visibility to his opposition to the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost a Senate race to his arch-rival Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln, a moderate from a swing state, secured the Republican Party nomination. With almost no support in the South he swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His election was the signal for seven southern slave states to declare their secession from the Union and form the Confederate States of America. The departure of the Southerners gave Lincoln's party firm control of Congress, but no formula for compromise or reconciliation was found. And the war came.
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Adam Fairclough
Adam Fairclough is a British historian of the United States. He is currently the Raymond and Beverly Sackler Professor of American History at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands. Since 2008, he has also served as the chair of the Netherlands American Studies Association. He has written on a number of subjects, and specializes in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and the period of Reconstruction. His best known work is To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr. Fairclough is a qualified expert in the field of American History, but specializes in the American Civil Rights Movement.
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Adlai Stevenson II
Adlai Ewing Stevenson II (/ˈædleɪ/; February 5, 1900 – July 14, 1965) was an American politician, noted for his intellectual demeanor, eloquent oratory, and promotion of liberal causes in the Democratic Party. He served as the 31st Governor of Illinois, and received the Democratic Party's nomination for president in 1952 and 1956; both times he was defeated by Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower. He sought the Democratic presidential nomination for a third time in the election of 1960, but was defeated by Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts. After his election, President Kennedy appointed Stevenson as the Ambassador to the United Nations; he served from 1961 to 1965. He died on July 14, 1965 in London, England after suffering a heart attack.
Although Stevenson was born in Los Angeles, he was a member of a famous Illinois political family. His grandfather Adlai E. Stevenson I was Vice President of the United States under President Grover Cleveland from 1893–1897. His father, Lewis G. Stevenson, never held an elected office, but was appointed Secretary of State of Illinois (1914–1917) and was considered a strong contender for the Democratic vice-presidential nomination in 1928. A maternal great-grandfather, Jesse W. Fell, had been a close friend and campaign manager for Abraham Lincoln; Stevenson often referred to Fell as his "favorite" ancestor. His mother was Helen Davis Stevenson. Stevenson's eldest son, Adlai E. Stevenson III, became a U.S. Senator from Illinois (1970–1981). Actor McLean Stevenson was a second cousin once removed.
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African American
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States that have ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa.
African Americans make up the single largest racial minority in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States. However, some immigrants from African, Caribbean, Central American or South American nations, or their descendants, may be identified or self-identify with the term.
African-American history starts in the 16th century with African slaves who quickly rose up against the Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón and progresses to the present day, with Barack Obama as the 44th and current President of the United States. Between those landmarks there have been events and issues, both resolved and ongoing, including slavery, racism, Reconstruction, development of the African-American community, participation in the great military conflicts of the United States, racial segregation, and the Civil Rights Movement.
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Albert Lutuli
Albert John Lutuli (commonly spelled Luthuli; c. 1898 – 21 July 1967), also known by his Zulu name Mvumbi, was a South African teacher and politician. Lutuli was elected president of the African National Congress (ANC), at the time an umbrella organisation that led opposition to the white minority government in South Africa. He was awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the non-violent struggle against apartheid. He was the first African, and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas, to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
The third son of Seventh-day Adventist missionary John Bunyan Lutuli and Mtonya Gumede, Albert Lutuli was born near Bulawayo in what was then called Rhodesia, around 1898. His father died, and he and his mother returned to her ancestral home of Groutville in KwaDukuza (Stanger), Natal, South Africa. He stayed with his uncle, Martin Lutuli, who was at that time the elected chief of the Christian Zulus inhabiting the Umzinyathi District Municipality mission Reserve.
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Albert Raby
Albert Anderson Raby (1933 – November 23, 1988) was a teacher at Chicago's Hess Upper Grade Center who secured the support of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to desegregate schools and housing in Chicago between 1965 and 1967.
Raby had been born into poverty in Chicago, dropping out of school in the sixth grade. However, he became involved in a union, and after a stint in the army, earned his grammar school diploma at age 24. He went on to earn his high school diploma immediately after that. Because he discovered education was important so late in his life he attended day and evening school to earn his high school diploma. In 1960, he earned a teaching degree from Chicago Teachers College and entered the profession.
An active member of the Teachers for Integrated Schools, Raby helped form the Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO) in 1962. In this role, he served as the link between the national civil rights movement and Chicago organizations in helping to desegregate schools. TFIS selected him to be their delegate to the CCCO, and on January 11, 1964, he was appointed the organization’s convenor (Anderson and Pickering 129).
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Albert Schweitzer
Albert Schweitzer OM (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a German and then French theologian, organist, philosopher, physician, and medical missionary. He was born in Kaysersberg in the province of Alsace-Lorraine, at that time part of the German Empire. Schweitzer, a Lutheran, challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at his time in certain academic circles, as well as the traditional Christian view. He depicted Jesus as one who literally believed the end of the world was coming in his own lifetime and believed himself to be a world savior. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa (then French Equatorial Africa). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement (Orgelbewegung).
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Alex Haley
Alexander Murray Palmer Haley (August 11, 1921 – February 10, 1992) was an African-American writer. He is best known as the author of Roots: The Saga of an American Family and the co-author of The Autobiography of Malcolm X.
Haley was born in Ithaca, New York, on August 11, 1921, and was the oldest of three brothers and a sister. Haley lived with his family in Henning, Tennessee, before he returned to Ithaca with his family when he was five years old. Haley's father was a professor of agriculture at Alabama A&M University. The younger Haley always spoke proudly of his father and the obstacles of racism he had overcome. Alex Haley was enrolled at Alcorn State University at age 15. Two years later he returned to his parents to inform them of his withdrawal from college. Simon Haley felt that Alex needed discipline and growth and convinced his son to enlist in the military when he turned 18. On May 24, 1939, Alex Haley began his twenty-year enlistment with the Coast Guard.
He enlisted as a mess attendant and then became a Petty Officer Third Class in the rate of Steward, one of the few rates open to African Americans at that time. His Coast Guard service number was 212-548. It was during his service in the Pacific theater of operations that Haley taught himself the craft of writing stories. It is said that during his enlistment he was often paid by other sailors to write love letters to their girlfriends. He talked of how the greatest enemy he and his crew faced during their long sea voyages wasn't the Japanese but boredom.
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Alison Cheek
Alison Cheek is a religious leader best known for being named by Time magazine as a Woman of the Year in 1975 representing the Women's Movement. Cheek was an Episcopal priest and became one of the first women to be an ordained priest in an Episcopal church. In August 1974 She was installed as assistant priest at the Church of St. Stephen and the Incarnation in Washington. In November 1974 Cheek became the first woman to celebrate communion in an Episcopal church in defiance of the diocesan bishop.
"A Dozen Who Made a Difference – Alison Cheek: Defiant Deacon". Time. 1976-01-05. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947599-5,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
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Alveda King
Alveda Celeste King (born January 22, 1951) is an American Christian minister,conservative, pro-life activist, and author. She is a niece of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and daughter of the late civil rights activist Rev. A. D. William King, Sr. and his wife Naomi Barber King. She is the full-time Pastoral Associate of African-American Outreach for the Roman Catholic pro-life group, Priests for Life. She once served as a Senior Fellow at the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution, a conservative Washington, D.C. think-tank. She is a former member of the Georgia House of Representatives and the founder of King for America. She has been married and divorced three times.
Alveda King was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She was the first of five children of A. D. King, the younger brother of Martin Luther King Jr., and Naomi Barber King. She says her mother wanted to abort her so she could continue college but her Grandfather was able to convince her to keep her child. When she was 12, her father became a leader of the Birmingham campaign while serving as pastor at the First Baptist Church of Ensley in Birmingham, Alabama. Later that same year, King’s house was bombed by opponents to the civil rights movement. In 1969, Ms. King married.
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Amzie Moore
Amzie Moore (September 23, 1911 – February 1, 1982) was an African American, civil rights leader, and entrepreneur in the Mississippi Delta.
Moore was born on the Wilkin plantation near the Grenada and Carroll County lines. Proud of his family roots, Moore liked to tell about his grandfather, a slave who lived to be 104: “He couldn't read or write, yet he accumulated more than a section of land and had [about] … twenty thousand dollars … saved when he died."[citation needed]
Left on his own at fourteen after his mother died in 1925, Moore completed high school but could not realize his dream of a college education. Through the rest of his life, however, he worked hard to educate himself.
Even before leaving Mississippi to fight in the war, Moore was involved in race relations, once organizing a successful rally of 10,000 blacks in his hometown.[citation needed] He served over three and a half years in the United States Army including time overseas[citation needed] before returning to his job at the U. S. Post Office where he had worked since 1935.
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Andrei Sakharov
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов; May 21, 1921 – December 14, 1989) was a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident and human rights activist.
He gained renown as the designer of the Soviet Union's Third Idea, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. Sakharov was an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Sakharov Prize, which is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, is named in his honor.
Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a private school physics teacher and an amateur pianist. His father later taught at the Second Moscow State University. Dmitri's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in Tsarist Russia who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Yekaterina Alekseyevna Sakharova (née Sofianos and of Greek ancestry). His parents and his paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped Sakharov's personality. Although his paternal great-grandfather had been a priest in the Russian Orthodox Church, and his pious mother did have him baptised, his father was an atheist and religion did not play an important role in his life, though he did believe that a non-scientific "guiding principle" governed the universe and human life.
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Andrew Young
Andrew Jackson Young (born March 12, 1932) is an American politician, diplomat, activist and pastor from Georgia. He has served as Mayor of Atlanta, a Congressman from the 5th district, and United States Ambassador to the United Nations. He served as President of the National Council of Churches USA, was a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) during the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, and was a supporter and friend of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Since leaving political office in 1989, Young has founded or served in a large number of organizations founded on public policy, political lobbying and international relations, with a special focus on Africa.
Andrew Young was born March 12, 1932 in New Orleans, Louisiana to Daisy Fuller Young, a school teacher, and Andrew Jackson Young, Sr., a dentist. Young's father hired a professional boxer to teach Andrew and his brother how to fight, so they could defend themselves. From that, Young decided that violence was not the path he would choose to follow.[citation needed]
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Arun Manilal Gandhi
Arun Manilal Gandhi (born April 14, 1934) is the fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi through his second son Manilal. Following the footsteps of his grandfather, he is also a socio-political activist, although he eschews the ascetic lifestyle of his grandfather.
Born in Durban, South Africa on April 14, 1934 to Sushila and Manilal Gandhi, Arun's childhood days under South Africa's apartheid for someone of Indian heritage was difficult. Like many Indians, he was demeaned by Europeans for not being white, ostracized by Africans for not being black, and subject to racially motivated violence from extremists in both groups.
While living with his grandfather Mahatma Gandhi from 1946 until his assassination in 1948, Arun experienced the most tumultuous period in India's struggle to free itself from British rule. He saw the first-hand effects of a national campaign for liberation which was carried out through both violent and nonviolent means. Both the events and Mahatma Gandhi's teachings strongly influenced Arun.
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Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi MP AC (Burmese:
; MLCTS: aung hcan: cu. krany, IPA: [ʔàʊɴ sʰáɴ sṵ tɕì]; born 19 June 1945) is a Burmese opposition politician and General Secretary of the National League for Democracy (NLD) in Burma. In the 1990 general election, the NLD won 59% of the national votes and 81% (392 of 485) of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained under house arrest before the elections. She remained under house arrest in Burma for almost 15 of the 21 years from 20 July 1989 until her most recent release on 13 November 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent (now former) political prisoners.
Suu Kyi received the Rafto Prize and the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. In 1992 she was awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding by the government of India and the International Simón Bolívar Prize from the government of Venezuela. In 2007, the Government of Canada made her an honorary citizen of that country; at the time, she was one of only four people ever to receive the honor. In 2011, she was awarded the Wallenberg Medal.
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Barbara Jordan
Barbara Charline Jordan (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American politician and a leader of the Civil Rights movement. She was the first African American elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction and the first southern black female elected to the United States House of Representatives. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, among numerous other honors. On her death she became the first African-American woman to be buried in the Texas State Cemetery.
Barbara Jordan was born in Houston, Texas' Fifth Ward. Her parents were Benjamin Jordan, a Baptist minister; and Arlyne Jordan, a "domestic worker". Barbara attended Roberson Elementary School. She graduated from Phillis Wheatley High School in 1952 as an honor student.
Because of segregation, she did not attend The University of Texas at Austin and instead chose Texas Southern University, majoring in political science and history. Barbara was a national champion debater, defeating her opponents from such schools as Yale and Brown and tying Harvard University. She graduated magna cum laude in 1956. At Texas Southern University, she pledged Delta Sigma Theta sorority. She attended Boston University School of Law, graduating in 1959.
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Bayard Rustin
Bayard Rustin (pronunciation: /ˈbaɪərd/; March 17, 1912 – August 24, 1987) was an American leader in social movements for civil rights, socialism, pacifism and non-violence, and gay rights.
In the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), Rustin practiced nonviolence. He was a leading activist of the early 1947–1955 civil-rights movement, helping to initiate a 1947 Freedom Ride to challenge with civil disobedience racial segregation on interstate busing. He recognized Martin Luther King, Jr.'s leadership, and helped to organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to strengthen King's leadership; Rustin promoted the philosophy of nonviolence and the practices of nonviolent resistance, which he had observed while working with Gandhi's movement in India. Rustin became a leading strategist of the civil rights movement from 1955–1968. He was the chief organizer of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which was headed by A. Philip Randolph, the leading African-American labor-union president and socialist. Rustin also influenced young activists, such as Tom Kahn and Stokely Carmichael, in organizations like the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
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Ben Branch
Ben F. Branch (1924 - August 27, 1987) was an American entrepreneur, jazz tenor saxophonist, and bandleader.
Although possibly better known as being one of the last people Martin Luther King Jr spoke to moments before his assassination in 1968, Branch had been a leading bandleader for many years.
With his brother, Thomas, on trumpet, Branch was a member of the horn section on B.B. King's first recordings for Bullet Records in 1949. "My very first recordings were for a company out of Nashville called Bullet, the Bullet Record Transcription company," King recalls. "I had horns that very first session. I had Phineas Newborn on piano; his father played drums, and his brother, Calvin, played guitar with me. I had Tuff Green on bass, Ben Branch on tenor sax, his brother, Thomas Branch, on trumpet, and a lady trombone player."
Branch recorded with King again on an early 1952 Memphis recording with the B.B. King Orchestra with, among others, Hank Crawford and Ike Turner.
For much of the 1950s, Branch was the bandleader for the houseband, The Largos, at Curry's Club in North Memphis, which occasioned a young Isaac Hayes his first professional gigs.
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Benjamin Mays
Benjamin Elijah Mays (August 1, 1894 – March 28, 1984) was an American minister, educator, scholar, social activist and the president of Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia from 1940 to 1967. Mays was also a significant mentor to civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and was among the most articulate and outspoken critics of segregation before the rise of the modern civil rights movement in the United States.
Benjamin Elijah Mays was born in 1894 in Ninety Six, South Carolina, the youngest of eight children; his parents were tenant farmers and former slaves. After spending a year at Virginia Union University, he moved north to attend Bates College in Maine, where he obtained his B.A. in 1920, then entered the University of Chicago as a graduate student, earning an M.A. in 1925 and a Ph.D. in the School of Religion in 1935. His education at Chicago was interrupted several times: he was ordained a Baptist minister in 1922 and accepted a pastorate at the Shiloh Baptist Church of Atlanta, then later taught at Morehouse and at South Carolina State College.
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Bernard Lafayette
Bernard Lafayette Jr. (born July 29, 1940, in Tampa, Florida) is a longtime civil rights activist and organizer, who was a leader in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. He played a leading role in early organizing of the Selma, Alabama, voting rights campaign; was a member of the Nashville Student Movement; and worked closely throughout the 1960s movements with groups such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and the American Friends Service Committee.
Lafayette's parents were Bernard Lafayette, Sr., and Verdell Lafayette. Lafayette spent much of his childhood in Tampa, Florida, but also lived in several other places, as his father was an itinerant laborer. His family spent two years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where his sister Rozelia was born. Philadelphia was where the young Bernard first lived in an integrated community.
As a young man at the age of twenty, Lafayette moved to Nashville, Tennessee, and enrolled in the American Baptist Theological Seminary. During the course of his freshman year, he took classes in nonviolence at the Highlander Folk School run by Myles Horton, and attended many meetings promoting nonviolence. He learned more about the philosophy of nonviolence as lived by Gandhi, while taking seminars from activist James Lawson, a well-known nonviolent representative of the Fellowship of Reconciliation.
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Bernice King
Bernice Albertine King (born March 28, 1963) is the second daughter and youngest child of civil rights leaders Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr and Coretta Scott King. Her older siblings are Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and the late Yolanda Denise King. Bernice was only five years old when her father died and is the only King child to become a minister.
She is also a member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority as was her mother. She is a graduate of Douglass High School in Atlanta, attended Grinnell College in Iowa and she graduated from Spelman College with a degree in psychology.
Ebony magazine named her as one of their Ten of Tomorrow future leaders of the black community.
King says she once considered suicide before God intervened. At the age of twenty-four, she decided to become a minister and in 1990 received a Master's degree in Divinity from the Candler School of Theology and a Juris Doctor in Law from Emory University School of Law. King is a member of the State Bar of Georgia.
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Betty Ford
Elizabeth Ann Bloomer Warren Ford (April 8, 1918 – July 8, 2011), better known as Betty Ford, was First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977 during the presidency of her husband Gerald Ford. As First Lady, she was active in social policy and created precedents as a politically active presidential wife.
Throughout her husband's term in office, she maintained high approval ratings despite opposition from some conservative Republicans who objected to her more moderate and liberal positions on social issues. Ford was noted for raising breast cancer awareness following her 1974 mastectomy and was a passionate supporter of, and activist for, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Pro-choice on abortion and a leader in the Women's Movement, she gained fame as one of the most candid first ladies in history, commenting on every hot-button issue of the time, including feminism, equal pay, the ERA, sex, drugs, abortion, and gun control. She also raised awareness of addiction when she announced her long-running battle with alcoholism in the 1970s.
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Billie Jean King
Billie Jean King (née Moffitt; born November 22, 1943) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. She won 12 Grand Slam singles titles, 16 Grand Slam women's doubles titles, and 11 Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. King has been an advocate against sexism in sports and society. She won "The Battle of the Sexes" in 1973, in which she defeated Bobby Riggs, a former Wimbledon men's singles champion, for $100,000, winner take all. She completed a career tour all surfaces win-loss performance of 81.76% (696-165). Her win-loss performance in all Grand Slam singles tournaments was 82.00% (190-39), at the French Open 77.77% (21-6), at Wimbledon 86.36% (95-15), at the US Open 80.55% (58–14), and at the Australian Open 80.00% (16-4).
King is the founder of the Women's Tennis Association, the Women's Sports Foundation, and owner of World Team Tennis, which was founded by her former husband, Larry King, Dennis Murphy, Frank Barman, and Jordan Kaiser.
Billie Jean Moffit was born in Long Beach, California, into a conservative Methodist family, the daughter of a fireman father and housewife mother. Her younger brother Randy Moffitt grew up to become a professional baseball player, pitching for 12 years in the major leagues for the San Francisco Giants, Houston Astros, and Toronto Blue Jays.
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Billy Dee Williams
William December "Billy Dee" Williams, Jr. (born April 6, 1937) is an American actor, artist, singer, and writer.
Williams was born in New York City, New York, the son of Loretta Anne, a West Indian-born elevator operator from Montserrat, and William December Williams, Sr., an African-American caretaker from Texas. He has a twin sister, Loretta, and grew up in Harlem, where he was raised by his maternal grandmother while his parents worked at several jobs. Williams graduated from the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art in Manhattan, where he was a classmate of Diahann Carroll, who coincidentally played the wife of his character Brady Lloyd on the 1980s prime-time soap Dynasty.
He first appeared on Broadway in 1945 in The Firebrand of Florence. He returned to Broadway as an adult in 1960 in the play version of The Cool Word. He appeared in A Taste of Honey in 1961. A 1976 Broadway production, I Have a Dream, was directed by Robert Greenwald and starred Williams as Martin Luther King, Jr. His most recent Broadway appearance was in August Wilson's Fences, as a replacement for James Earl Jones in the role of Troy Maxson in 1988.
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Black Nova Scotians
Black Nova Scotians are people of African American Nationality whose ancestors fled Colonial America as slaves or freemen to settle in Nova Scotia, Canada during the 18th and 19th centuries. According to the 2006 Census of Canada, there are 19,230 black people currently living in Nova Scotia, most of whom live in Halifax. The community is served by the Black Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia.
The first recorded instance of a black presence in Canada was that of Mathieu de Costa. He arrived in Nova Scotia sometime between 1603 and 1608 as a translator for the French explorer Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts. The first known black person to live in Canada was a slave from Madagascar named Olivier Le Jeune (who may also have been of partial Malay ancestry).
An increasing number of immigrants from Africa have been coming to Canada, as is also the case in the United States and Europe. This includes large numbers of refugees, but also many skilled workers pursuing better economic conditions. Many black Canadians today are of Caribbean Ancestry, with some of recent African origin and smaller numbers from Latin American countries. However, a sizable number of Black Canadians who descended from freed American slaves can be found in Nova Scotia and parts of Southwestern Ontario.
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Carla Anderson Hills
Carla Anderson Hills (born January 3, 1934) is an American lawyer and a public figure. She served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in the Gerald Ford administration, and as U.S. Trade Representative. She was the first woman to serve as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development and the third woman to serve as a cabinet officer.
Born Carla Anderson in Los Angeles, she received her B.A. degree from Stanford University, after studying at Oxford University. She earned her LL.B. degree from Yale University Law School in 1958 and married Roderick M. Hills the same year.
Hills was admitted to the California bar in 1959, and served as an Assistant United States Attorney in Los Angeles from 1959 to 1961. From 1962 to 1974, she was a partner at Munger, Tolles, Hills, and Rickershauser in Los Angeles. In 1972, she was an adjunct professor at UCLA. An authority on federal practice and anti-trust law, Mrs. Hills wrote of Federal Civil Practice and Antitrust Advisor. She is a former president of the National Association of Women Lawyers.
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Carol Sutton
Carol Sutton (June 29, 1933-February 19, 1985) was an American journalist. In 1974 she became the first female managing editor of a major U.S. daily newspaper, The Courier-Journal in Louisville, Kentucky. She was cited as the example of female achievement in journalism when Time named American Women as the 1975 People of the Year. During her tenure at the paper, it was awarded the 1976 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for its coverage of school desegregation in Louisville. She is also credited with significantly raising the number of minority reporters on staff.
"Kentucky Women Remembered," a permanent exhibit at the Kentucky State Capitol's Main Floor of watercolors of Women of Kentucky and those who help(ed) change the mindset of those upcoming. "TODAY'S WOMAN" Magazine for KY & Indiana. Daughter Kate Whaley Archer accepts the First Postumous Award Ever Given. Carol Sutton knew of her Kentucky Journalism Hall of Fame award at the University of Kentucky before her death in 1985, and was very humbled and honored by it. The family holds a Carol Sutton Memorial Scholarship Award in her honor every year, which has grown from our first recipient to 8 or twelve deserving people. It is for we people who want and need more racial and ethnic equality within the news reporting workplace. She was the first white woman to be inducted into the National Association of Black Journalist's Hall of Fame.
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Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (/ˈtʃɑrlz/ or /ˈʃɑrl dəˈɡɔːl/; French: [ʃaʁl də ɡol] (
listen); 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969.
A veteran of World War I, in the 1920s and 1930s de Gaulle came to the fore as a proponent of mobile armoured divisions, which he considered would become central in modern warfare. During World War II, he earned the rank of brigadier general (retained throughout his life), leading one of the few successful armoured counter-attacks during the 1940 Battle of France in May in Montcornet, and then briefly served in the French government as France was falling. De Gaulle was the most senior French military officer to reject the June 1940 armistice to Nazi Germany right from the outset.
He escaped to Britain and gave a famous radio address, broadcast by the BBC on 18 June 1940, exhorting the French people to resist Nazi Germany and organised the Free French Forces with exiled French officers in Britain. As the war progressed de Gaulle gradually gained control of all French colonies except Indochina most of which had at first been controlled by the pro-German Vichy regime. Despite earning a reputation for being a difficult man to do business with, by the time of the Allied invasion of France in 1944 he was heading what amounted to a French government in exile, but although he insisted that France be treated as a great independent power by the other Allies, the Americans in particular remained deeply suspicious of his motives. De Gaulle became prime minister in the French Provisional Government, resigning in 1946 because of political conflicts.
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Charles Hard Townes
Charles Hard Townes (born July 28, 1915) is an American Nobel Prize-winning physicist and educator. Townes is known for his work on the theory and application of the maser, on which he got the fundamental patent, and other work in quantum electronics connected with both maser and laser devices. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 with Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov. The Japanese FM Towns computer and game console is named in his honour.
Townes was born in Greenville, South Carolina on July 28, 1915, the son of Henry Keith Townes, an attorney, and Ellen (Hard) Townes. He attended the Greenville public schools and then Furman University in Greenville, where he completed the requirements for the Bachelor of Science degree in Physics and the Bachelor of Arts degree in Modern Languages, graduating summa cum laude in 1935, at the age of 19. Physics had fascinated him since his first course in the subject during his sophomore year in college because of its "beautifully logical structure". He was also interested in natural history while at Furman, serving as curator of the museum, and working during the summers as collector for Furman's biology camp. In addition, he was busy with other activities, including the swimming team, the college newspaper and the football band.
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Charles Sherrod
Charles Sherrod (born 1937) was a key member and organizer of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) during the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. He became the first SNCC field secretary and SNCC director of southwest Georgia. His leadership there led to the Albany Movement. He also participated in the Selma Voting Rights Movement and in many other arenas of the 1960s movement era.
A supporter of racial integration, he recruited white as well as black members to assist with voter registration efforts. In 1967, he left the SNCC after recently-elected chairman Stokely Carmichael expelled white members. He moved north, to New York City, where he received his master's degree in sacred theology from the Union Theological Seminary. He then returned home to direct the Southwest Georgia Project for Community Education. In 1969, Sherrod, his wife Shirley, and some other members of the Albany Movement helped pioneer the land trust movement in the U.S., co-founding New Communities, a collective farm in Southwest Georgia modeled on kibbutzim in Israel. He served as an elected member of the Albany City Council from 1976 to 1990.
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Charles Stark Draper
Charles Stark Draper (October 2, 1901 – July 25, 1987) was an American scientist and engineer, often referred to as "the father of inertial navigation." He was the founder and director of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, later renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, which under his direction designed and built the Apollo Guidance Computer for NASA, which made the Apollo moon landings possible.
Born in Windsor, Missouri, he attended the University of Missouri in 1917, then transferred to Stanford University, California in 1919, from which he earned a B.A. in psychology in 1922. After Stanford, he attended Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), from which he earned an S.B. in electrochemical engineering in 1926, and an S.M. and Sc.D. in physics in 1928 and 1938 respectively.
He started teaching while at MIT, first as an assistant, then quickly became a full professor in aeronautical engineering in 1939. It was here that he founded the Instrumentation Laboratory in the 1930s, spun off in 1973 as The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. In 1961, Draper and the Instrumentation Lab were awarded the first contract given out for the Apollo program to send humans to the moon, which had just been announced by President John F. Kennedy. This led to the creation of the Apollo Guidance Computer, a one-cubic-foot computer that controlled the navigation and guidance of the Lunar Excursion Module to the surface of the moon during six successful landings.
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Chuck Fager
Charles Eugene Fager (born 1942), known as Chuck Fager, is an American activist, an author, an editor, a publisher and an outspoken and prominent member of the Religious Society of Friends. He is known for his work in both the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and in the Peace movement. His written works include religious and political essays, humor, adult fiction, and juvenile fiction, and he is best known for Selma 1965: The March That Changed the South, his in-depth history of the 1965 Selma Voting Rights Movement.
Since 2002 Fager has served as Director of Quaker House in Fayetteville, North Carolina, a peace project next door to Fort Bragg, a major US Army base.
Charles E. Fager was born in Kansas to a Roman Catholic family. He is the oldest of eleven children. He grew up on various United States Air Force bases.
In high school, Fager left Catholicism, and for some years regarded himself as an atheist. However, he was interested in religion, and was much influenced by the work of C.G. Jung, who took religion seriously, if in an un-orthodox way.
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Clara Luper
Clara Shepard Luper (born Clara Mae Shepard May 3, 1923 – June 8, 2011) was a civic leader, retired schoolteacher, and a pioneering leader in the American Civil Rights Movement. She is best known for her leadership role in the 1958 Oklahoma City Sit-in Movement, as she, her young son and daughter, and numerous young members of the NAACP Youth Council successfully conducted nonviolent sit-in protests of downtown drugstore lunch-counters which overturned their policies of segregation. The Clara Luper Corridor is a streetscape and civic beautification project from the Oklahoma Capitol area east to northeast Oklahoma City and was announced by Governor Brad Henry.
Luper continued desegregating hundreds of establishments in Oklahoma, and was active on the national level during the 1960s movements.
Clara Shepard Luper was born in 1923 in rural Okfuskee County, Oklahoma. Her father, Ezell Shepard, was a World War I veteran and laborer. Her mother, Isabell Shepard, worked as a laundress. Young Clara was raised in Hoffman, Oklahoma. She went to high school in the all-black town of Grayson, Oklahoma, and attended college at Langston University where, in 1944, she received a B.A. in mathematics with a minor in history. In 1950, Luper was one of the group of black students who integrated the University of Oklahoma. She received an M.A. in History Education from the university in 1951.
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Claude Black
Claude William Black, Jr. (November 28, 1916 – March 13, 2009) was an American Baptist minister and political figure. He was born the son of local Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters vice president Claude, Sr. and housewife Cora in the then-segregated city of San Antonio, Texas.
While attending Morehouse College in Atlanta, Black initially aspired to be a doctor, but was led to the ministry. He then attended Andover Newton Theological School.
Black served as pastor of Mt. Zion First Baptist Church in San Antonio for 1949–1998 and as pastor emeritus since. Previously, he had served as pastor of Calvary Baptist Church in Haverhill, Massachusetts 1941-1943 and St. Matthew Baptist Church in Corpus Christi, Texas 1946-1949.
Black founded several community groups as well as the city’s first black credit union. He also served as chairmen of the Social Actions Committee with the National Baptist Convention and president of the Baptist Minister's Union of San Antonio.He worked through the community as a pastor of the community.
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Claudette Colvin
Claudette Colvin (born September 5, 1939) is a pioneer of the African-American civil rights movement. She was the first person to resist bus segregation in Montgomery, Alabama, preceding the better known Rosa Parks incident by nine months. The court case stemming from her refusal to give up her seat on the bus, Browder v. Gayle, decided by the U.S. District Court in February, 1956 and then by the United States Supreme Court in December, 1956, ended bus segregation in Alabama.
Montgomery's black leaders did not publicize Colvin's pioneering effort for long because she was a teenager and became pregnant while unmarried. The NAACP leaders worried about using her to represent their movement, given the social norms of the time.
Colvin lived in Montgomery, Alabama. In 1955, at the age of 15, she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a white person, in violation of local law. Her arrest preceded that of Rosa Parks by nine months.
In 1955 Colvin was a student at Booker T. Washington High School in Montgomery. She was returning from school on March 2, 1955 when she got on a Capital Heights bus downtown (at the same place Parks boarded another bus nine months later). Colvin's family owned a car, but she relied on the city's buses to get to school.[citation needed]
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Clayborne Carson
Clayborne Carson (born June 15, 1944) is an African American professor of history at Stanford University, and director of the Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. Since 1985 he has directed the Martin Luther King Papers Project, a long-term project to edit and publish the papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Carson was born in Buffalo, New York. He grew up near Los Alamos, New Mexico, where his was one of a small number of African-American families. He attributes his life-long interest in the Civil Rights Movement to that experience. "I had this really strong curiosity about the black world, because in Los Alamos the black world was a very few families. When the civil rights movement started, I had this real fascination with it, and I wanted to meet the people in it."
On August 28, 1963, 19-year-old Carson attended the historic March on Washington. After a freshman year at the University of New Mexico, where he was one of 150 Black students among 20,000 undergraduates, Carson was overwhelmed to find himself among hundreds of thousands of African-Americans at the March. Recalling the March, at which Martin Luther King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial, Carson says, "I have a lot of vivid memories, but not of King’s speech." What left the biggest impression, he says, were "the people I met there."
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Clifford Durr
Clifford Durr (1899 – 1975) was an Alabama lawyer who played an important role in defending activists and others accused of disloyalty during the New Deal and McCarthy eras, and who represented Rosa Parks in her challenge to the constitutionality of the ordinance requiring the segregation of passengers on buses in Montgomery that launched the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Durr was born into a patrician Alabama family. After studying at the University of Alabama he went to Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar. He returned to the United States to study law, then joined a prominent law firm in Birmingham, Alabama in 1924. In 1926 he married Virginia Foster, whose sister would be the first wife of Hugo Black.
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Clyde Kennard
Clyde Kennard (June 12, 1927–July 4, 1963) was a Civil Rights pioneer and martyr, born in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. In the 1950s, he attempted several times to enroll at Mississippi Southern College (now known as University of Southern Mississippi) to complete his undergraduate degree started at University of Chicago. USM was still segregated and reserved for European Americans.
After he published a letter about integrated education, the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission conspired to have him arrested on false charges. He was convicted and sentenced to seven years at Parchman Penitentiary, a high-security prison. Although he was terminally ill with cancer, the governor refused to pardon him, but released him in January 1963. After 2005 and publication of evidence that Kennard had been framed, supporters tried to secure a posthumous pardon for him, but Governor Haley Barbour refused.
Kennard was born in Mississippi in 1927; he moved to Chicago at the age of 12 to aid his injured sister, Sarah. He stayed and graduated from Wendell Phillips High School, then entered the U.S. Army.
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Cordell Reagon
Cordell Hull Reagon (February 22, 1943 – November 12, 1996) was an American singer. He was the founding member of the Freedom Singers of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and a leader of the Albany Movement during the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. Reagon was born in Nashville, Tennessee, and was named for Cordell Hull, the Secretary of State under President Franklin D. Roosevelt from 1933 to 1944. His powerful tenor voice spread the message of the civil rights movement throughout the United States and Canada in the 1960s.
Cordell Reagon was just 16 in 1959 when he emerged as a leader of the civil rights movement in Albany, Georgia. James Forman, who became the executive secretary of SNCC, called him "the baby of the movement." Reagon, who was arrested more than thirty times in the South for his anti-segregation activities, conducted nonviolent training workshops for hundreds of volunteers who journeyed to the South to work on voter registration campaigns and other civil rights projects.
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Coretta Scott King
Coretta Scott King (April 27, 1927 – January 30, 2006) was an American author, activist, and civil rights leader. The widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King helped lead the African-American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
Mrs. King's most prominent role may have been in the years after her husband's 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself and became active in the Women's Movement.
Coretta Scott King was the third of four children born to Obadiah "Obe" Scott (1899–1998) and Bernice McMurray Scott (1904–1996) in Marion, Alabama. She had an older sister named Edythe Scott Bagley (1924–2011) an older sister named Eunice who did not survive childhood, and a younger brother named Obadiah Leonard, born in 1930. The Scott family had owned a farm since the American Civil War, but were not particularly wealthy. During the Great Depression the Scott children picked cotton to help earn money. Obe was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a truck. He had a barber shop in their home. He also owned a lumber mill, which was burned down by white neighbors.
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Dada Dharmadhikari
Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari (June 18, 1899 – December 1, 1985), better known throughout the world as Acharya Dada Dharmadhikari was an Indian freedom fighter, and a leader of social reform movements in India. He was one of the strongest adherents of Mahatma Gandhi's principles.
Born on June 18, 1899 at Multapi, district Baitul, Madhya Pradesh, Dada's family was known for its learning and scholarship as also for the study of Vedanta. His father Shri T. D. Dharmadhikari was a district and sessions judge, highly-regarded for his integrity and professional acumen.
Dada studied at the Indore Christian College and later at Morris College in Nagpur. But left his studies half way to join the freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi. He however spent a year in studying Vedantic works of Adi Shankaracharya.
He married his wife, Damayantibai, early in life and she was his companion in the Quit India movement and in jail too. She was his partner in his work, and shared his beliefs and lifestyle.
Dada's life-long passions were human relationship, enlightenment of youth, women and total transformation of society. He lectured every section of society in Gandhian concepts of truth, love, nonviolence, trusteeship. Jaya Prakash Narayan saw him as the most outstanding commentator, crusader of his vision of revolution.
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Dag Hammarskjöld
Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld ( [dɑːg ˈhamːarɧœld] (help·info)) (29 July 1905 – 18 September 1961) was a Swedish diplomat, economist, and author. The second Secretary-General of the United Nations, he served from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961. He is one of four people to have been awarded a posthumous Nobel Peace Prize. Hammarskjöld remains the only U.N. Secretary-General to die in office, and his death occurred en route to cease-fire negotiations. American President John F. Kennedy called Hammarskjöld “the greatest statesman of our century".
Dag Hammarskjöld was born in Jönköping, Sweden, but spent most of his childhood in Uppsala. The fourth and youngest son of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, Prime Minister of Sweden from 1914 to 1917, and Agnes Hammarskjöld (née Almquist), Hammarskjöld's ancestors served the Monarchy of Sweden since the 17th century. He studied first at Katedralskolan and then at Uppsala University where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws and a Master's degree in Political economy. During this time he served for a year as the first Curator at Uplands Nation later moving to Stockholm.
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David Garrow
David J. Garrow (born 11 May 1953 in New Bedford. Mass.) is an American historian and author of the book Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which won the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for Biography. He is also the author of Liberty and Sexuality, a history of the legal struggles over reproductive rights in the U.S. prior to the Roe v. Wade decision. Garrow writes frequently on the history of the United States Supreme Court and the history of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, and regularly contributes articles on these subjects to non-academic publications such as the New York Times, The Nation, The Financial Times, and The New Republic.
Garrow served as a senior adviser for Eyes on the Prize, the award-winning PBS television history of the African-American Civil Rights Movement covering the years of 1954 to 1965. He has taught at Duke University, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the City University of New York, The Cooper Union (where in 1992-1993 he served as Visiting Distinguished Professor of History), the College of William and Mary (where in 1994-1995 he served as Harrison Professor of History), American University (where in 1995-96 he served as Distinguished Historian in Residence), and Emory University (where from 1997 until 2005 he was Presidential Distinguished Professor).
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David Halberstam
David Halberstam (April 10, 1934 – April 23, 2007) was an American Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, author, and historian, known for his early work on the Vietnam War, his work on politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, and his later sports journalism.
Halberstam was raised in Yonkers, New York and, earlier, had lived in Winsted, Connecticut (where he was a classmate of Ralph Nader). In 1955, he graduated from Harvard University with a bachelor of arts, and he served as managing editor of The Harvard Crimson.
Halberstam's journalism career began at the Daily Times Leader, the smallest daily newspaper in Mississippi. He covered the beginnings of the American Civil Rights Movement for The Tennessean in Nashville.
Halberstam arrived in Vietnam in the middle of 1962, to be a full-time Vietnam specialist for The New York Times. Halberstam, like many other US journalists covering Vietnam, relied heavily for information on Pham Xuan An, who was later revealed to be a secret North Vietnamese agent. In 1963, Halberstam received a George Polk Award for his reporting at The New York Times, including his eyewitness account of the self-immolation of Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Ðức. During the Buddhist crisis, he and Neil Sheehan debunked the claim by the regime of Ngo Dinh Diem that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam regular forces had perpetrated the Xa Loi Pagoda raids, which the American authorities initially believed, and that instead, the Special Forces loyal to Diem's brother Ngo Dinh Nhu had done so to frame the army generals. He was also involved in a scuffle with Nhu's secret police after they punched fellow journalist Peter Arnett while the pressmen were covering a Buddhist protest. Halberstram left Vietnam in 1964. At the age of 30, he was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for his war reporting. He is interviewed in the 1968 documentary film on the Vietnam War entitled In the Year of the Pig.
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Devdas Gandhi
Devdas Gandhi (Hindi: देवदास गाँधी) (1900–1957) was the fourth and youngest son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa on the 2.October and returned to India with his parents as a young man. He became active in his father's movement, spending many terms in jail. He spent a lot of time with his father. He also became a prominent journalist, serving as editor of Hindustan Times.
Devdas fell in love with Lakshmi, the daughter of Rajaji, Devdas's father's associate in the Indian independence struggle. Due to Lakshmi's age at that time – she was only fifteen, whereas Devdas was twenty eight years – both Devdas's father and Rajaji asked the couple to wait for five years without seeing each other. After five years had passed, they were married with their fathers' permissions in 1933. Devdas and Lakshmi had four children, Rajmohan Gandhi, Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Ramchandra Gandhi and Tara (Bhattacharya).
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Dexter Scott King
Dexter Scott King (born January 30, 1961) is the second son of civil rights leaders Martin Luther King, Jr. and Coretta Scott King. His siblings are Martin Luther King III, the Reverend Bernice Albertine King, and the late Yolanda Denise King.
Born in Atlanta, Georgia and named after the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, where his father was pastor before moving to the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia. He was seven years old when his father was assassinated.
King attended Morehouse College, the alma mater of his late father. He did not graduate, but studied Business Administration while there. He later became an actor and documentary filmmaker.
King splits his time between Atlanta, Georgia, where he serves as chairman of the King Center, and Malibu, California.
Dexter Scott King served as president of the King Center for Nonviolent Social Change, but resigned in 1989 only months after taking the office after a dispute with his mother, Coretta Scott King. He resumed the position in 1994, but the King Center's influence was sharply reduced by then.
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Diane McWhorter
Rebecca Diane McWhorter is an American journalist, commentator and author who has written extensively about race and the history of civil rights. Her book, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (Simon & Schuster, 2001), was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize in 2002. She is also the author of A Dream of Freedom, a young adult history of the civil rights movement (Scholastic, 2004). She is a long-time contributor to The New York Times and has written for the op-ed page of USA TODAY, Slate, and many other publications. McWhorter is a member of the Board of Contributors for USA TODAY's Forum Page, part of the newspaper’s Opinion section. She is originally from Birmingham, Alabama and now lives in New York City with her two children Isabel and Lucy.
She graduated from Wellesley College in 1974, after attending The Brooke Hill School in Birmingham.
Diane McWhorter is a Holtzbrinck Fellow at the American Academy in Berlin, Germany, for Fall 2007.
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Diane Nash
Diane Judith Nash (born May 15, 1938) was a leader and strategist of the student wing of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. A historian described her as: "…bright, focused, utterly fearless, with an unerring instinct for the correct tactical move at each increment of the crisis; as a leader, her instincts had been flawless, and she was the kind of person who pushed those around her to be at their best—that, or be gone from the movement."
Nash's campaigns were among the most successful of the era. Her efforts included the first successful civil rights campaign to de-segregate lunch counters (Nashville); the Freedom riders, who de-segregated interstate travel; founding the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); and the Selma Voting Rights Movement campaign, which resulted in African Americans getting the vote and political power throughout the South.
Nash was born and raised in Chicago. Born to Leon Nash and Dorothy Bolton Nash, her father served in World War II. Her mother, Dorothy, worked as a keypunch operator during the war, leaving Nash in the care of her grandmother, Carrie Bolton. Bolton was a cultured woman, known for her refinement and manners.
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Dick Gregory
Richard Claxton "Dick" Gregory (born October 12, 1932 in St. Louis, Missouri) is an American comedian, social activist, social critic, writer, and entrepreneur.
Gregory is an influential American comic who has used his performance skills to convey to both white and black audiences his political message on civil rights. His social satire helped change the way white Americans perceived African American comedians since he first performed in public.
As a poor student who excelled at running, Gregory was aided by teachers at Sumner High School, among them Warren St. James. Gregory earned a track scholarship to Southern Illinois University Carbondale. There he set school records as a half-miler and miler. His college career was interrupted for two years in 1954 when he was drafted into the U.S. Army. The army was where he got his start in comedy, entering and winning several Army talent shows at the urging of his commanding officer, who had taken notice of Gregory's penchant for joking. In 1956, Gregory briefly returned to SIU after his discharge, but dropped out because he felt that the university "didn't want me to study, they wanted me to run".
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Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (4 February 1906 – 9 April 1945) was a German Lutheran pastor, theologian, anti-Nazi, and founding member of the Confessing Church. Bonhoeffer became known for his resistance against the Nazi dictatorship strongly opposing Hitler's euthanasia programs and the genocide against the Jews. He was also involved in plans by members of the Abwehr (the German Military Intelligence Office) to assassinate Adolf Hitler. He was arrested in April 1943 by the Gestapo and executed by hanging in April 1945, 23 days before the Nazis' surrender. In his role as a theologian, his view of Christianity's role in the secular world has become very influential.
Bonhoeffer was born in 1906 with his twin sister Sabine to a prominent middle-class family in Breslau (Wrocław), the sixth of eight children. His father, Karl Bonhoeffer, was one of the most distinguished neurologists in Germany as a professor of neurology and psychiatry at the University of Berlin and the director of the psychiatric clinic at Charité Hospital in Berlin. His mother, Paula von Hase, was a daughter of Klara von Hase, a countess by marriage who had been a pupil of Clara Schumann and Franz Liszt, and a granddaughter of Karl von Hase, the distinguished church historian and preacher to the court of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Nonetheless, the Bonhoeffer family was not notably devout. Paula was a college graduate and home-schooled the children until each was 6 or 7. Bonhoeffer lost his older brother Walter to World War I. His sister Christel married Hans von Dohnanyi, one of the conspirators against Hitler. His twin sister Sabine married Gerhard Leibholz, a notable jurist of Jewish descent who had been baptized as a child.
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Dominique Pire
Dominique Pire (Georges Charles Clement Ghislain Pire) (Dinant, February 10, 1910 – Leuven, January 30, 1969) was a Belgian Dominican friar whose work helping refugees in post-World War II Europe saw him receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 1958. He was the eldest child of Georges Pire, Sr., a civic official, and Berthe (Ravet) Pire.
Georges Pire studied classics and philosophy at the Collège de Bellevue and at the age of eighteen entered the Dominican priory of La Sarte in Huy. He took his final vows on 23 September 1932, adopting the name Dominique, after the Order's founder. He then studied theology and social science at the Pontifical International Institute Angelicum in Rome, where he obtained his doctorate in theology in 1936 with a thesis entitled L’Apatheia ou insensibilité irréalisable et destructrice (Apatheia or unrealisable and destructive insensitivity). He returned to the priory at La Sarte, in Huy, Belgium where he dedicated himself to helping poor families live according to their dignity. During the second world war, Pire served as chaplain to the Belgian resistance, actively participating in its activities, such as helping smuggle Allied pilots out of the country. He received several medals for this service after the war.
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Dorothy Cotton
Dorothy Cotton (born 1930) was a leader of the 1960s African-American Civil Rights Movement and a member of the inner-circle of one of its main organizations, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). As the SCLC's Educational Director, she was arguably the highest ranked female member of the organization.
Cotton helped organize the students during the 1963 Birmingham Movement and its Children's Crusade, and conducted citizenship classes throughout the South during the era. She also accompanied Martin Luther King, Jr., the co-founder and first president of the SCLC, on his trip to Oslo, Norway to receive the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize.
Cotton currently resides in Ithaca, New York.
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Dorothy Height
Dorothy Irene Height (March 24, 1912 – April 20, 2010) was an American administrator, educator, and social activist. She was the president of the National Council of Negro Women for forty years, and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1994, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.
Height was born in Richmond, Virginia. At a very early age, she moved with her family to Rankin, Pennsylvania, a steel town in the suburbs of Pittsburgh. Height was admitted to Barnard College in 1929, but upon arrival, she was denied entrance because the school had an unwritten policy of admitting only two black students per year. She pursued studies instead at New York University, earning a degree in 1932, and a master's degree in educational psychology the following year. Height pursued further postgraduate work at Columbia University and the New York School of Social Work (the predecessor of the Columbia University School of Social Work).
Height started working as a caseworker with the New York City Welfare Department and, at the age of twenty-five, she began a career as a civil rights activist when she joined the National Council of Negro Women. She fought for equal rights for both African Americans and women, and in 1944 she joined the national staff of the YWCA. She also served as National President of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority from 1946 to 1957. She remained active with Delta Sigma Theta Sorority throughout her life. While there she developed leadership training programs and interracial and ecumenical education programs.
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Edgar Nixon
Edgar Daniel Nixon (July 12, 1899 – February 25, 1987) was an African American civil rights leader and union organizer who played a crucial role in organizing the famous Montgomery Bus Boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. Nixon also led the Montgomery branch of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters union, known as the Pullman Porters Union. Nixon also served as president of the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Montgomery Welfare League, and the Montgomery Voters League.
E.D. Nixon was born on July 12, 1899 in Montgomery, Alabama. As a child, Nixon received about one year of formal education. After working in a train station baggage room, he finally became a Pullman car porter. Years before the bus boycott, Nixon had started campaigning for voting rights and civil rights for African-Americans in Montgomery. He served as an unelected advocate for the African-American community, helping individuals deal with uncooperative white office holders, policemen, and civil servants. In 1940, Nixon organized 750 African-American men to march to the Montgomery County courthouse and attempt to register to vote. In 1954, he ran for a seat on the county Democratic Executive Committee. The next year, he questioned the Democratic candidates to the Montgomery City Commission on their positions on civil rights issues.
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Edward Mills Purcell
Edward Mills Purcell (August 30, 1912 – March 7, 1997) was an American physicist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent discovery (published 1946) of nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids and in solids.Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has become widely used to study the molecular structure of pure materials and the composition of mixtures. See also Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Born and raised in Taylorville, Illinois, Purcell received his BSEE in electrical engineering from Purdue University, followed by his M.A. and Ph.D. in physics from Harvard University. He was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of Phi Kappa Sigma while at Purdue. After spending the years of World War II working at the MIT Radiation Laboratory on the development of microwave radar, Purcell returned to Harvard to do research. In December 1946, he discovered nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with his colleagues Pound and Torrey. NMR provides scientists with an elegant and precise way of determining chemical structure and properties of materials, and is widely used in physics and chemistry. It also is the basis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), one of the most important medical advances of the 20th century. For his discovery of NMR, Purcell shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Felix Bloch of Stanford University.
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Edward Teller
Edward Teller (Hungarian: Teller Ede; January 15, 1908 – September 9, 2003) was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as "the father of the hydrogen bomb", even though he claimed he did not care for the title. Teller made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy (the Jahn–Teller and Renner–Teller effects), and surface physics. His extension of Fermi's theory of beta decay (in the form of the so-called Gamow–Teller transitions) provided an important stepping stone in the applications of this theory. The Jahn–Teller effect and the BET theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry. Teller also made contributions to Thomas–Fermi theory, the precursor of density functional theory, a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules. In 1953, along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth, Teller co-authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics.
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Eisaku Satō
This article is about the Prime Minister of Japan. For the governor of Fukushima Prefecture of Japan of the same name, see Eisaku Satō (governor).
Eisaku Satō (佐藤 榮作, Satō Eisaku?, March 27, 1901 – June 3, 1975) was a Japanese politician and the 39th Prime Minister of Japan, elected on November 9, 1964, and re-elected on February 17, 1967, and January 14, 1970, serving until July 7, 1972. He was the longest serving prime minister in the history of Japan.
Satō was born in Tabuse, Yamaguchi Prefecture, and studied German law at Tokyo Imperial University. In 1923, he passed the senior civil service examinations, and in the following year, upon graduation, became a civil servant in the Ministry of Railways. He served as Director of the Osaka Railways Bureau from 1944 to 1946 and Vice-Minister for Transportation from 1947 to 1948.
Satō entered the Diet in 1949 as a member of the Liberal Party.
He was appointed Minister of Postal Services and Telecommunications from July 1951 - July 1952. Sato gradually rose through the ranks of Japanese politics, becoming Chief Cabinet Secretary to Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida from January 1953 to July 1954. He later served as Minister of Construction from October 1952-February 1953.
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Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926) is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms, and head of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations. She is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies.
Elizabeth was born in London, and educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne as George VI in 1936 on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, in which she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. On the death of her father in 1952, she became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Her coronation service in 1953 was the first to be televised. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. Today, in addition to the first four aforementioned countries, Elizabeth is Queen of Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis.
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Ella Baker
Ella Josephine Baker (December 13, 1903 – December 13, 1986) was an African-American civil rights and human rights activist beginning in the 1930s. She was a behind-the-scenes activist, whose career spanned over five decades. She worked alongside some of the most famous civil rights leaders of the 20th century, including W. E. B. Du Bois, Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, and Martin Luther King Jr. She also mentored such then-young civil rights stalwarts as Diane Nash, Stokely Carmichael, Rosa Parks and Bob Moses.
Ella Baker was born in Norfolk, Virginia, and raised by Georgiana and Blake Baker. When she was nine, her family moved to her mother's hometown of Littleton in rural North Carolina. As a girl, Baker listened to her grandmother tell stories about slave revolts. Baker's grandmother had been enslaved and was whipped for refusing to marry a man chosen for her by the slave master.[citation needed]
Baker attended Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, graduating as class valedictorian in 1927 at the age of 24. As a student she challenged school policies that she thought were unfair. After graduating, she moved to New York City. During 1929-1930 she was an editorial staff member of the American West Indian News, going on to take the position of editorial assistant at the Negro National News. In 1930 George Schuyler, then a black journalist and anarchist (and later an arch-conservative), founded the Young Negroes' Cooperative League (YNCL), which sought to develop black economic power through collective planning. Having befriended Schuyler, Baker joined in 1931 and soon became the group's national director.
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Emmett Till
Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African-American boy who was murdered in Mississippi at the age of 14 after reportedly flirting with a white woman. Till was from Chicago, Illinois, visiting his relatives in the Mississippi Delta region when he spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the married proprietor of a small grocery store. Several nights later, Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam arrived at Till's great-uncle's house where they took Till, transported him to a barn, beat him and gouged out one of his eyes, before shooting him through the head and disposing of his body in the Tallahatchie River, weighting it with a 70-pound (32 kg) cotton gin fan tied around his neck with barbed wire. His body was discovered and retrieved from the river three days later.
Till was returned to Chicago and his mother, who had raised him mostly by herself, insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket to show the world the brutality of the killing. Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his casket and images of his mutilated body were published in black magazines and newspapers, rallying popular black support and white sympathy across the U.S. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the condition of black civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the country critical of the state. Although initially local newspapers and law enforcement officials decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they soon began responding to national criticism by defending Mississippians, which eventually transformed into support for the killers. The trial attracted a vast amount of press attention. Bryant and Milam were acquitted of Till's kidnapping and murder, but months later, protected against double jeopardy, they admitted to killing him in a magazine interview. Till's murder is noted as a pivotal event motivating the African-American Civil Rights Movement.
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Eskimo
Eskimos (or Esquimaux) or Inuit–Yupik (for Alaska: Inupiat–Yupik) peoples are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia (Russia), across Alaska (United States), Canada, and Greenland.
There are two main groups that are referred to as Eskimo: Yupik and Inuit. A third group, the Aleut, is related. The Yupik language dialects and cultures in Alaska and eastern Siberia have evolved in place beginning with the original (pre-Dorset) Eskimo culture that developed in Alaska. Approximately 4,000 years ago the Unangam (also known as Aleut) culture became distinctly separate, and evolved into a non-Eskimo culture. Approximately 1,500–2,000 years ago, apparently in Northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. The Inuit language branch became distinct and in only several hundred years spread across northern Alaska, Canada and into Greenland. At about the same time, the technology of the Thule people developed in northwestern Alaska and very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo people, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them.
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Fannie Lou Hamer
Fannie Lou Hamer (born Fannie Lou Townsend; October 6, 1917 – March 14, 1977) was an American voting rights activist and civil rights leader.
She was instrumental in organizing Mississippi Freedom Summer for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and later became the Vice-Chair of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, attending the 1964 Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in that capacity. Her plain-spoken manner and fervent belief in the Biblical righteousness of her cause gained her a reputation as an electrifying speaker and constant activist of civil rights.
During the 1950s, Hamer attended several annual conferences of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL) in the all-black town of Mound Bayou, Mississippi. The RCNL was led by Dr. T.R.M. Howard, a civil rights leader and wealthy black entrepreneur, and was a combination civil rights and self-help organization. The annual RCNL conferences featured entertainers, such as Mahalia Jackson, speakers, such as Thurgood Marshall and Rep. Charles Diggs of Michigan, and panels on voting rights and other civil rights issues. Without her knowledge or consent, she was sterilized in 1961 by a white doctor as a part of the state of Mississippi's plan to reduce the number of poor blacks in the state.
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Frank Borman
Frank Frederick Borman, II (born March 14, 1928) is a retired NASA astronaut and engineer, best remembered as the Commander of Apollo 8, the first mission to fly around the Moon, making him, along with fellow crew mates Jim Lovell and Bill Anders, the first of only 24 humans to do so. Before flying on Apollo, he set a fourteen-day spaceflight endurance record on Gemini 7, and also served on the NASA review board which investigated the Apollo 1 fire. After leaving NASA, he was the chief executive officer (CEO) of Eastern Air Lines from 1975 to 1986. Borman is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. In the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Borman was played by David Andrews.
Borman was born in Gary, Indiana, where the Frank Borman Expressway is named after him. Because he suffered from numerous sinus problems in the cold and damp weather, his father packed up the family and moved to the better climate of Tucson, Arizona, which Borman considers his home town. He started to fly at the age of 15. He is a graduate of the Tucson High School. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1950 where he served as an Army Football Manager, and along with part of his graduating class, he entered the United States Air Force (USAF) and became a fighter pilot. He received his Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the California Institute of Technology in 1957. Later, Borman was selected for the USAF test pilot school and became a test pilot.
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Frank Church
Frank Forrester Church III (July 25, 1924 – April 7, 1984) was an American lawyer and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a United States Senator from Idaho from 1957 to 1981.
Church was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, losing to Jimmy Carter. He is known for heading the Church Committee, which investigated abuses in the U.S. intelligence agencies.
Frank Church was raised in Boise, Idaho. In his youth, Church admired William E. Borah, who then represented Idaho in the United States Senate. Church graduated from Boise High School in 1942, where he served as student body president. As a junior in 1941, he won the American Legion National Oratorical Contest. The prize was sufficient to provide for four years at the college of the winner's choice. Church chose Stanford University, enrolling in 1942.
In 1943, Church enlisted in the U.S. Army and served as a military intelligence officer[citation needed] in the China-Burma-India theater. Following his discharge in 1946, he returned to Stanford to complete his education, receiving his bachelor's degree in 1947.
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Frank Minis Johnson
Frank Minis Johnson, Jr. (October 30, 1918 – July 23, 1999) was a United States Federal judge, made a number of landmark civil rights rulings that helped end segregation in the South. In the words of journalist and historian Bill Moyers, Judge Johnson "altered forever the face of the South."
An alumnus of the University of Alabama and the University of Alabama School of Law (one of Johnson's classmates was future Governor George C. Wallace, who would be Johnson's bête noire in the civil rights litigation of the 1960s), Johnson served in the U.S. Army in Europe during World War II, while his wife, Ruth (also a classmate from the University of Alabama) served in the WAVES as an advisor to Hollywood filmmakers. After military service, Johnson entered private law practice in Jasper, Alabama from 1946 to 1953. He was a delegate from Alabama to the 1948 Republican National Convention, and served as a U.S. District Attorney for the Northern District of Alabama, 1953-55.
Frank Johnson was a delegate to the 1948 Republican National Convention. He managed Alabama’s “Veterans for Eisenhower” during the 1952 campaign.
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Fred Shuttlesworth
Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth (March 18, 1922 – October 5, 2011), born Freddie Lee Robinson, was a U.S. civil rights activist who led the fight against segregation and other forms of racism as a minister in Birmingham, Alabama. He was a co-founder of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, was instrumental in the 1963 Birmingham Campaign, and continued to work against racism and for alleviation of the problems of the homeless in Cincinnati, Ohio, where he took up a pastorate in 1961. He returned to Birmingham after his retirement in 2007. He helped Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement, and was given an acceptance award to visit Dr. King anytime during the movement.
The Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport was named in his honor in 2008.
Born in Mount Meigs, Alabama, Shuttlesworth became pastor of the Bethel Baptist Church in Birmingham in 1953 and was Membership Chairman of the Alabama state chapter of the NAACP in 1956, when the State of Alabama formally outlawed it from operating within the state. In May 1956 Shuttlesworth and Ed Gardner established the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights to take up the work formerly done by the NAACP.
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George Marshall
George Catlett Marshall (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959) was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during the war and as the chief military adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.
George Catlett Marshall was born into a middle-class family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the son of George Catlett Marshall, Sr. and Laura Emily (Bradford) Marshall. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall. Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), where he was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order, in 1901.
Following graduation from VMI, Marshall was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army. Until World War I, he was posted to various positions in the US and the Philippines. He served as an infantry platoon leader and company commander in the Phillipines during the Phillipine-American War and several other guerilla uprisings. He was schooled and trained in modern warfare. His pre-war service included a tour at Fort Leavenworth, KS from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor.
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George Wells Beadle
George Wells Beadle (October 22, 1903 – June 9, 1989) was an American scientist in the field of genetics, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Nobel laureate who with Edward Lawrie Tatum discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells.
Beadle and Tatum's key experiments involved exposing the bread mold Neurospora crassa to x-rays, causing mutations. In a series of experiments, they showed that these mutations caused changes in specific enzymes involved in metabolic pathways. These experiments led them to propose a direct link between genes and enzymatic reactions, known as the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis.
George Wells Beadle was born in Wahoo, Nebraska. He was the son of Chauncey Elmer Beadle and Hattie Albro, who owned and operated a 40-acre (160,000 m2) farm nearby. George was educated at the Wahoo High School and might himself have become a farmer if one of his teachers at school had not directed his mind towards science and persuaded him to go to the College of Agriculture in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1926 he took his B.Sc. degree at the University of Nebraska and subsequently worked for a year with Professor F.D. Keim, who was studying hybrid wheat. In 1927 he took his M.Sc. degree, and Professor Keim secured for him a post as Teaching Assistant at Cornell University, where he worked, until 1931, with Professors R.A. Emerson and L.W. Sharp on Mendelian asynopsis in Zea mays. For this work he obtained, in 1931, his Ph.D. degree. In 1931 he was awarded a National Research Council Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena, where he remained from 1931 until 1936. During this period he continued his work on Indian corn and began, in collaboration with Professors Th. Dobzhansky, S. Emerson, and A.H. Sturtevant, work on crossing-over in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.
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Gerald Posner
Gerald Posner (born May 20, 1954) is an investigative journalist and author of several books, including Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK (1993) which explores the John F. Kennedy assassination, and Killing the Dream: James Earl Ray and the Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. A journalism scandal, involving his articles and books, arose in 2010.
Posner was born in San Francisco, the only child of Jerry and Gloria Posner, native San Franciscans. His father was a labor union official.
Posner was educated at St. Ignatius College Preparatory (1972), the University of California, Berkeley (1975), and Hastings Law School (1978). He worked for prominent law firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore until 1980 when he went into private practice with a partner. John Martin of ABC News says "Gerald Posner is one of the most resourceful investigators I have encountered in thirty years of journalism."[citation needed]Garry Wills calls Posner "a superb investigative reporter,"[citation needed] while John Balzar, reviewing one of his books in the Los Angeles Times, dubs him "a classic-style investigative journalist." Richard Bernstein, reviewing one of his books in the New York Times, lauded his "exhaustive research techniques".
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Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Gandhi (Bengali: গোপালকৃষ্ণ গান্ধী Gopalkrishno Gandhi; born April 22, 1945) was the Governor of West Bengal serving from 2004 to 2009. He is the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and son of Devadas Gandhi and Lakshmi Gandhi. His maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). Gopalkrishna Gandhi is the younger brother of Rajmohan Gandhi, and the late Ramchandra Gandhi, and Smt. Tara Bhattacharjee (Gandhi), all of whom are distinguished in their own right.
As a former member of the Indian Administrative Service, he served as Secretary to the President of India and as High Commissioner to South Africa and Sri Lanka, among other administrative and diplomatic posts.
Gandhi graduated with a master's degree in Literature from St. Stephen's College of Delhi University. He has authored one novel (Saranam - "Refuge" in English) and a play in verse (Dara Shukoh).His other books are - "Gandhi and South Africa", "Koi Acchha Sa Ladka" (translation into Hindustani of Vikram Seth's novel 'A Suitable Boy'), "Gandhi and Sri Lanka", "Nehru and Sri Lanka", "India House, Colombo - Portrait of a Residence", "Gandhi Is Gone. Who Will Guide Us Now?" (edited), "A Frank Friendship/ Gandhi and Bengal: A Descriptive Chronology" (compiled and edited).
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Harilal Gandhi
Harilal Mohandas Gandhi (Devanagari: हरीलाल गांधी), (1888 – 18 June 1948) was the first son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
Harilal for higher studies and hoped to become a barrister as his father had once been. His father firmly opposed this, believing that a Western-style education would not be helpful in the struggle against British rule over India. Eventually rebelling against his father's decision, in 1911 Harilal renounced all family ties.
He converted to Islam but later reverted back to Hinduism. That did not bother his father, who believed that all religions were to be respected. His mother felt he should not be publicly displaying this back-and-forth type of behavior.
Harilal was married to Gulab Gandhi. They had five children, two of whom died at an early age. Nilam Parikh, the daughter of Ramibehn, who was the eldest of Harilal's children has written a biography on him, titled Gandhiji's Lost Jewel: Harilal Gandhi.
He appeared at his father's funeral in such derelict condition that few recognized him. He died from liver disease on 18 June 1948 in a municipal hospital in Bombay, Union of India.
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Harlow Curtice
Harlow Herbert Curtice (August 15, 1893 - November 3, 1962) was an American auto industry executive who led General Motors (GM) from 1953 to 1958. As GM's chief, Curtice was selected as Man of the Year for 1955 by TIME magazine.
Curtice was born in Petrieville, Michigan. He joined General Motors at age 20, and rose through its AC Spark Plug division to head it by age 36, and made the division profitable during the Depression. Selected to head the Buick division of GM, he expanded its line and made it profitable in the 1930s.
In 1948, Curtice became executive vice president of GM, and succeeded to the presidency in 1953 when GM president Charles Wilson became Secretary of Defense. With Curtice as president, GM became immensely profitable, and became the first corporation to have $1 billion in profits in one year.
In 1958, Curtice retired just after his 65th birthday. The following year, he accidentally shot and killed a friend while duck hunting. He died in 1962 at age 69.
Curtice was born in Petrieville, Michigan, on August 15, 1893, the son of Marion Curtice and the former Mary Ellen Eckhart, and was raised in Eaton Rapids, Michigan, attending Eaton Rapids High School. During school vacations, he kept the books for his father, a commission merchant, and also worked in a woolen mill. He graduated from the Ferris Business College in 1914. After moving to Flint, Michigan later in 1914, Curtice began his meteoric rise at GM. He started as a bookkeeper for GM's AC Spark Plug Division. The 20-year-old, in his job interview by the company comptroller, told him that his ambition was to become comptroller himself within a year. He did so, becoming AC Spark Plug's comptroller at just 21. Curtice went beyond the ledger, exploring the plant to find out what the figures meant in terms of men and equipment.
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Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and "Yankee" love of practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.
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Henry Kissinger
Heinz Alfred "Henry" Kissinger ( /ˈkɪsɪndʒər/; born May 27, 1923) is a German-born American writer, political scientist, diplomat, and businessman. A recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, he served as National Security Advisor and later concurrently as Secretary of State in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought by many subsequent presidents and many world leaders.
A proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. During this period, he pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union, orchestrated the opening of relations with the People's Republic of China, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. Various American policies of that era, including the bombing of Cambodia, remain controversial to many.
Kissinger is still a controversial figure today. He is the founder and chairman of Kissinger Associates, an international consulting firm.
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Henry Nelson Wieman
Henry Nelson Wieman (1884–1975) was an American philosopher and theologian. He became the most famous proponent of theocentric naturalism and the empirical method in American theology and catalyzed the emergence of Religious Naturalism in the latter part of the 20th century.
Wieman was instrumental in shaping thinking about Religious Naturalism. In 1963 he wrote, "It is impossible to gain knowledge of the total cosmos or to have any understanding of the infinity transcending the cosmos. Consequently, beliefs about these matters are illusions, cherished for their utility in producing desired states of mind. . . . Nothing can transform man unless it operates in human life. Therefore, in human life, in the actual processes of human existence, must be found the saving and transforming power which religious inquiry seeks and which faith must apprehend."
In 1971 - "How can we interpret what operates in human existence to create, sustain, save and transform toward the greatest good, so that scientific research and scientific technology can be applied to searching out and providing the conditions - physical, biological, psychological and social - which must be present for its most effective operation? This operative presence in human existence can be called God..." In this statement he is redefining God in a way that some Religious Naturalists would latch on to.
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Hermann Kallenbach
Hermann Kallenbach (1871–1945) was a German born Jewish South African architect who was one of the foremost friends and associates of Mahatma Gandhi. Kallenbach was introduced to the young Mohandas Gandhi while they were both working in South Africa and after a series of discussions they developed an intimate and long lasting friendship.
Kallenbach was born in 1871 in East Prussia as the third eldest out of seven children of a German-Jewish family.. His father Kalman Leib Kallenbach was a Hebrew teacher and, later, a timber merchant. Hermann's childhood centered round education, sports and friendships with the village youth and later he studied architecture in Stuttgart and Munich.[citation needed] In 1896, he went to South Africa to join his uncles in Johannesburg, where he practiced as an architect and became a South African citizen. A skilled ice-skater, swimmer, cyclist and gymnast, and a successful architect, Kallenbach acquired considerable property in South Africa.[citation needed] Yet a major transformation in his life took place after he met Mahatma Gandhi.
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Hosea Williams
Hosea Lorenzo Williams (January 5, 1926 – November 16, 2000) was a United States civil rights leader, ordained minister, businessman, philanthropist, scientist, and politician. Though deeply involved and committed to the struggle for racial equality before they met, Williams may be best known as the firebranded but trusted member of fellow famed civil rights activist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Martin Luther King, Jr.'s inner-circle. Under the banner of their flagship organization, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King depended on Williams' keen ability to organize and stir masses of people into nonviolent direct action in the myriad of protest campaigns they waged against racial, political, economic, and social injustice. King alternately referred to Williams, his chief field lieutenant, as his "bull in a china closet" and his "Castro".
Inspired by personal experience with and his vow to continue King's work for the poor, Williams may be equally well known as the founding president of one of the largest social services organizations for the poor and hungry on holidays in North America, Hosea Feed the Hungry and Homeless. His famous motto was "Unbought and Unbossed" (which was also the motto of former U.S. Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York City).
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Howard Thurman
Howard Thurman (1899 – April 10, 1981) was an influential American author, philosopher, theologian, educator and civil rights leader. He was Dean of Chapel at Howard University and Boston University for more than two decades, wrote 21 books, and in 1944 helped found a multicultural church.
Howard Thurman was born in 1899 in Daytona Beach, Florida and grew up in the segregated South.
In 1923, Howard Thurman graduated from Morehouse College as valedictorian . He was ordained a Baptist minister in 1925, after completing his study at the Colgate Rochester Theological Seminary (now Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School). Shortly after ordination, he pastored Mount Zion Baptist Church in Oberlin, Ohio from 1925-1928. He then pursued further study as a special student of philosophy at Haverford College with Rufus Jones, a noted Quaker philosopher and mystic. Thurman earned his doctorate at Haverford.
Thurman was selected as dean of Rankin Chapel at Howard University in the District of Columbia in 1932. He served there from 1932-1944.
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Hubert Humphrey
Hubert Horatio Humphrey, Jr. (May 27, 1911 – January 13, 1978), served under President Lyndon B. Johnson as the 38th Vice President of the United States.
Humphrey twice served as a United States Senator from Minnesota, and served as Democratic Majority Whip. He was a founder of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party and Americans for Democratic Action. He also served as Mayor of Minneapolis, Minnesota from 1945 to 1949. Humphrey was the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 1968 presidential election but lost to the Republican nominee, Richard Nixon.
Humphrey was born in a room over his father's drugstore in Wallace, South Dakota. He was the son of Hubert Humphrey, Sr. (1882–1949) and Ragnild Kristine Sannes (1883–1973), a Norwegian immigrant. Humphrey spent most of his youth in Doland, South Dakota, on the Dakota prairie; the town's population was about 700 people when he lived there. His father was a pharmacist who served as mayor and a town-council member. In the late 1920s a severe economic downturn hit Doland; both of the town's banks closed and Humphrey's father struggled to keep his drugstore open.
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Igbo American
Igbo Americans, or Americans of Igbo ancestry, (Igbo: Ịgbo nke Amerika) are citizens of the United States who can claim whole or significant ancestry from the Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria. The majority of US citizens with Igbo ancestry are descended from Igbo slaves that were forcefully shipped to the Americas for hard labor. A growing minority of people with Igbo ancestry are Nigerian citizens that have arrived in the US as economic migrants and because of issues relating to the Nigerian-Biafran War.
In the United States Igbo slaves were erroneously referred to by a couple of names corrupted from Igbo such as Ibo and Eboe. Some Igbo slaves were also referred to as 'bites', denoting their Bight of Biafra origin, their new slave names were often given to them denoting their origin in Africa such as Bonna for a slave that arrived through the port of Bonny. Their presence in the United States was met with mixed feelings by American plantation owners.
The Igbo were affected heavily by the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century. Igbo slaves were known for being rebellious and having a high count of suicide in defiance of slavery. In the United States the Igbo were most numerous in the states of Maryland (coincidentally where there is a predominant population of recent Igbo immigrants) and Virginia, so much so that some historians have denominated colonial Virginia as “Igbo land.”
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Ira Chernus
Ira Chernus (born October 29, 1946) is a journalist, author, and Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He received his Ph.D. in Religion from Temple University, specializing in the history of rabbinic Judaism. His academic writing now focuses on the foreign policy of US presidents. He has published books on Dwight Eisenhower and George W. Bush and is currently writing a book on Franklin D. Roosevelt. As a journalist, he writes regularly for the Huffington Post,CommonDreams, TomDispatch,AlterNet,Truthout, Foreign Policy In Focus, and Religion Dispatches. Many of his writings can be found on his University of Colorado website. He has written extensively on peace, war, foreign policy, and nationalism in the United States, as well as the Israel-Palestine conflict and U.S. Middle East policy. His recent writings on Israel, Palestine, and the U.S. are collected on his blog. He has lectured in Lebanon, Finland, Australia, and Canada, as well as extensively throughout the United States.
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Irene Morgan
Irene Morgan (April 9, 1917 – August 10, 2007), later known as Irene Morgan Kirkaldy, was an important predecessor to Rosa Parks in the successful fight to overturn segregation laws in the United States. Like the more famous Parks, but eleven years earlier, in 1944, the 27-year-old Baltimore-born African-American was arrested and jailed in Virginia for refusing to give up her seat on an interstate Greyhound bus to a white person. In a 1946 landmark decision, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6-1 that Virginia's state law enforcing segregation on interstate buses was illegal.
The bus driver stopped in Middlesex County, Virginia, and summoned the sheriff, who tried to arrest Morgan. She tore up the arrest warrant, kicked the sheriff in the groin and fought with the deputy who tried to drag her off the bus.
Irene Morgan appealed her case on the conviction for violating the segregation laws. After exhausting appeals in state courts, she and her lawyers appealed her conviction on constitutional grounds all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1946, the justices agreed to hear the case.
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Isidor Isaac Rabi
Isidor Isaac Rabi ( /ˈrɑːbi/; 29 July 1898 – 11 January 1988) was a Galician-born American physicist and Nobel laureate recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance.
Rabi was born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów, Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Poland), and was brought to the United States as a child the following year. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry degree from Cornell University in 1919, continuing his studies at Columbia University and received his Ph.D. in 1927. A fellowship enabled him to spend the next two years in Europe working with such eminent physicists as Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli and Otto Stern. He then joined the Columbia faculty and never left.
In 1930 Rabi conducted investigations into the nature of the force binding protons to atomic nuclei. This research eventually led to the creation of the molecular-beam magnetic-resonance detection method, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944.
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Izola Curry
Izola Ware Curry (b. 1916) is an African-American woman who attempted to assassinate civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. Born in the U.S. state of Georgia, she stabbed King with a letter opener at a New York City book signing on September 20, 1958. King was eventually assassinated April 4, 1968 in an unrelated incident.
Curry was born in Adrian, Georgia and moved to New York at the age of 20 where she found work as a housekeeper. Shortly after moving she developed delusions about the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
When Strive Toward Freedom was published, King went on a tour to promote it. During a book signing at a department store in New York City, a well-dressed woman approached and asked him if he was Martin Luther King, Jr. When King replied in the affirmative, she said, "I've been looking for you for five years," then stabbed him in the chest with a steel letter opener.
King was immediately taken by ambulance to Harlem Hospital, where surgeons spent three hours removing the blade from its precarious position. "Days later," King wrote in his posthumously published autobiography, "when I was well enough to talk with Dr. Aubrey Maynard, the chief of the surgeons who performed the delicate, dangerous operation, I learned the reason for the long delay that preceded surgery. He told me that the razor tip of the instrument had been touching my aorta and that my whole chest had to be opened to extract it. 'If you had sneezed during all those hours of waiting,' Dr. Maynard said, 'your aorta would have been punctured and you would have drowned in your own blood.'"
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Jaleel White
Jaleel Ahmad White (born November 27, 1976) is an American actor and screenwriter known for his role as Steve Urkel in Family Matters and voicing the character of Sonic the Hedgehog as well as other characters for the Sonic the Hedgehog series.
In March 2012, White began appearing as a contestant in season 14 of Dancing with the Stars. He is partnered with two-time dance champion Kym Johnson.
White also hosts the game show Total Blackout which premiered on the Syfy channel on April 25, 2012.
White was born in Pasadena, California, the son of Michael White, a dentist, and Gail, a homemaker. White got his start on TV commercials at age three. One of White's notable commercial appearances was for Jell-O pudding pops alongside Bill Cosby.
White landed his first television role as the son of Flip Wilson and Gladys Knight on the CBS series Charlie and Company. He next appeared on another CBS comedy series, The Jeffersons. White also appeared in the pilot episode for Good Morning, Miss Bliss in 1987, and had a role in the 1990 television movie Camp Cucamonga, which also featured Chad Allen (My Two Dads), Candace Cameron (Full House), Danica McKellar and Josh Saviano (The Wonder Years), Breckin Meyer and Jennifer Aniston.
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James Bevel
James L. Bevel (October 19, 1936 – December 19, 2008) was an American minister and leader of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement who, as the Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) initiated, strategized, directed, and developed SCLC's three major successes of the era: the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade, the 1965 Selma Voting Rights Movement, and the 1966 Chicago Open Housing Movement. James Bevel also called for and initially organized the 1963 March on Washington and initiated and strategized the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, SCLC's two main public gatherings of the era. For his work in the 1960s he has been referred to as the "Father of Voting Rights", the "Strategist and Architect of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", and as half of the Bevel/King team that formulated and communicated the actions, issues, and dialogues which created the historical changes of the era.
Prior to his time with SCLC, Bevel worked in the Nashville Student Movement, where he participated in the 1960 Nashville Sit-In movement, directed the 1961 Open Theater Movement, chose the riders for the 1961 Nashville Student Movement continuation of the Freedom Rides, and initiated and directed the Mississippi Voting Rights Movement. Later, in 1967, he took a leave from SCLC to direct the Anti-Vietnam War Movement, and in 1995 co-initiated the Day of Atonement/Million Man March.
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James Earl Jones
James Earl Jones (born January 17, 1931) is an American actor. Since his Broadway debut in 1957, Jones has spent more than five decades as "one of America's most distinguished and versatile actors" and has been termed "one of the greatest actors in American history." On November 12, 2011, Jones received an Honorary Academy Award.
He is well known for his distinctive bass voice and for his portrayal of characters of substance, gravitas and leadership.
James Earl Jones was born in Arkabutla, Mississippi, son of Robert Earl Jones (1910–2006), an actor, boxer, butler, and chauffeur who left the family shortly after James Earl's birth, and his wife Ruth (Connolly) Jones, a teacher and maid. Jones and his father reconciled many years later. Jones was raised by his maternal grandparents, farmers John Henry and Maggie Connolly. He is multiracial, with African, Irish, and Native American ancestry.
Jones describes his grandmother, Maggie, as "the most racist person I have ever known", thus forcing him to develop his own independent thinking. His grandmother was of Cherokee, Choctaw, and black ancestry.
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James Earl Ray
James Earl Ray (March 10, 1928 – April 23, 1998) was an American criminal convicted of the assassination of civil rights and anti-war activist Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Ray was convicted on March 10, 1969, after entering a guilty plea to forgo a jury trial. Had he been found guilty by jury trial, he would have been eligible for the death penalty. He was sentenced to 99 years in prison. He later recanted his confession and tried unsuccessfully to gain a new trial. He died in prison of hepatitis C.
James Earl Ray came from a poor family in Alton, Illinois, and left school at age 15. He joined the US Army at the close of World War II and served in Germany.
He was convicted of his first crime, a burglary in California, in 1949. In 1952 he served two years for armed robbery of a taxi driver in Illinois. In 1955, he was convicted of mail fraud after stealing money orders in Hannibal, Missouri, and then forging them to take a trip to Florida. He served three years at Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary. In 1959 he was caught stealing $120 in an armed robbery of a St. Louis Kroger. Ray was sentenced to twenty years in prison for repeated offenses. He escaped from the Missouri State Penitentiary in 1967 by hiding in a truck transporting bread from the prison bakery.
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James Forman
James Forman (October 4, 1928 — January 10, 2005) was an American Civil Rights leader active in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Black Panther Party, and the International Black Workers Congress. He was also the author of several notable books.
In 1961, Forman joined and became the executive secretary of the then newly formed Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. From 1961 to 1965 Forman, a decade older and more experienced than most of the other members of SNCC, became responsible for providing organizational support to the young, loosely affiliated activists by paying bills, radically expanding the institutional staff and planning the logistics for programs. Under the leadership of Forman and others, SNCC became an important political player at the height of the Civil Rights Movement.
In 1964, Forman, expressing his frustration with the gradualist approach of some Civil Rights leaders, made one of his best known quips: "If we can't sit at the table [of democracy], let's knock the fucking legs off!"
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James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights movement figure, a writer, and a political adviser. In 1962, he was the first African American student admitted to the segregated University of Mississippi, an event that was a flashpoint in the American civil rights movement. Motivated by President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi. His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans.
Meredith was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi of Choctaw[citation needed] and African American heritage. Thousands of Choctaw had stayed in Mississippi when most of the people left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory in the removal of the 1830s.
After attending local segregated schools and graduating from high school, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force. He served honorably from 1951 to 1960.
He attended Jackson State University for two years, then applied to the University of Mississippi which, under the state's legally imposed racial segregation, had traditionally accepted only white students. In Brown v. Board of Education (1955), the US Supreme Court ruled that publicly supported schools had to be desegregated.
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James Orange
James Edward Orange (October 29, 1942 – February 16, 2008) was a pastor and a leading civil rights activist in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement in America.
Orange was born in Birmingham, Alabama, but moved to Atlanta, Georgia in the early 1960s. Orange, at over 6'3" tall and over 300 pounds, was physically impressive but deeply committed to non-violence. In his attempts to convert gang members in Chicago to adopt non-violent principles, he endured nine beatings without resistance. He was also known for preaching and singing in a strong baritone voice.
Orange had a large family, several of whom were active in the civil rights movement. He was the third of his parents' seven children. His father worked in the large ACIPCO foundry in Birmingham, but was fired in 1957 for union activity. Orange's mother was very active in the civil rights movement and also attended the Monday night mass meetings at the Sixteenth Street church. Still, he told an interviewer on January 15, 2000, "I was afraid to go home and tell my mamma that her daughters, one 17 and the other 14, were in jail. But that's the way it was in those days, as we waged — and won — a non-violent campaign against police clubs and police dogs."
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James Van Allen
James Alfred Van Allen (September 7, 1914 – August 9, 2006) was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa.
The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him, following the 1958 satellite missions (Explorer 1 and Explorer 3) in which Van Allen had argued that a Geiger counter should be used to detect charged particles.
In 1950 an event occurred that began small but was to affect the future of Van Allen and all his countrymen. In March, British Physicist Sydney Chapman dropped in on Van Allen [and] remarked that he would like to meet other scientists in the Washington area. Van Allen got on the phone, soon gathered eight or ten top scientists (Lloyd Berkner, S. Fred Singer, and Harry Vestine) in the living room of his small brick house. ‘It was what you might call a pedigreed bull session,’ he says. ... The talk turned to geophysics and the two ‘International Polar Years’ that had enlisted the world’s leading nations to study the Arctic and Antarctic regions in 1882 and 1932. Someone suggested that with the development of new tools such as rockets, radar and computers, the time was ripe for a worldwide geophysical year. The other men were enthusiastic, and their enthusiasm spread around the world from Washington DC. From this meeting Lloyd Berkner and other participants proposed to the International Council of Scientific Unions that an IGY be planned for 1957-58 during the maximum solar activity). ... The International Geophysical Year (1957-58) stimulated the U.S. Government to promise earth satellites as geophysical tools. The Soviet government countered by rushing its Sputniks into orbit. The race into space or Space Race may be said to have started in Van Allen’s living room that evening in 1950.
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Jane Elliott
Jane Elliott (born 1933, Riceville, Iowa)[citation needed] is an American teacher and anti-racism activist. She created the famous “blue-eyed/brown-eyed” exercise, first done with grade school children in the 1960s, and which later became the basis for her career in diversity training.
While there are variations of the story, the exercise Elliott developed for her third grade class in Riceville, Iowa was a result of Martin Luther King’s assassination. According to one biographer, on the evening of April 4, 1968, Jane Elliott turned on her television to find out about the assassination. One scene she says that she remembers vividly is that of a (white) reporter, with the microphone pointed toward a local black leader asking “When our leader (John F. Kennedy) was killed several years ago, his widow held us together. Who's going to control your people?” It was supposedly there, in her living room, that she decided to combine a lesson she had planned about Native Americans with the lesson done about King for February’s Hero of the Month. To tie the two, she would use the saying “Oh Great Spirit, keep me from ever judging a man until I have walked a mile in his moccasins.”
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Jesse Jackson
Jesse Louis Jackson, Sr. (born October 8, 1941) is an African-American civil rights activist and Baptist minister. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988 and served as shadow senator for the District of Columbia from 1991 to 1997. He was the founder of both entities that merged to form Rainbow/PUSH. Representative Jesse Jackson, Jr. is his eldest son. In an AP-AOL "Black Voices" poll in February 2006, Jackson was voted "the most important black leader".
Jackson was born Jesse Louis Burns in Greenville, South Carolina, to Helen Burns, a 16-year-old single mother. His biological father, Noah Louis Robinson, a former professional boxer and a prominent figure in the community, was married to another woman when Jesse was born. He was not involved in his son's life, and died January 28, 1997 in Greenville, S.C. In 1943, two years after Jesse's birth, his mother married Charles Henry Jackson, who would adopt Jesse 14 years later. Jesse went on to take the surname of his stepfather.
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jill Ker Conway
Jill Ker Conway (born 9 October 1934) is an Australian-American author. Well known for her autobiographies, in particular her first memoir, The Road from Coorain. She was also Smith College's first woman president, from 1975–1985, and now serves as a Visiting Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2004 she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project.
Conway was born in Hillston, New South Wales in the outback of Australia. Together with her two brothers, Conway was raised in near-total isolation on a family owned 73 square kilometres (18,000 acres) tract of land, Coorain (aboriginal word for "windy place"), which was eventually expanded into 129 square kilometres (32,000 acres). On Coorain she lived a lonely life, and grew up without playmates except for her brothers. She was schooled entirely by her mother and a country governess.
Conway spent her youth working the sheep station; by age seven, she was an important member of the workforce, helping with such activities as herding and tending the sheep, checking the perimeter fences and lugging heavy farm supplies around. The farm prospered until a drought that would last for seven years. This and her father's worsening health put an increasing burden on her shoulders. But this ended abruptly when she was 11 and her father drowned in an unfortunate diving accident, while trying to extend the farm's water piping.
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Jim Lovell
James "Jim" Arthur Lovell, Jr., (born March 25, 1928) is a former NASA astronaut and a retired captain in the United States Navy, most famous as the commander of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered a critical failure en route to the Moon but was brought back safely to Earth by the efforts of the crew and mission control. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. Lovell is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, and the only one to have flown there twice without making a landing. Lovell was also the first person to fly in space four times.
Born in Cleveland, Ohio to a Czech mother, Lovell's family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout. His father died in a car accident when Lovell was young and, for about two years, he resided with a relative in Terre Haute, Indiana.
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Jimmie Lee Jackson
Jimmie Lee Jackson (December 1938 – February 26, 1965) was a civil rights protestor who was shot and killed by Alabama State Trooper James Bonard Fowler in 1965. Jackson was unarmed. His death inspired the Selma to Montgomery marches, an important event in the American Civil Rights movement. He was 26 years old.
Jimmie Lee Jackson was a deacon of the St. James Baptist Church in Marion, Alabama, ordained in the summer of 1964. Jackson had tried to register to vote without success for four years. Jackson was inspired by Martin Luther King, Jr. who had touched off a campaign against Alabama restrictions on Negro voting and attended meetings several nights per week at Zion's Chapel Methodist Church. This desire to vote led to his death at the hands of an Alabama State Trooper, and to the inspiration for the Selma to Montgomery marches.
On the night of February 18, 1965, around 500 people left Zion United Methodist Church in Marion and attempted a peaceful walk to the Perry County Jail about a half a block away where young Civil Rights worker James Orange was being held. The marchers planned to sing hymns and return to the church. Police later stated they believed the crowd was planning a jailbreak.
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Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States (1977–1981) and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Before he became President, Carter served as a U.S. Naval officer, was a peanut farmer, served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as Governor of Georgia (1971–1975).
During Carter's term as President, two new cabinet-level departments were created: the Department of Energy and the Department of Education. He established a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), and returned the Panama Canal Zone to Panama. Throughout his career, Carter strongly emphasized human rights. He took office during a period of international stagflation, which persisted throughout his term. The end of his presidential tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (at the end of 1979), 1980 Summer Olympics boycott by the United States of the Moscow Olympics and the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
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Jo Ann Robinson
Jo Ann Gibson Robinson (1912–1992) was a civil rights activist and educator in Montgomery, Alabama. Born near Culloden, Georgia, she was the youngest of twelve children. She attended Fort Valley State College and then became a public school teacher in Macon, where she was married to Wilbur Robinson for a short time. Five years later, she went to Atlanta, where she earned an M.A. in English at Atlanta University. She then accepted a position at Alabama State College in Montgomery. It was there that she joined the Women's Political Council, which Mary Fair Burks had founded three years earlier. In 1949, Robinson was verbally attacked by a bus driver, which led to her involvement in activism. In late 1950, she succeeded Burks as president of the WPC and helped focus the group's efforts on bus abuses.
On Thursday, December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to move to the back of the bus from the whites section on the bus. Mrs. Parks, a civil rights organizer, had intended to instigate a reaction from white citizens and authorities. That night, with Mrs. Parks' permission, Mrs. Robinson stayed up mimeographing 35,000 handbills calling for a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. The boycott was initially planned to be for just the following Monday. She passed out the leaflets at a Friday afternoon meeting of AME Zionist clergy among other place and Reverend L. Roy Bennett told other ministers to themselves attend a meeting that Friday night and to urge their congregations to take part in the boycott. Reverend Ralph Abernathy then helped Robinson pass out the handbills to high school students leaving school that afternoon. He wanted to help her so that she would not be solely blamed.[citation needed]
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John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina and it is widely believed that he refused to shake the hand of Zhou Enlai at the Geneva Conference in 1954. He also played a major role in the Central Intelligence Agency operation to overthrow the democratic Mossadegh government of Iran in 1953 (Operation Ajax) and the democratic Arbenz government of Guatemala in 1954 (Operation PBSUCCESS).
Born in Washington, D.C., he was one of five children and the eldest son born to Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles and his wife Edith (Foster). His paternal grandfather, John Welsh Dulles, had been a Presbyterian missionary in India. He attended public schools in Watertown, New York. After graduating from Princeton University (Phi Beta Kappa, 1908), where he competed on the American Whig-Cliosophic Society debate team, and graduating from The George Washington University Law School, he joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he specialized in international law. He tried to join the United States Army during World War I but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as Major on the War Industries Board.
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John Franklin Enders
John Franklin Enders (February 10, 1897 – September 8, 1985) was an American medical scientist and Nobel laureate. Enders had been called "The Father of Modern Vaccines."
Enders was born in West Hartford, Connecticut and was educated at the Noah Webster School at Hartford and St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire. He then attended Yale University for a short time before entering the United States Army Air Corps in 1918.
After returning from war he graduated from Yale, where he was a member of Scroll and Key as well as Delta Kappa Epsilon, and went on to become a businessman in real estate in 1922. He tried his hand at several careers before choosing to work in the biological field studying infectious diseases, gaining a Ph.D. at Harvard in 1930.
In 1954, while working at Children's Hospital Boston, Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller, and Frederick Chapman Robbins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue". This work was the first to show that viruses of this type could be grown and manipulated outside of the body. It was this technique dubbed the Enders-Weller-Robbins method that Jonas Salk used to develop the polio vaccine in 1952. After a large-scale test of the vaccine proved successful in 1954, Salk appeared on a radio show and announced his success to the world. Although he never claimed the credit for himself, he also did not offer up any credit to any of his colleagues, including Enders, Weller, and Robbins, whose technique made his success possible. Salk became a hero to the public, but was somewhat shunned by the scientific community. Despite this misappropriated credit many professionals in the field still regard Enders', Weller's and Robbins' work as substantial have given Enders the title of "The Father of Modern Vaccines".
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John Minor Wisdom
John Minor Wisdom (May 17, 1905 - May 15, 1999), one of the "Fifth Circuit Four", and a liberal Republican from Louisiana, was a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit during the 1950s and 1960s, when that court became known for a series of decisions crucial in advancing the civil rights of African-Americans. At that time, the Fifth Circuit included not only Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas (its jurisdiction since October 1, 1981), but also Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and the Panama Canal Zone.
Wisdom was born in New Orleans and graduated from the prestigious Isidore Newman School. In 1925, he received an A.B. degree from Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia. In 1929, he received an LL.B. from Tulane Law School. He was in the United States Army Lieutenant Colonel from 1942 to 1946. He was in private practice of law in New Orleans, Louisiana from 1929 to 1957. He was an Adjunct professor of law, Tulane University from 1938 to 1957.
As a young man, Wisdom was a Democrat, but he left that party in reaction to what he perceived as the corrupt administration of Governor Huey Pierce Long, Jr. As the Republican National Committeeman from Louisiana, Wisdom was instrumental in securing the nomination of Dwight D. Eisenhower at the 1952 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. Wisdom was also credited for helping Eisenhower to win Louisiana in the 1956 general election, the first time Louisiana had voted Republican in 80 years. Eisenhower appointed Wisdom to the Fifth Circuit bench in 1957 in what was seen as a reward for his services. Wisdom was nominated by President Eisenhower on March 14, 1957, to a seat vacated by Wayne G. Borah. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on June 26, 1957, and received his commission on June 27, 1957.
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John Ruskin
John Ruskin (8 February 1819 – 20 January 1900) was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, also an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects ranging from geology to architecture, myth to ornithology, literature to education, and botany to political economy. His writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters and even a fairy tale. The elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society. He also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation.
He was hugely influential in the latter half of the 19th century up to the First World War. After a period of relative decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability and craft.
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John Sirica
John Joseph Sirica (March 19, 1904–August 14, 1992) was the Chief Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, where he became famous for his role in the Watergate scandal. He rose to national prominence during the Watergate scandal when he ordered President Richard Nixon to turn over his recordings of White House conversations.
Sirica's involvement in the case began when he presided over the trial of the Watergate burglars. He did not believe the claim that they had acted alone, and persuaded or coerced them to implicate the men who had arranged the break-in. For his role in Watergate the judge was named TIME magazine's Man of the Year in 1973.
John Sirica was born in Waterbury, Connecticut to Ferdinand and Rose Zinno Sirica, both of whom were Italian immigrants. He moved to D.C. in 1918, where he attended Emerson Preparatory School and eventually transferred to Columbia Preparatory School. Sirica received his J.D. from the Georgetown University Law Center after doing undergraduate work at Duke University.
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Joseph Lowery
Joseph Echols Lowery (born October 6, 1921) is a minister in the United Methodist Church and leader in the American civil rights movement. He later became the third president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, after Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King and his immediate successor, Rev. Dr. Ralph David Abernathy, and participated in most of the major activities of the African-American Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.
Joseph E. Lowery was born to Leroy and Dora Lowery on October 6, 1921. He attended middle school in Chicago while staying with relatives, but he returned to Huntsville, Alabama,to complete William Hooper Councill High School. He next attended the Knoxville College and Alabama A&M College, before finishing his bachelor of arts degree at Paine College in Augusta, Georgia. Lowery next entered the Paine Theological Seminary to become a Methodist minister. Rev. Lowery is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. Dr. Joseph E. Lowery is an honorary member of the William Hooper Councill Alumni Association, Inc. located in Huntsville, AL.
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Joshua Lederberg
Joshua Lederberg ForMemRS (May 23, 1925 – February 2, 2008) was an American molecular biologist known for his work in microbial genetics, artificial intelligence, and the United States space program. He was just 33 years old when he won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering that bacteria can mate and exchange genes. He shared the prize with Edward L. Tatum and George Beadle who won for their work with genetics.
In addition to his contributions to biology, Lederberg did extensive research in artificial intelligence. This included work in the NASA experimental programs seeking life on Mars and the chemistry expert system Dendral.
Lederberg was born in Montclair, New Jersey, to a Jewish family, son of Esther Goldenbaum Schulman Lederberg and Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Lederberg, in 1925, and moved to Washington Heights, Manhattan as an infant. He had two younger brothers. Lederberg graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City at the age of 15 in 1941. After graduation, he was allowed lab space as part of the American Institute Science Laboratory, a forerunner of the Westinghouse Science Talent Search. He enrolled in Columbia University in 1941, majoring in zoology. Under the mentorship of Francis J. Ryan, he conducted biochemical and genetic studies on the bread mold Neurospora crassa. Intending to receive his MD and fulfill his military service obligations, Lederberg worked as a hospital corpsman during 1943 in the clinical pathology laboratory at St. Albans Naval Hospital, where he examined sailors' blood and stool samples for malaria. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in 1944.
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Julian Bond
Horace Julian Bond (born January 14, 1940), known as Julian Bond, is an American social activist and leader in the American civil rights movement, politician, professor, and writer. While a student at Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, during the early 1960s, he helped to establish the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). He was the first president of the Southern Poverty Law Center. Bond was elected to four terms in the Georgia House of Representatives and later to six terms in the Georgia Senate, having served a combined twenty years in both legislative chambers. From 1998 to 2010, he was chairman of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
Bond was born in Nashville, Tennessee, to the former Julia Agnes Washington and Horace Mann Bond. The family moved to Pennsylvania when Julian was five because his father was selected as the first African-American president of Lincoln University, also his father's alma mater. In 1957, Bond graduated from George School, a private Quaker preparatory boarding school near Newtown in Bucks County, Pennsylvania.
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Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
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Kasturba Gandhi
Kastürbā Gāndhi (born Kasturba Makhanji) (Gujarati: કસ્તુરબા ગાંધી, Hindi: कस्तूरबा गाँधी) (11 April 1869 – 22 February 1944) was the wife of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, marrying him in an arranged marriage in 1882.
Born to wealthy businessman Gokuladas Kapadia of Porbandar, Kasturba was arranged to be married to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Both were thirteen years old at their wedding. When Gandhi left to study in London in 1888, she remained in India to raise their newborn son Harilal. She had three more sons: Manilal (1892), Ramdas (1897), and Devdas (1900).
Working closely with her husband, Kasturba Gandhi became a political activist fighting for civil rights and Indian independence from the British. After Gandhi moved to South Africa to practice law, she traveled to South Africa in 1897 to be with her husband. From 1904 to 1914, she was active in the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. During the 1913 protest against working conditions for Indians in South Africa, Kasturba was arrested and sentenced to three months in a hard labor prison. Later, in India, she sometimes took her husband's place when he was under arrest. In 1915, when Gandhi returned to India to support indigo planters, Kasturba accompanied him. She taught hygiene, discipline, reading and writing.
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Kathleen Byerly
Kathleen M. Byerly (born ca. 1944) is known for being one of the women named by Time magazine Time Person of the Year in 1975, representing American women (at the height of the feminist movement). She was in the first female officer in the United States Navy to be appointed flag secretary and aide to an admiral.
Byerly graduated from Chestnut Hill College in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1966. Following graduation, she joined the U.S. Navy. In 1975 she held the rank of Lieutenant Commander and was a Navy executive and aide to Rear Admiral Allen Hill.
"A Dozen Who Made a Difference – Kathleen Byerly: Confident Commander". Time. 5 January 1976. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947599-5,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
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Kelly Miller Smith
Kelly Miller Smith, Sr. (October 28, 1920 – June 3, 1984) was a Baptist preacher, author, and prominent activist in the American Civil Rights Movement.
Smith was born and raised in the all-black community of Mound Bayou, Mississippi. He attended Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State College (later Tennessee State University) from 1938 to 1940, but graduated from Morehouse College in Atlanta in 1942 with a double major in music and religion. He later received a Bachelor of Divinity degree (now known as a Master of Divinity degree) from Howard University School of Religion in 1945.
Smith moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 1951 where he became pastor of First Baptist Church, Capitol Hill, a post he would retain until his death in 1984. He became president of the Nashville NAACP in 1956 and founded the Nashville Christian Leadership Council (NCLC) in 1958. Through the NCLC, Smith helped to organize and support the local student sit-in movement—a movement which would successfully end racial segregation at lunch counters in Nashville.
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Konrad Adenauer
Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer (German pronunciation: [ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈhɛɐman ˈjoːzɛf ˈaːdənaʊɐ]; 5 January 1876 – 19 April 1967) was a German statesman. As Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963, he led his country from the ruins of World War II to a powerful and prosperous nation that forged close relations with old enemies France and the United States. In his years in power Germany achieved prosperity, democracy, stability and respect. He was the first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, called West Germany), 1949–63. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a coalition of Catholics and Protestants that under his leadership became and has since remained the most dominant in Germany.
Adenauer, dubbed "Der Alte" ("the old one"), belied his age as the oldest elected leader in world history by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a broad vision of democracy, capitalism, and anti-Communism. A shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and restoring the position of West Germany on the world stage. He worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction in World War II to a central position in Europe, rebuilt its army and came to terms with France, helped make possible Western European unification, opposed rival East Germany, and made his nation a member of NATO and a firm ally of the United States.
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Lanza del Vasto
Lanza del Vasto, (Giuseppe Giovanni Luigi Enrico Lanza di Trabia), (September 29, 1901 – January 5, 1981) was a philosopher, poet, artist, catholic and nonviolent activist.
He was born in San Vito dei Normanni, Italy and died in Elche de la Sierra, Spain.
A western disciple of Mohandas K. Gandhi, he worked for inter-religious dialogue, spiritual renewal, ecological activism and nonviolence.
In December 1936, Lanza went to India, joining the movement for Indian independence led by Gandhi. He knew of Gandhi through a book by Romain Rolland. He spent six months with the Mahatma, then in June 1937, went to the source of the Ganges river in the Himalayas, a famous pilgrimage site. There he saw a vision who told him "Go back and found!"
He left then India and went back to Europe. In 1938, he went to Palestine, then in the midst of civil war, to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, "between two lines of tanks".
He came back to Paris at the time when the Second World War started. He wrote some poetry books and in 1943 he published the story of his trip to India, Return to the Source, which became a huge success.
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Le Duc Tho
Lê Đức Thọ ( listen; October 14, 1911 – October 13, 1990), born Phan Đình Khải in Ha Nam province, was a Vietnamese revolutionary, general, diplomat, and politician, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly with United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in 1973, although he declined it.
In 1930, Tho helped found the Indochinese Communist Party. French colonial authorities imprisoned him from 1930 to 1936 and again from 1939 to 1944. After his release in 1945, he helped lead the Viet Minh, the Vietnamese independence movement, against the French, until the Geneva Accords were signed in 1954. He then joined the Lao Dong Politburo of the Vietnam Workers' Party in 1955, now the Communist Party of Vietnam. Tho oversaw the Communist insurgency that began in 1956 against the South Vietnamese government.
From 1978 to 1982 Tho was named by Hanoi to act as chief advisor to the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (FUNSK) and later to the nascent People's Republic of Kampuchea. Lê Đức Thọ's mission was to ensure that Khmer nationalism would not override Vietnam's interests in Cambodia after the Khmer Rouge was overthrown.
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Lee Harvey Oswald
Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 – November 24, 1963) was, according to four government investigations, the sniper who assassinated John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963.
A former U.S. Marine who had briefly (October 1959 – June 1962) defected to the Soviet Union, Oswald was initially arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit, on a Dallas street approximately 40 minutes after Kennedy was shot. Suspected in the assassination of Kennedy as well, Oswald denied involvement in either of the killings. Two days later, while being transferred from police headquarters to the county jail, Oswald was shot and killed by nightclub owner Jack Ruby in full view of television cameras broadcasting live.
In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy, firing three shots, a conclusion also reached by prior investigations carried out by the FBI and Dallas Police Department. In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that Oswald fired the shots which killed Kennedy, but differed from previous investigations in concluding he 'probably' did not act alone. The evidence used to form this conclusion has since been disputed.
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Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, pronounced [lʲev nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] ( listen); known in the Anglosphere as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910) was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist fiction. Many consider Tolstoy to have been one of the world's greatest novelists. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker and social reformer.
His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.
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LeVar Burton
Levardis Robert Martyn Burton, Jr. (born February 16, 1957), professionally known as LeVar Burton, is an American actor, director, producer, and author.
Burton first came to prominence portraying Kunta Kinte in the 1977 award-winning ABC television miniseries Roots, based on the novel by Alex Haley. He is also well known for his role as Lt. Commander Geordi La Forge in Star Trek: The Next Generation as well as the host of the PBS children's program Reading Rainbow.
Burton was born to American parents at the U.S. Army Landstuhl Regional Medical Center in West Germany. His mother, Erma Jean (born Christian), was a social worker, administrator, and educator. His father, Levardis Robert Martyn Burton, was a photographer for the U.S. Army Signal Corps, and at the time was stationed at Landstuhl. Burton and his two sisters were raised by his mother in Sacramento, California. Burton was raised Catholic and, at the age of thirteen, entered St. Pius X seminary in Galt, California to become a priest. He attended Christian Brothers High School and graduated in the class of 1974. He is a graduate of University of Southern California's School of Theatre.
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Linda Royster Beito
Linda Royster Beito is chair of the department of social sciences at Stillman College in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Beito was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. She earned her Ph.D. in political science and her master of science in criminal justice from the University of Alabama.
She was assistant professor of political science and criminal justice at the University of South Alabama from 1996 to 1999. Since 1999, she has taught at Stillman College where she has received several awards for excellence in teaching. She was also inducted into the Zeta Phi Beta Hall of Fame at Stillman College.
She married David T. Beito on June 11, 1997 and they live in Northport, Alabama. She has three children, April, Keith and Quale.
Her second book (co-authored by Professor David T. Beito of the University of Alabama), Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power," appeared in 2009. It is a biography of civil rights leader T.R.M. Howard.
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Linus Pauling
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century. Pauling was among the first scientists to work in the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.
Pauling is one of only four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize. He is one of only two people awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields (the Chemistry and Peace prizes), the other being Marie Curie (the Chemistry and Physics prizes), and the only person awarded two unshared prizes.
Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, as the first-born child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926). He was named "Linus Carl," in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl. Herman and Lucy – then 23 and 18 years old, respectively – had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.
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Lola Hendricks
Lola Mae Hendricks (née Haynes) (born December 1932) was corresponding secretary for Fred Shuttlesworth's Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights from 1956 to 1963. She assisted Wyatt Walker in planning the early portions of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference's involvement in the 1963 Birmingham Campaign during the African-American Civil Rights Movement. She has two sisters (one deceased), two daughters Audrey Faye Hendricks(1952–2009) and Jan Hendricks Fuller, and one grandson Joel A. Fuller.
Hendricks' was born in Birmingham, Alabama. Her parents were a coal-truck driver from LaGrange, Georgia and a domestic cook from adjacent Chambers County, Alabama. She and her sister both attended Ullman High School but Lola graduated from A. H. Parker High School in Birmingham. Lola then went on to study for two years at the Booker T. Washington Business College. She then took a job in a black-owned insurance company, married Joe Hendricks, and moved to the middle-class African-American neighborhood of Titusville in the segregated city.
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Loyd Jowers
Loyd Jowers (November 20, 1926 – May 20, 2000) was the owner of a restaurant (Jim's Grill) near the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, where Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968. In December 1993, Jowers appeared on ABC's Prime Time Live and related the details of an alleged conspiracy involving the Mafia and the U.S. government to kill King. According to Jowers, James Earl Ray was a scapegoat, and not involved in the assassination. Jowers believed that Memphis police officer Lieutenant Earl Clark fired the fatal shot.
In 1998, the King family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators" for the murder of King. A Memphis jury found Jowers responsible on December 8, 1999, and that the assassination plot contained also "governmental agencies." At a 1999 press conference following the verdict, Coretta Scott King stated that "there is abundant evidence of a major high level conspiracy in the assassination of my husband, Martin Luther King, Jr... the conspiracy of the Mafia, local, state and federal government agencies, were deeply involved in the assassination of my husband. The jury also affirmed overwhelming evidence that identified someone else, not James Earl Ray, as the shooter, and that Mr. Ray was set up to take the blame." Following statements by Dexter King and other family members, Dexter was subsequently asked by a reporter, "there are many people out there who feel that as long as these conspirators remain nameless and faceless there is no true closure, and no justice." He replied:
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Léon Jouhaux
Léon Jouhaux (July 1, 1879, Pantin, Seine-Saint-Denis – April 28, 1954) was a French trade union leader who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1951.
Jouhaux's father worked in a match factory in Aubervilliers. His secondary schooling ended when his father's earnings were stopped by a strike. He gained employment at the factory at age sixteen and immediately became an important part of the union. In 1900, Jouhaux joined a strike against the use of the white phosphorus that blinded his father, was dismissed, and worked at a succession of jobs until union influence saw him reinstated.
In 1906, he was elected by the local union as a representative to the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), where his abilities saw him quickly rise through the ranks of organized labour. By 1909 he became interim treasurer, and shortly afterwards became secretary-general of the organization, which he held until 1947. His goals as a trade unionist were the familiar ones of the early labour movement — the eight hour day, the right to union representation and collective bargaining, and paid holidays. During the Popular Front, the 1936 Matignon Agreement, to which he was a signatory, awarded many of these rights to French workers.
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Mahadev Desai
Mahadev Desai (January 1, 1892 – August 15, 1942) was an Indian independence activist and nationalist writer; he was most famously known for being the personal secretary of Mahatma Gandhi.
Desai was a young lawyer in Ahmedabad when he decided to join Gandhi along with Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas, and became his most devoted secretary for 25 years, from 1917 to 1942. The four were the earliest supporters of Gandhi.
Mahadev Desai was arrested with Gandhi during all the nationalist revolts. The chief period of interest is the time Gandhi was incarcerated in the Yeravda Jail near Pune, Maharashtra from 1931 to 1934. Desai wrote most of his important works on Gandhi during this period. He was arrested on the morning of August 9 after Gandhi's call to the British to Quit India and sent to the Aga Khan Palace for imprisonment. On August 15, 1942, Mahadev Desai died of a massive heart-attack at the age of 51.
Gandhi was devastated by Desai's death at a young age. Both Gandhi and his wife Kasturba Gandhi had seen him as their son, and his death was mourned by Gandhi's supporters across the country.
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Mahalia Jackson
Mahalia Jackson ( /məˈheɪljə/ mə-HAYL-yə; October 26, 1911 – January 27, 1972) was an American gospel singer. Possessing a powerful contralto voice, she was referred to as "The Queen of Gospel". Jackson became one of the most influential gospel singers in the world and was heralded internationally as a singer and civil rights activist. She was described by entertainer Harry Belafonte as "the single most powerful black woman in the United States". She recorded about 30 albums (mostly for Columbia Records) during her career, and her 45 rpm records included a dozen "golds"—million-sellers.
Born as Mahala Jackson and nicknamed "Halie", Jackson grew up in the Black Pearl section of the Carrollton neighborhood of Uptown New Orleans, Louisiana. The three-room dwelling on Pitt Street housed thirteen people and a dog. This included Little Mahala (named after her aunt, Mahala Clark-Paul whom the family called Aunt Duke), her brother Roosevelt Hunter, whom they called Peter, and her mother Charity Clark, who worked as both a maid and a laundress. Several aunts and cousins lived in the house as well. Aunt Mahala was given the nickname "Duke" after proving herself the undisputed "boss" of the family. The extended family (the Clarks) consisted of her mother's siblings – Isabell, Mahala, Boston, Porterfield, Hannah, Alice, Rhoda, Bessie, their children, grandchildren and patriarch Rev. Paul Clark, a former slave. Mahalia's father, John A. Jackson, Sr. was a stevedore (dockworker) and a barber who later became a Baptist minister. He fathered four other children besides Mahalia – Wilmon (older) and then Yvonne, Pearl and Johnny, Jr. (by his marriage shortly after Halie's birth). Her father's sister, Jeanette Jackson-Burnett, and husband, Josie, were vaudeville entertainers.
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Malcolm Gladwell
Malcolm T. Gladwell, CM (born September 3, 1963) is a Canadian journalist, bestselling author, and speaker. He is currently based in New York City and has been a staff writer for The New Yorker since 1996. He has written four books, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Make a Big Difference (2000), Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking (2005), Outliers: The Story of Success (2008), and What the Dog Saw: And Other Adventures (2009), a collection of his journalism. All four books were New York Times Bestsellers.
Gladwell's books and articles often deal with the unexpected implications of research in the social sciences and make frequent and extended use of academic work, particularly in the areas of sociology, psychology, and social psychology. Gladwell was appointed to the Order of Canada on June 30, 2011.
Gladwell was born in Fareham, Hampshire, England to Joyce, Jamaican-born psychotherapist, and Graham Gladwell, a British mathematics professor. Gladwell has said that his mother is his role model as a writer. When he was six his family moved to Elmira, Ontario, Canada.
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Malcolm X
Malcolm X ( /ˈmælkəm ˈɛks/; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Arabic: الحاجّ مالك الشباز), was an African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. Detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.
Malcolm X's father died—killed by white supremacists, it was rumored—when he was young, and at least one of his uncles was lynched. When he was thirteen, his mother was placed in a mental hospital, and he was placed in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for breaking and entering.
In prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam and after his parole in 1952 he quickly rose to become one of its leaders. For a dozen years Malcolm X was the public face of the controversial group, but disillusionment with Nation of Islam head Elijah Muhammad led him to leave the Nation in March 1964. After a period of travel in Africa and the Middle East, he returned to the United States, where he founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. In February 1965, less than a year after leaving the Nation of Islam, he was assassinated by three members of the group.
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Manilal Gandhi
Manilal Mohandas Gandhi (28 October 1892 – 4 April 1956) was the second of four sons of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi. Manilal was born in Rajkot, India. In 1897 Manilal traveled to South Africa for the first time, where he spent time working at the Phoenix Ashram near Durban. After a brief visit to India, in 1917 Manilal returned to South Africa to assist in printing the Indian Opinion a Gujarati-English weekly publication, at Phoenix, Durban. By 1918, Manilal was doing most of the work for the press and took over in 1920 as editor. Like his father, Manilal was also sent to jail several times by the British colonial government after protesting against unjust laws. He remained editor until 1956, the year of his death. Manilal died from a cerebral thrombosis following a stroke.
In 1927, Manilal married Sushila Mashruwala, and had two daughters, Sita (1928) and Ela (1940), and one son, Arun (1934). Arun and Ela are also social-political activists. Uma D. Mesthrie, Manilal's Granddaughter (Sita's daughter), recently published a biography on Manilal.
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Marcus Garvey
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., ONH (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940) was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL). He founded the Black Star Line, part of the Back-to-Africa movement, which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.
Prior to the twentieth century, leaders such as Prince Hall, Martin Delany, Edward Wilmot Blyden, and Henry Highland Garnet advocated the involvement of the African diaspora in African affairs. Garvey was unique in advancing a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as Garveyism. Promoted by the UNIA as a movement of African Redemption, Garveyism would eventually inspire others, ranging from the Nation of Islam to the Rastafari movement (which proclaims Garvey as a prophet). The intent of the movement was for those of African ancestry to "redeem" Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave it. His essential ideas about Africa were stated in an editorial in the Negro World titled "African Fundamentalism" where he wrote:
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Margaret Sanger
Margaret Higgins Sanger (September 14, 1879 – September 6, 1966) was an American sex educator, nurse, and birth control activist. Sanger coined the term birth control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, and established Planned Parenthood. Sanger's efforts contributed to the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case which legalized contraception in the United States. Sanger is a frequent target of criticism by opponents of the legalization of abortion, based primarily upon her racial views and support of eugenics, but she remains an iconic figure for the American reproductive rights movement.
Her early years were spent in New York City, where she associated with social activists such as Upton Sinclair and Emma Goldman. In 1914, prompted by suffering she witnessed due to frequent pregnancies and self-induced abortions, she started publishing a monthly newsletter, The Woman Rebel. Sanger's activism was influenced by the conditions of her youth — her mother had 18 pregnancies in 22 years, and died at age 50 of tuberculosis and cervical cancer.
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Marie Foster
Marie Foster (October 24, 1917 – September 6, 2003) was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. during the 1960s. She was instrumental in helping to register many African American voters in Selma, Alabama, and was one of the primary local organizers of the Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965. She also helped create the Dallas County Voters League, a group of African Americans that pushed for improvements in the system for voter registration.
Foster became interested in the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1960s because she felt "the race relations were so bad in Selma". She tried to register to vote eight times before succeeding. Following her successful registration, Foster began teaching other African Americans how to pass the tests used to bar them. One person showed up to her first class, in which she taught the 70-year-old man how to write his own name. Gradually, the classes drew more and more people.
As the Civil Rights Movement grew, Foster became an organizer for the Dallas County area. She participated in the march on March 7, 1965 that became known as Bloody Sunday. As the march approached the Edmund Pettus Bridge, a combined state trooper and police force stopped the march, violently beating many of the participants. Foster was at the front of one of the lines, and was clubbed by a state trooper, leaving her with her with swollen knees. Despite her injuries, two weeks later Foster participated in the march that eventually made it all the way to Montgomery, Alabama, successfully walking fifty miles over five days.
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Mark Kurlansky
Mark Kurlansky (born 7 December 1948 in Hartford, Connecticut) is an American journalist and writer of general interest non-fiction. He is especially known for titles on eclectic topics, such as cod or salt.
Kurlansky attended Butler University, where he harbored an early interest in theatre and earned a BA in 1970. However, his interest faded and he began to work as a journalist in the 1970s. During the '70s he worked as a correspondent in Western Europe for the Miami Herald, The Philadelphia Inquirer, and eventually the Paris-based International Herald Tribune. He moved to Mexico in 1982 where he continued to do journalism. He wrote his first book, A Continent of Islands, in 1992 and went on to write several books throughout the 1990s. His 1997 book Cod was an international bestseller and was translated into more than 15 languages. His work and contribution to Basque identity and culture is recognized in the Basque hall of fame.
Kurlansky as a teenager called Emile Zola his "hero", and in 2009 Kurlansky translated one of Zola's novels The Belly of Paris whose theme is the food markets of Paris.
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Medgar Evers
Medgar Wiley Evers (July 2, 1925 – June 12, 1963) was an African American civil rights activist from Mississippi involved in efforts to overturn segregation at the University of Mississippi. He became active in the civil rights movement after returning from overseas service in World War II and completing secondary education; he became a field secretary for the NAACP.
Evers was assassinated by Byron De La Beckwith, a member of the White Citizens' Council. As a veteran, Evers was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. His murder and the resulting trials inspired civil rights protests, as well as numerous works of art, music, and film.
Medgar Evers was born July 2, 1925 in Decatur, Mississippi, the son of Jesse and her husband, James Evers; they owned a small farm and he also worked at a sawmill. Evers was the third of five children, after Charles and Elizabeth. His sister Ruth was the youngest. The family also included Eva Lee and Gene, Jesse’s children from a prior marriage. After the lynchings of family friends, Evers became determined to get an education. He walked 12 miles to and from school to earn his high school diploma.
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Michael Eric Dyson
Michael Eric Dyson (born October 23, 1958) is an American academic, author, and radio host. He is a professor of sociology at Georgetown University. Described by Michael A. Fletcher as "a Princeton Ph.D. and a child of the streets who takes pains never to separate the two", Dyson has so far authored and edited 18 books dealing with subjects such as Malcolm X, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Marvin Gaye, Nas’s debut album Illmatic, Bill Cosby, and Hurricane Katrina.
Dyson was born to African-American parents, Everett and Addie Dyson. He attended Cranbrook School in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan on academic scholarship but left and completed his education at Northwestern High School. He became an ordained Baptist minister at 19 years of age. Having worked in factories in Detroit to support his family, he entered Knoxville College as a freshman at age 21. Dyson received his Bachelor's from Carson–Newman College (magna cum laude) in 1985, and his Master's and Doctorate in religion, from Princeton University. Dr. Dyson serves on the board of directors of the Common Ground Foundation, a project dedicated to empowering urban youth in the United States. Dr. Dyson and his wife, writer and ordained minister Marcia L. Dyson, are regular guests and speakers at the Aspen Institute Conferences and Ideas Festival. Together, they lecture on many on the nation's college campuses.
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Michael Honey
Michael K. Honey is an American historian, Guggenheim Fellow and Haley Professor of Humanities at the University of Washington Tacoma in the United States, where he teaches African-American, civil rights and labor history. He previously served as the Harry Bridges Chair of Labor Studies for the University of Washington, and as President of the Labor and Working-Class History Association.
Honey is best known for his scholarly research on the history of the American civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., and on the labor history of the United States. In 2011 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, "on the basis of his prior achievement and exceptional promise", from a field of almost 3,000 applicants from the United States and Canada. He has also received research grants and fellowships from the American Council of Learned Societies, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Humanities Center, the Rockefeller Foundation's Bellagio Research and Conference Center, the Huntington Library, and the Stanford Humanities Center.
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Mirabehn
Madeleine Slade (Mirabehn) (November 22, 1892 – July 20, 1982), daughter of the British Rear-Admiral Sir Edmond Slade, was a British woman who left her home in England to live and work with Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement. She devoted her life to human development, the advancement of Gandhi's principles and the freedom struggle in India. In doing so, Gandhi gave her the name, Mirabehn, after Meera Bai, the great devotee of Lord Krishna.
Mirabehn during her stay in India once went to Gurukul Kangri to learn Hindi. Thereafter she went to Bhagwat Bhakti Ashram of Rewari established by Swami Parmanand Maharaj in order to be blessed by him. She also wrote to Mahatma Gandhi about her experiences there in Bhagwat Bhakti Ashram.
She was awarded India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1982.
Actress Geraldine James portrayed her in Richard Attenborough's film, Gandhi, which premiered several months after Madeleine Slade's death in 1982.
With Gandhi at Darwen.
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Mohammad Mosaddegh
Mohammad Mosaddegh or Mosaddeq (Persian: محمد مصدق, IPA: [mohæmˈmæd(-e) mosædˈdeɣ] ( listen)*), also spelled Mossadegh, Mossadeq, Mosadeck, or Musaddiq (16 June 1882 – 5 March 1967), was the Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 until being overthrown in a coup d'état in 1953.
His administration introduced a wide range of social and political reforms but is most notable for its nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC/AIOC) (later British Petroleum or BP).
Mosaddegh was removed from power in a coup on 19 August 1953, organised and carried out by the United States CIA at the request of the British MI6 which chose Iranian General Fazlollah Zahedi to succeed Mosaddegh.
The coup is sometimes known as the TPAJAX Project after its CIA cryptonym, however, in Iran it is referred to as the 28 Mordad 1332 coup, after its date on the Iranian calendar., which is incorrect as the Operation's proper name was TPAjax (TP standing for Tudeh Party of Iran the Russian backed communist party of Iran} Mosaddegh was imprisoned for three years, then put under house arrest until his death.
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Mohanlal Pandya
Mohanlal Pandya was an Indian freedom fighter, social reformer and one of the earliest followers of Mahatma Gandhi. Along with fellow Gandhians like Narhari Parikh and Ravi Shankar Vyas, Pandya was a key organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat, and a leading figure in the fight against alcoholism, illiteracy, untouchability, and a major proponent of women's freedoms and Gandhian values.
Pandya was a close associate of both Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel during the Indian Independence Movement.
Mohanlal Pandya was nicknamed as Onion Thief'''' (Dungli Chor)'' by Gandhiji because he has harvested onion from the land which was taken away by the British Government.
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Molefi Kete Asante
Molefi Kete Asante (born Arthur Lee Smith Jr. on August 14, 1942) is an African-American scholar, historian, and philosopher. He is a leading figure in the fields of African American studies, African Studies and Communication Studies. He is currently Professor in the Department of African American Studies at Temple University, where he founded the firstPhD program in African American Studies. Asante is widely known for his writings on Afrocentricity, a school of thought that has influenced the fields of sociology, intercultural communication, critical theory, political science, African history, and social work. He is the author of more than 66 books and the founding editor of the Journal of Black Studies.
Asante (born Arthur Lee Smith Jr.) was born in Valdosta, Georgia, the fourth of sixteen children. His father, Arthur Lee Smith, worked in a peanut warehouse and then on the Georgia Southern Railroad; his mother worked as a domestic. During the summers Asante would return to Georgia to work in the tobacco and cotton fields in order to earn tuition for school. He was influenced to pursue his education by an aunt, Georgia Smith, who gave him his first book: a collection of short stories by Charles Dickens.
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Myles Horton
Myles Horton (July 9, 1905 - January 19, 1990) was an American educator, socialist and cofounder of the Highlander Folk School, famous for its role in the Civil Rights Movement (Movement leader James Bevel called Horton "The Father of the Civil Rights Movement"). Horton taught and heavily influenced most of the era's leaders. They included Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks (who studied with Horton shortly before her decision to keep her seat on the Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955), John Lewis, James Bevel, Bernard Lafayette, Ralph Abernathy, John B. Thompson, and many others.
A poor white man from Savannah in West Tennessee, Horton's social and political views were strongly influenced by theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, under whom he studied at the Union Theological Seminary in New York City. Along with educator Don West and Methodist minister James A. Dombrowski of New Orleans, Horton founded the Highlander Folk School (now Highlander Research and Education Center) in his native Tennessee in 1932. He remained its director until 1973, traveling with it to reorganize in Knoxville after the state shut it down in 1961.
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NAACP Youth Council
The NAACP Youth Council is a branch of the NAACP in which youth are actively involved. In past years, council participants organized under the council's name to make major strides in the 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement. The 1958 Oklahoma City Lunch-counter Sit-in, guided by activist Clara Luper, was organized by the local Youth Council, and Claudette Colvin, the first person to refuse to give up her seat on the bus in Montgomery, Alabama in 1955, was a member of the Council.
The NAACP Youth Council is composed of hundreds of state and county-wide operations in which youth (usually teens) volunteer to share their voices or opinions with their fellow council members, and then strive to address the issues raised on a local or national level. Sometimes this volunteer work expands to an international scale.
"The mission of the NAACP Youth & College Division shall be to inform youth of the problems affecting African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities; to advance the economic, education, social and political status of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities and their harmonious cooperation with other peoples; to stimulate an appreciation of the African Diaspora and other people of color’s contribution to civilization; and to develop an intelligent, militant effective youth leadership"
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Narhari Parikh
Narhari Parikh was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, who was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and the chief architect of the Indian Independence Movement in Gujarat.[citation needed]
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Nelson Mandela
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (Xhosa pronunciation: [xoˈliːɬaɬa manˈdeːla]; born 18 July 1918) is a South African politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, the first ever to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before being elected President, Mandela was a militant anti-apartheid activist, and the leader and co-founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC). In 1962 he was arrested and convicted of sabotage and other charges, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Mandela went on to serve 27 years in prison, spending many of these years on Robben Island. Following his release from prison on 11 February 1990, Mandela led his party in the negotiations that led to the establishment of democracy in 1994. As President, he frequently gave priority to reconciliation, while introducing policies aimed at combating poverty and inequality in South Africa.
In South Africa, Mandela is often known as Madiba, his Xhosa clan name; or as tata (Xhosa: father). Mandela has received more than 250 awards over four decades.
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Nick Kotz
Nathan "Nick" K. Kotz (September 16, 1932- ) , born in San Antonio, Texas, is an American journalist, author, and historian. He is best known for his 2005 book Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America chronicling the roles of President Johnson and Dr. King in the passage of the 1964, 1965, and 1968 civil rights laws. Kotz won a Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting in 1968 "for his reporting of unsanitary conditions in many meat packing plants, which helped insure the passage of the Federal Wholesome Meat Act of 1967."
As a reporter for the Des Moines Register and the Washington Post, and as a freelance writer, Nick Kotz has won many of journalism's most important honors, including the Sigma Delta Chi Award for Washington correspondence, the Raymond Clapper Memorial Award, and the first Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Award. His study of American military leadership won the National Magazine Award for public service. His book Wild Blue Yonder: Money, Politics, and the B-1 Bomber won the Olive Branch Award.
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Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 15 [O.S. April 3] 1894, – September 11, 1971) led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. Khrushchev's party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier.
Khrushchev was born in the Russian village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the present-day border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar. With the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalin's purges, and approved thousands of arrests. In 1939, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War (Eastern Front of World War II), Khrushchev was again a commissar, serving as an intermediary between Stalin and his generals. Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalin's close advisers.
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Norman Borlaug
Norman Ernest Borlaug (March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) was an American agronomist, humanitarian, and Nobel laureate who has been called "the father of the Green Revolution". Borlaug was one of six people to have won the Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian honor.
Borlaug received his Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high-yield, disease-resistant wheat varieties.
During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. These collective increases in yield have been labeled the Green Revolution, and Borlaug is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
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Omali Yeshitela
Omali Yeshitela (born Joseph Waller, October 9, 1941, St. Petersburg, Florida) the founder of the Uhuru Movement, a left wing, African Internationalist organization based in St. Petersburg, Florida.
Yeshitela participated in the American Civil Rights Movement in his youth during the 1950s and 1960s as a member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. At the height of the civil rights movement in St. Petersburg, Waller was jailed for an act of civil disobedience in 1966, when he tore a mural in City Hall depicting degrading caricatures of African Americans. Waller spent two and a half years in jail and prison. After his release, he was stripped of his right to vote for decades until Governor Jeb Bush and three members of Florida's Cabinet restored his voting rights in 2000.
In his civic activism in his native St. Petersburg, Yeshitela has stressed his view that political and economic development will bring peace to African American neighborhoods.
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Paul Tillich
Paul Johannes Tillich (August 20, 1886 – October 22, 1965) was a German-American theologian and Christian existentialist philosopher. Tillich was one of the most influential Protestant theologians of the 20th century. Among the general public, he is best known for his works The Courage to Be (1952) and Dynamics of Faith (1957), which introduced issues of theology and modern culture to a general readership. Theologically, he is best known for his major three-volume work Systematic Theology (1951–63), in which he developed his "method of correlation": an approach of exploring the symbols of Christian revelation as answers to the problems of human existence raised by contemporary existential philosophical analysis.
Tillich was born on August 20, 1886, in the small village of Starzeddel Silesia which was then part of Germany. He was the oldest of three children, with two sisters: Johanna (b. 1888, d. 1920) and Elisabeth (b. 1893). Tillich’s Prussian father Johannes Tillich was a conservative Lutheran pastor of the Evangelical State Church of Prussia's older Provinces; his mother Mathilde Dürselen was from the Rhineland and was more liberal. When Tillich was four, his father became superintendent of a diocese in Schönfliess, a town of three thousand, where Tillich began elementary school. In 1898, Tillich was sent to Königsberg Chojna to begin gymnasium. At Königsberg, he lived in a boarding house and experienced loneliness that he sought to overcome by reading the Bible. Simultaneously, however, he was exposed to humanistic ideas at school.
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Paul Winfield
Paul Edward Winfield (May 22, 1939 – March 7, 2004) was an American television, film, and stage actor. He was known for his portrayal of a Louisiana sharecropper who struggles to support his family during the Great Depression in the landmark film Sounder which earned him an Academy Award nomination. Winfield portrayed Captain Terrell of the Starship Reliant in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, and he also portrayed Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the television miniseries King, for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award.
Winfield was born in Los Angeles, California to Lois Beatrice Edwards, a union organizer in the garment industry. His stepfather from the age of eight was Clarence Winfield, a city trash collector and construction worker. He attended Manual Arts High School, the University of Portland, Stanford University, Los Angeles City College and the University of California at Los Angeles.
Winfield carved out a diverse career in film, television, theater and voiceovers by taking ground breaking roles at a time when African-American actors were rarely cast. His first major feature film role was in the 1969 film, The Lost Man starring Sidney Poitier. Winfield first became well-known to television audiences when he appeared for several years opposite Diahann Carroll on the groundbreaking television series Julia. Filmed during a high point of racial tensions in the United States, the show was unique in featuring an African-American female as the central character. He also starred as Martin Luther King, Jr. in the 1978 miniseries King.
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Percy Foreman
Percy Eugene Foreman (June 21, 1902 – August 25, 1988) was a criminal defense attorney from Houston, Texas. Foreman was born near Bold Springs, Texas, and moved to Livingston, Texas when he was six years old. He was the son of William P. ("Rogers") Foreman, a former sheriff of Polk County, Texas. Percy Foreman attended Staunton Military Academy in Virginia for one year, graduated from the University of Texas Law School in 1927, and was admitted to the Texas Bar on January 17, 1928. He went on to become one of America's best known trial lawyers.
Notorious for his high fees and courtroom theatrics,[citation needed] he was often ridiculed for his clothing and disorganization,[citation needed] but he was a respected master of tactics. He lost only 53 of 1500 death-penalty cases and only one finally resulted in execution (Steve Mitchell, electrocuted in Texas in 1951).
Foreman's clients included Candy Mossler, James Earl Ray, who was convicted of the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., [4] and Charles Harrelson, convicted murderer and the father of actor Woody Harrelson. James Earl Ray, on the advice of Foreman, later took a guilty plea to avoid a trial conviction and therefore the possibility of receiving the death penalty.
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Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (Latin: Ioannes PP. XXIII; Italian: Giovanni XXIII), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), headed the Catholic Church and ruled Vatican City from 1958 until his death.
Pope John was elected on 28 October 1958. He called the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) but did not live to see it to completion. He died in 1963, only four-and-a-half years after his election, and two months after the completion of his final encyclical, Pacem in Terris. He was beatified, along with Pope Pius IX, on 3 September 2000.
Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in Sotto il Monte, a small country village in the Bergamo province of the Lombardy region of Italy. He was the first-born son of Giovanni Battista Roncalli (1854–1935) and his wife Marianna Giulia Mazzolla (1854–1939), and fourth in a family of 13, including: Angelo Giuseppe, Alfredo (1889–??), Maria Caterina (1877–1883), Teresa (1879–1954), Ancilla (1880–1953), Domenico Giuseppe (22 February 1888 – 14 March 1888), Francesco Zaverio (1883–1976), Maria Elisa (1884–1955), Assunta Casilda (1886–??), Giovanni Francesco (1891–1956), Enrica (1893–1918), Giuseppe Luigi (1894–??) and Luigi (1896–1898). His family worked as sharecroppers as did most of the people of Sotto il Monte – a striking contrast to that of his predecessor, Eugenio Pacelli (Pope Pius XII), who came from an ancient aristocratic family, long connected to the Papacy. However, he was still a descendant of an Italian noble family, from a secondary and impoverished branch.
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Prathia Hall
Rev. Dr. Prathia Hall (1940–2002) was a leader and activist in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, womanist theologian, and ethicist.
Hall was raised in Philadelphia, the daughter of a Baptist preacher. Following early experiences of discrimination, by her mid-teens Hall hoped to join the African-American Civil Rights Movement. After graduating high school she attended Temple University. In 1961, while still a junior at Temple, Hall was arrested in Annapolis, Maryland for participation in the anti-segregation protests on Maryland's Eastern Shore and was in jail for two weeks. After graduating from Temple with a degree in political science, she joined the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In 1962, white gunmen shot Hall and fellow activists, Jack Chatfield and Christopher Allen at the house of Carolyn Daniels in Terrell County, Georgia. She was shot at by police and jailed many times in Georgia, including in the notorious Sasser jail. She became involved in the Albany Movement, becoming known for her oratorical power, speaking at movement meetings and preaching as well. She preached at the Albany Movement's first anniversary program along with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who praised her oratorical skills, and spoke of her dream for the future at the burned down site of the Mt. Olive Baptist Church where the movement had its mass meetings in Terrell County. She often repeated the phrase "I have a dream" during her speeches, which some say became the inspiration to King for his famous speech. She worked for the SNCC until 1966.
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Rajmohan Gandhi
Rajmohan Gandhi (born 1935, New Delhi, India) is a biographer and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and a research professor at the Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Gandhi's maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari, free India's first Head of State, the first Indian Governor General of independent India and one of the foremost fighters for Indian independence. His father was Devdas Gandhi, who was the Managing Editor of the Daily Hindustan Times. He attended St. Stephen's College, New Delhi, India. Associated from 1956 with Initiatives of Change (formerly known as Moral Re-Armament), Rajmohan Gandhi has been engaged for half a century in efforts for trust-building, reconciliation and democracy and in battles against corruption and inequalities. These efforts, made in India and across the world, have involved writing, speaking, public interventions, and organizing dialogues.
In the 1960s and early 1970s, he played a leading role in establishing Asia Plateau, the 80-acre (320,000 m2) conference centre of Initiatives of Change in the mountains of western India. Asia Plateau has been recognized in the Indian subcontinent for its ecological contribution. During the 1975-77 Emergency in India, he was active for democratic rights personally and through his weekly journal Himmat, published in Bombay from 1964 to 1981. He contested the Lok Sabha elections in 1989 but was defeated. He served (1990-92) in the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Indian Parliament) and led the Indian delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva in 1990. In the Indian Parliament he was the convener of the all-party joint committee of both houses addressing the condition of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
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Ralph Abernathy
Ralph David Abernathy, Sr. (March 11, 1926 – April 17, 1990) was a leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, a minister, and a close associate of Martin Luther King, Jr. in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Following King's assassination, Dr. Abernathy took up the leadership of the SCLC Poor People's Campaign and led the March on Washington, D.C. that had been planned for May 1968.
He was born March 11, 1926 to W. L. Abernathy on the family 500-acre (200 ha) farm in Linden, Alabama. Technically he was born in Linden, Alabama. After serving in the United States Army during World War II, he enrolled at Alabama State University. In 1951 he earned a Masters of Science degree in sociology from Atlanta University. As an officer of the Montgomery, Alabama NAACP, he organized the first mass meeting of the Montgomery Bus Boycott to protest Rosa Parks' arrest on December 1, 1955.
In the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement, Dr. Abernathy was the young pastor of the largest black church First Baptist Church and a college professor, who, along with fellow English professor Jo Ann Robinson, called for and distributed flyers asking the Negro citizens of Montgomery to stay off of the buses for what would become the Montgomery Bus Boycott. At the end of the boycott, on January 10, 1957, Dr. Abernathy's church and his home (1327 South Hall Street) were bombed; his wife, Juanita, and infant daughter, Juandalynn, were unharmed.
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Ralph McGill
Ralph Emerson McGill (February 5, 1898 – February 3, 1969), American journalist, was best known as the anti-segregationist editor and publisher of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper. He won a Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing in 1959.
McGill was born near Soddy-Daisy, Tennessee and attended school at the The McCallie School in Chattanooga, Tennessee. He attended Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, but did not graduate because he was suspended his senior year for writing an article in the student newspaper critical of the school's administration. McGill served in the Marine Corps during World War I. He got a job working for the sports department of the Nashville Banner and soon worked his way up to sports editor. In 1929, he moved to Atlanta, Georgia to become the assistant sports editor of The Atlanta Constitution. Wanting to move from sports to more serious news, he got an assignment to cover the first Cuban Revolt in 1933. He also applied for and was granted a Rosenwald Fellowship in 1938, which allowed him to cover the Nazi takeover of Austria in 1938. These articles earned him a spot as executive editor of the Constitution, which he used to highlight the effects of segregation. In response, many angry readers sent threats and letters to McGill. Some acted on the threats and burned crosses at night on his front lawn, fired bullets into the windows of his home and left crude bombs in his mailbox.
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Ramdas Gandhi
Ramdas Gandhi (1896–1969) was the third son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa. He outlived his parents and all of his brothers. He and his wife Nirmal had three children; Sumitra Gandhi, Kanu Gandhi and Usha Gandhi. He was active in his father's Indian independence movement.
He had no taste for asceticism, yet participated in the grueling civil protests of the 1930s. Numerous jailings had serious effects on his health. Born and raised in South Africa, he never adjusted to the idealistic poverty imposed by his father. He had a taste for hunting. He died in the year of his father's centenary. At his fathers funeral, Ramdas Gandhi was the one who lit the fire to start the cremation, as Mahatma had wished for. He was joined by his younger brother Devdas Gandhi at the funeral.
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Ravi Shankar Vyas
Ravi Shankar Vyas (1884–1984) was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, hailing from and working in the state of Gujarat. He was one of the earliest and closest associates of Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and along with Narhari Parikh and Mohanlal Pandya, the chief organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat in the 1920s and 1930s. Jhaverchand Meghani wrote a novel Maansaee na deeva about the social upliftment work done by Ravi Shankar Maharaj. The novel was very well received by Gujarati readers.
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René Cassin
René Samuel Cassin (born 5 October 1887 in Bayonne, France – died 20 February 1976 in Paris, France) was a French jurist, law professor and judge. The son of a French-Jewish merchant, he served as a soldier in World War I, and later went on to form the Union Fédérale, a leftist, pacifist Veterans organisation. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1968 for his work in drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. That same year, he was also awarded one of the UN's own Human Rights Prizes. René Cassin founded the French Institute of Administrative Sciences (IFSA) which was recognized as a public utility association.
As French delegate to the League of Nations from 1924 to 1938, Cassin pressed for progress on disarmament and in developing institutions to aid the resolution of international conflicts.
Working from a draft composed by Canadian scholar and professor of law, John Humphrey, he reduced the draft from 46 basic articles to 44. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as eventually adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December contained 30 human rights articles from the original draft.
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Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937, and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington to work for the federal government in 1942. He subsequently served in the United States Navy during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California in 1962. In 1968, he ran again for the presidency and was elected.
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Robert Greenwald
Robert Greenwald (born August 28, 1945) is an American film director, film producer, and political activist.
His career began in the 1970s and '80s directing television and motion pictures, perhaps most notably the big-budget musical Xanadu (1980), Since the late 1990s, Greenwald has specialized in documentaries emphasizing a left-wing/progressive perspective.
Greenwald was born and raised in New York City, the son of Ruth and Harold Greenwald. He attended the city's High School of Performing Arts. He was active in New York theater, directing the plays Me and Bessie (1975) and I Have a Dream (1976), a play based on the life of Martin Luther King, Jr., with Billy Dee Williams playing King.
Greenwald then moved to Los Angeles[when?], where he launched a career as a director for television. In 1977, he received his first of three Emmy Award nominations for producing the television movie 21 Hours at Munich about the massacre at the 1972 Olympics. His next Emmy nomination came in 1984 for directing The Burning Bed. During this period he produced or directed many[quantify] television movies; The New York Times would later characterize this work as "commercially respectable B-list movies". Later, Greenwald would foray into film directing, including films such as Xanadu (1980),Breaking Up (1997) and Steal This Movie! (2000).
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Robert Parris Moses
Robert Parris Moses (born Harlem, New York, January 23, 1935, usually known as Bob Moses) is an American, Harvard-trained educator who was a leader in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and later founded the nationwide U.S. Algebra project.
Moses graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1952 and received his B.A. from Hamilton College in 1956. He studied philosophy at Harvard and began teaching at the Horace Mann School in Manhattan in 1958.
He began working with civil rights activists in 1960, becoming field secretary for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). As director of the SNCC's Mississippi Project, Moses traveled to the South to try to register black voters. He faced nearly relentless violence and official intimidation. He and other organizers had asked for federal protection from the John F. Kennedy administration.
By 1964 Moses had become Co-Director of the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), an umbrella organization for the major civil rights groups then working in Mississippi. He was a leading SNCC figure, and the main organizer of COFO's Freedom Summer project, which was intended to end racial disfranchisement. Mississippi's 1890 constitution included requirements for voter registration, such as poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests, which made it nearly impossible for blacks to register and vote. Because the literacy tests were subjectively administered by white voter registrars, even well-educated blacks had often been refused registration on literacy grounds. By the 1960s many blacks did not bother trying to register. Moses was one of the calm leaders that kept the group focused.
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Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan ( /ˈrɒnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪɡən/; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. Prior to that, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 and a radio, film and television actor.
Born in Tampico, Illinois and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. After his graduation, Reagan moved first to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster and then in to Los Angeles in 1937 where he began a career as an actor, first in films and later television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All American, Kings Row, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later as a spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions began shifting rightward in the late 1950s, and he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and general election in 1980, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter.
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Rosa Parks
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement".
On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake's order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger. Parks' action was not the first of its kind to impact the civil rights issue. Others had taken similar steps, including Lizzie Jennings in 1854, Homer Plessy in 1892, Irene Morgan in 1946, Sarah Louise Keys in 1955, and Claudette Colvin on the same bus system nine months before Parks, but Parks' civil disobedience had the effect of sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Parks' act of defiance became an important symbol of the modern Civil Rights Movement and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including boycott leader Martin Luther King, Jr., helping to launch him to national prominence in the civil rights movement.
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Roy Wilkins
Roy Wilkins (August 30, 1901 – September 8, 1981) was a prominent civil rights activist in the United States from the 1930s to the 1970s. Wilkins' most notable role was in his leadership of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilkins graduated from the University of Minnesota with a degree in sociology in 1923. He worked as a journalist at The Minnesota Daily and became editor of St. Paul Appeal, an African-American newspaper. After he graduated he became the editor of the The Call (Kansas City). In 1929, he married social worker Aminda "Minnie" Badeau; the couple had no children.
Between 1931 and 1934, Wilkins was assistant NAACP secretary under Walter Francis White. When W. E. B. Du Bois left the organization in 1934, he replaced him as editor of The Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP. From 1949–50 Wilkins chaired the National Emergency Civil Rights Mobilization, which comprised more than 100 local and national groups.
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Samaldas Gandhi
Samaldas Gandhi was an Indian freedom fighter who headed the Aarzi Hukumat or Temporary Government of the erstwhile princely state of Junagadh.
Samaldas was a relative and close follower of Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement.
When the Nawab of Junagadh acceded his state to Pakistan in 1947, Samaldas headed a government-in-exile created by citizens of Junagadh to reflect the wishes of its majority population who wished the state to become part of India instead.
When Indian forces entered Junagadh and its principalities, Mangrol and Manavadar, at the invitation of the Nawab's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Samaldas was invited to accept the reins of the state but deferred to the Government of India.
Samaldas Gandhi is widely remembered in Junagadh and the state of Gujarat today as a hero and patriot. There are several schools, public foundations and hospitals named after him.
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Seán MacBride
Seán MacBride (26 January 1904 – 15 January 1988) was an Irish government minister and prominent international politician as well as a Chief of Staff of the IRA.
Rising from a domestic Irish political career, he founded or participated in many international as well as non-governmental organizations of the early 20th century, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and Amnesty International. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, the Lenin Peace Prize for 1975–76, and the UNESCO Silver Medal for Service in 1980.
MacBride was born in Paris in 1904, the son of Major John MacBride and Maud Gonne. His first language was French and he remained in Paris until after his father's execution after the Easter Rising of 1916. He was sent to school at Mount St. Benedict's, Gorey, County Wexford in Ireland. He joined the Irish Volunteers in 1919 when aged 15, and was an active member during the Irish War of Independence. He opposed the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and was imprisoned by the Irish Free State during the Civil War.
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Shirley Chisholm
Shirley Anita St. Hill Chisholm (November 30, 1924 – January 1, 2005) was an American politician, educator, and author. She was a Congresswoman, representing New York's 12th Congressional District for seven terms from 1969 to 1983. In 1968, she became the first African American woman elected to Congress. On January 25, 1972, she became the first major-party black candidate for President of the United States and the first woman to run for the Democratic presidential nomination (Margaret Chase Smith had previously run for the Republican presidential nomination). She received 152 first-ballot votes at the 1972 Democratic National Convention.
Shirley Anita St. Hill was born in Brooklyn, New York, of immigrant parents. Her father, Charles Christopher St. Hill, was born in British Guiana and arrived in the United States via Antilla, Cuba, on April 10, 1923 aboard the S.S. Munamar in New York City. Her mother, Ruby Seale, was born in Christ Church, Barbados, and arrived in New York City aboard the S.S. Pocone on March 8, 1921. At age three, Chisholm was sent to Barbados to live with her maternal grandmother, Emaline Seale, in Christ Church; where she attended the Vauxhall Primary School. She did not return until roughly seven years later when she arrived in New York City on May 19, 1934 aboard the S.S. Narissa. In her 1970 autobiography Unbought and Unbossed, she wrote: "Years later I would know what an important gift my parents had given me by seeing to it that I had my early education in the strict, traditional, British-style schools of Barbados. If I speak and write easily now, that early education is the main reason."
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Shrimad Rajchandra
Raychandbhai Ravajibhai Mehta, popularly known as Shrimad Rajchandra by his followers, was a prominent Jain philosopher. He is highly respected for His remarkable exposition of Bhagwan Mahavira’s teachings, great spiritual state, extraordinary personality and literary genius. He was born on November 9, 1867 in Vavania Bandar, India, and left His body on April 9, 1901 in Rajkot, India. He is especially notable for being "a guide and helper" to Mahatma Gandhi. Shrimad was also one of Gandhi's best friends, and they exchanged a series of letters about religion and philosophy until the end of Shrimad's life.
At the age of seven, on witnessing the burning pyre of a recently deceased acquaintance, He underwent unprecedented mental churning and reportedly attained 'Jatismaran jnan' (a recollection of several past lives) at the cremation ground itself. This vivid recollection of the past reportedly established continuity with his previously attained state of knowledge, meditation and penance. As a result of this purification of his consciousness, many unusual mnemonic and psychic powers reportedly manifested in him, but he chose to ignore them, focusing solely on self-realization.
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Stanley Levison
Stanley David Levison (1912 - 1979) was a Jewish businessman from New York, who had also attained a law degree from St. John's University. He was a life-long activist in progressive causes. He is best known as an advisor to, and close friend of the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., whom he helped write speeches and organize events.
He had initially been introduced to King by Bayard Rustin, a Quaker, in New York City in 1956. Though King had offered to pay Levison in exchange for his help, Levison refused on every occasion stating that "the liberation struggle is the most positive and rewarding area of work anyone could experience".
Levison was in the leadership of the Communist Party USA in the 1950s. The FBI had him under the surveillance of Jack and Morris Childs, two former CPUSA members who became FBI informants. According to the FBI, Levison's CPUSA activities ended in 1957.
He was questioned twice, on February 9 and March 4, 1960. Two years later, on April 30, 1962, he was called to testify under subpoena at an executive session of the Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security, where he was represented by William Kunstler; his testimony is still considered Classified.[citation needed]
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Steve Biko
Stephen Biko (18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was an anti-apartheid activist in South Africa in the 1960s and 1970s.
A student leader, he later founded the Black Consciousness Movement which would empower and mobilize much of the urban black population. Since his death in police custody, he has been called a martyr of the anti-apartheid movement. While living, his writings and activism attempted to empower black people, and he was famous for his slogan "black is beautiful", which he described as meaning: "man, you are okay as you are, begin to look upon yourself as a human being".
Despite friction between the African National Congress and Biko throughout the 1970s[Need quotation to verify] the ANC has included Biko in the pantheon of struggle heroes, going as far as using his image for campaign posters in South Africa's first non-racial elections in 1994.
Biko was born in King William's Town, in the present-day Eastern Cape province of South Africa. He studied to be a doctor at the University of Natal Medical School. Biko was a Xhosa. In addition to Xhosa, he spoke fluent English and fairly fluent Afrikaans.
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Stokely Carmichael
Stokely Carmichael (aka Kwame Ture; June 29, 1941 – November 15, 1998) was a Trinidadian-American black activist active in the 1960s American Civil Rights Movement. He rose to prominence first as a leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced "snick") and later as the "Honorary Prime Minister" of the Black Panther Party. Initially an integrationist, Carmichael later became affiliated with black nationalist and Pan-Africanist movements. He popularized the term "Black Power".
Born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, Stokely Carmichael moved to Harlem, New York City in 1952 at age eleven to rejoin his parents, who had left him with his grandmother and two aunts to immigrate when he was two. He attended the elite Tranquility School in Trinidad until his parents were able to send for him.
His mother, Mabel R. Carmichael, was a stewardess for a steamship line, and his father, Adolphus, was a carpenter who also worked as a taxi driver. The reunited Carmichael family eventually left Harlem to live in Morris Park in the East Bronx, at that time an aging Jewish and Italian neighborhood. According to a 1967 interview he gave to LIFE Magazine, he was the only black member of the Morris Park Dukes, a youth gang involved in alcohol and petty theft.
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Susan Brownmiller
Susan Brownmiller (born February 15, 1935) is an American feminist, journalist, author, and activist. She is best known for her pioneering work on the politics of rape in her 1975 book Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Brownmiller argues that rape had been hitherto defined by men rather than women; and that men use, and all men benefit from the use of, rape as a means of perpetuating male dominance by keeping all women in a state of fear. The book received criticism from Angela Davis, who thought Brownmiller disregarded the part that black women played in the anti-lynching movement and that Brownmiller's discussion of rape and race became an "unthinking partnership which borders on racism". In 1995 The New York Public Library selected Against Our Will as one of 100 most important books of the Twentieth Century.
Brownmiller also participated in civil rights activism, joining CORE and SNCC during the sit-in movement and volunteering for Freedom Summer in 1964, where she worked on voter registration in Meridian, Mississippi. Returning to New York, she began writing for The Village Voice and became a network TV newswriter at the American Broadcasting Company, a job she held until 1968. She first became involved in the Women's Liberation Movement in New York City in 1968, by joining a consciousness-raising group in the newly formed New York Radical Women organization. Brownmiller went on to co-ordinate a sit-in against Ladies' Home Journal in 1970, began work on Against Our Will after a New York Radical Feminists speak-out on rape in 1971, and co-founded Women Against Pornography in 1979. She continues to write and speak on feminist issues, including a recent memoir and history of Second Wave radical feminism. In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution (1999).
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Susie Sharp
Susie Marshall Sharp (July 7, 1907 – March 1, 1996) was an American jurist who served as the first female Chief Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court. She was not the first woman to head the highest court in a U.S. state, but is believed to be the first woman elected to such a post in a state, like North Carolina, in which the position is elected by the people separately from that of Associate Justice. In 1965, Lorna E. Lockwood became the first chief justice of a state supreme court, but in Arizona, the Supreme Court justices elect their chief justice.
Sharp was born in 1907 in Rocky Mount, North Carolina but spent most of her life in Rockingham County, North Carolina. In 1926 she entered law school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as the only woman in her class. In 1929, Sharp went into private practice with her father, James, in the firm of Sharp & Sharp.
In 1949, Governor Kerr Scott appointed her a state Superior Court judge, making her the first female judge in the history of the state. After Sharp became a Superior Court judge, Tom Bost of the Greensboro Daily News questioned "what would happen if Sharp was faced with trying a case of rape? Wouldn't that be too much for a woman?" Judge Sharp wrote back that "In the first place, there could have been no rape had not a woman been present, and I consider it eminently fitting that one be in on the 'pay-off'."
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Taylor Branch
Taylor Branch (born January 14, 1947, in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American author and historian best known for his award-winning trilogy of books chronicling the life of Martin Luther King, Jr. and some of the history of the American civil rights movement. The third and final volume of the 2,912-page trilogy — collectively called America in the King Years — was released in January 2006. Branch lives in Baltimore, Maryland, with his wife, Christina Macy, and their two children, Macy (born 1980) and Franklin (b. 1983).
Branch graduated from The Westminster Schools in Atlanta in 1964. From there, he went to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill on a Morehead Scholarship. He graduated in 1968 and went on to earn an M.P.A. from the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University in 1970.
He was a lecturer in politics and history at Goucher College from 1998 to 2000.
Branch served as an assistant editor at The Washington Monthly from 1970 to 1973; he was Washington editor of Harper's from 1973 to 1976; and he was Washington columnist for Esquire Magazine from 1976 to 1977. He also has written for a wide variety of other publications, including The New York Times Magazine; Sport; The New Republic; and Texas Monthly.
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Thurgood Marshall
Thurgood Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, serving from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Court's 96th justice and its first African-American justice.
Before becoming a judge, Marshall was a lawyer who was best remembered for his high success rate in arguing before the Supreme Court and for the victory in Brown v. Board of Education. He argued more cases before the United States Supreme Court than anyone else in history. He served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit after being appointed by President John F. Kennedy and then served as the Solicitor General after being appointed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. President Johnson nominated him to the United States Supreme Court in 1967.
Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland on July 2, 1908, the great-grandson of a slave who was born in modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. His grandfather was also a slave. His original name was Thoroughgood, but he shortened it to Thurgood in second grade because he disliked spelling it. His father, William Marshall, who was a railroad porter, and his mother Norma, a teacher, instilled in him an appreciation for the Constitution of the United States and the rule of law.
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Tushar Gandhi
Tushar Arun Gandhi (तुषार गांधी) (born 17 January 1960 near Mumbai, India) is a great-grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and the son of journalist Arun Manilal Gandhi.
Born on a train between Mumbai and Kolkata, he was raised in the Mumbai suburb of Santa Cruz. He holds a degree in painting from Mithibai College.
In December 2001 he negotiated with American marketing firm CMG Worldwide to use the Mahatma’s image in an advertisement for a credit card company. The public outcry forced him to cancel the deal.
In his book Let’s Kill Gandhi, he blames Brahmins for assassinating Mahatma. Critics have claimed that the book defames all Brahmins. Gandhi has stressed that his claims relate only to "a certain group of Brahmins from Pune [who] were continuously attempting on the life of my great grandfather" rather than to Brahmins in general.
In March 2005, he led the 75th anniversary re-enactment of the Dandi March.[citation needed]
In 2006, he was appointed as a Goodwill Ambassador of the Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition, IIMSAM that strives and advocates to make Spirulina a key driver to eradicate malnutrition, achieve food security and to bridge the health divide with special priority for the developing and the least developed countries.
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Unita Blackwell
Unita Blackwell (born 18 March 1933) is an American civil rights activist who was the first African-American woman, and the tenth African-American, to be elected mayor in the U.S. state of Mississippi. Blackwell was a project director for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, and helped organize voter drives for African-Americans across Mississippi. She is also a founder of the US China Peoples Friendship Association, a group dedicated to promoting cultural exchange between the United States and China. Barefootin', Blackwell's autobiography published in 2006, charts her activism.
Unita Blackwell was born on 18 March 1933 in Lula, Mississippi to sharecroppers Virda Mae and Willie Brown. Blackwell's uncle gave her the name U.Z., which she kept until she was in the sixth grade when her teacher told her that she needed "a real name, not just initials". Blackwell and her teacher decided on Unita Zelma.
Blackwell and her parents lived in Lula, until 1936 when she was three years old; Blackwell's father left the plantation on which he worked, and fled to Memphis, Tennessee, fearing for his life after he confronted his boss about speaking to his wife. Soon afterwards, Blackwell and her mother left the plantation to live with him. On June 20, 1938 Blackwell's parents separated due to religious differences. Blackwell and her mother went to West Helena, Arkansas to live with Blackwell's great aunt so that she had the opportunity to receive an education. While living there, Blackwell often visited her father in Memphis. During the summer months she would leave West Helena and live with her grandfather and grandmother in Lula, where she helped plant and harvest cotton. She was 14 when she finished the eighth grade, the final year of school at Westside, a school in West Helena for black children.
wn.com/Unita_Blackwell -
Vallabhbhai Patel
Sardar Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (Hindi pronunciation: [ʋəlləbˈbʱaːi pəˈʈeːl] ( listen)) (31 October 1875 – 15 December 1950) was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress and one of the founding fathers of India. He is known to be a social leader of India who played an unparalleled role in the country's struggle for independence and guided its integration into a united, independent nation.Therefore he is also regarded as "Bismarck of India". He was known as the "Iron Man of India". In India and across the world, he was often addressed as Sardar, which means Chief in Hindi, Urdu, and Persian.
He was raised in the countryside of Gujarat in a family of Gurjar Leva-Patidars Vallabhbhai Patel was employed in successful practice as a lawyer when he was first inspired by the work and philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. Patel subsequently organised the peasants of Kheda, Borsad, and Bardoli in Gujarat in non-violent civil disobedience against oppressive policies imposed by the British Raj; in this role, he became one of the most influential leaders in Gujarat. He rose to the leadership of the Indian National Congress and was at the forefront of rebellions and political events, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937, and promoting the Quit India movement.
wn.com/Vallabhbhai_Patel -
Vernon Dahmer
Vernon Ferdinand Dahmer, Sr. (March 10, 1908 - January 11, 1966) was an American civil rights leader and president of the Forrest County chapter of the NAACP in Hattiesburg, Mississippi.
Dahmer was born March 10, 1908, to George and Ellen Dahmer of Forrest County, Mississippi. He attended Bay Spring High School.
In March 1952 Dahmer married Ellie Jewell Davis, a teacher from Rose Hill, Mississippi. The couple had eight children in their family and their home in north Forrest County was part of the Kelly Settlement area. Ellie Dahmer taught for many years in Richton, Mississippi and retired in 1987 from the Forrest County school system.
Dahmer was a member of Shady Grove Baptist Church where he served as a music director and Sunday School teacher. Dahmer became the owner of a grocery store, sawmill, planing mill, and 200-acre (0.81 km2) farm.
Dahmer served several terms as president of the Forrest County Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and led voter registration drives in the 1960s. He kept a voter registration book in his store in late 1965 to make it easier for African Americans to register. Dahmer also helped the local African American population pay a poll tax for the right to vote. His mantra was, "If you don't vote, you don't count," and those words, which he repeated on his deathbed, were used as his epitaph.
wn.com/Vernon_Dahmer -
Vernon Johns
Vernon Johns (April 22, 1892 – June 11, 1965) was an American minister and civil rights leader who was active in the struggle for civil rights for African Americans from the 1920s.
He is considered by some as the father of the American Civil Rights Movement, having laid the foundation on which Martin Luther King, Jr. and others would build. He was Dr. King's predecessor as pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama from 1947 to 1952, and a mentor of Ralph Abernathy, Wyatt Walker, and many others in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.
Johns was born in Darlington Heights, Prince Edward County, Virginia, the grandson of slaves. He graduated from Oberlin Seminary in 1918 and attended the University of Chicago's graduate school of theology. He died of a heart attack in Washington, D.C. on June 11, 1965 at age 73. David Anderson Elementary School in Petersburg, Virginia, was renamed 'Vernon Johns Middle School' several years ago. In 2009 it became the junior high school for the city school system.
wn.com/Vernon_Johns -
Victoria Gray Adams
Victoria Jackson Gray Adams (November 5, 1926 – August 12, 2006) was an American civil rights activist from Hattiesburg, Mississippi. She was one of the founding members of the influential Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party.
Born on November 5, 1926, in Palmers Crossing, just outside Hattiesburg, Mississippi, the daughter of Mack and Annie Mae (née Ott) Jackson, Victoria Jackson was raised on a farm by her grandparents; her mother had died when she was just three years old. She attended Wilberforce University for one year, but money for tuition ran short. She later studied at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and at Jackson State College in Jackson and qualified as a teacher. She went on to serve as a campus minister at Virginia State University and to teach and lecture at schools, colleges and universities across the nation.
In the 1960 elections Adams taught classes in voter registration. In 1962, she became field secretary for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and led a boycott against Hattiesburg businesses.
wn.com/Victoria_Gray_Adams -
Vinoba Bhave
Vinoba Bhave (Marathi: विनोबा भावे),Vinayak Narahari Bhave (September 11, 1895 - November 15, 1982) often called Acharya (Sanskrit for teacher), was an Indian advocate of nonviolence and human rights. He is best known for the Bhoodan Andolan. He is considered as a National Teacher of India and the spiritual successor of Mahatma Gandhi.
He was born in Gagode village in Colaba (now Raigad District of Mumbai State, Maharashtra) on September 11, 1895 into a pious family of the Chitpavan Brahmin clan. He was brought-up in Baroda. He was highly inspired after reading the Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharat, Ramayan at a very early age. His father, Naraharishumbhurao Bhave was a devout Hindu and his mother, Rukmini Devi who died in 1918, was a great influence on him. In his memoir, Bhave states that, "there is nothing to equal the part my mother played in shaping my mind". Specifically, her devotion and spirituality.
His two brothers, Balkoba Bhave and Shivaji Bhave, were also bachelors devoted to social work.
wn.com/Vinoba_Bhave -
Viola Liuzzo
Viola Fauver Gregg Liuzzo (April 11, 1925 – March 25, 1965) was a Unitarian Universalist civil rights activist from Michigan, who was murdered by Ku Klux Klan members after the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches in Alabama. One of the Klansmen in the car from which the shots were fired was a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) informant.
Liuzzo's name is one of those inscribed on a civil rights memorial in the state capital. She died at the age of 39.
Viola Gregg was born in California, Pennsylvania, and moved with her family to Chattanooga, Tennessee at the age of six. After just one year of high school, she dropped out, was married in 1941 at 16, then divorced within a year. In 1943, she married George Argyris. They had two children, Penny and Evangeline Mary, and divorced in 1949. She later married Anthony Liuzzo, a Teamsters union business agent. They had three children: Tommy, Anthony, Jr., and Sally.
Liuzzo sought to return to school, and attended the Carnegie Institute in Detroit, Michigan. She then enrolled part-time at Wayne State University in 1962, and was considered an average student who was academically still in her freshman year at the time of her death.
wn.com/Viola_Liuzzo -
Whitney Young
Whitney Moore Young Jr. (July 31, 1921 – March 11, 1971) was an American civil rights leader.
He spent most of his career working to end employment discrimination in the United States and turning the National Urban League from a relatively passive civil rights organization into one that aggressively fought for equitable access to socioeconomic opportunity for the historically disenfranchised.
Young was born in Shelby County, Kentucky, on July 31, 1921 to educated parents. His father was the president of the Lincoln Institute, which was where Whitney was raised and educated. Whitney's mother, Laura Young, was the first female postmistress in Kentucky, the first African-American postmistress in Kentucky, and the second in the United States.
Young earned a bachelor of science degree from Kentucky State University, a historically black institution. At Kentucky State, Young was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.
During World War II, Young was trained in electrical engineering at MIT. He was then assigned to a road construction crew of black soldiers supervised by Southern white officers. After just three weeks, he was promoted from private to first sergeant, creating hostility on both sides. Despite the tension, Young was able to mediate effectively between his white officers and black soldiers angry at their poor treatment. This situation propelled Young into a career in race relations.
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Wikipedia Persondata
wn.com/Wikipedia_Persondata -
Willard Libby
Willard Frank Libby (December 17, 1908 – September 8, 1980) was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology.
Libby was born in Grand Valley, Colorado. He received his B.S. in 1931 and Ph.D. in 1933 in chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, where he then became a lecturer and later assistant professor. Libby spent the 1930s building sensitive geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. In 1941 he joined Berkeley's chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma.
Awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, he spent most of 1941 at Princeton University. After the start of World War II, he worked on the Manhattan Project at Columbia University with Nobel laureate chemist Harold Urey. Libby was responsible for the gaseous diffusion separation and enrichment of the uranium-235 which was used in the atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
In 1945 he became a professor at the University of Chicago. In 1954, he was appointed to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In 1959, he became Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), a position he held until his retirement in 1976. He taught honors freshman chemistry from 1959 to 1963 (in keeping with a University tradition that senior faculty teach this class). He was Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP) for many years including the lunar landing time. In 1966 he married his second wife Leona Woods Marshall, an original experimenter on the world's first nuclear reactor and a UCLA professor of environmental engineering. He also started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972.
wn.com/Willard_Libby -
William Anders
William Alison Anders (born October 17, 1933) is a former United States Air Force officer, NASA astronaut, businessman, and engineer. He is, along with Apollo 8 crewmates Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, one of the first three persons to have left Earth orbit and traveled to the Moon (of only 24 people to date).
Anders was born to US Navy Lt. Arthur F. Anders and Muriel Adams Anders in Hong Kong and was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he achieved its second-highest rank, Life Scout. Anders attended St. Martin's Academy and Grossmont High School in La Mesa, California. He was born and raised Roman Catholic. However according to one article his outlook on religion changed profoundly after his participation in the Apollo 8 mission. He found his experience of space made a mockery of his beliefs and he gave up religion.
He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Naval Academy in 1955 and a Master of Science degree in nuclear engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, in 1962. Anders completed the Harvard Business School Advanced Management Program in 1979.
wn.com/William_Anders -
William Moyer
Bill Moyer (September 17, 1933 — October 21, 2002), was a United States social change activist who was a principal organizer in the 1966 Chicago Open Housing Movement. He was an author, and a founding member of the Movement for a New Society.
Initially trained as an engineer, Moyer was introduced to the philosophy and practice of nonviolence by Quaker friends, and completed a degree in social work. He became involved in campaigns for civil rights and open housing integration, working and organizing in the early and mid-1960s with the Chicago branch of the Quaker-based American Friends Service Committee along with Kale Williams, civil rights activist Bernard Lafayette, and others. Then, in 1966, he joined with James Bevel, Martin Luther King Jr. and the other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) during the Chicago Movement.
James Bevel, who strategized and directed that action, credits Moyer with influencing him to center the Chicago Movement on open housing.
Over the next decade, Moyer was involved in the SCLC's 1969 Poor People's Campaign in Washington, D.C., nonviolent blockades of arms shipments to Bangladesh (1971) and to Vietnam (1972), support for the American Indian Movement occupation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota (1973), and a nuclear power plant blockade at Seabrook, New Hampshire (1977).
wn.com/William_Moyer -
William Shockley
William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. Along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, Shockley co-invented the transistor, for which all three were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s led to California's "Silicon Valley" becoming a hotbed of electronics innovation. In his later life, Shockley was a professor at Stanford and became a staunch advocate of eugenics.
Shockley was born in London, England to American parents, and raised in his family's hometown of Palo Alto, California, from age three. His father, William senior, was a mining engineer who speculated in mines for a living, and spoke eight languages. His mother, Mary, grew up in the American West, graduated from Stanford University, and became the first female US Deputy mining surveyor.
He received his Bachelor of Science degree from the California Institute of Technology in 1932. While still a student, Shockley married Iowan Jean Bailey in August 1933. In March 1934 Jean had a baby girl, Alison; she also had a son, Richard (Dick) who also became a physicist. Shockley was awarded his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1936. The title of his doctoral thesis was Electronic Bands in Sodium Chloride, and was suggested by his thesis advisor, John C. Slater. After receiving his doctorate, he joined a research group headed by Clinton Davisson at Bell Labs in New Jersey. The next few years were productive ones for Shockley. He published a number of fundamental papers on solid state physics in Physical Review. In 1938, he got his first patent, "Electron Discharge Device" on electron multipliers.
wn.com/William_Shockley -
William Westmoreland
William Childs Westmoreland (March 26, 1914 – July 18, 2005) was a United States Army General, who commanded US military operations in the Vietnam War at its peak (1964–68), during the Tet Offensive. He adopted a strategy of attrition against the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the North Vietnamese Army. He later served as U.S. Army Chief of Staff from 1968 to 1972.
William Westmoreland was born in Spartanburg County, South Carolina, to Eugenia Talley Childs and James Ripley Westmoreland. His upper-middle-class family was involved in the local banking and textile industries. William was an Eagle Scout at Troop 1 Boy Scouts and became an Eagle Scout at the age of 15, and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo from the Boy Scouts of America as a young adult. After spending a year at The Citadel in 1932 he was appointed to attend the West Point Military Academy. His motive for entering West Point was "to see the world." He was a member of a distinguished West Point class that also included Creighton Abrams and Benjamin O. Davis Jr.. Westmoreland graduated as first captain - the highest graduating rank - and received the Pershing Sword, which is given to the most able cadet at the academy. Westmoreland also served as the Superintendent of the Protestant Sunday School Teachers. Following graduation in 1936, he became an artillery officer and served in several different commands. In World War II he saw combat in Tunisia, Sicily, France and Germany. He reached the temporary wartime rank of colonel, and on October 13, 1944, was appointed the chief of staff of the 9th Infantry Division.
wn.com/William_Westmoreland -
Willy Brandt
Willy Brandt (born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm; German pronunciation: [ˈvɪli ˈbʁant]; 18 December 1913 – 8 October 1992) was a German politician, Mayor of West Berlin 1957–1966, Chancellor of West Germany 1969–1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964–1987.
Brandt's most important legacy was Ostpolitik, a policy aimed at improving relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. This policy caused considerable controversy in West Germany, but won Brandt the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.
In 1974, Brandt resigned as Chancellor after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service.
Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck (German Empire) to Martha Frahm, an unwed mother who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met. As his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mother's stepfather Ludwig Frahm and his second wife Dora.
wn.com/Willy_Brandt -
Wyatt Tee Walker
Wyatt Tee Walker (born 16 August 1929) is a United States black pastor, national civil rights leader, theologian, and cultural historian. He was a Chief of Staff for Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and in 1958 became an early board member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). He helped found the Congress for Racial Equality (CORE) in 1958. As executive director of the SCLC from 1960 to 1964, Walker helped to bring the group to national prominence.
Walker started as pastor at historic Gillfield Baptist Church in Petersburg, Virginia, where he entered the Civil Rights Movement. For 37 years Dr. Walker was Senior Pastor at Canaan Baptist Church of Christ in Harlem, New York, where he also co-founded the Religious Action Network of Africa Action to oppose apartheid in South Africa, and chaired the Central Harlem Local Development Corporation.
After earning his degree, in 1953 Walker was called as pastor at historic Gillfield Baptist Church, the second oldest black church in Petersburg, Virginia and one of the oldest in the nation. In his leadership for social justice and against segregation, he was arrested numerous times, the first for leading an African-American group into the "white" library in Petersburg. His "flamboyant" and cheeky style was shown as he "caused a stir" by trying to "check out Douglas Southall Freeman's admiring biography of Robert E. Lee." In 1953 Walker worked with citizens who filed suit in Federal court for access to a public pool in Lee Park. The city closed the park in 1954 rather than integrate. The park later reopened, but the city never operated the pool again.
wn.com/Wyatt_Tee_Walker -
Yolanda King
Yolanda Denise King (November 17, 1955 – May 15, 2007) was the first-born child of Coretta Scott King and civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Her younger siblings were Martin Luther King, III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice Albertine King. She was twelve years old when her father was assassinated.
Born in Montgomery, Alabama to Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King, King was a human rights activist and actress. An alumna of Smith College, she was a member of the Board of Directors of the Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Inc. (the official national memorial to her father) and was founding Director of the King Center's Cultural Affairs Program. She served on the Partnership Council of Habitat for Humanity, was the first national Ambassador for the American Stroke Association's "Power to End Stroke" Campaign, a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a sponsor of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, Human Rights Campaign, and held a lifetime membership in the NAACP. King received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, a Master's degree in theater from New York University and an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Marywood University. In 1978 she starred as Rosa Parks in the TV miniseries King (which was based on her father's life and released on DVD in 2005). King was a spokeswoman for the national stroke awareness association.
wn.com/Yolanda_King
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Daily Bread
- Home
- Rise
- Sleep Walking
- Growing Pains
- Liquid Sunshine
- Lust
- Truth or Dare
- The I.R.S.
- Rebel Soul Music
- Ms. America
- NYCG
- Muse Sick Dreamz
- Prodigal Sun
- German Hymn Mass: Kyrie (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Gloria (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Credo (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Sanctus (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Agnus Dei (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Te Deum laudamus (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- German Hymn Mass: Da pacem (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort (Westfälische Kantorei feat. conductor: Wilhelm Ehmann)
- Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley
- Christ lag in Todesbanden (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley
- Es woll uns Gott genädig sein (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley
- Nun freut euch, lieben Christen (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley)
- Vater unser im Himmelreich (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley)
Born: 1483-11-10
Died: 1546-02-18
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Martin Luther King, Jr. - Mini Bio
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:48
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
A short biography of Martin Luther King, Jr.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_Mini_Bio
A short biography of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 1 of 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Interview_Part_1_of_3
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 30 May 2009
- views: 127396
- author: gregorija1
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Speech(I Have A Dream)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:19
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
I love and Respect Martin Luther King Strongly
http://wn.com/Dr_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_SpeechI_Have_A_Dream
I love and Respect Martin Luther King Strongly
- published: 14 May 2011
- views: 932839
- author: CurtHenniganImpact
Black Dreams Feat. Martin Luther King Jr. (New 2013)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:08
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
JBizzy - Black Dreams(Featuring Narado, Tblack, & MLK) Tupac & Biggie - Runnin Instrumental
http://wn.com/Black_Dreams_Feat_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_New_2013
JBizzy - Black Dreams(Featuring Narado, Tblack, & MLK) Tupac & Biggie - Runnin Instrumental
- published: 31 Dec 2012
- views: 93
- author: TBlack2H
Amina Reads Martin Luther King Jr. Day
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:58
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Amina Sunshine Gorman at 5 years 4 months reading Martin Luther King Jr. Day by Trudi Strain Trueit.
http://wn.com/Amina_Reads_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Day
Amina Sunshine Gorman at 5 years 4 months reading Martin Luther King Jr. Day by Trudi Strain Trueit.
- published: 01 Jan 2013
- views: 3
- author: AminaSunshine1
Martin Luther King Jr., "The Drum Major Instinct" Sermon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:41
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
This is one of my absolute favorite of King's speeches: his final sermon before he was assassinated. I can't listen to this without shedding tears. TEXT: thewordsofmyheroes.blogspot.com Synopsis: King's "Drum Major Instinct" sermon, given on 4 February 1968, was an adaptation of the 1952 homily ''Drum-Major Instincts'' by J. Wallace Hamilton. King encouraged his congregation to seek greatness, but to do so through service and love. King concluded the sermon by imagining his own funeral, downplaying his famous achievements and emphasizing his heart to do right. Disclaimer: I do not own this audio recording and I'm not making any money by posting this. If this recording is not 'public domain' on archive.org, it really should be.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr,_The_Drum_Major_Instinct_Sermon
This is one of my absolute favorite of King's speeches: his final sermon before he was assassinated. I can't listen to this without shedding tears. TEXT: thewordsofmyheroes.blogspot.com Synopsis: King's "Drum Major Instinct" sermon, given on 4 February 1968, was an adaptation of the 1952 homily ''Drum-Major Instincts'' by J. Wallace Hamilton. King encouraged his congregation to seek greatness, but to do so through service and love. King concluded the sermon by imagining his own funeral, downplaying his famous achievements and emphasizing his heart to do right. Disclaimer: I do not own this audio recording and I'm not making any money by posting this. If this recording is not 'public domain' on archive.org, it really should be.
- published: 09 Jan 2012
- views: 53670
- author: elijahquest
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:48
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio. This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording. Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967. Text of entire speech: husseini.org Real Audio file of entire speech: www.africanbynature.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Why_I_Am_Opposed_to_the_War_in_Vietnam
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio. This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording. Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967. Text of entire speech: husseini.org Real Audio file of entire speech: www.africanbynature.com
- published: 11 Jan 2007
- views: 1392250
- author: noncorporatenews
Martin Luther King Jr. on NBC's Meet the Press in 1965
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:20
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
On March 28, 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. appeared on NBC's Meet The Press. One week after leading his historic five-day march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, King said that the demonstration was necessary not just to help push the Voting Rights Bill through, but to draw attention to the humiliating conditions in Alabama such as police brutality and racially-motivated murder. For more video from NBC News visit msnbc.com.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_NBC's_Meet_the_Press_in_1965
On March 28, 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. appeared on NBC's Meet The Press. One week after leading his historic five-day march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, King said that the demonstration was necessary not just to help push the Voting Rights Bill through, but to draw attention to the humiliating conditions in Alabama such as police brutality and racially-motivated murder. For more video from NBC News visit msnbc.com.
- published: 13 Jan 2012
- views: 840711
- author: NBCNews
I HAVE A DREAM... MARTIN LUTHER KING - August 23 1963
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:28
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
I HAVE A DREAM - Description written and dedicated by RK Hendrick There are brilliant moments in human history and magical moments in our lives, when our perception of the world is crystal clear and "time" itself seems to stand still! When these events occur, we remember exactly where we were and what was transpiring around us! On Wednesday, August 28, 1963, at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. created an electrifying and spectacular moment in human history when he delivered his internationally famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Considered to be the best speech of the 20th century, it echoed throughout the entire world and continues to reverberate through time and the soul of humanity today!
http://wn.com/I_HAVE_A_DREAM_MARTIN_LUTHER_KING_August_23_1963
I HAVE A DREAM - Description written and dedicated by RK Hendrick There are brilliant moments in human history and magical moments in our lives, when our perception of the world is crystal clear and "time" itself seems to stand still! When these events occur, we remember exactly where we were and what was transpiring around us! On Wednesday, August 28, 1963, at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. created an electrifying and spectacular moment in human history when he delivered his internationally famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Considered to be the best speech of the 20th century, it echoed throughout the entire world and continues to reverberate through time and the soul of humanity today!
- published: 17 Dec 2010
- views: 254626
- author: CESSqc
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. - April 4, 1967 - Beyond Vietnam: A Time To Break Silence [Full Speech]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 56:49
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the US government [was/is] "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". This was in context to a speech delivered on April 4, 1967 at Riverside Church in New York City - exactly one year before his untimely death. Though not as well-known as his other speeches, this is one of the ones that speak deeply to my soul. Because of a few "blips" in the audio, I tried to include include the entire speech to be read along with the speech. It was, however, longer that what is allowed here. SO.. you can see this embedded video AND read the speech on my blog here: 4amoreperfectunion.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Rev_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_April_4,_1967_Beyond_Vietnam_A_Time_To_Break_Silence_Full_Speech_
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the US government [was/is] "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". This was in context to a speech delivered on April 4, 1967 at Riverside Church in New York City - exactly one year before his untimely death. Though not as well-known as his other speeches, this is one of the ones that speak deeply to my soul. Because of a few "blips" in the audio, I tried to include include the entire speech to be read along with the speech. It was, however, longer that what is allowed here. SO.. you can see this embedded video AND read the speech on my blog here: 4amoreperfectunion.blogspot.com
- published: 15 Jan 2011
- views: 76219
- author: Servant2All
Martin Luther King Jr's "I Have A Dream" Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:26
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
An important part of MLK Jr's "I Have A Dream" speech. His Dream lives on! MixedNation.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr's_I_Have_A_Dream_Speech
An important part of MLK Jr's "I Have A Dream" speech. His Dream lives on! MixedNation.com
- published: 23 Jun 2011
- views: 351134
- author: MixedNationEnt
Martin Luther King Jr. on Malcolm X
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:31
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm X's criticisms of his philosophy. malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_Malcolm_X
malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm X's criticisms of his philosophy. malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com
- published: 07 May 2007
- views: 1189474
- author: antihostile
Rare Video of Martin Luther King, Jr. on Civil Rights and Peace
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:56
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News, May 7, 1967. The symbol behind Dr. King was used by the Chicago Freedom Movement, also known as the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which Dr. King helped lead from 1965-67. Under it was the slogan, coined by movement spokesperson Don Rose, "We're On the Move To End Slums." In the interview, Dr. King talks with NBC correspondent Tom Petit about why he chose to "take a vigorous stand" against the US government's undeclared war in Vietnam, for which he had received widespread criticism from the news media, civil-rights groups, religious and labor leaders and President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration. "I cannot overlook the fact that I am a Negro," Dr. King tells Petit, "and that this war is doing a great deal to destroy the lives of thousands and thousands of my brothers and sisters. We are dying physically in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. ... The other thing is that we are dying spiritually and psychologically in disproportionate numbers at home in the ghettos, and I think the war itself accounts for our spiritual and psychological death here at home." This is how the struggles for civil rights at home and for peace abroad are "tied together." Dr. King also answers the charge that the civil-rights movement is "dead" by explaining that it has entered a "new phase ... where we are seeking GENUINE equality, where we are dealing with hard economic and social issues" beyond ...
http://wn.com/Rare_Video_of_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_Civil_Rights_and_Peace
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News, May 7, 1967. The symbol behind Dr. King was used by the Chicago Freedom Movement, also known as the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which Dr. King helped lead from 1965-67. Under it was the slogan, coined by movement spokesperson Don Rose, "We're On the Move To End Slums." In the interview, Dr. King talks with NBC correspondent Tom Petit about why he chose to "take a vigorous stand" against the US government's undeclared war in Vietnam, for which he had received widespread criticism from the news media, civil-rights groups, religious and labor leaders and President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration. "I cannot overlook the fact that I am a Negro," Dr. King tells Petit, "and that this war is doing a great deal to destroy the lives of thousands and thousands of my brothers and sisters. We are dying physically in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. ... The other thing is that we are dying spiritually and psychologically in disproportionate numbers at home in the ghettos, and I think the war itself accounts for our spiritual and psychological death here at home." This is how the struggles for civil rights at home and for peace abroad are "tied together." Dr. King also answers the charge that the civil-rights movement is "dead" by explaining that it has entered a "new phase ... where we are seeking GENUINE equality, where we are dealing with hard economic and social issues" beyond ...
- published: 17 Jan 2011
- views: 55584
- author: Paul Lee
"We Shall Overcome" - Martin Luther King, Jr.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Martin Luther King, Jr. Speech. Created as part of a lesson plan for US History - Civil Rights - MLK Jr. Day
http://wn.com/We_Shall_Overcome_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr
Martin Luther King, Jr. Speech. Created as part of a lesson plan for US History - Civil Rights - MLK Jr. Day
- published: 29 Jan 2008
- views: 541009
- author: trippin2billie
Martin Luther King, Jr. on War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_War
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
- published: 09 Apr 2007
- views: 368995
- author: ct91rs
Martin Luther King Jr. - 4/24/2012 - Joke of the Day
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:26
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
GAP jeans was founded in 1969, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr died in 1968.... is it merely a coincidence? Probably. Subscribe: www.youtube.com Tweet: twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Joke of the Day: A new joke every day and special effects. TAGS: "joke of the day" joke day dr martin luther king jr "martin luther king" mlk "martin luther" "my friend martin" GAP "the gap" jeans clothes jotd joking jokeing lol funny comedy "stand up comedy" "stand up" comedians comedy humor parody "funny video" laughing silly goofy random "random joke" "random funny" weird hilarious "knock knock" "bad jokes" omg "comedy videos" "comedy vids" "comedian show" "green screen" "special effects" sfx
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_4_24_2012_Joke_of_the_Day
GAP jeans was founded in 1969, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr died in 1968.... is it merely a coincidence? Probably. Subscribe: www.youtube.com Tweet: twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Joke of the Day: A new joke every day and special effects. TAGS: "joke of the day" joke day dr martin luther king jr "martin luther king" mlk "martin luther" "my friend martin" GAP "the gap" jeans clothes jotd joking jokeing lol funny comedy "stand up comedy" "stand up" comedians comedy humor parody "funny video" laughing silly goofy random "random joke" "random funny" weird hilarious "knock knock" "bad jokes" omg "comedy videos" "comedy vids" "comedian show" "green screen" "special effects" sfx
- published: 24 Apr 2012
- views: 820
- author: jokeofthedayshow
Martin Luther King's Last Speech: "I Have Been To The Mountaintop"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
An excerpt from the last speech given by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee the next day on April 4, 1968.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King's_Last_Speech_I_Have_Been_To_The_Mountaintop
An excerpt from the last speech given by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee the next day on April 4, 1968.
- published: 04 Apr 2010
- views: 318578
- author: NewsPoliticsInfo
Martin Luther King Jr: Life and Death
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:10
- Updated: 27 Dec 2012
He is an iconic figure in the history of African American civil rights. www.WatchMojo.com learns more about the life, accomplishments and assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Life_and_Death
He is an iconic figure in the history of African American civil rights. www.WatchMojo.com learns more about the life, accomplishments and assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
- published: 12 Jan 2011
- views: 22014
- author: WatchMojo
How Long? Not Long!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
http://wn.com/How_Long?_Not_Long!
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
- published: 15 Jan 2007
- views: 447451
- author: incogito
ZoNation: The Democrats Don't Own Dr. Martin Luther King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:17
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
Nobody owns Dr. Martin Luther King. So why do the Democrats think that they should have complete control over his legacy? AlfonZo Rachel thinks that King and his vision is one for all Americans, not just those registered in the Democratic party.
http://wn.com/ZoNation_The_Democrats_Don't_Own_Dr_Martin_Luther_King
Nobody owns Dr. Martin Luther King. So why do the Democrats think that they should have complete control over his legacy? AlfonZo Rachel thinks that King and his vision is one for all Americans, not just those registered in the Democratic party.
- published: 16 Oct 2012
- views: 14151
- author: Pajamasmedia
Cornel West arrested at Supreme Court
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:01
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
I'm spending 99 days with the 99%... DONATE TO HELP FUND THE PROJECT: www.wepay.com Contact : *** www.facebook.com & www.twitter.com *** For the dedication of the MLK Jr statue, Cornell West decided to get arrested on the steps of the Supreme Court to protest the Citizens United case. JOIN US october2011.org
http://wn.com/Cornel_West_arrested_at_Supreme_Court
I'm spending 99 days with the 99%... DONATE TO HELP FUND THE PROJECT: www.wepay.com Contact : *** www.facebook.com & www.twitter.com *** For the dedication of the MLK Jr statue, Cornell West decided to get arrested on the steps of the Supreme Court to protest the Citizens United case. JOIN US october2011.org
- published: 16 Oct 2011
- views: 60537
- author: Dennis Trainor, Jr.
California On Martin Luther King Jr.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Arguably the perfect man, Kassem G, interviews beach goers about Martin Luther King Jr.. Click here to watch full length interviews: John & Megan: www.youtube.com Dorian & Molly: www.youtube.com *** I'm here too: Instagram: gmessak www.youtube.com twitter.com gplus.to kassemg.tumblr.com http Posters: www.districtlines.com
http://wn.com/California_On_Martin_Luther_King_Jr
Arguably the perfect man, Kassem G, interviews beach goers about Martin Luther King Jr.. Click here to watch full length interviews: John & Megan: www.youtube.com Dorian & Molly: www.youtube.com *** I'm here too: Instagram: gmessak www.youtube.com twitter.com gplus.to kassemg.tumblr.com http Posters: www.districtlines.com
- published: 15 Jan 2012
- views: 1652360
- author: KassemG
Martin Luther King Jr Quotes Revisited
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:19
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Quotes from civil rights icon Martin Luther King Jr are considered in the context of the current plight of African Americans by The Young Turks host Cenk Uygur. www.nytimes.com Subscribe to The Young Turks: bit.ly Download the politics or entertainment hour of this TYT episode: goo.gl Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com The Largest Online New Show in the World. Google+: www.gplus.to Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Quotes_Revisited
Quotes from civil rights icon Martin Luther King Jr are considered in the context of the current plight of African Americans by The Young Turks host Cenk Uygur. www.nytimes.com Subscribe to The Young Turks: bit.ly Download the politics or entertainment hour of this TYT episode: goo.gl Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com The Largest Online New Show in the World. Google+: www.gplus.to Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 17 Jan 2012
- views: 33367
- author: TheYoungTurks
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Martin Luther King, Jr.: Montgomery to Memphis (clip)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. rose to national prominence in the mid-1950s as a result of his courageous leadership in a struggle against bus segregation in Montgomery, Ala. Influenced by his example, and often under his active guidance, a mass movement developed to oppose the pervasive system of segregation in the South. This program is a memorable introduction to the civil rights movement, and to a nation-changing period of history that came to a tragic close in April 1968 with Dr. King's assassination in Memphis. Produced by Dan McCarroll. 27 minutes,
black and white.
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=768b4a03-7a14-4436-980e-0db3fb32bb10&cat;=⊂=997b3489-7176-4e40-a32b-295e4d7b4704
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_Montgomery_to_Memphis_clip
The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. rose to national prominence in the mid-1950s as a result of his courageous leadership in a struggle against bus segregation in Montgomery, Ala. Influenced by his example, and often under his active guidance, a mass movement developed to oppose the pervasive system of segregation in the South. This program is a memorable introduction to the civil rights movement, and to a nation-changing period of history that came to a tragic close in April 1968 with Dr. King's assassination in Memphis. Produced by Dan McCarroll. 27 minutes,
black and white.
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=768b4a03-7a14-4436-980e-0db3fb32bb10&cat;=⊂=997b3489-7176-4e40-a32b-295e4d7b4704
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 31201
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King speech: " I Have a Dream "
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Education for all! http://bit.ly/gElvB3 Send your child (or yourself) to College for virtually free..
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_speech_I_Have_a_Dream_
Education for all! http://bit.ly/gElvB3 Send your child (or yourself) to College for virtually free..
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 42902
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:48
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Why_I_Am_Opposed_to_the_War_in_Vietnam
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 1392348
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_On_Love_and_Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 40182
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:39
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance
http://wn.com/Dr_King_Humility,_Not_Arrogance
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 1 of 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Interview_Part_1_of_3
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 127474
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 2 of 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:15
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Interview_Part_2_of_3
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 51619
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 3 of 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:02
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
MLK Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Interview_Part_3_of_3
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Tells a Joke on "The Tonight Show" from 1968.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:36
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A different side of MLK, this guy is epic
http://wn.com/Dr_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Tells_a_Joke_on_The_Tonight_Show_from_1968
A different side of MLK, this guy is epic
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 128481
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Dr. King speaks for himself
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:59
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. talks about everything from his theological development and gradualism to the White South's guilt complex and the use of boycotts in the Civil Rights Movement
http://wn.com/Dr_King_speaks_for_himself
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. talks about everything from his theological development and gradualism to the White South's guilt complex and the use of boycotts in the Civil Rights Movement
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 66469
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King - I'm Sick & Tired
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:20
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_I'm_Sick_Tired
Rare Video of Martin Luther King, Jr. on Civil Rights and Peace
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News, May 7, 1967. The symbol behind Dr. King was used by the Chicago Freedom Movement, also known as the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which Dr. King helped lead from 1965-67. Under it was the slogan, coined by movement spokesperson Don Rose, "We're On the Move To End Slums."
In the interview, Dr. King talks with NBC correspondent Tom Petit about why he chose to "take a vigorous stand" against the U. S. government's undeclared war in Vietnam, for which he had received widespread criticism from the news media, civil-rights groups, religious and labor leaders and President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration.
"I cannot overlook the fact that I am a Negro," Dr. King tells Petit, "and that this war is doing a great deal to destroy the lives of thousands and thousands of my brothers and sisters. We are dying physically in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. ... The other thing is that we are dying spiritually and psychologically in disproportionate numbers at home in the ghettos, and I think the war itself accounts for our spiritual and psychological death here at home."
This is how the struggles for civil rights at home and for peace abroad are "tied together."
Dr. King also answers the charge that the civil-rights movement is "dead" by explaining that it has entered a "new phase ... where we are seeking GENUINE equality, where we are dealing with hard economic and social issues" beyond integrating lunch counters and buses.
In an excerpt from a speech at Cleveland, Ohio, on April 28, 1967, Dr. King answers the critics of his peace stand by branding the Vietnam conflict as "an evil war." "And no matter where it leads," he declares, "no matter what abuses it may bring, I'm gonna tell the truth."
A year later, on March 10, 1968, "The Frank McGee Sunday Report," which had provided Dr. King with a fair platform to explain his views on the Vietnam war, broadcast an hour-long special report on the increasingly costly and divisive conflict.
In his summation, McGee, who was one of the first television network "stars" to publicly express doubts about the war, said: "The grand objective -- the building of a free nation [in South Vietnam] -- is not nearer, but further from realization. In short, the war, as the Administration has defined it, is being lost. ... Laying aside all other arguments, the time is at hand when we must decide whether it is futile to destroy Vietnam in the effort to save it" (Don Oberdorfer, "Tet! Turning Point in the Vietnam War" [Johns Hopkins, UP, 1971, 2001], pp. 272-73).
Three and a half weeks later, on April 4, 1968, Dr. King was assassinated at Memphis, Tenn.
For additional background on Dr. King's peace stand, see the following two articles by historian Paul Lee in "The Michigan Citizen" (Detroit):
1) "Dr. King's Decalogue: 'Ten commandments on Viet Nam,'" March 25th-March 31st, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-p4290-78.htm
2) "Dr. King's Decalogue: A postscript," June 10th-June 16th, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-a-postscript-p4615-73.htm
(Video Courtesy of NBC News)
http://wn.com/Rare_Video_of_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_Civil_Rights_and_Peace
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News, May 7, 1967. The symbol behind Dr. King was used by the Chicago Freedom Movement, also known as the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which Dr. King helped lead from 1965-67. Under it was the slogan, coined by movement spokesperson Don Rose, "We're On the Move To End Slums."
In the interview, Dr. King talks with NBC correspondent Tom Petit about why he chose to "take a vigorous stand" against the U. S. government's undeclared war in Vietnam, for which he had received widespread criticism from the news media, civil-rights groups, religious and labor leaders and President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration.
"I cannot overlook the fact that I am a Negro," Dr. King tells Petit, "and that this war is doing a great deal to destroy the lives of thousands and thousands of my brothers and sisters. We are dying physically in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. ... The other thing is that we are dying spiritually and psychologically in disproportionate numbers at home in the ghettos, and I think the war itself accounts for our spiritual and psychological death here at home."
This is how the struggles for civil rights at home and for peace abroad are "tied together."
Dr. King also answers the charge that the civil-rights movement is "dead" by explaining that it has entered a "new phase ... where we are seeking GENUINE equality, where we are dealing with hard economic and social issues" beyond integrating lunch counters and buses.
In an excerpt from a speech at Cleveland, Ohio, on April 28, 1967, Dr. King answers the critics of his peace stand by branding the Vietnam conflict as "an evil war." "And no matter where it leads," he declares, "no matter what abuses it may bring, I'm gonna tell the truth."
A year later, on March 10, 1968, "The Frank McGee Sunday Report," which had provided Dr. King with a fair platform to explain his views on the Vietnam war, broadcast an hour-long special report on the increasingly costly and divisive conflict.
In his summation, McGee, who was one of the first television network "stars" to publicly express doubts about the war, said: "The grand objective -- the building of a free nation [in South Vietnam] -- is not nearer, but further from realization. In short, the war, as the Administration has defined it, is being lost. ... Laying aside all other arguments, the time is at hand when we must decide whether it is futile to destroy Vietnam in the effort to save it" (Don Oberdorfer, "Tet! Turning Point in the Vietnam War" [Johns Hopkins, UP, 1971, 2001], pp. 272-73).
Three and a half weeks later, on April 4, 1968, Dr. King was assassinated at Memphis, Tenn.
For additional background on Dr. King's peace stand, see the following two articles by historian Paul Lee in "The Michigan Citizen" (Detroit):
1) "Dr. King's Decalogue: 'Ten commandments on Viet Nam,'" March 25th-March 31st, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-p4290-78.htm
2) "Dr. King's Decalogue: A postscript," June 10th-June 16th, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-a-postscript-p4615-73.htm
(Video Courtesy of NBC News)
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 55677
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr. for President? His Answer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:38
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Excerpt from WSB-TV newsfilm of news conference by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ebenezer Baptist church, 413 Auburn Ave., Atlanta, Ga., April 26, 1967, beginning at 9:30 a. m.
NOTE: The playing quality of this excerpt is poor. The entire video could be seen on the Web site of the Civil Rights Digital Library of the University of Georgia Libraries here:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?query=id:ugabma_wsbn_51565
STATEMENT
Amidst growing rumors that he would make a run for the presidency the following year, perhaps leading a ticket with pediatrician and peace advocate Dr. Benjamin Spock, Dr. King felt compelled to call a news briefing to clarify his position. He read a short prepared statement, which began as follows:
"On Saturday of last week there appeared an article in several prominent newspapers which reported on several groups and individuals urging that I become a candidate for the presidency of the United States in the 1968 elections. I must confess that I was quite surprised by these sentiments and I find it very hard to take them seriously. I understand the stirrings across the country for a candidate who will take a firm, principled stand on the question of the war in Viet Nam and the problem of the poor in urban ghettos, but I must also add that I have no interest in being that candidate. I have come to think of my role as one which operates outside of the realm of partisan politics. Raising the issues and through action creating the situation which forces whatever party is in power to act creatively and constructively in response to the dramatic presentation of these issues on the public scene" ("Statement refuting candidacy for 1968 presidential elections," in FBI letterhead memorandum, pp. 1-3 at 2, enclosed in Special Agent in Charge [SAC], Atlanta, airmail telegram to Director, "Martin Luther King, Jr.; SM-C[Security Matter-Communist], April 25, 1967, Martin Luther King, Jr., FBI headquarters file, 100-106670, serial or document no. 29).
WATCHED
According to an FBI memo on this news conference, this statement was "furnished" to an Atlanta FBI special agent. His name has been exempted from release under the personal-privacy provision of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), but it was almost certainly Alan G. Sentinella. The memo does not indicate who gave him the statement, but it might have been a reporter.
Three copies were sent to FBI headquarters at Washington, D. C., and two were sent to the New York field division later that day.
POSSIBILITY
In this video excerpt, Dr. King answers a reporter's question about the possibility of electing a "Negro" president. In a comment that is not on this video, he added that a "Negro" could be elected president "in the not-too-distant future, in this generation" ("'Me President? .... Nope,'" The Chicago Daily Defender, April 26, 1967, p. 3).
THIRD FORCE
In response to another question, Dr. King declared that it might be necessary to form a "third force" in U. S. politics composed of African Americans and "white" liberals who opposed the Vietnam war.
"I don't throw out the idea of a possible third party," he said, but added, "I wouldn't advocate the idea of a separate all-black party."
OLD IDEA
In reporting Dr. King's comments, "The Christian Monitor noted, "The idea of Dr. King's seeking the presidency is not new. Southern Negroes have long discussed the prospect of having the well-known civil-rights leader as the nation's chief executive" (George Moneyhun, "Dr. King denies aiming at presidential candidacy," The Christian Science Monitor, April 27, 1967, p. 3).
(WSB-TV Video Courtesy Civil Rights Digital Library, University of Georgia Libraries)
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_for_President?_His_Answer
Excerpt from WSB-TV newsfilm of news conference by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ebenezer Baptist church, 413 Auburn Ave., Atlanta, Ga., April 26, 1967, beginning at 9:30 a. m.
NOTE: The playing quality of this excerpt is poor. The entire video could be seen on the Web site of the Civil Rights Digital Library of the University of Georgia Libraries here:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?query=id:ugabma_wsbn_51565
STATEMENT
Amidst growing rumors that he would make a run for the presidency the following year, perhaps leading a ticket with pediatrician and peace advocate Dr. Benjamin Spock, Dr. King felt compelled to call a news briefing to clarify his position. He read a short prepared statement, which began as follows:
"On Saturday of last week there appeared an article in several prominent newspapers which reported on several groups and individuals urging that I become a candidate for the presidency of the United States in the 1968 elections. I must confess that I was quite surprised by these sentiments and I find it very hard to take them seriously. I understand the stirrings across the country for a candidate who will take a firm, principled stand on the question of the war in Viet Nam and the problem of the poor in urban ghettos, but I must also add that I have no interest in being that candidate. I have come to think of my role as one which operates outside of the realm of partisan politics. Raising the issues and through action creating the situation which forces whatever party is in power to act creatively and constructively in response to the dramatic presentation of these issues on the public scene" ("Statement refuting candidacy for 1968 presidential elections," in FBI letterhead memorandum, pp. 1-3 at 2, enclosed in Special Agent in Charge [SAC], Atlanta, airmail telegram to Director, "Martin Luther King, Jr.; SM-C[Security Matter-Communist], April 25, 1967, Martin Luther King, Jr., FBI headquarters file, 100-106670, serial or document no. 29).
WATCHED
According to an FBI memo on this news conference, this statement was "furnished" to an Atlanta FBI special agent. His name has been exempted from release under the personal-privacy provision of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), but it was almost certainly Alan G. Sentinella. The memo does not indicate who gave him the statement, but it might have been a reporter.
Three copies were sent to FBI headquarters at Washington, D. C., and two were sent to the New York field division later that day.
POSSIBILITY
In this video excerpt, Dr. King answers a reporter's question about the possibility of electing a "Negro" president. In a comment that is not on this video, he added that a "Negro" could be elected president "in the not-too-distant future, in this generation" ("'Me President? .... Nope,'" The Chicago Daily Defender, April 26, 1967, p. 3).
THIRD FORCE
In response to another question, Dr. King declared that it might be necessary to form a "third force" in U. S. politics composed of African Americans and "white" liberals who opposed the Vietnam war.
"I don't throw out the idea of a possible third party," he said, but added, "I wouldn't advocate the idea of a separate all-black party."
OLD IDEA
In reporting Dr. King's comments, "The Christian Monitor noted, "The idea of Dr. King's seeking the presidency is not new. Southern Negroes have long discussed the prospect of having the well-known civil-rights leader as the nation's chief executive" (George Moneyhun, "Dr. King denies aiming at presidential candidacy," The Christian Science Monitor, April 27, 1967, p. 3).
(WSB-TV Video Courtesy Civil Rights Digital Library, University of Georgia Libraries)
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 6020
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr's_last_speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 2692377
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
I Have A Dream: Life of Martin Luther King Jr. (clip)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This documentary, originally produced for CBS News, includes portions of the Rev. Dr. King's most famous speech as it tells the story of this dedicated man's life and the forces that brought him to leadership of his people. Using news footage from the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s, "I Have a Dream" illustrates a watershed era of U.S. history and highlights the philosophies and ideals that Dr. King came to exemplify. 35 minutes, B/W
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=2c3b752e-5bfc-4c34-9e96-8819dbf399f1&cat;=64⊂=9e058f35-1f9c-4642-aab8-89a68db74241
http://wn.com/I_Have_A_Dream_Life_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_clip
This documentary, originally produced for CBS News, includes portions of the Rev. Dr. King's most famous speech as it tells the story of this dedicated man's life and the forces that brought him to leadership of his people. Using news footage from the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s, "I Have a Dream" illustrates a watershed era of U.S. history and highlights the philosophies and ideals that Dr. King came to exemplify. 35 minutes, B/W
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=2c3b752e-5bfc-4c34-9e96-8819dbf399f1&cat;=64⊂=9e058f35-1f9c-4642-aab8-89a68db74241
- published: 06 Feb 2009
- views: 34876
- author: PREZ150
MLK - I have a dream as music
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:33
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech set to music. King's way of speaking creates the melody. Performed by Topology and Loops (http://www.topologymusic.com). From the 74-minute composition "Airwaves".
http://wn.com/MLK_I_have_a_dream_as_music
Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech set to music. King's way of speaking creates the melody. Performed by Topology and Loops (http://www.topologymusic.com). From the 74-minute composition "Airwaves".
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 71231
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr's_last_speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 2692377
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King Jr. on Malcolm X
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm X's criticisms of his philosophy.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_Malcolm_X
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm X's criticisms of his philosophy.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 1189457
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr. on War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_War
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 368994
- author: PREZ150
How Long? Not Long!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
http://wn.com/How_Long?_Not_Long!
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 447421
- author: PREZ150
MLK - A Knock at Midnight
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
clip from the sermon sermon "Why Jesus Called A Wise Man A Fool"
http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/sermons/670827.000_Why_Jesus_Called_a_Man_a_Fool.html
http://wn.com/MLK_A_Knock_at_Midnight
clip from the sermon sermon "Why Jesus Called A Wise Man A Fool"
http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/sermons/670827.000_Why_Jesus_Called_a_Man_a_Fool.html
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 260045
- author: PREZ150
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. on his morals
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
He letting people know that he has not sold out anything or anyone
http://wn.com/Rev_Dr_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_his_morals
He letting people know that he has not sold out anything or anyone
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 34007
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King on Non-Violence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:32
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
Reverend Martin Luther King explains his philosophy of non-violent resistance.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_on_Non-Violence
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
Reverend Martin Luther King explains his philosophy of non-violent resistance.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 57536
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr.- Influence of Gandhi and Nonviolence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:55
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In this interview, Dr. King explains how he was first exposed to the ideas of Gandhi and the philosophy of nonviolence.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_Influence_of_Gandhi_and_Nonviolence
In this interview, Dr. King explains how he was first exposed to the ideas of Gandhi and the philosophy of nonviolence.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 98394
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King in Florida
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King's frustration on how hard it is to integrate.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_in_Florida
Martin Luther King's frustration on how hard it is to integrate.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 25600
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King at Local 1199
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:57
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In one of the last speeches he gave before he was killed on April 4 1968, Dr. King addresses healthcare workers about the Vietnam War and the fight for social and economic justice. Only an audio recording was available, so we have added photos and present-day video of New England 1199ers to this excerpt. For more info: http://www.nehceu.org
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_at_Local_1199
In one of the last speeches he gave before he was killed on April 4 1968, Dr. King addresses healthcare workers about the Vietnam War and the fight for social and economic justice. Only an audio recording was available, so we have added photos and present-day video of New England 1199ers to this excerpt. For more info: http://www.nehceu.org
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 23345
- author: PREZ150
King in Chicago trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:45
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A trailer for the 77 minute documentary about the complications and contradictions faced by Dr. King and the Chicago Freedom Movement. www.thorncreekproductions.com
http://wn.com/King_in_Chicago_trailer
A trailer for the 77 minute documentary about the complications and contradictions faced by Dr. King and the Chicago Freedom Movement. www.thorncreekproductions.com
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 6084
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King Jr. - We Have Overcome
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:14
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - 1960's - Statements made during a march for freedom and equality.
For this and more footage visit:
http://www.myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16135#tn
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_We_Have_Overcome
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - 1960's - Statements made during a march for freedom and equality.
For this and more footage visit:
http://www.myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16135#tn
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 1667
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr. -- What Murdered These Four Girls?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:58
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
After the church bombing in Birmingham, Dr. King delievered this speech in which he doesn't place the blame on the white attackers but rather on Negroes who have been to lazy and apathetic to join the cause of the Civil Rights Movement.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_-_What_Murdered_These_Four_Girls?
After the church bombing in Birmingham, Dr. King delievered this speech in which he doesn't place the blame on the white attackers but rather on Negroes who have been to lazy and apathetic to join the cause of the Civil Rights Movement.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 27124
- author: PREZ150
For You Bernice!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Someting Just For Benice King!!!
http://wn.com/For_You_Bernice!!!
1968 King Assassination Report (CBS News)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the shooting and the nation's reaction to the tragedy. (CBSNews.com)
http://wn.com/1968_King_Assassination_Report_CBS_News
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the shooting and the nation's reaction to the tragedy. (CBSNews.com)
- published: 14 Feb 2009
- views: 1043102
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life of Service
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Congressman John Lewis and Former Senator Harris Wofford discuss Martin Luther King, Jr.'s legacy of service as we near the day where we celebrate the civil rights leader. Visit USAservice.org to find out more information about how you can serve your community on Jan. 19th and follow in King's footsteps.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_A_Life_of_Service
Congressman John Lewis and Former Senator Harris Wofford discuss Martin Luther King, Jr.'s legacy of service as we near the day where we celebrate the civil rights leader. Visit USAservice.org to find out more information about how you can serve your community on Jan. 19th and follow in King's footsteps.
- published: 27 Feb 2009
- views: 193723
- author: PREZ150
MLK: Mountaintop Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:58
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/MLK_Mountaintop_Speech
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day.
- published: 02 Mar 2009
- views: 206017
- author: PREZ150
MLK Technology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:34
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Visit http://mattswriting.com/music/ to download an MP3 of this mix.
Celebrating one of Dr. King's greatest sermons on its 40th anniversary. Here is the end of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Drum Major Instinct sermon delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia, on February 4, 1968 mixed with Ayo Technology by 50 Cent, Justin Timberlake, and Timbaland.
This is the mix featured on 94.1 KPFA and at the Bill Graham Civic Center in San Francisco on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day 2008.
http://wn.com/MLK_Technology
Visit http://mattswriting.com/music/ to download an MP3 of this mix.
Celebrating one of Dr. King's greatest sermons on its 40th anniversary. Here is the end of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Drum Major Instinct sermon delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia, on February 4, 1968 mixed with Ayo Technology by 50 Cent, Justin Timberlake, and Timbaland.
This is the mix featured on 94.1 KPFA and at the Bill Graham Civic Center in San Francisco on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day 2008.
- published: 02 Mar 2009
- views: 8236
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King Jnr
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
More than a Dreamer, a Weaver of reality
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jnr
"I'm Sorry Sir You Don't Know Me"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:44
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Quotes from this speech:
when you go to jail for a righteous cause you can accept the inconveniences of jail with a kind of inner sense of calm and inner sense of peace
I'm gonna continue with all of my might with all of my energy and actions
to oppose the abominable , evil, and unjust war in Vietnam
we must to continue to stand up and we must continue to follow the dictates of our conscience even if that means breaking unjust laws.
non cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as cooperation with good and i do not plan to cooperate with evil at any point.
somebody said to me DR King don't you think you are hurting your leadership by taking a stand against the war in Vietnam. Aren't people who once respected you will lose respect for you and aren't you hurting the budget of your organization and i had to look at that person and say I'm sorry sir but you don't know me.
leadership by looking at the southern Christan leadership budget or taking a poll of the majority opinion.
Ultimately a genuine leader is not a searcher of consensus but he is a molder of consensus.
and on some positions
coward asks the question is it safe
expediency asks the question is it politic
vanity asks the question is it popular
but conscience asks the question is it right
and there comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe nor politic nor popular but he must do it because conscience tells him it is right.
---Martin Luther King at Santa Rita
produced by Colin Edwards.
Description: King's speech at a demonstration supporting anti-war activitists imprisoned at the Santa Rita rehabilitation center.
MARTIN LUTHER KING AT SANTA RITA produced by Colin Edwards.
RECORDED: Santa Rita, California, 14 Jan. 1968.
BROADCAST: KPFA, 15 Jan. 1968. (23 min.)BB1460 Pacifica Radio Archives.
This item is part of the collection: Pacifica Radio Archives
http://wn.com/I'm_Sorry_Sir_You_Don't_Know_Me
Quotes from this speech:
when you go to jail for a righteous cause you can accept the inconveniences of jail with a kind of inner sense of calm and inner sense of peace
I'm gonna continue with all of my might with all of my energy and actions
to oppose the abominable , evil, and unjust war in Vietnam
we must to continue to stand up and we must continue to follow the dictates of our conscience even if that means breaking unjust laws.
non cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as cooperation with good and i do not plan to cooperate with evil at any point.
somebody said to me DR King don't you think you are hurting your leadership by taking a stand against the war in Vietnam. Aren't people who once respected you will lose respect for you and aren't you hurting the budget of your organization and i had to look at that person and say I'm sorry sir but you don't know me.
leadership by looking at the southern Christan leadership budget or taking a poll of the majority opinion.
Ultimately a genuine leader is not a searcher of consensus but he is a molder of consensus.
and on some positions
coward asks the question is it safe
expediency asks the question is it politic
vanity asks the question is it popular
but conscience asks the question is it right
and there comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe nor politic nor popular but he must do it because conscience tells him it is right.
---Martin Luther King at Santa Rita
produced by Colin Edwards.
Description: King's speech at a demonstration supporting anti-war activitists imprisoned at the Santa Rita rehabilitation center.
MARTIN LUTHER KING AT SANTA RITA produced by Colin Edwards.
RECORDED: Santa Rita, California, 14 Jan. 1968.
BROADCAST: KPFA, 15 Jan. 1968. (23 min.)BB1460 Pacifica Radio Archives.
This item is part of the collection: Pacifica Radio Archives
- published: 02 Mar 2009
- views: 241374
- author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King (1963) - Proud to be maladjusted!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:19
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Dr. Martin Luther King's speech at Western Michigan University (Dec 18th, 1963). Transcript at http://www.wmich.edu/library/archives/mlk/transcription.html
More on Dr. King at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_1963_Proud_to_be_maladjusted!
Dr. Martin Luther King's speech at Western Michigan University (Dec 18th, 1963). Transcript at http://www.wmich.edu/library/archives/mlk/transcription.html
More on Dr. King at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
- published: 02 Mar 2009
- views: 64102
- author: PREZ150
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
The Urgency of Now
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 18:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
http://wn.com/The_Urgency_of_Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 172642
- author: 12bar145ne
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:34
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the New York City Riverside Church — exactly one year before his death — King delivered Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence. In the speech he spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony" and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today."
"Now, it should be incandescently clear that no one who has any concern for the integrity and life of America today can ignore the present war. If America's soul becomes totally poisoned, part of the autopsy must read: Vietnam. It can never be saved so long as it destroys the deepest hopes of men the world over. So it is that those of us who are yet determined that America will be are led down the path of protest and dissent, working for the health of our land."
"At this point I should make it clear that while I have tried in these last few minutes to give a voice to the voiceless in Vietnam and to understand the arguments of those who are called "enemy," I am as deeply concerned about our own troops there as anything else. For it occurs to me that what we are submitting them to in Vietnam is not simply the brutalizing process that goes on in any war where armies face each other and seek to destroy. We are adding cynicism to the process of death, for they must know after a short period there that none of the things we claim to be fighting for are really involved. Before long they must know that their government has sent them into a struggle among Vietnamese, and the more sophisticated surely realize that we are on the side of the wealthy, and the secure, while we create a hell for the poor."
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 -- April 4, 1968), was one of the main leaders of the American civil rights movement. A Baptist minister by training, King became a civil rights activist early in his career, leading the Montgomery Bus Boycott and helping to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. His efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech, raising public consciousness of the civil rights movement and establishing King as one of the greatest orators in American history. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other non-violent means.
Dr. King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Martin Luther King Day was established as a national holiday in the United States in 1986. In 2004, King was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence - Vietnam MLK Iraq
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence MLK Vietnam Iraq
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_A_Time_to_Break_Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the New York City Riverside Church — exactly one year before his death — King delivered Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence. In the speech he spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony" and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today."
"Now, it should be incandescently clear that no one who has any concern for the integrity and life of America today can ignore the present war. If America's soul becomes totally poisoned, part of the autopsy must read: Vietnam. It can never be saved so long as it destroys the deepest hopes of men the world over. So it is that those of us who are yet determined that America will be are led down the path of protest and dissent, working for the health of our land."
"At this point I should make it clear that while I have tried in these last few minutes to give a voice to the voiceless in Vietnam and to understand the arguments of those who are called "enemy," I am as deeply concerned about our own troops there as anything else. For it occurs to me that what we are submitting them to in Vietnam is not simply the brutalizing process that goes on in any war where armies face each other and seek to destroy. We are adding cynicism to the process of death, for they must know after a short period there that none of the things we claim to be fighting for are really involved. Before long they must know that their government has sent them into a struggle among Vietnamese, and the more sophisticated surely realize that we are on the side of the wealthy, and the secure, while we create a hell for the poor."
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 -- April 4, 1968), was one of the main leaders of the American civil rights movement. A Baptist minister by training, King became a civil rights activist early in his career, leading the Montgomery Bus Boycott and helping to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. His efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech, raising public consciousness of the civil rights movement and establishing King as one of the greatest orators in American history. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other non-violent means.
Dr. King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Martin Luther King Day was established as a national holiday in the United States in 1986. In 2004, King was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence - Vietnam MLK Iraq
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence MLK Vietnam Iraq
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 237940
- author: 12bar145ne
We Were There - Birmingham 1963
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Wil G. and Drew I.
http://wn.com/We_Were_There_Birmingham_1963
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:48
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Why_I_Am_Opposed_to_the_War_in_Vietnam
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 1382043
- author: 12bar145ne
Martin Luther King Jr. - 1963
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:29
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Set to music by DeVotchKa -- How It Ends, this video follows Dr. King from the movement in Birmingham to DC. Highlighting his speeches in 1963 and ending with his last speech in 1968.
(PART 1 of 2) see Robert Kennedy -1968 for part 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPaVPt4BbkY&feature;=related
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_1963
Set to music by DeVotchKa -- How It Ends, this video follows Dr. King from the movement in Birmingham to DC. Highlighting his speeches in 1963 and ending with his last speech in 1968.
(PART 1 of 2) see Robert Kennedy -1968 for part 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPaVPt4BbkY&feature;=related
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 42378
- author: 12bar145ne
Rev Martin Luther King Jr I've Been to the Mountain Top Pt 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This is the Speech Dr. King gave on April 3, 1968 at Mason Temple in Memphis, TN. It was the night before he was assassinated. It seemed as though he knew his life was coming to an end.
40 years after his death and 45 after his "I Have A Dream" Speech, we are still dreaming. We, as Blacks and Americans, need to wake up and stop dreaming.
Enjoy and Be Blessed!!!
http://wn.com/Rev_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_I've_Been_to_the_Mountain_Top_Pt_1
This is the Speech Dr. King gave on April 3, 1968 at Mason Temple in Memphis, TN. It was the night before he was assassinated. It seemed as though he knew his life was coming to an end.
40 years after his death and 45 after his "I Have A Dream" Speech, we are still dreaming. We, as Blacks and Americans, need to wake up and stop dreaming.
Enjoy and Be Blessed!!!
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 171435
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:57
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART 1 of The long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_1
PART 1 of The long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 221776
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART TWO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART TWO of the long out-of-print documentary on the MLK assassination, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_TWO
PART TWO of the long out-of-print documentary on the MLK assassination, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 61213
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART THREE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:36
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART THREE of the long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_THREE
PART THREE of the long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 195086
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FOUR
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:26
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART FOUR of Who Killed Martin Luther King?
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_FOUR
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FIVE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:25
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART FIVE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_FIVE
PART FIVE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 48826
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SIX
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:54
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART SIX of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_SIX
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SEVEN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:36
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART SEVEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_SEVEN
PART SEVEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 37391
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART EIGHT
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:07
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART EIGHT of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_documentary_PART_EIGHT
PART EIGHT of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 36263
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin luther King? (documentary) PART NINE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:45
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART NINE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_luther_King?_documentary_PART_NINE
PART NINE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 41331
- author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? PART TEN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
PART TEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
http://wn.com/Who_Killed_Martin_Luther_King?_PART_TEN
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 1/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:14
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days
http://wn.com/MLK_Martin_Luther_King_Last_2_days_Part_1_2
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 2/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:46
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days
http://wn.com/MLK_Martin_Luther_King_Last_2_days_Part_2_2
Interview with James Earl Ray: Part One (1977)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Assassin of Martin Luther King, Part One
http://wn.com/Interview_with_James_Earl_Ray_Part_One_1977
Interview with James Earl Ray: Part Two (1977)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Assassin of Martin Luther King, Part Two
http://wn.com/Interview_with_James_Earl_Ray_Part_Two_1977
Martin Luther King III on his fathers assassination
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:22
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.politicalassassinations.com
The Coalition On Political Assassinations (COPA) has four regional conferences in 2008.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_III_on_his_fathers_assassination
http://www.politicalassassinations.com
The Coalition On Political Assassinations (COPA) has four regional conferences in 2008.
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 15060
- author: 12bar145ne
James Earl Ray and MLK? Questions?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Did James Earl Ray assassinate MLK alone?
http://wn.com/James_Earl_Ray_and_MLK?_Questions?
1968 King Assassination Report (CBS News)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the shooting and the nation's reaction to the tragedy. (CBSNews.com)
http://wn.com/1968_King_Assassination_Report_CBS_News
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the shooting and the nation's reaction to the tragedy. (CBSNews.com)
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 1037846
- author: 12bar145ne
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Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr's_last_speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 12 Apr 2010
- views: 2692377
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Dr. King on Meet the Press Pt 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Dr. King on Meet the Press
http://wn.com/Dr_King_on_Meet_the_Press_Pt_1
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. - April 4, 1967 - Beyond Vietnam: A Time To Break Silence [Full Speech]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 56:49
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the U.S. government [was/is] "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". This was in context to a speech delivered on April 4, 1967 at Riverside Church in New York City - exactly one year before his untimely death. Though not as well-known as his other speeches, this is one of the ones that speak deeply to my soul. Because of a few "blips" in the audio, I tried to include include the entire speech to be read along with the speech. It was, however, longer that what is allowed here.
SO.. you can see this embedded video AND read the speech on my blog here: http://4amoreperfectunion.blogspot.com/2011/01/rev-martin-luther-king-jr-april-4-1967.html
http://wn.com/Rev_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_April_4,_1967_Beyond_Vietnam_A_Time_To_Break_Silence_Full_Speech_
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the U.S. government [was/is] "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". This was in context to a speech delivered on April 4, 1967 at Riverside Church in New York City - exactly one year before his untimely death. Though not as well-known as his other speeches, this is one of the ones that speak deeply to my soul. Because of a few "blips" in the audio, I tried to include include the entire speech to be read along with the speech. It was, however, longer that what is allowed here.
SO.. you can see this embedded video AND read the speech on my blog here: http://4amoreperfectunion.blogspot.com/2011/01/rev-martin-luther-king-jr-april-4-1967.html
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 76306
- author: Jasonthehealer1
first interview with Martin Luther King from 1957 part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:49
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
the first extensive TV Interview with Martin Luther King on The Open Mind - The New Negro (the 1957 term)
http://wn.com/first_interview_with_Martin_Luther_King_from_1957_part_2
the first extensive TV Interview with Martin Luther King on The Open Mind - The New Negro (the 1957 term)
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 27346
- author: Jasonthehealer1
The Urgency of Now
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 18:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
http://wn.com/The_Urgency_of_Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 173900
- author: Jasonthehealer1
The Martin Luther King Junior Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This video commemorates the great civil rights leader, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Hope you enjoy and plz leave comments
http://wn.com/The_Martin_Luther_King_Junior_Video
This video commemorates the great civil rights leader, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Hope you enjoy and plz leave comments
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 14528
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech taken form Great Speeches Vol. 6. Available at www.evgonline.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_Mountaintop_Speech
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech taken form Great Speeches Vol. 6. Available at www.evgonline.com
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 157514
- author: Jasonthehealer1
MLK: Mountaintop Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:58
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/MLK_Mountaintop_Speech
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 206030
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King speech - Let freedom ring
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
this is one mlk speech
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_speech_Let_freedom_ring
Miri Ben-Ari Symphony Of Brotherhood
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:06
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Miri Ben-Ari featuring Dr. Martin Luther King
http://www.facebook.com/miribenari https://twitter.com/#!/miribenari
http://wn.com/Miri_Ben-Ari_Symphony_Of_Brotherhood
Miri Ben-Ari featuring Dr. Martin Luther King
http://www.facebook.com/miribenari https://twitter.com/#!/miribenari
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 630971
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King Jr. Calls for Boycott Coke & Wonder Bread
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:38
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The day before he died, April 3, 1968, Martin Luther King called for a boycott of several products in Memphis, Coca-Cola & Wonder bread among them.
More details in this documentary:
Dispatches: Mark Thomas on Coca-Cola 1/5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5JXmDApzp4
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Calls_for_Boycott_Coke_Wonder_Bread
The day before he died, April 3, 1968, Martin Luther King called for a boycott of several products in Memphis, Coca-Cola & Wonder bread among them.
More details in this documentary:
Dispatches: Mark Thomas on Coca-Cola 1/5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5JXmDApzp4
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 10232
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King - Injustice Anywhere
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
His famous words:
"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Injustice_Anywhere
His famous words:
"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 6699
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_On_Love_and_Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 40182
- author: Jasonthehealer1
King Civil Rights Tactics Newsreel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Dr. King's 1963 Letter from Birmingham Jail inspired a growing national civil rights movement. In Birmingham, the goal was to completely end the system of segregation in every aspect of public life (stores, no separate bathrooms and drinking fountains, etc.) and in job discrimination. Also in 1963, King led a massive march on Washington DC where he delivered his now famous, I Have A Dream speech. King's tactics of active nonviolence (sit-ins, protest marches) had put civil-rights squarely on the national agenda.
http://wn.com/King_Civil_Rights_Tactics_Newsreel
Dr. King's 1963 Letter from Birmingham Jail inspired a growing national civil rights movement. In Birmingham, the goal was to completely end the system of segregation in every aspect of public life (stores, no separate bathrooms and drinking fountains, etc.) and in job discrimination. Also in 1963, King led a massive march on Washington DC where he delivered his now famous, I Have A Dream speech. King's tactics of active nonviolence (sit-ins, protest marches) had put civil-rights squarely on the national agenda.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 15570
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Bobby Kennedy anounces Martin Luther King's death, Indianapolic, IN 1968 (TEXT)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:47
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
April 4, 1968, Indianapolis, IN
Ladies and Gentlemen,
I'm only going to talk to you just for a minute or so this evening, because I have some -- some very sad news for all of you -- Could you lower those signs, please? -- I have some very sad news for all of you, and, I think, sad news for all of our fellow citizens, and people who love peace all over the world; and that is that Martin Luther King was shot and was killed tonight in Memphis, Tennessee.
Martin Luther King dedicated his life to love and to justice between fellow human beings. He died in the cause of that effort. In this difficult day, in this difficult time for the United States, it's perhaps well to ask what kind of a nation we are and what direction we want to move in. For those of you who are black -- considering the evidence evidently is that there were white people who were responsible -- you can be filled with bitterness, and with hatred, and a desire for revenge.
We can move in that direction as a country, in greater polarization -- black people amongst blacks, and white amongst whites, filled with hatred toward one another. Or we can make an effort, as Martin Luther King did, to understand, and to comprehend, and replace that violence, that stain of bloodshed that has spread across our land, with an effort to understand, compassion, and love.
For those of you who are black and are tempted to fill with -- be filled with hatred and mistrust of the injustice of such an act, against all white people, I would only say that I can also feel in my own heart the same kind of feeling. I had a member of my family killed, but he was killed by a white man.
But we have to make an effort in the United States. We have to make an effort to understand, to get beyond, or go beyond these rather difficult times.
My favorite poem, my -- my favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote:
Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget
falls drop by drop upon the heart,
until, in our own despair,
against our will,
comes wisdom
through the awful grace of God.
What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness, but is love, and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black.
So I ask you tonight to return home, to say a prayer for the family of Martin Luther King -- yeah, it's true -- but more importantly to say a prayer for our own country, which all of us love -- a prayer for understanding and that compassion of which I spoke.
We can do well in this country. We will have difficult times. We've had difficult times in the past, but we -- and we will have difficult times in the future. It is not the end of violence; it is not the end of lawlessness; and it's not the end of disorder.
But the vast majority of white people and the vast majority of black people in this country want to live together, want to improve the quality of our life, and want justice for all human beings that abide in our land.
And let's dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world. Let us dedicate ourselves to that, and say a prayer for our country and for our people.
Thank you very much.
http://wn.com/Bobby_Kennedy_anounces_Martin_Luther_King's_death,_Indianapolic,_IN_1968_TEXT
April 4, 1968, Indianapolis, IN
Ladies and Gentlemen,
I'm only going to talk to you just for a minute or so this evening, because I have some -- some very sad news for all of you -- Could you lower those signs, please? -- I have some very sad news for all of you, and, I think, sad news for all of our fellow citizens, and people who love peace all over the world; and that is that Martin Luther King was shot and was killed tonight in Memphis, Tennessee.
Martin Luther King dedicated his life to love and to justice between fellow human beings. He died in the cause of that effort. In this difficult day, in this difficult time for the United States, it's perhaps well to ask what kind of a nation we are and what direction we want to move in. For those of you who are black -- considering the evidence evidently is that there were white people who were responsible -- you can be filled with bitterness, and with hatred, and a desire for revenge.
We can move in that direction as a country, in greater polarization -- black people amongst blacks, and white amongst whites, filled with hatred toward one another. Or we can make an effort, as Martin Luther King did, to understand, and to comprehend, and replace that violence, that stain of bloodshed that has spread across our land, with an effort to understand, compassion, and love.
For those of you who are black and are tempted to fill with -- be filled with hatred and mistrust of the injustice of such an act, against all white people, I would only say that I can also feel in my own heart the same kind of feeling. I had a member of my family killed, but he was killed by a white man.
But we have to make an effort in the United States. We have to make an effort to understand, to get beyond, or go beyond these rather difficult times.
My favorite poem, my -- my favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote:
Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget
falls drop by drop upon the heart,
until, in our own despair,
against our will,
comes wisdom
through the awful grace of God.
What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness, but is love, and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black.
So I ask you tonight to return home, to say a prayer for the family of Martin Luther King -- yeah, it's true -- but more importantly to say a prayer for our own country, which all of us love -- a prayer for understanding and that compassion of which I spoke.
We can do well in this country. We will have difficult times. We've had difficult times in the past, but we -- and we will have difficult times in the future. It is not the end of violence; it is not the end of lawlessness; and it's not the end of disorder.
But the vast majority of white people and the vast majority of black people in this country want to live together, want to improve the quality of our life, and want justice for all human beings that abide in our land.
And let's dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world. Let us dedicate ourselves to that, and say a prayer for our country and for our people.
Thank you very much.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 49006
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King Birthday (Happy Birthday to Ya)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A Tribute Produced in the 90's dedicated to the late Rev Dr. Martin Luther King Birthday Stevie Wonder. Happy birthday to ya
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Birthday_Happy_Birthday_to_Ya
A Tribute Produced in the 90's dedicated to the late Rev Dr. Martin Luther King Birthday Stevie Wonder. Happy birthday to ya
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 30846
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. & The Vietnam War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
These are video excerpts from "Evidence of Revision", a 6-DVD, 10 hour long documentary series that presents suppressed historical audio, video, and film recordings largely unseen by the public concerning the assassination of the Kennedy brothers and Martin Luther King Jr., the war in Vietnam, CIA mind control programs and their involvement in the RFK assassination and the Jonestown massacre. The complete series "Evidence of Revision" can be viewed for free on Google Video, or can be purchased online (Google it).
Fair Use Statement
This video may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. I am making this material available in an effort to advance understanding of environmental, political, human rights, economic, scientific, and social justice issues, etc. I believe this constitutes a fair use of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law.
In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, the material contained in this video is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
I reserve the right to block any Youtube user from my channel, and/or remove any comments posted on my videos that I feel are abusive, inappropriate, disruptive, trollish, etc..
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_The_Vietnam_War
These are video excerpts from "Evidence of Revision", a 6-DVD, 10 hour long documentary series that presents suppressed historical audio, video, and film recordings largely unseen by the public concerning the assassination of the Kennedy brothers and Martin Luther King Jr., the war in Vietnam, CIA mind control programs and their involvement in the RFK assassination and the Jonestown massacre. The complete series "Evidence of Revision" can be viewed for free on Google Video, or can be purchased online (Google it).
Fair Use Statement
This video may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. I am making this material available in an effort to advance understanding of environmental, political, human rights, economic, scientific, and social justice issues, etc. I believe this constitutes a fair use of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law.
In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, the material contained in this video is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
I reserve the right to block any Youtube user from my channel, and/or remove any comments posted on my videos that I feel are abusive, inappropriate, disruptive, trollish, etc..
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 35645
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King leads a march through Selma, Alabama
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Earlier a White minister was murdered in Selma
Some marches are met with violence. Others manage to remain peaceful.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_leads_a_march_through_Selma,_Alabama
Earlier a White minister was murdered in Selma
Some marches are met with violence. Others manage to remain peaceful.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 23281
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Dr. King - Housing March in Gage Park Chicago, 1966
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:24
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Archive Footage - Black & White - Dr. King being stoned in broad daylight in Gage Park, Chicago, on August 5, 1966.
For this and more footage visit:
http://myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16216#tn
http://wn.com/Dr_King_Housing_March_in_Gage_Park_Chicago,_1966
Archive Footage - Black & White - Dr. King being stoned in broad daylight in Gage Park, Chicago, on August 5, 1966.
For this and more footage visit:
http://myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16216#tn
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 16700
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. on Tactics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Dr. Martin Luther King explains his motives and tactics to bring equality and peace
http://wn.com/Reverend_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_Tactics
Dr. Martin Luther King explains his motives and tactics to bring equality and peace
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 7371
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Birmingham Speech - Martin Luther King Jr.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:20
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - Selma-Montgomery March, March 1965
For this and more footage visit:
http://www.myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16130#tn
http://wn.com/Birmingham_Speech_Martin_Luther_King_Jr
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - Selma-Montgomery March, March 1965
For this and more footage visit:
http://www.myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16130#tn
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 51440
- author: Jasonthehealer1
In The Name of Love
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In memory of MLK...slideshow put to U2's Pride(In The Name of Love). Done in honor of Martin Luther King Jr Day 1/15/07. I wanted to create something like this for several years and finally sat down to do it. Around 2003 I created a mix of U2 - 'Pride' with various MLK speeches and news briefs interlaced. U2 fans will notice that I used the single version of 'Pride' which has Bono's unedited vocals as he really belts out the chorus with a lot of feeling and emotion. The ultimate goal was to set a slideshow to the music. This was done using the wonderful program 'MemoriesOnTV' version 3.1.7. After sorting through many on download.com this was my favorite. Feedback would be appreciated. Thank you for watching.
http://wn.com/In_The_Name_of_Love
In memory of MLK...slideshow put to U2's Pride(In The Name of Love). Done in honor of Martin Luther King Jr Day 1/15/07. I wanted to create something like this for several years and finally sat down to do it. Around 2003 I created a mix of U2 - 'Pride' with various MLK speeches and news briefs interlaced. U2 fans will notice that I used the single version of 'Pride' which has Bono's unedited vocals as he really belts out the chorus with a lot of feeling and emotion. The ultimate goal was to set a slideshow to the music. This was done using the wonderful program 'MemoriesOnTV' version 3.1.7. After sorting through many on download.com this was my favorite. Feedback would be appreciated. Thank you for watching.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 168474
- author: Jasonthehealer1
The MLK that's never quoted
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:18
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Why doesn't anyone ever quote these words by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.?
http://wn.com/The_MLK_that's_never_quoted
Why doesn't anyone ever quote these words by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.?
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 690226
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Send this Playlist by SMS
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J. F. Kennedy talks about secret devils,(Masons& Illuminati)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://truthing.Tipod.com/
http://therealtruth11.tripod.com/
For God's sake, Stop the war.
John F. Kennedy made this speech April 27, 1961
Please watch this. Until we realize the world is run by secret devils, we should stop the carnage that is taken place all over the world. The wars in Africa, Iraq and Afghanistan, of today and the wars of past years, ww1 and 2. The ill treatment of the Chinese people, Russian, Polish; the list is endless. We can, and should stop the progress of the new world order.
In this speech John clearly states the danger we are in from these secret societies.
The Freemasons had been infiltrated by a deeper darker society with evil intent. They are "the Illuminati".
Please listen to this and take heed.
http://wn.com/J_F_Kennedy_talks_about_secret_devils,MasonsIlluminati
http://truthing.Tipod.com/
http://therealtruth11.tripod.com/
For God's sake, Stop the war.
John F. Kennedy made this speech April 27, 1961
Please watch this. Until we realize the world is run by secret devils, we should stop the carnage that is taken place all over the world. The wars in Africa, Iraq and Afghanistan, of today and the wars of past years, ww1 and 2. The ill treatment of the Chinese people, Russian, Polish; the list is endless. We can, and should stop the progress of the new world order.
In this speech John clearly states the danger we are in from these secret societies.
The Freemasons had been infiltrated by a deeper darker society with evil intent. They are "the Illuminati".
Please listen to this and take heed.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 305744
- author: hplaserjet2001
Robert F. Kennedy speech ~ Mindless Menace of Violence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:20
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This speech by Robert F. Kennedy was given on April 5, 1968 at the City Club of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio. The soundtrack is from the movie "Bobby", if you haven't watched it, rent it today, it is a wonderful production. Thank you.
http://wn.com/Robert_F_Kennedy_speech_~_Mindless_Menace_of_Violence
This speech by Robert F. Kennedy was given on April 5, 1968 at the City Club of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio. The soundtrack is from the movie "Bobby", if you haven't watched it, rent it today, it is a wonderful production. Thank you.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 279570
- author: hplaserjet2001
In Memory of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This video tribute is dedicated to President John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States of America(1960-1963). The last true President that we had besides Abraham Lincoln... You were doing great things for this country and were going to do more for this nation & not all of it is known by the people. It was your Executive Order 11110 that was the final straw for that NWO Cartel who have finally had enough. And they decided to act by taking away your life & you were murdered three days before your son John Jr's 3rd birthday, your daughter Caroline's 6th birthday and nearly 3 months after you and your wife's,the First Lady,Mrs. Jacqueline L. Kennedy(JLK)10th wedding anniversary.
R.I.P. President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. We need you back, John. God bless you.
http://wn.com/In_Memory_of_President_John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy
This video tribute is dedicated to President John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States of America(1960-1963). The last true President that we had besides Abraham Lincoln... You were doing great things for this country and were going to do more for this nation & not all of it is known by the people. It was your Executive Order 11110 that was the final straw for that NWO Cartel who have finally had enough. And they decided to act by taking away your life & you were murdered three days before your son John Jr's 3rd birthday, your daughter Caroline's 6th birthday and nearly 3 months after you and your wife's,the First Lady,Mrs. Jacqueline L. Kennedy(JLK)10th wedding anniversary.
R.I.P. President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. We need you back, John. God bless you.
- published: 16 Oct 2010
- views: 2243
- author: hplaserjet2001
Charlie Chaplin Speaks
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Clip from the Charlie Chaplin film, The Great Dictator.
Property of United Artists
http://wn.com/Charlie_Chaplin_Speaks
Clip from the Charlie Chaplin film, The Great Dictator.
Property of United Artists
- published: 26 Apr 2009
- views: 859823
- author: hplaserjet2001
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:46
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
http://wn.com/Robert_Kennedy_announces_death_of_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
- published: 03 Dec 2010
- views: 485506
- author: hplaserjet2001
The Greatest Speech of The 21st Century
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.djpauledge.com/wewillnotbesilenced/index_secondmovie.html?tt=1%2E1
This powerful speech by Reverend Graylan Hagler is undoubtedly the best speech of the 21st Century.
In just over 4 minutes, Reverend Hagler covers the major problems of America in the world and the major solution--grass-roots efforts by people like you. You WILL believe you CAN make a difference after watching this speech.
Reverend Graylan Hagler is National President, Ministers for Racial, Social and Economic Justice and Senior Minister, Plymouth Congregational United Church of Christ Washington, D.C.
Video shot by YouTuber FluxRostrum -- check out his other great videos: http://www.youtube.com/user/FluxRostrum
http://wn.com/The_Greatest_Speech_of_The_21st_Century
http://www.djpauledge.com/wewillnotbesilenced/index_secondmovie.html?tt=1%2E1
This powerful speech by Reverend Graylan Hagler is undoubtedly the best speech of the 21st Century.
In just over 4 minutes, Reverend Hagler covers the major problems of America in the world and the major solution--grass-roots efforts by people like you. You WILL believe you CAN make a difference after watching this speech.
Reverend Graylan Hagler is National President, Ministers for Racial, Social and Economic Justice and Senior Minister, Plymouth Congregational United Church of Christ Washington, D.C.
Video shot by YouTuber FluxRostrum -- check out his other great videos: http://www.youtube.com/user/FluxRostrum
- published: 13 Dec 2009
- views: 158932
- author: hplaserjet2001
Martin Luther King Junior's Historic Last Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Watch Martin Luther King Junior's 'I've Been to the Mountaintop' speech in Memphis the day before he was assassinated 40 years ago. (April 4)
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Junior's_Historic_Last_Speech
Watch Martin Luther King Junior's 'I've Been to the Mountaintop' speech in Memphis the day before he was assassinated 40 years ago. (April 4)
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 316795
- author: hplaserjet2001
Rev. Graylan Hagler on the Need to Bail Out the People
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:12
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
On Thursday afternoon, Dec. 3, 2009, advocates for social justice held a rally in front of the White House. The event was sponsored by the "Bail Out the People Movement," a national organization, see: http://www.bailoutpeople.org/ One of the speakers was the Rev. Graylan Hagler, a longtime fighter for peace and justice. He said: "Let's build a world filled with justice...We need to push and shove to make people do what is right...If we can reward the banks, then we can surely reward the workers in this country." Rev. Hagler strongly objected to President Barack Obama's plan to send 30,000 more U.S. troops to Afghanistan. He added that everyone is entitled to the "dignity of a job with a future...We need a gigantic jobs program once again in this country that puts everyone to work." For background on Rev. Hagler, go to:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graylan_Hagler
http://wn.com/Rev_Graylan_Hagler_on_the_Need_to_Bail_Out_the_People
On Thursday afternoon, Dec. 3, 2009, advocates for social justice held a rally in front of the White House. The event was sponsored by the "Bail Out the People Movement," a national organization, see: http://www.bailoutpeople.org/ One of the speakers was the Rev. Graylan Hagler, a longtime fighter for peace and justice. He said: "Let's build a world filled with justice...We need to push and shove to make people do what is right...If we can reward the banks, then we can surely reward the workers in this country." Rev. Hagler strongly objected to President Barack Obama's plan to send 30,000 more U.S. troops to Afghanistan. He added that everyone is entitled to the "dignity of a job with a future...We need a gigantic jobs program once again in this country that puts everyone to work." For background on Rev. Hagler, go to:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graylan_Hagler
- published: 13 Dec 2009
- views: 466
- author: hplaserjet2001
John F Kennedy - Ich Bin Ein Berliner Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:33
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy made to the free people of Berlin.
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy_Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner_Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy made to the free people of Berlin.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 115026
- author: hplaserjet2001
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed?" More video, FBI documentation, and LBJ's tapped phone conversations at itwasjohnson.impiousdigest.com or impiousdigest.com
http://wn.com/RFK_to_Johnson_Why_did_you_kill_you_have_my_brother_killed
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed?" More video, FBI documentation, and LBJ's tapped phone conversations at itwasjohnson.impiousdigest.com or impiousdigest.com
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 427305
- author: hplaserjet2001
Rare video JFK 1960 Speech at the Houston Ministers
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:57
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Roman Catholic President John F Kennedy speech at the Houston Ministers in 1960 this speech was on the religious issue and seperation from Church & State.
This speech angered the Pope and the Vatican which eventually led to JFK's assassination. JFK was a patriot he defended the constitution against the Jesuit-Vatican led New World Order. That is what a real Catholic would do and that is what you call a Real President not a CFR Phoney.
http://wn.com/Rare_video_JFK_1960_Speech_at_the_Houston_Ministers
Roman Catholic President John F Kennedy speech at the Houston Ministers in 1960 this speech was on the religious issue and seperation from Church & State.
This speech angered the Pope and the Vatican which eventually led to JFK's assassination. JFK was a patriot he defended the constitution against the Jesuit-Vatican led New World Order. That is what a real Catholic would do and that is what you call a Real President not a CFR Phoney.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 239526
- author: hplaserjet2001
John F Kennedy - Costa Rica Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:10
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy gave at the University in Costa Rica.
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy_Costa_Rica_Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy gave at the University in Costa Rica.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 12233
- author: hplaserjet2001
John F. Kennedy Missile Crisis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, former president John F. Kennedy issued an order to blockade Soviet ships from traveling to Cuba.
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy_Missile_Crisis
In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, former president John F. Kennedy issued an order to blockade Soviet ships from traveling to Cuba.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 335294
- author: hplaserjet2001
JFK - "(The US) will never start a war."
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:10
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
http://wn.com/JFK_The_US_will_never_start_a_war
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 69322
- author: hplaserjet2001
JFK: "Terror is not a new weapon"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
President John F. Kennedy speaking about terrorism before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright - John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
http://wn.com/JFK_Terror_is_not_a_new_weapon
President John F. Kennedy speaking about terrorism before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright - John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 29354
- author: hplaserjet2001
JFK: "together we will save our planet"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:45
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
President John F. Kennedy speaking before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
http://wn.com/JFK_together_we_will_save_our_planet
President John F. Kennedy speaking before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 19014
- author: hplaserjet2001
JFK on Seeking World Peace
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:47
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
http://wn.com/JFK_on_Seeking_World_Peace
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 29845
- author: hplaserjet2001
JFK on Civil Rights
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's June 11, 1963 radio and television address to the American people on civil rights.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
http://wn.com/JFK_on_Civil_Rights
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's June 11, 1963 radio and television address to the American people on civil rights.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 94798
- author: hplaserjet2001
John F Kennedy - Alan Shepard Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:05
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy made to congratulate Alan Shepard on his space flight in from of the world.
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy_Alan_Shepard_Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy made to congratulate Alan Shepard on his space flight in from of the world.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 11469
- author: hplaserjet2001
President Kennedy 1961 Inaugural Address
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:43
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://www.c-spanarchives.org/library/vidLink.php?b=1105842248&e;=1105843070&n;=001
President Kennedy delivered his inaugural address on January 20, 1961.
http://wn.com/President_Kennedy_1961_Inaugural_Address
http://www.c-spanarchives.org/library/vidLink.php?b=1105842248&e;=1105843070&n;=001
President Kennedy delivered his inaugural address on January 20, 1961.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 961250
- author: hplaserjet2001
Robert F. Kennedy challenges Gross Domestic Product
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:12
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Forty years ago, Robert F. Kennedy challenged the basic way we measure progress and well-being in America. Today, the Glaser Progress Foundation is raising the same questions through a new medium. The Seattle-based foundation released a new web video marking the anniversary of a famous speech in which Kennedy said the Gross Domestic Product counts "everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile."
http://wn.com/Robert_F_Kennedy_challenges_Gross_Domestic_Product
Forty years ago, Robert F. Kennedy challenged the basic way we measure progress and well-being in America. Today, the Glaser Progress Foundation is raising the same questions through a new medium. The Seattle-based foundation released a new web video marking the anniversary of a famous speech in which Kennedy said the Gross Domestic Product counts "everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile."
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 80525
- author: hplaserjet2001
Robert Kennedy - The Last Campaign: Indianapolis & Ambassador Speeches
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:28
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This meditative video pulls together the audio from Robert Kennedy's Indianapolis speech on the day of Martin Luther King's death and audio from Kennedy's last speech at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles during his run for the Democratic Presidential Nomination in 1968. His words still speak for our present day.. visit http://www.jasonreim.com/video_rfk.htm for higher quality
The music used in the video is from the Polyphonic Spree (Section 20).
I consider this to be part II to the MLK video.
http://wn.com/Robert_Kennedy_The_Last_Campaign_Indianapolis_Ambassador_Speeches
This meditative video pulls together the audio from Robert Kennedy's Indianapolis speech on the day of Martin Luther King's death and audio from Kennedy's last speech at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles during his run for the Democratic Presidential Nomination in 1968. His words still speak for our present day.. visit http://www.jasonreim.com/video_rfk.htm for higher quality
The music used in the video is from the Polyphonic Spree (Section 20).
I consider this to be part II to the MLK video.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 45722
- author: hplaserjet2001
Bobby Kennedy - fearless
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Hopefully, now that we have Sherrod Brown, Jon Tester, Bernie Sanders and Russ Feingold in the Senate, we'll start to see just a sliver of the balls, charisma and passion of Bobby Kennedy.
http://wn.com/Bobby_Kennedy_fearless
Hopefully, now that we have Sherrod Brown, Jon Tester, Bernie Sanders and Russ Feingold in the Senate, we'll start to see just a sliver of the balls, charisma and passion of Bobby Kennedy.
- published: 26 Apr 2009
- views: 165091
- author: hplaserjet2001
1:39
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Montgomery to Memphis (clip)
The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. rose to national prominence in the mid-1950s as a resu...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Montgomery to Memphis (clip)
The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. rose to national prominence in the mid-1950s as a result of his courageous leadership in a struggle against bus segregation in Montgomery, Ala. Influenced by his example, and often under his active guidance, a mass movement developed to oppose the pervasive system of segregation in the South. This program is a memorable introduction to the civil rights movement, and to a nation-changing period of history that came to a tragic close in April 1968 with Dr. King's assassination in Memphis. Produced by Dan McCarroll. 27 minutes,
black and white.
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=768b4a03-7a14-4436-980e-0db3fb32bb10&cat;=⊂=997b3489-7176-4e40-a32b-295e4d7b4704
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 31201
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
0:56
Martin Luther King speech: " I Have a Dream "
Education for all! http://bit.ly/gElvB3 Send your child (or yourself) to College for virtu...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King speech: " I Have a Dream "
Education for all! http://bit.ly/gElvB3 Send your child (or yourself) to College for virtually free..
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 42902
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
22:48
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitati...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 1392348
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
2:04
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in hi...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 40182
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
0:39
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance
Dr. King: Humility, Not Arrogance
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 18730
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
7:24
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 1 of 3)
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 1 of 3)
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 127474
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
7:15
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 2 of 3)
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 2 of 3)
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 51619
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
8:02
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 3 of 3)
MLK Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 3 of 3)
MLK Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 37992
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
0:36
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Tells a Joke on "The Tonight Show" from 1968.
A different side of MLK, this guy is epic...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Tells a Joke on "The Tonight Show" from 1968.
A different side of MLK, this guy is epic
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 128481
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
8:59
Dr. King speaks for himself
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. talks about everything from his theological development a...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Dr. King speaks for himself
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. talks about everything from his theological development and gradualism to the White South's guilt complex and the use of boycotts in the Civil Rights Movement
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 66469
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
0:20
Martin Luther King - I'm Sick & Tired
...
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King - I'm Sick & Tired
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 17311
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
3:56
Rare Video of Martin Luther King, Jr. on Civil Rights and Peace
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News...
published: 08 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Rare Video of Martin Luther King, Jr. on Civil Rights and Peace
Rare excerpts from "The Frank McGee Sunday Report: Martin Luther King Profile," NBC News, May 7, 1967. The symbol behind Dr. King was used by the Chicago Freedom Movement, also known as the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which Dr. King helped lead from 1965-67. Under it was the slogan, coined by movement spokesperson Don Rose, "We're On the Move To End Slums."
In the interview, Dr. King talks with NBC correspondent Tom Petit about why he chose to "take a vigorous stand" against the U. S. government's undeclared war in Vietnam, for which he had received widespread criticism from the news media, civil-rights groups, religious and labor leaders and President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration.
"I cannot overlook the fact that I am a Negro," Dr. King tells Petit, "and that this war is doing a great deal to destroy the lives of thousands and thousands of my brothers and sisters. We are dying physically in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. ... The other thing is that we are dying spiritually and psychologically in disproportionate numbers at home in the ghettos, and I think the war itself accounts for our spiritual and psychological death here at home."
This is how the struggles for civil rights at home and for peace abroad are "tied together."
Dr. King also answers the charge that the civil-rights movement is "dead" by explaining that it has entered a "new phase ... where we are seeking GENUINE equality, where we are dealing with hard economic and social issues" beyond integrating lunch counters and buses.
In an excerpt from a speech at Cleveland, Ohio, on April 28, 1967, Dr. King answers the critics of his peace stand by branding the Vietnam conflict as "an evil war." "And no matter where it leads," he declares, "no matter what abuses it may bring, I'm gonna tell the truth."
A year later, on March 10, 1968, "The Frank McGee Sunday Report," which had provided Dr. King with a fair platform to explain his views on the Vietnam war, broadcast an hour-long special report on the increasingly costly and divisive conflict.
In his summation, McGee, who was one of the first television network "stars" to publicly express doubts about the war, said: "The grand objective -- the building of a free nation [in South Vietnam] -- is not nearer, but further from realization. In short, the war, as the Administration has defined it, is being lost. ... Laying aside all other arguments, the time is at hand when we must decide whether it is futile to destroy Vietnam in the effort to save it" (Don Oberdorfer, "Tet! Turning Point in the Vietnam War" [Johns Hopkins, UP, 1971, 2001], pp. 272-73).
Three and a half weeks later, on April 4, 1968, Dr. King was assassinated at Memphis, Tenn.
For additional background on Dr. King's peace stand, see the following two articles by historian Paul Lee in "The Michigan Citizen" (Detroit):
1) "Dr. King's Decalogue: 'Ten commandments on Viet Nam,'" March 25th-March 31st, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-p4290-78.htm
2) "Dr. King's Decalogue: A postscript," June 10th-June 16th, 2007:
http://michigancitizen.com/dr-kings-decalogue-a-postscript-p4615-73.htm
(Video Courtesy of NBC News)
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 55677
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
0:38
Martin Luther King, Jr. for President? His Answer
Excerpt from WSB-TV newsfilm of news conference by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ebenezer B...
published: 08 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr. for President? His Answer
Excerpt from WSB-TV newsfilm of news conference by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ebenezer Baptist church, 413 Auburn Ave., Atlanta, Ga., April 26, 1967, beginning at 9:30 a. m.
NOTE: The playing quality of this excerpt is poor. The entire video could be seen on the Web site of the Civil Rights Digital Library of the University of Georgia Libraries here:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?query=id:ugabma_wsbn_51565
STATEMENT
Amidst growing rumors that he would make a run for the presidency the following year, perhaps leading a ticket with pediatrician and peace advocate Dr. Benjamin Spock, Dr. King felt compelled to call a news briefing to clarify his position. He read a short prepared statement, which began as follows:
"On Saturday of last week there appeared an article in several prominent newspapers which reported on several groups and individuals urging that I become a candidate for the presidency of the United States in the 1968 elections. I must confess that I was quite surprised by these sentiments and I find it very hard to take them seriously. I understand the stirrings across the country for a candidate who will take a firm, principled stand on the question of the war in Viet Nam and the problem of the poor in urban ghettos, but I must also add that I have no interest in being that candidate. I have come to think of my role as one which operates outside of the realm of partisan politics. Raising the issues and through action creating the situation which forces whatever party is in power to act creatively and constructively in response to the dramatic presentation of these issues on the public scene" ("Statement refuting candidacy for 1968 presidential elections," in FBI letterhead memorandum, pp. 1-3 at 2, enclosed in Special Agent in Charge [SAC], Atlanta, airmail telegram to Director, "Martin Luther King, Jr.; SM-C[Security Matter-Communist], April 25, 1967, Martin Luther King, Jr., FBI headquarters file, 100-106670, serial or document no. 29).
WATCHED
According to an FBI memo on this news conference, this statement was "furnished" to an Atlanta FBI special agent. His name has been exempted from release under the personal-privacy provision of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), but it was almost certainly Alan G. Sentinella. The memo does not indicate who gave him the statement, but it might have been a reporter.
Three copies were sent to FBI headquarters at Washington, D. C., and two were sent to the New York field division later that day.
POSSIBILITY
In this video excerpt, Dr. King answers a reporter's question about the possibility of electing a "Negro" president. In a comment that is not on this video, he added that a "Negro" could be elected president "in the not-too-distant future, in this generation" ("'Me President? .... Nope,'" The Chicago Daily Defender, April 26, 1967, p. 3).
THIRD FORCE
In response to another question, Dr. King declared that it might be necessary to form a "third force" in U. S. politics composed of African Americans and "white" liberals who opposed the Vietnam war.
"I don't throw out the idea of a possible third party," he said, but added, "I wouldn't advocate the idea of a separate all-black party."
OLD IDEA
In reporting Dr. King's comments, "The Christian Monitor noted, "The idea of Dr. King's seeking the presidency is not new. Southern Negroes have long discussed the prospect of having the well-known civil-rights leader as the nation's chief executive" (George Moneyhun, "Dr. King denies aiming at presidential candidacy," The Christian Science Monitor, April 27, 1967, p. 3).
(WSB-TV Video Courtesy Civil Rights Digital Library, University of Georgia Libraries)
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 6020
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
1:16
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day....
published: 06 Oct 2011
author: thSiteW1sd05m
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 06 Oct 2011
- views: 2692377
- author: thSiteW1sd05m
Vimeo results:
7:13
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
1:37
I Have A Dream: Life of Martin Luther King Jr. (clip)
This documentary, originally produced for CBS News, includes portions of the Rev. Dr. King...
published: 06 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
I Have A Dream: Life of Martin Luther King Jr. (clip)
This documentary, originally produced for CBS News, includes portions of the Rev. Dr. King's most famous speech as it tells the story of this dedicated man's life and the forces that brought him to leadership of his people. Using news footage from the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s, "I Have a Dream" illustrates a watershed era of U.S. history and highlights the philosophies and ideals that Dr. King came to exemplify. 35 minutes, B/W
direct link to purchase video:
http://www.phoenixlearninggroup.com/Products/VideoDetail.aspx?id=2c3b752e-5bfc-4c34-9e96-8819dbf399f1&cat;=64⊂=9e058f35-1f9c-4642-aab8-89a68db74241
- published: 06 Feb 2009
- views: 34876
- author: PREZ150
0:33
MLK - I have a dream as music
Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech set to music. King's way of speaking creates...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
MLK - I have a dream as music
Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech set to music. King's way of speaking creates the melody. Performed by Topology and Loops (http://www.topologymusic.com). From the 74-minute composition "Airwaves".
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 71231
- author: PREZ150
3:31
Martin Luther King Jr. on Malcolm X
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King Jr. on Malcolm X
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm X's criticisms of his philosophy.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 1189457
- author: PREZ150
3:09
Martin Luther King, Jr. on War
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr. on War
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 368994
- author: PREZ150
7:24
MLK - A Knock at Midnight
clip from the sermon sermon "Why Jesus Called A Wise Man A Fool"
http://www.stanford.edu...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
MLK - A Knock at Midnight
clip from the sermon sermon "Why Jesus Called A Wise Man A Fool"
http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/sermons/670827.000_Why_Jesus_Called_a_Man_a_Fool.html
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 260045
- author: PREZ150
0:56
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. on his morals
He letting people know that he has not sold out anything or anyone...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. on his morals
He letting people know that he has not sold out anything or anyone
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 34007
- author: PREZ150
3:32
Martin Luther King on Non-Violence
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King on Non-Violence
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
Reverend Martin Luther King explains his philosophy of non-violent resistance.
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 57536
- author: PREZ150
0:55
Martin Luther King, Jr.- Influence of Gandhi and Nonviolence
In this interview, Dr. King explains how he was first exposed to the ideas of Gandhi and t...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr.- Influence of Gandhi and Nonviolence
In this interview, Dr. King explains how he was first exposed to the ideas of Gandhi and the philosophy of nonviolence.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 98394
- author: PREZ150
7:57
Martin Luther King at Local 1199
In one of the last speeches he gave before he was killed on April 4 1968, Dr. King address...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King at Local 1199
In one of the last speeches he gave before he was killed on April 4 1968, Dr. King addresses healthcare workers about the Vietnam War and the fight for social and economic justice. Only an audio recording was available, so we have added photos and present-day video of New England 1199ers to this excerpt. For more info: http://www.nehceu.org
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 23345
- author: PREZ150
1:45
King in Chicago trailer
A trailer for the 77 minute documentary about the complications and contradictions faced b...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
King in Chicago trailer
A trailer for the 77 minute documentary about the complications and contradictions faced by Dr. King and the Chicago Freedom Movement. www.thorncreekproductions.com
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 6084
- author: PREZ150
0:14
Martin Luther King Jr. - We Have Overcome
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - 1960's - Statements made during a march for fre...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King Jr. - We Have Overcome
Archive Footage - Martin Luther King Jr. - 1960's - Statements made during a march for freedom and equality.
For this and more footage visit:
http://www.myfootage.com/details.php?gid=58&sgid;=&pid;=16135#tn
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 1667
- author: PREZ150
Vimeo results:
7:13
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
0:58
Martin Luther King, Jr. -- What Murdered These Four Girls?
After the church bombing in Birmingham, Dr. King delievered this speech in which he doesn'...
published: 09 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr. -- What Murdered These Four Girls?
After the church bombing in Birmingham, Dr. King delievered this speech in which he doesn't place the blame on the white attackers but rather on Negroes who have been to lazy and apathetic to join the cause of the Civil Rights Movement.
- published: 09 Feb 2009
- views: 27124
- author: PREZ150
3:11
1968 King Assassination Report (CBS News)
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received w...
published: 14 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
1968 King Assassination Report (CBS News)
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the shooting and the nation's reaction to the tragedy. (CBSNews.com)
- published: 14 Feb 2009
- views: 1043102
- author: PREZ150
3:37
Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life of Service
Congressman John Lewis and Former Senator Harris Wofford discuss Martin Luther King, Jr.'s...
published: 27 Feb 2009
author: PREZ150
Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life of Service
Congressman John Lewis and Former Senator Harris Wofford discuss Martin Luther King, Jr.'s legacy of service as we near the day where we celebrate the civil rights leader. Visit USAservice.org to find out more information about how you can serve your community on Jan. 19th and follow in King's footsteps.
- published: 27 Feb 2009
- views: 193723
- author: PREZ150
18:17
The Urgency of Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speec...
published: 21 Aug 2010
author: 12bar145ne
The Urgency of Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 172642
- author: 12bar145ne
2:34
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubt...
published: 10 Nov 2009
author: 12bar145ne
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the New York City Riverside Church — exactly one year before his death — King delivered Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence. In the speech he spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony" and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today."
"Now, it should be incandescently clear that no one who has any concern for the integrity and life of America today can ignore the present war. If America's soul becomes totally poisoned, part of the autopsy must read: Vietnam. It can never be saved so long as it destroys the deepest hopes of men the world over. So it is that those of us who are yet determined that America will be are led down the path of protest and dissent, working for the health of our land."
"At this point I should make it clear that while I have tried in these last few minutes to give a voice to the voiceless in Vietnam and to understand the arguments of those who are called "enemy," I am as deeply concerned about our own troops there as anything else. For it occurs to me that what we are submitting them to in Vietnam is not simply the brutalizing process that goes on in any war where armies face each other and seek to destroy. We are adding cynicism to the process of death, for they must know after a short period there that none of the things we claim to be fighting for are really involved. Before long they must know that their government has sent them into a struggle among Vietnamese, and the more sophisticated surely realize that we are on the side of the wealthy, and the secure, while we create a hell for the poor."
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 -- April 4, 1968), was one of the main leaders of the American civil rights movement. A Baptist minister by training, King became a civil rights activist early in his career, leading the Montgomery Bus Boycott and helping to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. His efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech, raising public consciousness of the civil rights movement and establishing King as one of the greatest orators in American history. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other non-violent means.
Dr. King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Martin Luther King Day was established as a national holiday in the United States in 1986. In 2004, King was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence - Vietnam MLK Iraq
Martin Luther King - A Time to Break Silence MLK Vietnam Iraq
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 237940
- author: 12bar145ne
4:38
We Were There - Birmingham 1963
Wil G. and Drew I....
published: 10 Nov 2009
author: 12bar145ne
We Were There - Birmingham 1963
Wil G. and Drew I.
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 60731
- author: 12bar145ne
22:48
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitati...
published: 10 Nov 2009
author: 12bar145ne
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio.
This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording.
Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967.
Text of entire speech:
http://husseini.org/2007/01/martin-luther-king-jr-why-i-am.html
Real Audio file of entire speech:
http://www.africanbynature.com/Resources_2/mlk_vietnam-1967-speech.ram
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 1382043
- author: 12bar145ne
6:29
Martin Luther King Jr. - 1963
Set to music by DeVotchKa -- How It Ends, this video follows Dr. King from the movement i...
published: 10 Nov 2009
author: 12bar145ne
Martin Luther King Jr. - 1963
Set to music by DeVotchKa -- How It Ends, this video follows Dr. King from the movement in Birmingham to DC. Highlighting his speeches in 1963 and ending with his last speech in 1968.
(PART 1 of 2) see Robert Kennedy -1968 for part 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPaVPt4BbkY&feature;=related
- published: 10 Nov 2009
- views: 42378
- author: 12bar145ne
10:01
Rev Martin Luther King Jr I've Been to the Mountain Top Pt 1
This is the Speech Dr. King gave on April 3, 1968 at Mason Temple in Memphis, TN. It was ...
published: 21 Aug 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Rev Martin Luther King Jr I've Been to the Mountain Top Pt 1
This is the Speech Dr. King gave on April 3, 1968 at Mason Temple in Memphis, TN. It was the night before he was assassinated. It seemed as though he knew his life was coming to an end.
40 years after his death and 45 after his "I Have A Dream" Speech, we are still dreaming. We, as Blacks and Americans, need to wake up and stop dreaming.
Enjoy and Be Blessed!!!
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 171435
- author: 12bar145ne
6:57
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART 1
PART 1 of The long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther K...
published: 21 Aug 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART 1
PART 1 of The long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 221776
- author: 12bar145ne
5:00
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART TWO
PART TWO of the long out-of-print documentary on the MLK assassination, "Who Killed Martin...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART TWO
PART TWO of the long out-of-print documentary on the MLK assassination, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 61213
- author: 12bar145ne
4:36
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART THREE
PART THREE of the long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luth...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART THREE
PART THREE of the long out-of-print MLK assassination documentary, "Who Killed Martin Luther King?" by Michel Parbot.
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 195086
- author: 12bar145ne
5:26
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FOUR
PART FOUR of Who Killed Martin Luther King?...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FOUR
PART FOUR of Who Killed Martin Luther King?
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 80646
- author: 12bar145ne
6:25
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FIVE
PART FIVE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART FIVE
PART FIVE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 48826
- author: 12bar145ne
5:54
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SIX
PART SIX of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SIX
PART SIX of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 39284
- author: 12bar145ne
6:36
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SEVEN
PART SEVEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART SEVEN
PART SEVEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 37391
- author: 12bar145ne
5:07
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART EIGHT
PART EIGHT of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? (documentary) PART EIGHT
PART EIGHT of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 36263
- author: 12bar145ne
Vimeo results:
7:13
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
6:45
Who Killed Martin luther King? (documentary) PART NINE
PART NINE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin luther King? (documentary) PART NINE
PART NINE of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 41331
- author: 12bar145ne
2:23
Who Killed Martin Luther King? PART TEN
PART TEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"...
published: 05 Dec 2010
author: 12bar145ne
Who Killed Martin Luther King? PART TEN
PART TEN of "Who Killed Martin Luther King?"
- published: 05 Dec 2010
- views: 34175
- author: 12bar145ne
5:14
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 1/2
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days...
published: 21 Aug 2010
author: 12bar145ne
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 1/2
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 45089
- author: 12bar145ne
6:46
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 2/2
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days...
published: 21 Aug 2010
author: 12bar145ne
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days - Part 2/2
MLK (Martin Luther King) Last 2 days
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 29892
- author: 12bar145ne
1:16
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day....
published: 12 Apr 2010
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 12 Apr 2010
- views: 2692377
- author: Jasonthehealer1
8:23
Dr. King on Meet the Press Pt 1
Dr. King on Meet the Press...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Dr. King on Meet the Press Pt 1
Dr. King on Meet the Press
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 30163
- author: Jasonthehealer1
56:49
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. - April 4, 1967 - Beyond Vietnam: A Time To Break Silence [Full Speech]
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment tha...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. - April 4, 1967 - Beyond Vietnam: A Time To Break Silence [Full Speech]
Many folk have heard that the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr. made the comment that the U.S. government [was/is] "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". This was in context to a speech delivered on April 4, 1967 at Riverside Church in New York City - exactly one year before his untimely death. Though not as well-known as his other speeches, this is one of the ones that speak deeply to my soul. Because of a few "blips" in the audio, I tried to include include the entire speech to be read along with the speech. It was, however, longer that what is allowed here.
SO.. you can see this embedded video AND read the speech on my blog here: http://4amoreperfectunion.blogspot.com/2011/01/rev-martin-luther-king-jr-april-4-1967.html
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 76306
- author: Jasonthehealer1
9:49
first interview with Martin Luther King from 1957 part 2
the first extensive TV Interview with Martin Luther King on The Open Mind - The New Negro ...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
first interview with Martin Luther King from 1957 part 2
the first extensive TV Interview with Martin Luther King on The Open Mind - The New Negro (the 1957 term)
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 27346
- author: Jasonthehealer1
18:17
The Urgency of Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speec...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
The Urgency of Now
A Tribute to Martin Luther King Jr.
This video contains the entire "I have a Dream" Speech, as well as a video clip from the last speech he ever made.
Thanks to all the sources I used to make this, including two videos from Youtube, several photos from several different websites, and quotes from websites and textbooks.
10/6/2012 UPDATE: After Years of fighting with corporations who insisted they owned the rights to this speech and to this particular video that I crafted myself, I have finally won back the rights. First, Universal claimed ownership, hijacked the video to make it unavailable in certain countries and sell a Santana song. Second, another company came in and simply claimed ownership rights to the video. I disputed the claim under the premise that this is most definitely fair use under the case of both commentary and education.
I have been asked by many teachers and professors whether or not they could use this video in their classes, and every time my answer has had to be one of uncertainty. Now I can proudly state that yes, anyone who should wish to use this for educational purposes is free to do so. The decision is no longer in the hands of a corporation, it is in my own hands, and while it is in my hands I will be allowing the use of this video for educational purposes.
It has been several years since I made this video, and there are definitely some small changes I would make if I could. There are a few errors in the way that the text shows up that most definitely need fixing, but the one thing that is still as perfect today as it was when I edited it together is the story of this speech itself. We still live in a world where racism and injustice prevail, exemplified by my struggle in freeing the rights of this video. It is important to look back to our strongest leaders of morality and judgment for guidance, and Martin Luther King Jr. was most definitely a fine example of just that.
I could monetize this video and put ads on it, but why would I want to be like the people who tried to claim ownership to an idea like the one displayed in this video? As long as I remain in control, there will be no ads of any kind on this video, and it will be available in as many parts of the world as possible. I hope this continues to teach and inspire thousands of people. It has been a wild ride fighting for the integrity of the material that this video contains. At least for now, for this very moment, I can say that it is free at last.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 173900
- author: Jasonthehealer1
3:46
The Martin Luther King Junior Video
This video commemorates the great civil rights leader, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Ho...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
The Martin Luther King Junior Video
This video commemorates the great civil rights leader, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Hope you enjoy and plz leave comments
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 14528
- author: Jasonthehealer1
5:40
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech taken form Great Speeches Vol. 6. Available at ...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech
Martin Luther King, Jr. Mountaintop Speech taken form Great Speeches Vol. 6. Available at www.evgonline.com
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 157514
- author: Jasonthehealer1
7:58
MLK: Mountaintop Speech
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day....
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
MLK: Mountaintop Speech
Martin Luther King: Been to the Mountaintop Speech. MLK was assassinated the next day.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 206030
- author: Jasonthehealer1
2:28
Martin Luther King speech - Let freedom ring
this is one mlk speech...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King speech - Let freedom ring
this is one mlk speech
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 37531
- author: Jasonthehealer1
4:06
Miri Ben-Ari Symphony Of Brotherhood
Miri Ben-Ari featuring Dr. Martin Luther King
http://www.facebook.com/miribenari https...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Miri Ben-Ari Symphony Of Brotherhood
Miri Ben-Ari featuring Dr. Martin Luther King
http://www.facebook.com/miribenari https://twitter.com/#!/miribenari
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 630971
- author: Jasonthehealer1
5:38
Martin Luther King Jr. Calls for Boycott Coke & Wonder Bread
The day before he died, April 3, 1968, Martin Luther King called for a boycott of several ...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King Jr. Calls for Boycott Coke & Wonder Bread
The day before he died, April 3, 1968, Martin Luther King called for a boycott of several products in Memphis, Coca-Cola & Wonder bread among them.
More details in this documentary:
Dispatches: Mark Thomas on Coca-Cola 1/5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5JXmDApzp4
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 10232
- author: Jasonthehealer1
0:11
Martin Luther King - Injustice Anywhere
His famous words:
"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King - Injustice Anywhere
His famous words:
"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 6699
- author: Jasonthehealer1
2:04
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in hi...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. - On Love and Nonviolence
In this clip, Dr. King describes the inter-relationship between love and nonviolence in his theology and practics
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 40182
- author: Jasonthehealer1
4:01
King Civil Rights Tactics Newsreel
Dr. King's 1963 Letter from Birmingham Jail inspired a growing national civil rights movem...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
King Civil Rights Tactics Newsreel
Dr. King's 1963 Letter from Birmingham Jail inspired a growing national civil rights movement. In Birmingham, the goal was to completely end the system of segregation in every aspect of public life (stores, no separate bathrooms and drinking fountains, etc.) and in job discrimination. Also in 1963, King led a massive march on Washington DC where he delivered his now famous, I Have A Dream speech. King's tactics of active nonviolence (sit-ins, protest marches) had put civil-rights squarely on the national agenda.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 15570
- author: Jasonthehealer1
Vimeo results:
7:13
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
4:47
Bobby Kennedy anounces Martin Luther King's death, Indianapolic, IN 1968 (TEXT)
April 4, 1968, Indianapolis, IN
Ladies and Gentlemen,
I'm only going to talk to you jus...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Bobby Kennedy anounces Martin Luther King's death, Indianapolic, IN 1968 (TEXT)
April 4, 1968, Indianapolis, IN
Ladies and Gentlemen,
I'm only going to talk to you just for a minute or so this evening, because I have some -- some very sad news for all of you -- Could you lower those signs, please? -- I have some very sad news for all of you, and, I think, sad news for all of our fellow citizens, and people who love peace all over the world; and that is that Martin Luther King was shot and was killed tonight in Memphis, Tennessee.
Martin Luther King dedicated his life to love and to justice between fellow human beings. He died in the cause of that effort. In this difficult day, in this difficult time for the United States, it's perhaps well to ask what kind of a nation we are and what direction we want to move in. For those of you who are black -- considering the evidence evidently is that there were white people who were responsible -- you can be filled with bitterness, and with hatred, and a desire for revenge.
We can move in that direction as a country, in greater polarization -- black people amongst blacks, and white amongst whites, filled with hatred toward one another. Or we can make an effort, as Martin Luther King did, to understand, and to comprehend, and replace that violence, that stain of bloodshed that has spread across our land, with an effort to understand, compassion, and love.
For those of you who are black and are tempted to fill with -- be filled with hatred and mistrust of the injustice of such an act, against all white people, I would only say that I can also feel in my own heart the same kind of feeling. I had a member of my family killed, but he was killed by a white man.
But we have to make an effort in the United States. We have to make an effort to understand, to get beyond, or go beyond these rather difficult times.
My favorite poem, my -- my favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote:
Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget
falls drop by drop upon the heart,
until, in our own despair,
against our will,
comes wisdom
through the awful grace of God.
What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness, but is love, and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black.
So I ask you tonight to return home, to say a prayer for the family of Martin Luther King -- yeah, it's true -- but more importantly to say a prayer for our own country, which all of us love -- a prayer for understanding and that compassion of which I spoke.
We can do well in this country. We will have difficult times. We've had difficult times in the past, but we -- and we will have difficult times in the future. It is not the end of violence; it is not the end of lawlessness; and it's not the end of disorder.
But the vast majority of white people and the vast majority of black people in this country want to live together, want to improve the quality of our life, and want justice for all human beings that abide in our land.
And let's dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world. Let us dedicate ourselves to that, and say a prayer for our country and for our people.
Thank you very much.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 49006
- author: Jasonthehealer1
6:35
Martin Luther King Birthday (Happy Birthday to Ya)
A Tribute Produced in the 90's dedicated to the late Rev Dr. Martin Luther King Birthday S...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King Birthday (Happy Birthday to Ya)
A Tribute Produced in the 90's dedicated to the late Rev Dr. Martin Luther King Birthday Stevie Wonder. Happy birthday to ya
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 30846
- author: Jasonthehealer1
9:31
Martin Luther King, Jr. & The Vietnam War
These are video excerpts from "Evidence of Revision", a 6-DVD, 10 hour long documentary se...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King, Jr. & The Vietnam War
These are video excerpts from "Evidence of Revision", a 6-DVD, 10 hour long documentary series that presents suppressed historical audio, video, and film recordings largely unseen by the public concerning the assassination of the Kennedy brothers and Martin Luther King Jr., the war in Vietnam, CIA mind control programs and their involvement in the RFK assassination and the Jonestown massacre. The complete series "Evidence of Revision" can be viewed for free on Google Video, or can be purchased online (Google it).
Fair Use Statement
This video may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. I am making this material available in an effort to advance understanding of environmental, political, human rights, economic, scientific, and social justice issues, etc. I believe this constitutes a fair use of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law.
In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, the material contained in this video is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
I reserve the right to block any Youtube user from my channel, and/or remove any comments posted on my videos that I feel are abusive, inappropriate, disruptive, trollish, etc..
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 35645
- author: Jasonthehealer1
3:26
Martin Luther King leads a march through Selma, Alabama
Earlier a White minister was murdered in Selma
Some marches are met with violence. Others...
published: 06 Jul 2011
author: Jasonthehealer1
Martin Luther King leads a march through Selma, Alabama
Earlier a White minister was murdered in Selma
Some marches are met with violence. Others manage to remain peaceful.
- published: 06 Jul 2011
- views: 23281
- author: Jasonthehealer1
4:31
J. F. Kennedy talks about secret devils,(Masons& Illuminati)
http://truthing.Tipod.com/
http://therealtruth11.tripod.com/
For God's sake, Stop the war....
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
J. F. Kennedy talks about secret devils,(Masons& Illuminati)
http://truthing.Tipod.com/
http://therealtruth11.tripod.com/
For God's sake, Stop the war.
John F. Kennedy made this speech April 27, 1961
Please watch this. Until we realize the world is run by secret devils, we should stop the carnage that is taken place all over the world. The wars in Africa, Iraq and Afghanistan, of today and the wars of past years, ww1 and 2. The ill treatment of the Chinese people, Russian, Polish; the list is endless. We can, and should stop the progress of the new world order.
In this speech John clearly states the danger we are in from these secret societies.
The Freemasons had been infiltrated by a deeper darker society with evil intent. They are "the Illuminati".
Please listen to this and take heed.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 305744
- author: hplaserjet2001
6:20
Robert F. Kennedy speech ~ Mindless Menace of Violence
This speech by Robert F. Kennedy was given on April 5, 1968 at the City Club of Cleveland,...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
Robert F. Kennedy speech ~ Mindless Menace of Violence
This speech by Robert F. Kennedy was given on April 5, 1968 at the City Club of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio. The soundtrack is from the movie "Bobby", if you haven't watched it, rent it today, it is a wonderful production. Thank you.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 279570
- author: hplaserjet2001
5:37
In Memory of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy
This video tribute is dedicated to President John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President o...
published: 16 Oct 2010
author: hplaserjet2001
In Memory of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy
This video tribute is dedicated to President John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States of America(1960-1963). The last true President that we had besides Abraham Lincoln... You were doing great things for this country and were going to do more for this nation & not all of it is known by the people. It was your Executive Order 11110 that was the final straw for that NWO Cartel who have finally had enough. And they decided to act by taking away your life & you were murdered three days before your son John Jr's 3rd birthday, your daughter Caroline's 6th birthday and nearly 3 months after you and your wife's,the First Lady,Mrs. Jacqueline L. Kennedy(JLK)10th wedding anniversary.
R.I.P. President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. We need you back, John. God bless you.
- published: 16 Oct 2010
- views: 2243
- author: hplaserjet2001
3:54
Charlie Chaplin Speaks
Clip from the Charlie Chaplin film, The Great Dictator.
Property of United Artists...
published: 26 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
Charlie Chaplin Speaks
Clip from the Charlie Chaplin film, The Great Dictator.
Property of United Artists
- published: 26 Apr 2009
- views: 859823
- author: hplaserjet2001
5:46
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr....
published: 03 Dec 2010
author: hplaserjet2001
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Robert Kennedy announces death of Martin Luther King, Jr.
- published: 03 Dec 2010
- views: 485506
- author: hplaserjet2001
4:40
The Greatest Speech of The 21st Century
http://www.djpauledge.com/wewillnotbesilenced/index_secondmovie.html?tt=1%2E1
This powerf...
published: 13 Dec 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
The Greatest Speech of The 21st Century
http://www.djpauledge.com/wewillnotbesilenced/index_secondmovie.html?tt=1%2E1
This powerful speech by Reverend Graylan Hagler is undoubtedly the best speech of the 21st Century.
In just over 4 minutes, Reverend Hagler covers the major problems of America in the world and the major solution--grass-roots efforts by people like you. You WILL believe you CAN make a difference after watching this speech.
Reverend Graylan Hagler is National President, Ministers for Racial, Social and Economic Justice and Senior Minister, Plymouth Congregational United Church of Christ Washington, D.C.
Video shot by YouTuber FluxRostrum -- check out his other great videos: http://www.youtube.com/user/FluxRostrum
- published: 13 Dec 2009
- views: 158932
- author: hplaserjet2001
0:56
Martin Luther King Junior's Historic Last Speech
Watch Martin Luther King Junior's 'I've Been to the Mountaintop' speech in Memphis the day...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
Martin Luther King Junior's Historic Last Speech
Watch Martin Luther King Junior's 'I've Been to the Mountaintop' speech in Memphis the day before he was assassinated 40 years ago. (April 4)
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 316795
- author: hplaserjet2001
7:12
Rev. Graylan Hagler on the Need to Bail Out the People
On Thursday afternoon, Dec. 3, 2009, advocates for social justice held a rally in front of...
published: 13 Dec 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
Rev. Graylan Hagler on the Need to Bail Out the People
On Thursday afternoon, Dec. 3, 2009, advocates for social justice held a rally in front of the White House. The event was sponsored by the "Bail Out the People Movement," a national organization, see: http://www.bailoutpeople.org/ One of the speakers was the Rev. Graylan Hagler, a longtime fighter for peace and justice. He said: "Let's build a world filled with justice...We need to push and shove to make people do what is right...If we can reward the banks, then we can surely reward the workers in this country." Rev. Hagler strongly objected to President Barack Obama's plan to send 30,000 more U.S. troops to Afghanistan. He added that everyone is entitled to the "dignity of a job with a future...We need a gigantic jobs program once again in this country that puts everyone to work." For background on Rev. Hagler, go to:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graylan_Hagler
- published: 13 Dec 2009
- views: 466
- author: hplaserjet2001
2:33
John F Kennedy - Ich Bin Ein Berliner Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of ...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
John F Kennedy - Ich Bin Ein Berliner Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy made to the free people of Berlin.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 115026
- author: hplaserjet2001
2:17
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed?" More video, FBI documentati...
published: 09 May 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed
RFK to Johnson: "Why did you kill you have my brother killed?" More video, FBI documentation, and LBJ's tapped phone conversations at itwasjohnson.impiousdigest.com or impiousdigest.com
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 427305
- author: hplaserjet2001
4:57
Rare video JFK 1960 Speech at the Houston Ministers
Roman Catholic President John F Kennedy speech at the Houston Ministers in 1960 this speec...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
Rare video JFK 1960 Speech at the Houston Ministers
Roman Catholic President John F Kennedy speech at the Houston Ministers in 1960 this speech was on the religious issue and seperation from Church & State.
This speech angered the Pope and the Vatican which eventually led to JFK's assassination. JFK was a patriot he defended the constitution against the Jesuit-Vatican led New World Order. That is what a real Catholic would do and that is what you call a Real President not a CFR Phoney.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 239526
- author: hplaserjet2001
2:10
John F Kennedy - Costa Rica Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of ...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
John F Kennedy - Costa Rica Speech
http://www.thehistoricalarchive.com/jfk.html
This video segment, taken from JFK Years of Lightning, Day of Drums Documentary shows the speech John F Kennedy gave at the University in Costa Rica.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 12233
- author: hplaserjet2001
3:08
John F. Kennedy Missile Crisis
In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, former president John F. Kennedy issued an order ...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
John F. Kennedy Missile Crisis
In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, former president John F. Kennedy issued an order to blockade Soviet ships from traveling to Cuba.
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 335294
- author: hplaserjet2001
1:10
JFK - "(The US) will never start a war."
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
JFK - "(The US) will never start a war."
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 69322
- author: hplaserjet2001
Vimeo results:
7:13
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
1:04
JFK: "Terror is not a new weapon"
President John F. Kennedy speaking about terrorism before the UN General Assembly on Septe...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
JFK: "Terror is not a new weapon"
President John F. Kennedy speaking about terrorism before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright - John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 29354
- author: hplaserjet2001
0:45
JFK: "together we will save our planet"
President John F. Kennedy speaking before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
C...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
JFK: "together we will save our planet"
President John F. Kennedy speaking before the UN General Assembly on September 25, 1961.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 19014
- author: hplaserjet2001
0:47
JFK on Seeking World Peace
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
JFK on Seeking World Peace
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963.
Copyright: Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 29845
- author: hplaserjet2001
1:35
JFK on Civil Rights
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's June 11, 1963 radio and television address to ...
published: 11 Apr 2009
author: hplaserjet2001
JFK on Civil Rights
An excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's June 11, 1963 radio and television address to the American people on civil rights.
Copyright: John F. Kennedy Library Foundation
- published: 11 Apr 2009
- views: 94798
- author: hplaserjet2001
photo: AP / Juan Karita
04 Jan 2013
Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner has released a public letter urging the United Kingdom to relinquish its control over the disputed Falkland Islands. ... The veterans delivered a letter addressed to the British Ambassador in Argentina, John Freeman, criticising the British government for refusing to discuss the sovereignty of the islands with the Argentine government ... 508 Source.. Al Jazeera and agencies. Share....(size: 19.6Kb)
photo: AP / SANA
05 Jan 2013
Syrian government forces have bombarded several rebel strongholds in the suburbs of Damascus to quell the fighters battling the regime of President Bashar al-Assad from reaching the capital. Activists on Saturday said troops leveled their bombardment campaign on the districts of Hajar al-Aswad and Qaboun in southern Damascus while they continued to shell the suburbs of Daraya, Beit Hahm, Zibdeen, Maadamiya and Jisteen ... 445 Source. ... ....(size: 19.0Kb)
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
05 Jan 2013
Tweet. New Delhi, Jan 5 (ANI). The male friend of the 23-year-old medical student, who was gang-raped and left unclothed and bleeding in the street and later died in hospital two weeks after she was attacked on December 16 on a private bus in New Delhi, has said that things would have gone differently if someone had stopped to help ... "It would have been a very different scenario today, had even one person come to our help that day ... (ANI)....(size: 3.8Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
06 Jan 2013
ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
The Examiner
06 Jan 2013
To remind us of how important is to dream, the first holiday of the year is reserved to a man who fought for a dream without giving up, Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr ... Martin Luther King, Jr.’s leadership of the modern American Civil Rights Movement than the previous 350 years. He was assassinated in 1968 and soon after his wife, Coretta Scott King, established The Martin Luther King Jr ... Martin Luther King, Jr....(size: 7.6Kb)
Rocky Mount Telegram
06 Jan 2013
Local events to honor Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s legacy begin this week with the annual Oratorical Competition. Area middle and high school students will compete on Jan ... The annual breakfast, scheduled for Jan ... Events organized by the
Human Relations Department and the Martin Luther King Jr ... For information on the International Festival of Cultures or any other events to celebrate the life and legacy of King, call 972-1181....(size: 2.4Kb)
Detroit Free Press
06 Jan 2013
BIRMINGHAM Tickets for 21st annual King event at the Community House on sale. The 21st annual Martin Luther King Jr ... Silas Norman Jr., assistant professor of internal medicine and the associate ... Martin Luther King Jr ... Martin Luther King Jr ... Martin Luther King Jr ... Wright Museum of African American History is hosting its 13th annual Martin Luther King Jr....(size: 13.3Kb)
The Washington Times
06 Jan 2013
The Examiner
06 Jan 2013
Make a potential employer a friend on Facebook?. Social MediaMay 7, 2012 You’ve just arrived to the Monday grind, leaving behind an enjoyable weekend. You partied with some family and friends. You took photos to share your activity with your friends on Facebook. A day or two later... Remembering Dr. King in today's labor market. #Martin Luther King DayJanuary 14, 2012 In 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr ... Pages ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
The Examiner
06 Jan 2013
What's the most effective way to interact with others? Most people think and communicate in ways that create distrust and alienation. we compete with others, judge them, diagnose them, and make demands on them ... What you say next could change your world." ... Location. Goodwill ... Martin Luther King, Jr ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
The Washington Post
06 Jan 2013
Sylvester James Gates, Jr., 62, of the College Park campus was among 12 researchers named by President Obama on Dec. 21 to receive the award at a White House ceremony this year. Loading... Comments Weigh In Corrections?. Recommend. Personal Post. More news about educationThousands attend D.C ... A co-author of the book “Superspace” and known for efforts to popularize science, Gates was a Martin Luther King Jr ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)
The State
06 Jan 2013
Sen. Jackson to headline MLK celebration at Francis Marion. FLORENCE State Sen. Darrell Jackson, D-Richland, will be the keynote speaker for Florence’s 15th annual Martin Luther King Jr. celebration on Jan. 17, hosted by Francis Marion University and the Greater Florence Chamber of Commerce. The event will begin at 6.30 p.m ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
STL Today
06 Jan 2013
O'Fallon mayor to give State of the City address. O’Fallon Mayor Bill Hennessy plans to deliver his annual State of the City address at 10 a.m. Friday in the council chambers at the O'Fallon Municipal Centre, 100 N. Main St. The public is invited to attend ... Workshop planned on Sunshine Law ... Jan ... Main St ... O’Fallon is seeking volunteers to participate in projects for the annual King Day of Service ... 21 in observance of Martin Luther King Jr ... 14 ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
STL Today
06 Jan 2013
St. Peters sets winter hours at Earth Centre. St. Peters announced winter hours for the city's Earth Centre, 115 Ecology Drive. The yard waste drop-off area will be open from 7.30 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. Monday through Saturday in January and February ... The drop off is open to the public and at no charge to St ... Jan ... O’Fallon is seeking volunteers to participate in projects for the annual King Day of Service ... 21 in observance of Martin Luther King Jr....(size: 2.4Kb)
noodls
06 Jan 2013
(Source. University of Louisville). Blaine Hudson, long-time faculty member and dean of the College of Arts and Sciences from 2005 to 2012, died Saturday, Jan. 5. He was 63. Hudson had retired in December, after taking leave in August for medical reasons ... "Blaine was a visionary and leader in the academy and the community ... He received dozens of honors for teaching, research and public service, including the 2002 Martin Luther King Jr....(size: 3.2Kb)
The Examiner
06 Jan 2013
Third graders get a lesson on slavery in Gwinnett County, Georiga. First reported was 9 third-grade math teachers in Gwinnett County, Georgia created a racial uproar in the Black community from a homework assignment given to students ... It was first reported that all 9 third grade teachers were involved ... Children first. ‘Nothing in the world is more dangerous than sincere ignorance and conscientious stupidity.’ -Martin Luther King, Jr ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
Denver Post
06 Jan 2013
"Finding Camlann" book cover (The Denver Post . book cover). Fiction. Finding Camlann, by Sean Pidgeon. A British archaeologist decides to explain, once and for all, the origins of the King Arthur story ... Booklist ... Martin Luther King. The King Years, by Taylor Branch ... Martin's Dream, by Clayborne Carson. Carson, the founding director of the MLK Research and Education Institute, looks back on his own life and relationship with the King family ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
"Martin Luther King" and "MLK" redirect here. For other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and MLK (disambiguation).
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.[1] He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.[2] King has become a national icon in the history of modern American liberalism.[3]
A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.[4] He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.
In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War.
King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and Congressional Gold Medal in 2004; Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a U.S. federal holiday in 1986.
Early life and education[link]
For more details on this topic, see Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, the middle child of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King.[5] King Jr. had an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King.[6]:76 King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind.[7]
King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity's claims.[8] Most striking, perhaps, was his initial denial of the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school at the age of thirteen. From this point, he stated, "doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly".[9] However, he later concluded that the Bible has "many profound truths which one cannot escape" and decided to enter the seminary.[8]
Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grade and entered Morehouse College at age fifteen without formally graduating from high school.[10] In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1951.[11][12] King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama.[13] They became the parents of four children; Yolanda King, Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice King.[14] King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years old, in 1954.[15] King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Doctor of Philosophy on June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on "A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman". A 1980s inquiry concluded portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly but that his dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship",[16][17][18]
Influences[link]
Thurman[link]
Civil rights leader, theologian, and educator Howard Thurman was an early influence on King. A classmate of King's father at Morehouse College,[19] Thurman mentored the young King and his friends.[20] Thurman's missionary work had taken him abroad where he had met and conferred with Mahatma Gandhi.[21] When he was a student at Boston University, King often visited Thurman, who was the dean of Marsh Chapel.[22] Walter Fluker, who has studied Thurman's writings, has stated, "I don't believe you'd get a Martin Luther King, Jr. without a Howard Thurman".[23]
Gandhi and Rustin[link]
With assistance from the Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee, and inspired by Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King visited Gandhi's birthplace in India in 1959.[6]:3 The trip to India affected King in a profound way, deepening his understanding of non-violent resistance and his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity. In a real sense, Mahatma Gandhi embodied in his life certain universal principles that are inherent in the moral structure of the universe, and these principles are as inescapable as the law of gravitation."[6]:135–6 African American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin had studied Gandhi's teachings.[24] Rustin counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence,[25] served as King's main advisor and mentor throughout his early activism,[26] and was the main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington.[27] Rustin's open homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and his former ties to the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin.[28]
Public stance on political parties[link]
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: "I feel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either."[29]
In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, "I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party."[30]
King critiqued both parties' performance on promoting racial equality:
Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by both the Republican and the Democratic party. The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating to the whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reactionary right wing northern Republicans. And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and right wing reactionary northern Republicans defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[31]
Personal political advocacy[link]
Although King never publicly supported a political party or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights supporter in October 1956 he said that he was undecided as to whether he would vote for the Adlai Stevenson or Dwight Eisenhower, but that "In the past I always voted the Democratic ticket."[32]
In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy: "I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one." King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy in 1964, saying "Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964."[33]
Sermons and speeches[link]
Main article: Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
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All I'm saying is simply this, that all life is interrelated, that somehow we're caught in an inescapable network of mutuality tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly affects all indirectly. For some strange reason, I can never be what I ought to be until you are what you ought to be. You can never be what you ought to be until I am what I ought to be. This is the interrelated structure of reality.—Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.[34]
Throughout his career of service, King wrote and spoke frequently, drawing on his experience as a preacher. His "Letter from Birmingham Jail", written in 1963, is a "passionate" statement of his crusade for justice.[35] His I Have a Dream speech is a 17 minute public speech delivered on August 28, 1963, in which he called for racial equality and an end to discrimination. On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to racial prejudice in the United States.[36]
Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955[link]
In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with the Jim Crow laws. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.[37] On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[38] The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed.[39] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[40] and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed.[41] King was arrested during this campaign, which ended with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[6]:9[42]:53
Southern Christian Leadership Conference[link]
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death.[43]
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book Stride Toward Freedom in Blumstein's department store on 125th Street, in Harlem,[44][45] King was stabbed in the chest with a letter opener by Izola Curry, a deranged black woman, and narrowly escaped death.[46]
Gandhi's nonviolent techniques were useful to King's campaign to change the civil rights laws implemented in Alabama.[47] King applied non-violent philosophy to the protests organized by the SCLC. In 1959, he wrote The Measure of A Man, from which the piece What is Man?, an attempt to sketch the optimal political, social, and economic structure of society, is derived.[48] His SCLC secretary and personal assistant in this period was Dora McDonald.
The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began telephone tapping King in the fall of 1963.[49] Concerned that allegations (of Communists in the SCLC), if made public, would derail the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.[50] J Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights Movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position.[51]
King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[52][53]
King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[42]:85 Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[54][55]
King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[56]:190
Albany movement[link]
Main article: Albany movement
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he "had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel."[9][page needed] But the following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. "Those agreements", said King, "were dishonored and violated by the city," as soon as he left town[9][page needed]. King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-five days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Chief Pritchett discreetly arranged for King's fine to be paid and ordered his release. "We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools... ejected from churches... and thrown into jail... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail."[9][page needed]
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a "Day of Penance" to promote non-violence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and the canny, low-key response by local government defeated efforts.[56]:190–3 However, it was credited as a key lesson in tactics for the national civil rights movement.[57]
Birmingham campaign[link]
Main article: Birmingham campaign
The Birmingham campaign was a strategic effort by the SCLC to promote civil rights for African Americans. Many of its tactics of "Project C" were developed by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker, Executive Director of SCLC from 1960–64. Based on actions in Birmingham, Alabama, its goal was to end the city's segregated civil and discriminatory economic policies. The campaign lasted for more than two months in the spring of 1963. To provoke the police into filling the city's jails to overflowing, King and black citizens of Birmingham employed nonviolent tactics to flout laws they considered unfair. King summarized the philosophy of the Birmingham campaign when he said, "The purpose of ... direct action is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation".[58]
Protests in Birmingham began with a boycott to pressure businesses to offer sales jobs and other employment to people of all races, as well as to end segregated facilities in the stores. When business leaders resisted the boycott, King and the SCLC began what they termed Project C, a series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke arrest. After the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, SCLC's strategist, James Bevel, initiated the action and recruited the children for what became known as the "Children's Crusade". During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs to control protesters, including children. Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm's way. By the end of the campaign, King's reputation improved immensely, Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs in Birmingham came down, and public places became more open to blacks.[59]
St. Augustine, Florida, and Selma, Alabama[link]
King and SCLC were also driving forces behind the protest in St. Augustine, Florida, in 1964.[60] The movement engaged in nightly marches in the city met by white segregationists who violently assaulted them. Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed.
King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, in December 1964, where SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months.[61] A sweeping injunction issued by a local judge barred any gathering of 3 or more people under sponsorship of SNCC, SCLC, or DCVL, or with the involvement of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[62]
March on Washington, 1963[link]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
King, representing SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were: Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr. of the Congress of Racial Equality.[63] The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King's colleague Bayard Rustin.[64] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[65][66] Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation, but the organizers were firm that the march would proceed.[67]
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern United States and a very public opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to denounce and then challenge the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks, generally, in the South. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[68] As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on Washington," and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march.[68][69]
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30-second sample from "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963
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The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.[70][71][72] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success. More than a quarter million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington's history.[73] King's "I Have a Dream" speech electrified the crowd. It is regarded, along with Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech, as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory.[74]
The March, and especially King's speech, helped put civil rights at the very top of the liberal political agenda in the United States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[75][76]
Stance on compensation[link]
Martin Luther King Jr. expressed a view that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups. He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils".[77]:365–7 He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races".[77]:367–8
"Bloody Sunday", 1965[link]
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
King, James Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, for March 7, 1965. The first attempt to march on March 7 was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has since become known as Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement, the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present. King met with officials in the Johnson administration on March 5 in order to request an injunction against any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attend the march due to church duties, but he later wrote, "If I had any idea that the state troopers would use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give up my church duties altogether to lead the line."[9]:276–9 Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage.[42]:222–3
King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issued an order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short prayer session before turning the marchers around and asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending of this second march aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement.[42]:223 The march finally went ahead fully on March 25, 1965.[78][79] At the conclusion of the march and on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech that has become known as "How Long, Not Long".[80]
Chicago, 1966[link]
In 1966, after several successes in the South, King and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as its first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[81] on the West Side of Chicago, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[82]:360–2
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations' efforts were fostered under the aegis of The Chicago Freedom Movement.[83]:1 During that spring, several dual white couple/black couple tests on real estate offices uncovered the practice (now banned in the U.S.) of racial steering. These tests revealed the racially selective processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes, with the only difference being their race.[82]:347
The needs of the movement for radical change grew, and several larger marches were planned and executed, including those in the following neighborhoods: Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage Park and Marquette Park among others.[82]:416[83]:1[84]
In Chicago, Abernathy later wrote that they received a worse reception than they had in the South. Their marches, especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, 1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs, and they were truly afraid of starting a riot.[85][86] King's beliefs militated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would result from the demonstration.[87] King, who received death threats throughout his involvement in the civil rights movement, was hit by a brick during one march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal danger.[88]
When King and his allies returned to the south, they left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of their organization.[89] Jackson continued their struggle for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket movement that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly with blacks.[90]
Opposition to the Vietnam War[link]
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967 appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam".[91] He spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony"[92]:107 and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today".[92]:102 He also argued that the country needed larger and broader moral changes:
A true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists of the West investing huge sums of money in Asia, Africa and South America, only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries, and say: "This is not just."[92]:109
King also was opposed to the Vietnam War on the grounds that the war took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare services like the War on Poverty. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, "A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death".[92]:109
King's opposition cost him significant support among white allies, including President Johnson, union leaders and powerful publishers. "The press is being stacked against me," King complained.[93] Life magazine called the speech "demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Hanoi",[92]:109 and The Washington Post declared that King had "diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, his people."[94]:148
King stated that North Vietnam "did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands".[92]:106 King also criticized the United States' resistance to North Vietnam's land reforms.[95] He accused the United States of having killed a million Vietnamese, "mostly children."[96]
The speech was a reflection of King's evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with whom King was affiliated.[97][98] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation. Towards the time of his murder, King more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice.[99] Though his public language was guarded, so as to avoid being linked to communism by his political enemies, in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism. In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed, "There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism."[100]
King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected "traditional capitalism," he also rejected Communism because of its "materialistic interpretation of history" that denied religion, its "ethical relativism," and its "political totalitarianism."[101]
King also stated, in his "Beyond Vietnam", speech that "true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring".[102]:122 King quoted a United States official who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was "on the wrong side of a world revolution."[102]:122 King condemned America's "alliance with the landed gentry of Latin America," and said that the United States should support "the shirtless and barefoot people" in the Third World rather than suppressing their attempts at revolution.[102]:122–3
King spoke at an Anti-Vietnam demonstration where he also brought up issues of civil rights and the draft.
I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the civil rights and peace movements. There are people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights movement imbued into the peace movement to instill it with greater strength. And I believe everyone has a duty to be in both the civil-rights and peace movements. But for those who presently choose but one, I would hope they will finally come to see the moral roots common to both.[103]
In 1967, King gave another speech, in which he lashed out against what he called the "cruel irony" of American blacks fighting and dying for a country which treated them as second class citizens:
We were taking the young black men who had been crippled by our society and sending them eight thousand miles away to guarantee liberties which they had not found in Southwest Georgia and East Harlem. ... We have been repeatedly faced with the cruel irony of watching Negro and white boys on TV screens as they kill and die together for a nation that has been unable to seat them in the same schools.[104][105]
On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson's State of the Union Address, King called for a large march on Washington against "one of history's most cruel and senseless wars".[106][107]
We need to make clear in this political year, to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and to the president of the United States, that we will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote for men who continue to see the killings of Vietnamese and Americans as the best way of advancing the goals of freedom and self-determination in Southeast Asia.[106][107]
Poor People's Campaign, 1968[link]
Main article: Poor People's Campaign
In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice. The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created a bill of rights for poor Americans.[108][109]
However, the campaign was not unanimously supported by other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. Rustin resigned from the march stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, the demands unrealizable, and thought these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[110] Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks and such prominent critics as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X.[111] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King's plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture.[112] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[113]
King and the SCLC called on the government to invest in rebuilding America's cities. He felt that Congress had shown "hostility to the poor" by spending "military funds with alacrity and generosity". He contrasted this with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congress had merely provided "poverty funds with miserliness".[109] His vision was for change that was more revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of "racism, poverty, militarism and materialism", and argued that "reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced".[94]:148–9
Assassination and its aftermath[link]
Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
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Final 30 seconds of "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
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On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full day.[114][115][116]
On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address at Mason Temple, the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King's flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against his plane.[117] In the close of the last speech of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following:
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.[118]
King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, King's close friend and colleague who was present at the assassination, testified under oath to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the "King-Abernathy suite."[119]
According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King's last words on the balcony prior to his assassination were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: "Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty."[120]
Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out as King stood on the motel's second floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw, then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder.[121][122] Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor.[123] The events following the shooting have been disputed, as some people have accused Jackson of exaggerating his response.[124]
After emergency chest surgery, King was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[125] According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's autopsy revealed that though only 39 years old, he had the heart of a 60-year-old man, perhaps a result of the stress of 13 years in the civil rights movement.[126][clarification needed]
The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race riots in Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, Kentucky, Kansas City, and dozens of other cities.[127][128] Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy was on his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informed of King's death. He gave a short speech to the gathering of supporters informing them of the tragedy and urging them to continue King's ideal of non-violence.[129] James Farmer, Jr. and other civil rights leaders also called for non-violent action,[130] while the more militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful response.[130]
President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[131] Vice-President Hubert Humphrey attended King's funeral on behalf of the President, as there were fears that Johnson's presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[132]
At his widow's request, King's last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral,[133] a recording of his "Drum Major" sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe the naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity".[134] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My Hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral.[135]
The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[136][137]
Two months after King's death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[138] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King's murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later.[139] On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pleaded guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. Ray was sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[139][140] Ray fired Foreman as his attorney, from then on derisively calling him "Percy Fourflusher".[141] He claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias "Raoul" was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy.[142][143] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had.[140] On June 10, 1977, shortly after Ray had testified to the House Select Committee on Assassinations that he did not shoot King, he and six other convicts escaped from Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary in Petros, Tennessee. They were recaptured on June 13 and returned to prison.[144]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Ray's lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[145] One of the claims used to support this assertion is that Ray's confession was given under pressure, and he had been threatened with the death penalty.[140][146] Ray was a thief and burglar, but he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[143]
Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point to the two successive ballistics tests which while proving that a rifle similar to Ray's Remington Gamemaster had been the murder weapon, did not prove that his specific rifle had been the one used.[140][147] Moreover, witnesses surrounding King at the moment of his death say the shot came from another location, from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house—which had been inexplicably cut away in the days following the assassination—and not from the rooming house window.[148]
In 1997, King's son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray's efforts to obtain a new trial.[149] Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, along with the rest of King's family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators". Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found Jowers guilty and that government agencies were party to the assassination.[150] William F. Pepper represented the King family in the trial.[151]
In 2000, the United States Department of Justice completed the investigation about Jowers' claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented.[152] In 2002, The New York Times reported a church minister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson—not James Earl Ray—assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr. He stated, "It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way." Wilson provided no evidence to back up his claims.[153] King biographer David Garrow disagrees with William F. Pepper's claims that the government killed King. He is supported by author Gerald Posner who has researched and written about the assassination.[154] In 2003, William Pepper published a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, laying out the evidence and refuting other accounts.[155]
King's friend and colleague, James Bevel, disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, "There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man."[156] In 2004, Jesse Jackson, who was with King at the time of his death, noted:
The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. ... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray.[157]
Personality and public image[link]
FBI surveillance and wiretapping[link]
J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for years had been suspicious about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights.[158] Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960);[51] its investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when it learned that one of King's most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison. The FBI found Levison had been involved with the Communist Party USA.[159]: 233 The FBI feared Levison was working as an "agent of influence" over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated in business dealings with them.[159]:71–3[159]:70–4 Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).[160] However, by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations.[161]
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fall of 1963[162] and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Levison.[163] Although Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",[164]:372 Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.[164]:372–4 The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison's and King's home and office phones, and bugged King's rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country.[163][165]
For his part, King adamantly denied having any connections to Communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interview that "there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida",[77]:362 and claiming that Hoover was "following the path of appeasement of political powers in the South" and that his concern for communist infiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to "aid and abet the salacious claims of southern racists and the extreme right-wing elements".[161] Hoover did not believe his pledge of innocence and replied by saying that King was "the most notorious liar in the country."[166] After King gave his "I Have A Dream" speech during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described King as "the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country".[165] They alleged that King was "knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating with and taking guidance from communists".[159]:83
The attempt to prove that King was a Communist was related to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by "communists" and "outside agitators".[167] However, the civil rights movement arose from activism within the black community dating back to before World War I. King said that "the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations."[77]:363
Allegations of adultery[link]
Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numerous extramarital affairs.[165] Lyndon Johnson once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher".[168] Ralph Abernathy, a close associate of King's, stated in his 1989 autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a "weakness for women".[169] In a later interview, Abernathy said he only wrote the term "womanizing", did not specifically say King had extramarital sex and that the infidelities King had were emotional rather than sexual.[170][171] King's biographer David Garrow wrote about a number of extramarital affairs, including one woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, "that relationship, rather than his marriage, increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King's life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings...of King's travels." King explained his extramarital affairs as "a form of anxiety reduction." Garrow noted that King's promiscuity was the cause of "painful and overwhelming guilt".[172]
The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family.[173] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work.[174] One anonymous letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part, "The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation."[175] King interpreted this as encouragement for him to commit suicide,[176] although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to "convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC."[161] King refused to give in to the FBI's threats.[177] Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr. in 1977 ordered that all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI's electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[178]
Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding house in which James Earl Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance.[179] Using papered-over windows with peepholes cut into them, the agents were watching the scene while Martin Luther King was shot.[180] Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel, and Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first aid to King.[181] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby have led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination.[182]
Legacy[link]
King's main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States. Just days after King's assassination, the U.S. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[183] Title VIII of the Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation is seen as a fitting tribute to King's struggle in his final years to combat residential discrimination in the U.S.[183]
King continues to be frequently referenced as a human rights icon. His name and legacy have often been invoked since his death as people have debated his likely position on various modern political issues.
On the international scene, King's legacy included influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa.[184][185] King's work was cited by and served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lutuli, another black Nobel Peace prize winner who fought for racial justice in his country.[6]:307–8 The day following King's assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King's death as it related to racism, something they little understood from having lived in a predominately white community.[186]
King's wife, Coretta Scott King, followed her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[187] Their son, Dexter King, currently serves as the center's chairman.[188][189] Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training.[190]
There are opposing views, even within the King family, of the slain civil rights leader's religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. King's widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights. However, his daughter Bernice believed he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[191] The King Center includes discrimination, and lists homophobia as one of its examples, in its list of "The Triple Evils" that should be opposed.[192]
In 1980, the Department of Interior designated King's boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site. In 1996, United States Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the Mall in Washington, D.C.[193] King was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, established by and for African Americans.[194] King was the first African American honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area and the first non-President to be commemorated in such a way.[195] The King Memorial will be administered by the National Park Service.[196]
King's life and assassination inspired many artistic works. A 1976 Broadway production, I Have a Dream, was directed by Robert Greenwald and starred Billy Dee Williams as King.[197] In spring of 2006, a stage play Passages of Martin Luther King about King was produced in Beijing, China with King portrayed by Chinese actor, Cao Li. The play was written by Stanford University professor, Clayborne Carson.[198][199]
King spoke earlier about what people should remember him for if they are around for his funeral. He said rather than his awards and where he went to school, people should talk about how he fought peacefully for justice:
I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love somebody.I want you to say that day that I tried to be right on the war question. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try in my life to clothe those who were naked. I want you to say on that day that I did try in my life to visit those who were in prison. And I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity.
Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I was a drum major for righteousness. And all of the other shallow things will not matter.[130]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday.[200][201] On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[202] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognize the holiday.[203]
Awards and recognition[link]
King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the U.S. and elsewhere.[204][205] Besides winning the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, in 1965 King was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his "exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty".[205][206][207] In his acceptance remarks, King said, "Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free."[208] King was also awarded the Pacem in Terris Award, named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII calling for all people to strive for peace.[209]
In 1959, King was awarded the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story.[210]
In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for "his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity".[211] King was posthumously awarded the Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights by Jamaica in 1968.[204]
In 1971, King was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam.[212] Six years later, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was awarded to King by Jimmy Carter. King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.[213]
King was second in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[214] In 1963, King was named Time Person of the Year and in 2000, King was voted sixth in the Person of the Century poll by the same magazine.[215] King was elected third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL.[216]
More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King.[217] King County, Washington rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of his face in 2007.[218] The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[219] King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (feast day April 4)[220][221] and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (feast day January 15).[222]
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed King on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[223]
In 2011, comparing the record of the leaderless Occupy movement in creating meaningful change with the civil rights movement, Malcolm Gladwell described King as "one of the foremost tacticians of the 20th century." [224]
Capital memorial[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial
A memorial to King has been constructed along the Tidal Basin at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., by the Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. The official address of the monument, 1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law.[225]
Film portrayals[link]
Martin Luther King, Jr. has been portrayed in film and television through the years. He has been portrayed by:
- Raymond St. Jacques in The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977)
- Paul Winfield in King (1978)
- James Earl Jones in Freedom to Speak (1982)
- Charles Brown in Kennedy (1983)
- Fred Perron and Walter Franks in The Boy King (1986) which focuses on King's early life.
- Leland Gantt in Hoover vs. the Kennedys: The Second Civil War (1987)
- Larry Riley in Unconquered (1989)
- Eric Ware in The Vernon Johns Story (1994)
- Voiced by his son Dexter Scott King and Jaleel White in the animated biography Our Friend, Martin (1999)
- Reuben Yabuku in Timequest (2000)
- Jeffrey Wright in Boycott (2001)
- LeVar Burton in Ali (2001)
- Portrayed again by his son Dexter Scott King in The Rosa Parks Story (2002)
Bibliography[link]
- Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6
- The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-8006-0877-4
- Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2
- Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-0112-7
- Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2
- The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-0-8070-0170-7
- A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN 978-0-06-250931-4
- The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1998), ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-446-67650-2
- "All Labor Has Dignity" (2011) ed. Michael Honey ISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1
- "Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and Spirits Collection of Dr. King's prayers. (2011), ed. Dr. Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2
- MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographed by Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles Johnson ISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9
See also[link]
- Anti-racism
- American philosophy
- Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues
- Christian left
- Christian pacifism
- Christian radicalism
- Equal opportunity
- List of African Americans
- List of American philosophers
- List of black Nobel Laureates
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients
- List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
- List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.
- Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
- Racism in the United States
- Religious leaders by year
- Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Notes[link]
- ^ Schlesinger, Arthur M. (2002) [1965], A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House, p. xiv .
- ^ D'Souza, Placido P. (January 20, 2003). "Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King". San Francisco Chronicle. http://articles.sfgate.com/2003-01-20/opinion/17474454_1_nonviolence-philosophy-king.
- ^ Krugman, Paul R. (2009), The Conscience of a Liberal, p. 84 .
- ^ Lischer, Richard. (2001). The Preacher King, p. 3.
- ^ Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. WW Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-05897-2.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992). The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7.
- ^ Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. WW Norton & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-393-05213-3.
- ^ a b "King’s God: The Unknown Faith of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr". Tikkun. 2001-11–2. http://www.tikkun.org/article.php/nov_dec_09_scofield. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne. ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN 0-446-52412-3.
- ^ Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-8239-3543-4.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.
- ^ "Coretta Scott King". Daily Telegraph (UK). 2006-02-01. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1509338/Coretta-Scott-King.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways: Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around the World. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-275-97270-4.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 298. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ "Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King". The New York Times. 1991-10-11. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEFD61030F932A25753C1A967958260. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Heller, Steven; Vienne, Veronique (2003). Citizen Designer: Perspectives on Design Responsibility. Allworth Communications. p. 156. ISBN 1-58115-265-5.
- ^ Thurman, Howard (1981). With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman. Harcourt. p. 254. ISBN 0-15-697648-X.
- ^ Thurman, Howard; Fluker, Walter E.; Tumber, Catherine (1998). A Strange Freedom: The Best of Howard Thurman on Religious Experience and Public Life. Beacon Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8070-1057-X.
- ^ Curtis, Nancy C. (1996). Black Heritage Sites: An African American Odyssey and Finder's Guide. ALA Editions. p. 62. ISBN 0-8389-0643-5.
- ^ Marsh, Charles (1999). God's Long Summer: Stories of Faith and Civil Rights. Princeton University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0-691-02940-7.
- ^ "The Legacy of Howard Thurman — Mystic and Theologian". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. 2002-01-18. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week520/feature.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Kahlenberg, Richard D. (1997). "Book Review: Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen". Washington Monthly. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n4_v29/ai_19279952. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Farrell, James J. (1997). The Spirit of the Sixties: Making Postwar Radicalism. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0-415-91385-3.
- ^ De Leon, David (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: a biographical sourcebook of American activism. Greenwood Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 0-313-27414-2.
- ^ Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-19-513674-8.
- ^ Oates, Stephen B. (December 13, 1993). Let the Trumpet Sound: A Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-06-092473-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=85fOOMQaNaQC&pg=PA159. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA364. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA84. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1992). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-520-07951-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ysIWgsSr9AC&pg=PA384. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne (1998). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Hachette Digital. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=pynSnGuC964C&pg=PT187. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A.; Taylor, Gardner C. (2008). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-8308-3253-X
- ^ Galchutt, Kathryn M. (2005). The Career of Andrew Schulze, 1924–1968: Lutherans And Race in the Civil Rights Era. Mercer University Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-86554-946-X.
- ^ Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makers of Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ "December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks arrested". CNN. 2003-03-11. http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/03/10/sprj.80.1955.parks/. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Walsh, Frank (2003). The Montgomery Bus Boycott. Gareth Stevens. p. 24. ISBN 0-8368-5403-9.
- ^ McMahon, Thomas F. (2004). Ethical Leadership Through Transforming Justice. University Press of America. p. 25. ISBN 0-7618-2908-3.
- ^ Fisk, Larry J.; Schellenberg, John (1999). Patterns of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Broadview Press. p. 115. ISBN 1-55111-154-3.
- ^ a b c d Jackson, Thomas F. (2007). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3969-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith (2000). Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X.
- ^ Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King: The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8
- ^ Extract of Pearson. Google Books. 2004-01-01. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=wiuTfo66SO0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=harlem+1958+martin+luther+king+jr&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Vivian, Octavia (2006). Coretta: The Story of Coretta Scott King. Fortress Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-8006-3855-7.
- ^ "New Sitdowns Stir Violence in Tennessee". The Chicago Daily Tribune. April 12, 1960.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1988). The Measure of a Man. Fortress Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8006-0877-1.
- ^ Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s, Basic Books: New York, New York. ISBN 0-465-04195-7, p. 41
- ^ a b Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 123. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Wilson, Joseph; Marable, Manning; Ness, Immanuel (2006). Race and Labor Matters in the New U.S. Economy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 47. ISBN 0-7425-4691-8.
- ^ Schofield, Norman (2006). Architects of Political Change: Constitutional Quandaries and Social Choice Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0-521-83202-0.
- ^ Shafritz, Jay M. (1998). International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration. Westview Press. p. 1242. ISBN 0-8133-9974-2.
- ^ Loevy, Robert D.; Humphrey, Hubert H.; Stewart, John G. (1997). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation. SUNY Press. p. 337. ISBN 0-7914-3361-7.
- ^ a b Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-4409-5.
- ^ "Albany, GA Movement". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961albany. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Garrow, (1986) p. 246.
- ^ Harrell, David Edwin; Gaustad, Edwin S.; Miller, Randall M.; Boles, John B.; Woods, Randall Bennett; Griffith, Sally Foreman (2005). Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People, Volume 2. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1055. ISBN 0-8028-2945-7.
- ^ Jones, Maxine D.; McCarthy, Kevin M. (1993). African Americans in Florida: An Illustrated History. Pineapple Press. pp. 113–5. ISBN 1-56164-031-X.
- ^ Haley, Alex (January 1965). "Martin Luther King". Interview (Playboy). http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/features/mlk/. Retrieved 2008-08-27. [dead link]
- ^ "The Selma Injunction". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964selmainj. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1251. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ Cashman, Sean Dennis (1991). African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900–1990. NYU Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-8147-1441-2.
- ^ Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. (2002) [1978]. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 351. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning (1991). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1990. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 74. ISBN 0-87805-493-6.
- ^ Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. p. 130. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
- ^ a b Boggs, Grace Lee (1998). Living for Change: An Autobiography. U of Minnesota Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-8166-2955-2.
- ^ Aron, Paul (2005). Mysteries in History: From Prehistory to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 399. ISBN 1-85109-899-2.
- ^ Singleton, Carl; Wildin, Rowena (1999). The Sixties in America. Salem Press. p. 454. ISBN 0-89356-982-8.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 225. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Davis, Danny (2007-01-16). "Celebrating the Birthday and Public Holiday for Martin Luther King, Jr.". Congressional Record (Library of Congress). http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r110:H16JA7-0046:. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Powers, Roger S.; Vogele, William B.; Kruegler, Christopher; McCarthy, Ronald M. (1997). Protest, power, and change: an encyclopedia of nonviolent action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. Taylor & Francis. p. 313. ISBN 0-8153-0913-9.
- ^ Moore, Lucinda (2003-08-01). "Dream Assignment". Smithsonian. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/dream-speech.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (Oxford University Press 1996) pp 482-85, 542-46
- ^ Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality (Hill and Wang; 2008) pp 152-53
- ^ a b c d Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-19-509190-6.
- ^ Azbell, Joe (1968). The Riotmakers. Oak Tree Books. p. 176.
- ^ Leeman, Richard W. (1996). African-American Orators: A Bio-critical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 0-313-29014-8.
- ^ "North Lawndale". Encyclopedia. Chicago History. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/901.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ a b c Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000). Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-316-83489-0.
- ^ a b Ralph, James (1993). Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-62687-7.
- ^ Fairclough, Adam (1987). To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King, Jr. University of Georgia Press. p. 299. ISBN 0-8203-2346-2.
- ^ Baty, Chris (2004). Chicago: City Guide. Lonely Planet. p. 52. ISBN 1-74104-032-9.
- ^ Stone, Eddie (1988). Jesse Jackson. Holloway House Publishing. pp. 59–60. ISBN 0-87067-840-X.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 230. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-19-509190-6. See also: Miller, Keith D. (1998). Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources. University of Georgia Press. p. 139. ISBN 0-8203-2013-7.
- ^ Mis, Melody S. (2008). Meet Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 20. ISBN 1-4042-4209-0.
- ^ Slessarev, Helene (1997). The Betrayal of the Urban Poor. Temple University Press. p. 140. ISBN 1-56639-543-7.
- ^ Krenn, Michael L. (1998). The African American Voice in U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War II. Taylor & Francis. p. 29. ISBN 0-8153-3418-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5914-9.
- ^ David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross (1986), pp. 440, 445.
- ^ a b Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson, James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5109-1.
- ^ Long, Michael G. (2002). Against Us, But for Us: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the State. Mercer University Press. p. 199. ISBN 0-86554-768-8.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 273. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Harding; Rosenthal, Cindy (2006). Restaging the Sixties: Radical Theaters and Their Legacies. University of Michigan Press. p. 297. ISBN 0-472-06954-3.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 277. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Franklin, Robert Michael (1990). Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought. Fortress Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-8006-2392-4.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; King, Coretta Scott; King, Dexter Scott (1998). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Companion: Quotations from the Speeches, Essays, and Books of Martin Luther King, Jr. St. Martin's Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-312-19990-2.
- ^ a b c Zinn, Howard (2002). The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-1407-9.
- ^ "1967 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1967/Protests/12303074818188-15/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ The Americas: Reconstruction to the 21st Century. Atlas by Rand McNally
- ^ America's Vietnam War: A Narrative History
- ^ a b Kurlansky, Mark (2004). 1968. London, UK: Jonathan Cape (Random House). p. 46. ISBN 0-224-06251-4.
- ^ a b Robinson, Douglas (January 13, 1968). "Dr. King Calls for Antiwar Rally in Capital Feb. 5–6". The New York Times (New York): p. 4. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B1EFD3C5E1A7B93C1A8178AD85F4C8685F9. Retrieved April 22, 2010.
- ^ Vigil, Ernesto B. (1999). The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government's War on Dissent. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-299-16224-9.
- ^ a b Kick, Russell (2001). You are Being Lied to: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths. The Disinformation Campaign. p. 1991. ISBN 0-9664100-7-6.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice (2001). The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington. Public Affairs. p. 281. ISBN 1-58648-036-7.
- ^ Bobbitt, David (2007). The Rhetoric of Redemption: Kenneth Burke's Redemption Drama and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" Speech. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 105. ISBN 0-7425-2928-2.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. pp. 250–1. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Yeshitela, Omali. "Abbreviated Report from the International Tribunal on Reparations for Black People in the U.S.". African People's Socialist Party. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517082245/http://www.apspuhuru.org/publications/repnow/ReparationsNow-OCR.txt. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "1,300 Members Participate in Memphis Garbage Strike". AFSCME. February 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004632/http://www.afscme.org/about/1529.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "Memphis Strikers Stand Firm". AFSCME. March 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004516/http://www.afscme.org/about/1532.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Davis, Townsend (1998). Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement. WW Norton & Co. p. 364. ISBN 0-393-31819-2.
- ^ Thomas, Evan (2007-11-19). "The Worst Week of 1968". Newsweek. p. 2. http://www.newsweek.com/id/69542/page/2. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2006). Speeches that Changed the World: The Stories and Transcripts of the Moments that Made History. Quercus. p. 155. ISBN 1-905204-16-7.
- ^ "King V. Jowers Conspiracy Allegations". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part6.php#conspire. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Pilkington, Ed (2008-04-03). "40 years after King's death, Jackson hails first steps into promised land". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/apr/03/usa.race. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Garner, Joe; Cronkite, Walter; Kurtis, Bill (2002). We Interrupt This Broadcast: The Events that Stopped Our Lives... from the Hindenburg Explosion to the Attacks of September 11. Sourcebooks. p. 62. ISBN 1-57071-974-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 159. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King Jr. Longman. p. 181. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- ^ Purnick, Joyce (1988-04-18). "Koch Says Jackson Lied About Actions After Dr. King Was Slain". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEED7133EF93BA25757C0A96E948260. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Lokos, Lionel (1968). House Divided: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther King. Arlington House. p. 48.
- ^ "Citizen King Transcript". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/filmmore/pt.html. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ "1968: Martin Luther King shot dead". On this Day (BBC). 1968-04-04. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4/newsid_2453000/2453987.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Risen, Clay (2009). A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-17710-1.
- ^ Klein, Joe (2006). Politics Lost: How American Democracy was Trivialized by People Who Think You're Stupid. New York: Doubleday. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-385-51027-1
- ^ a b c "1968 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/Martin-Luther-King-Assasination/12303153093431-4/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 97. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ Dickerson, James (1998). Dixie's Dirty Secret: The True Story of how the Government, the Media, and the Mob Conspired to Combat Immigration and the Vietnam Antiwar Movement. ME Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 0-7656-0340-3.
- ^ Hatch, Jane M.; Douglas, =George William (1978). The American Book of Days. Wilson. p. 321.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2007). Dream: The Words and Inspiration of Martin Luther King, Jr. Blue Mountain Arts. p. 26. ISBN 1-59842-240-5.
- ^ Werner, Craig (2006). A Change is Gonna Come: Music, Race & the Soul of America. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-472-03147-3.
- ^ "AFSCME Wins in Memphis". AFSCME The Public Employee. April 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004802/http://www.afscme.org/about/1533.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "1968 Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike Chronology". AFSCME. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004657/http://www.afscme.org/about/1548.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ a b Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Loraine (2004). Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers And Victims Of The Twentieth Century. McFarland. p. 38. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
- ^ a b c d "James Earl Ray Dead At 70". CBS. 1998-04-23. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1998/04/23/national/main7900.shtml. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Clarke, James W. (2005). Defining Danger: American Assassins And the New Domestic Terrorists. Transaction Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 0-7658-0289-9.
- ^ House Select Committee on Assassinations (2001). Compilation of the Statements of James Earl Ray: Staff Report. The Minerva Group. p. 17. ISBN 0-89875-297-3.
- ^ a b Davis, Lee (1995). Assassination: 20 Assassinations that Changed the World. JG Press. p. 105. ISBN 1-57215-235-4.
- ^ "History of the Knoxville Office". FBI. Archived from the original on 2008-05-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080524142603/http://knoxville.fbi.gov/hist.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "From small-time criminal to notorious assassin". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/03/james.ray.profile/. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 402. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ "Questions left hanging by James Earl Ray's death". BBC. 1998-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/82893.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Frank, Gerold (1972). An American Death: The True Story of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Greatest Manhunt of our Time. Doubleday. p. 283.
- ^ "James Earl Ray, convicted King assassin, dies". CNN. 1998-04-23. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/23/ray.obit/#2. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ "Trial Transcript Volume XIV". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-05-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080506041106/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/trial/Volume14.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Smith, Robert Charles; Seltzer, Richard (2000). Contemporary Controversies and the American Racial Divide. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 97. ISBN 0-7425-0025-X.
- ^ "Overview". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part2.php#over. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Canedy, Dana (2002-04-05). "A Minister Says His Father, Now Dead, Killed Dr. King". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/us/a-minister-says-his-father-now-dead-killed-dr-king.html.
- ^ Sargent, Frederic O. (2004). The Civil Rights Revolution: Events and Leaders, 1955–1968. McFarland. p. 129. ISBN 0-7864-1914-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 182. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68. Simon & Schuster. p. 770. ISBN 978-0-684-85712-1.
- ^ Goodman, Amy; Gonzalez, =Juan (2004-01-15). "Jesse Jackson On 'Mad Dean Disease', the 2000 Elections and Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King". Democracy Now!. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/1/15/rev_jesse_jackson_on_mad_dean. Retrieved 2006-09-18.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. pp. 246–7. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ a b c d Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-08825-3.
- ^ Woods, Jeff (2004). Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-communism in the South, 1948–1968. LSU Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8071-2926-7. See also: Wannall, Ray (2000). The Real J. Edgar Hoover: For the Record. Turner Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 1-56311-553-0.
- ^ a b c Church, Frank (April 23, 1976). "Church Committee Book III". Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study. Church Committee. http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
- ^ Garrow, David J. (July–August 2002). "The FBI and Martin Luther King". The Atlantic Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200207/garrow.
- ^ a b Ryskind, Allan H. (2006-02-27). "JFK and RFK Were Right to Wiretap MLK". Human Events. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200602/ai_n17173432/pg_2. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ a b Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6.
- ^ a b c Christensen, Jen (2008-04-07). "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bruns, Roger (2006). Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 0-313-33686-5.
- ^ Gilbert, Alan (1990). Democratic Individuality: A Theory of Moral Progress. Cambridge University Press. p. 435. ISBN 0-521-38709-4.
- ^ Sidey, Hugh (1975-02-10). "L.B.J., Hoover and Domestic Spying". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912799-2,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Newsweek, 1998-01-19, p. 62 . Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow & Co. 1986. pp. 375–6. See also: Burrow, Jr., Rufus (Spring 2003). "The humanity of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Vigilance in pursuing his dream". Encounter. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4044/is_200304/ai_n9232227. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Burnett, Thom (2005). Conspiracy Encyclopedia. Collins & Brown. p. 58. ISBN 1-84340-287-4.
- ^ Thragens, William C. (1988). Popular Images of American Presidents. Greenwood Publishing. p. 532. ISBN 0-313-22899-X.
- ^ Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 247. ISBN 0-618-08825-3. http://books.google.com/?id=qo9r4_rnrasC&pg=PA247. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ Wilson, Sondra K. (1999). In Search of Democracy: The NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White, and Roy Wilkins (1920–1977). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X.
- ^ "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html#cnnSTCVideo. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Phillips, Geraldine N. (Summer 1997). "Documenting the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the Sixties". Prologue Magazine. The National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/summer/equality-in-the-sixties.html#f3. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assassination Featured Individuals". Black in America. CNN. http://www.hvc-inc.com/clients/cnn/bia/featured.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ McKnight, Gerald (1998). The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People's Crusade. Boulder: Westview Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
- ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Publishing. 2007. pp. 40–2. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also: Polk, James (2008-04-07). "King conspiracy theories still thrive 40 years later". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/28/conspiracy.theories/. Retrieved 2008-06-16. and "King's FBI file Part 1 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%201%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16. and "King's FBI file Part 2 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%202%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 408–9. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ a b "The History of Fair Housing". U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/aboutfheo/history. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
- ^ Ansell, Gwen (2005). Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 139. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
- ^ Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2007). It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. Simon & Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 1-4165-4064-4.
- ^ Peters, William. "A Class Divided: One Friday in April, 1968". Frontline. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/friday.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The King Center's Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-04-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080412114756/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/mission.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Copeland, Larry (2006-02-01). "Future of Atlanta's King Center in limbo". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-31-king-center_x.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Chairman's Message: Introduction to the King Center and its Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-01-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20080118102950/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/chairman.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Welcome". Higher Ground Productions. http://www.highergroundproductions.com/index2.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Williams, Brandt (2005-01-16). "What would Martin Luther King do?". Minnesota Public Radio. http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2005/01/17_williamsb_wwmlkd/. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "The Triple Evils". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-08-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20080803150448/http://www.thekingcenter.org/misc/triple_evils.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In Washington, D.C.". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. 2006-11-06. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=hkIUL9MVJxE&b=1601407&ct=3612187. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Mjagkij, Nina (2001). Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. ISBN 0-8153-2309-3.
- ^ Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). "Celebrating the Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2007-11-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20071115141138/http://www.state.gov/f/releases/remarks2007/87649.htm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "History of the Memorial". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.1190613/k.5EE9/History_of_the_Memorial.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The Theater: A King in Darkness". Time. 1976-10-04. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918426,00.html. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- ^ "National Theatre Company of China Tours Atlanta, Birmingham, and Memphis". The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. 2007-02-06. http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/China/mlkchina/try2_files/mlkpp_data/Touring_Atlanta_text.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ 2007-06-23, Anthony. "Martin Luther King's Story Plays on Beijing Stage". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11330396. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Proclamation 6401 – Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Holiday". The American Presidency Project. 1992. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=47329. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Day". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2008-03-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080328081425/http://exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/mlkbday.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Goldberg, Carey (1999-05-26). "Contrarian New Hampshire To Honor Dr. King, at Last". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E0DC1031F935A15756C0A96F958260. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The History of Martin Luther King Day". Infoplease. 2007. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/mlkhistory1.html. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ a b "Biographical Outline of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". The King Center. http://www.thekingcenter.org/DrMLKingJr/Biography.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ a b Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ "Winner of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Peace". Nobel Prize Committee. http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1964/. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
- ^ Engel, Irving M. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Presentation of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052921. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052923. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Habitat co-founder to receive Pacem in Terris award tonight". Quad-City Times. 2005-10-23. http://www.qctimes.com/articles/2005/10/23/news/local/doc435b0e9c484dc514864978.txt. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Jr.". Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards. http://www.anisfield-wolf.org/books/stride-toward-freedom-the-montgomery-story/?sortby=author&auth=KINGJR.MARTINLUTHER. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
- ^ "The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon accepting The Planned Parenthood Federation Of America Margaret Sanger Award". PPFA. Archived from the original on 2008-02-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080224104928/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/about-us/who-we-are/the-reverend-martin-luther-king-jr.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1348. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present)". Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Representatives. http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/goldMedal.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 249. ISBN 0-8420-2699-1.
- ^ "The Person of the Century Poll Results". TIME. 2000-01-19. http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/century.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. 2005-06-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4631421.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Alderman, Derek H. (2006-02-13). "Naming Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road". Landscape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. http://personal.ecu.edu/aldermand/pubs/alderman_chapter.pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ "King County Was Rededicated For MLK". The Seattle Times. 1998-01-18. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19980118&slug=2729257. Retrieved 2008-06-13. See also: "New logo is an image of civil rights leader". King County. http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/logo.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay Competition Winners Announced". City of Harrisburg. 2003-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-12-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20071207045944/http://www.harrisburgpa.gov/pressReleases/prArchives/2003/01/20030119_mlkEssay.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ The Episcopal and Lutheran Churches in the U.S. have feast days dedicated to King, on April 4 and January 15 respectively, as per the Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America), and Calendar of Saints (Lutheran) — neither church has a formal canonization process. There is a statue of King in the Gallery of 20th Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey, London.
- ^ Flagg, Chuck (2006-02-10). "What it Takes to Become a Saint". The Morgan Hill Times. http://www.morganhilltimes.com/lifestyles/178715-what-it-takes-to-become-a-saint. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "News & Events — January 2008". St. Thomas Evangelical Lutheran Church. http://www.stlconline.org/archive/200801.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
- ^ Malcolm Gladwell (2011-12-02). "Malcolm Gladwell says the Occupy movement needs to get more Machiavellian". The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/books/malcolm-gladwell-says-the-occupy-movement-needs-to-get-more-machiavellian/article2258841/. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
- ^ "Site Location – Build the Dream". Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation, Inc.. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.7548975/k.9356/Site_Location.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
References[link]
- Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-016192-2.
- Ayton, Mel (2005). A Racial Crime: James Earl Ray And The Murder Of Martin Luther King Jr. Archebooks Publishing. ISBN 1-59507-075-3.
- Beito, David; Beito, Linda Royster (2004). "T.R.M. Howard: Pragmatism over Strict Integrationist Ideology in the Mississippi Delta, 1942–1954". In Feldman, Glenn. Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South. University of Alabama Press. pp. 68–95. ISBN 0-8173-5134-5.
- Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-46097-8.
- Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80819-6.
- Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85712-X.
- Chernus, Ira (2004). "Chapter 11". American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea. Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-547-7.
- Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-006486-9.
- Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0.
- King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2445-X.
- Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr. Pearson Longman. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- Lindgren, Carl Edwin (Spring 1992). "Resurrection City". Southern Exposure 20 (1): 7.
Further reading[link]
- Carson, Clayborne. "Mythology and the Charismatic Leadership of Martin Luther King". In Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas. Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. St. James, NY: Brandywine Press. (1997). ISBN 978-1-881089-97-1
- Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06-056692-0
- Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement: Controversies and Debates (2007). 224 pp.
- Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered, Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN 978-1-4039-9654-1
- Kotz, Nick, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America (2005). ISBN 978-0-618-64183-3
External links[link]
| Find more about Martin Luther King, Jr. on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Learning resources from Wikiversity |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- The King Center
- "Martin Luther King Jr. Collection", Morehouse College, RWWL
- The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project
- Martin Luther King Jr., "A New Sense of Direction (1968)"
- "Martin Luther King Jr.", The Seattle Times
- 1956 Comic Book: Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story
- Kirk, John A., "Martin Luther King, Jr.", New Georgia Encyclopedia
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle", online encyclopedia, chronology and document library, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University.
- "Martin Luther King, Jr.", Encyclopedia of Alabama
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Images
- Speeches and interviews
- Audio from April 1961 King, "The Church on the Frontier of Racial Tensions", speech at Southern Seminary
- "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929–1968", one hour documentary report by Democracy Now!
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Interviews"
- The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites Waring
- "Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark", PBS
- "Beyond Vietnam" speech text and audio
- King Institute Encyclopedia multimedia
- Why I Am Oppposed to the War in Vietnam, sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967 (audio of speech with video 23:31)
| Awards and achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by International Committee of the Red Cross and League of Red Cross Societies |
Nobel Peace Prize Laureate 1964 |
Succeeded by UNICEF |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | King, Martin Luther, Jr. |
| Alternative names | King, Martin Luther; MLK |
| Short description | Political activist |
| Date of birth | January 15, 1929 |
| Place of birth | Atlanta, Georgia |
| Date of death | April 4, 1968 |
| Place of death | Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee |
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For other people named Martin Luther, see Martin Luther (disambiguation).
| Martin Luther | |
|---|---|
 Luther in 1533 by Lucas Cranach the Elder |
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| Born | (1483-11-10)10 November 1483 Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Died | 18 February 1546(1546-02-18) (aged 62) Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Occupation | Monk, Priest, Theologian |
| Notable works | The Ninety-Five Theses, Luther's Large Catechism, Luther's Small Catechism, On the Freedom of a Christian |
| Spouse | Katharina von Bora |
| Children | Hans (Johannes), Elisabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, Margarethe |
| Influences | Paul the Apostle, Augustine of Hippo |
| Influenced | Philipp Melanchthon, Lutheranism, John Calvin, Karl Barth |
| Signature | |
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Martin Luther (help·info) (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation.[1] He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge[2] and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.[3] Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans.
His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,[4] and influenced the translation into English of the King James Bible.[5] His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches.[6] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry.[7]
In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly antisemitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have contributed to his controversial status.[8]
Contents
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Early life[link]
Birth and education[link]
Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)[9] and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters[10] and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council.[9] The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means" and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant.[9] He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.[11] Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498.[12] The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell.[13]
In 1501, at the age of nineteen, he entered the University of Erfurt – which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.[14] The schedule called for waking at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises."[14] He received his master's degree in 1505.[15]
In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty.[15] Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel.[15] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers[15] and to test everything himself by experience.[16] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.[16] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him.[16]
He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was on horseback during a thunderstorm and a lightning bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!"[17] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on 17 July 1505.[18] One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.[16] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.[19]
Monastic and academic life[link]
Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession.[20] He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them."[21] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."[22]
Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg.[23] He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.[24] On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible.[25] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.
The start of the Reformation[link]
Further information: History of Protestantism and The Ninety-Five Theses
In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.[26] Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[27] justification rather depends only on such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man.[28] The benefits of good works could be obtained by donating money to the church.
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albert of Mainz, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as The Ninety-Five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire."[29] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"[29]
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory [also attested as 'into heaven'] springs."[30]
He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure.[31]
According to scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter and Gerhard Prause, the story of the posting on the door, even though it has settled as one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth.[32][33][34] The story is based on comments made by Philipp Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time.[35]
It was not until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the 95 Theses from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press.[36] Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.[37] Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.
Justification by faith[link]
Main article: Sola fide
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of justification – God's act of declaring a sinner righteous – by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the Messiah.[38] "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."[39]
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on Predestination on St. Paul's epistle to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.[40] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ."[41] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God" – a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith.[42] He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).[43]
Breach with the papacy[link]
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.[44] He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later noted, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St Peter's Church in Rome".[45]
Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,[46] and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper."[47] Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held.[48] There, in October 1518, Luther informed the papal legate Cardinal Cajetan that he did not consider the papacy part of the biblical Church, and the hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than his writing the 95 Theses, Luther's confrontation of the church cast him as an enemy of the pope.[49] Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but he lacked the means in Augsburg, where the Elector guaranteed Luther's security.[50] Luther slipped out of the city at night, without leave from Cajetan.[51]
In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.[52] The theologian Johann Maier von Eck, however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a disputation with Luther's colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak.[53] Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible.[54] For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.[55]
Excommunication[link]
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[56] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles. As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
Diet of Worms[link]
Main article: Diet of Worms
The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.
Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author, but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.[57]
Luther is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable, since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.[58]
Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The Emperor presented the final draft of the Diet of Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic."[59] It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
At Wartburg Castle[link]
Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, had him intercepted on his way home by masked horsemen and escorted to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach.[60] During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my Patmos",[61] Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,[62] and a "Refutation of the Argument of Latomus," in which he expounded the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, an orthodox theologian from Louvain.[63]
In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin.[64] All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God's grace, which cannot be earned, alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."[65]
In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practices. In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.[66] His essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It rejected compulsory confession and encouraged private confession and absolution, since "every Christian is a confessor."[67] In November, Luther wrote The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.[68]
Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian monks against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion.[69] Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man, adult baptism, and Christ's imminent return.[70] When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.[71]
Return to Wittenberg[link]
See also: Radical Reformation
Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. "During my absence," he wrote to the Elector, "Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word."[72] For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons." In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.[73]
Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.[74]
The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."[74]
Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signalled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.[75] After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he now faced a battle against not only the established Church but also the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.[76]
Peasants' War[link]
Main article: German Peasants' War
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch and Thomas Müntzer helped instigate the German Peasants' War of 1524–25, during which many atrocities were committed, often in Luther's name. There had been revolts by the peasantry on a smaller scale since the 15th century.[77] Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, now led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.[78] Revolts broke out in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia and Michael Gaismair in Tyrol, the revolts turned into war.[79]
Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.[80] During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:
Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.[81]
Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's"; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7 that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the Divine Right of Kings, or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants "outside the law of God and Empire," so they deserved "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers." Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves "Christian brethren" and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.[82]
Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.[83] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the anabaptist movement and other sects, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.[84]
Marriage[link]
Martin Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.[85] "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."[86] Katherina was 26 years old, Luther was 41 years old.
On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses.[87] On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.[87] The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out, and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.[87]
Some priests and former monks had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.[88] He had long condemned vows of celibacy on Biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.[89] Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."[90] Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.[91]
Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from the new elector John the Steadfast (1525–32). They embarked on what appeared to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.[92] Between bearing six children, Hans – June 1526; Elizabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534. Katharina helped the couple earn a living by farming the land and taking in boarders.[93] Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus."[94]
Organising the church[link]
By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His Biblical ideal of congregations' choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.[95] According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."[96] From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms.
To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.[97] For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".[98] The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.[99] At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.[100] The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.[101] The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.[102]
In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526.[103] He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."[104] Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice"; and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.[105] He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.[106] Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther's service too papistic; and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic mass.[107] Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as of parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the Creed.[108] To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of the catechism.[109] He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.[110]
Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of Electoral Saxony, which began in 1527.[111] They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther wrote, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."[112]
Catechisms[link]
Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people themselves.[113] The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper.[114] Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, "the way monkeys do it", but understood.[115]
The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism."[116] The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.[117] It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.
Luther's Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Larger Catechism was effective for pastors.[118] Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. That is, Luther depicted the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and the Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechical teaching.[119]
Translation of the Bible[link]
Main article: Luther Bible
Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.[120] Others had translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.[121] When he was criticised for inserting the word "alone" after "faith" in Romans 3:28,[122] he replied in part: "[T]he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law . . . But when works are so completely cut away – and that must mean that faith alone justifies – whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, 'Faith alone justifies us, and not works'."[123]
Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.[124] He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."[125]
Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it made a significant contribution to the evolution of the German language and literature.[126] Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.[127] The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as William Tyndale's English Bible (1525 forward), a precursor of the King James Bible.[128]
Hymns[link]
File:EinFesteBurg.jpg
An early printing of Luther's hymn A Mighty Fortress Is Our God (Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott)
Luther was a prolific hymn-writer, authoring hymns such as Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God), based on Psalm 46.[129] Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His device for this linking was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.[130]
Luther's 1524 creedal hymn Wir glauben all an einen Gott (We All Believe in One True God) is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included Wir glauben all among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely use the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.[130]
Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, Vater unser im Himmelreich, corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.[131]
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The German text of Ein feste Burg (A Mighty Fortress) sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.
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Luther wrote Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (From depths of woe I cry to you) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven more hymns were published in the first Lutheran hymnal, also called Achtliederbuch. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of Aus tiefer Not was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.[132]
Luther's 1540 hymn Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam (To Jordan came the Christ our Lord) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J. S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.[130]
Luther wrote Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein (Oh God, look down from heaven). He wrote Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (Now come, Savior of the gentiles) based on Veni redemptor gentium. It became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to Christum wir sollen loben schon (We should now praise Christ) and Veni creator spiritus to Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist (Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God).[133] He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot and Mensch, willst du leben seliglich. His Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Praise be to You, Jesus Christ) became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist and for Easter Christ ist erstanden (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes.
Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.
Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy[link]
In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.[134] Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist – the sacrament of the Lord's Supper—an issue crucial to Luther.[135]
The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26).[136] Luther insisted on the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union,[137] while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.[138] Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus's ability to be in more than one place at a time but Luther stressed the omnipresence of his human nature.[139] According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus's words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (John 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."[140] On his table Luther wrote the words "Hoc est corpus meum" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.[141]
Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.[142]
On the soul after death[link]
In contrast to the views of Calvin[143] and Melanchthon,[144] throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death;[145] and, accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus.[146] This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace."[147] He also rejected the existence of Purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.[148] He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."[149]
The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observed that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard.[150] Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran Orthodoxy on this issue.[151]
Luther's Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes "...the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions".[152] Francis Blackburne in 1765 argued that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther,[153] while Gottfried Fritschel pointed out in 1867 that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.[154]
Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:
- "Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."[155]
On Islam[link]
Further information: Protestantism and Islam
At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army.[156] Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent to punish Christians by God, as agents of the Biblical apocalypse that would destroy the antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church.[157] He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".[158] On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.[159] In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war.[160] By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.[161] He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.[162] Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".[163]
In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an.[164] He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk".[165] Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."[166] He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.[167]
Augsburg Confession[link]
Further information: Augsburg Confession and Apology of the Augsburg Confession
File:Augsburg Confession and Apology (first edition).jpg
First edition of the Augsburg Confession and Apology, 1531
Shaken by the Siege of Vienna, Charles V convened the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530, aiming to unite the empire against the Turks.[168] To achieve this, he needed first to resolve the religious controversies in his lands, "considering with love and kindness the views of everybody".[169] He asked for a statement of the evangelical case, and one was duly devised by Luther, Melanchthon, and their colleagues at Wittenberg. Melanchthon drafted the document, known as the Augsburg Confession, and travelled with the elector's party to Augsburg, where it was read to the emperor and diet on 25 June 1530.[170] (Luther was left behind at the Coburg fortress in southern Saxony because he remained under the imperial ban and lacked a safe-conduct to attend the diet.[171]) Luther's writings during his 165 days at Coburg, including the Exhortation to all Clergy Assembled at Augsburg, show that, unlike Melanchthon, he was set against making concessions.[172]
Despite the Confession's avoidance of strident language or abuse of the pope, the diet rejected it on 22 September and ordered the reformers to renounce heresy and submit to the control of the Roman Catholic Church by the following April or face the imperial army.[173] That decision confirmed Luther's belief that the mission had been futile. It prompted the Lutheran princes to form a military alliance, the Schmalkaldic League, which Luther cautiously supported on grounds of self-defence in his Warning to His Dear German People of 1531.[174] The Augsburg Confession had become the statement of faith on which Lutherans were prepared to stand or fall. Though a modification of Luther's own position, it nevertheless is regarded as the first Lutheran treatise.[175]
Depiction of Luther[link]
In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking or conjugal relations with his wife—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Famous images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).[176]
Antinomian controversy[link]
Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola (1494–1566) – serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben – preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.[177] Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540.[178] He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians,[179] and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.[180]
In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.[181] Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.[182] Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians – thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church – does not eliminate the accusing law.[183] Claiming that the law – in any form – should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.[184]
On the other hand, Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments – when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law – also positively teach how the Christian ought to live.[185] This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."[186] For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.[187]
The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.[188] Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.
In the 20th century, there have been attempts to show that the "third use of the law" was a typical "Reformed" doctrine and that Luther himself never taught this,[189] but in light of Luther's disputations against the antinomians and other texts, this position cannot be maintained.[citation needed]
Bigamy of Philip of Hesse[link]
From December 1539, Luther became implicated in the bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, who wanted to marry one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter.[190] As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Sale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. However, Philip was unable to keep the marriage secret, and he threatened to make Luther's advice public. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did during the subsequent public controversy.[191] In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".[192] Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.[193] The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.[194]
Anti-Judaism and antisemitism[link]
Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism
Luther wrote about the Jews throughout his career, though only a few of his works dealt with them directly.[195] Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, but his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived within a local community that had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier.[196] He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus, whereas Christians believed Jesus was the Messiah.[197] At the same time, Luther believed that all human beings who set themselves against God shared one and the same guilt.[198] As early as 1516, Luther wrote, "...[M]any people are proud with marvelous stupidity when they call the Jews dogs, evildoers, or whatever they like, while they too, and equally, do not realize who or what they are in the sight of God".[199] In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew, but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity.[200] When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.[201]
Luther's other major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death.[202] Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people": he referred to them with violent, vile language.[203][204] Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "poisonous envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".[205] In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.[206] Luther's "recommendations" for how to treat the Jews was a clear reference to the "sharp mercy" of Deuteronomy 13, the punishments prescribed by Moses for those who led others to "false gods".[207]
Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.[208] Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."[209] Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially, but relented when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.[208] Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.[210]
Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and he acquired the status of a prophet within Germany.[211] According to the prevailing view among historians,[212] his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,[213] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews.[214] Reinhold Lewin writes that "whoever wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the Third Reich contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.[215] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically anti-Semitic tract ever published.[216] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by Dr. E.H. Schulz and Dr. R. Frercks.[217] On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, Professor of the History of the Church in the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."[218] Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."[219] According to Professor Dick Geary, the Nazis won a larger share of the vote in Protestant than in Catholic areas of Germany in elections of 1928 to November 1932.[220]
At the heart of scholars' debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Biographer Martin Brecht points out that "There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."[221] Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.[222] Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already anti-Semites that they revived Luther's work.[223][224] Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.[225] Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever [On the Jews and Their Lies] was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."[226][227]
Other scholars argue that, even if his views were merely anti-Judaic, their violence lent a new element to the standard Christian suspicion of Judaism. Ronald Berger writes that Luther is credited with "Germanizing the Christian critique of Judaism and establishing anti-Semitism as a key element of German culture and national identity."[228] Paul Rose argues that he caused a "hysterical and demonizing mentality" about Jews to enter German thought and discourse, a mentality that might otherwise have been absent.[229]
Since the 1980s, Lutheran Church denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.[230][231]
Final years and death[link]
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière's disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye.[232] From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. The years of struggle with Rome, the antagonisms with and among his fellow reformers, and the scandal which ensued from the bigamy of the Philip of Hesse incident, in which Luther had played a leading role, all may have contributed. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, and arthritis, and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.[233]
His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."[234] In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.[235]
File:Luthertombstoneunderaltar.jpg
Luther's tombstone in the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.[236] It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov.[237] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."[238] Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies ... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."[239]
Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.
The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8:00 pm, he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 am he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.
File:Luther death-hand mask.jpg
Cast of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle[240]
An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit.[241] The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon.[242] A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town, but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.[242]
A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German.
1. No one can understand Virgil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years. 2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years. 3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles. Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads. We are beggars: this is true.[243][244]
Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and a feast day in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints; in the Church of England's Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October.
Works and editions[link]
- The Erlangen Edition (Erlangener Ausgabe: "EA"), comprising the Exegetica opera latina – Latin exegetical works of Luther.
- The Weimar Edition (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther's Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation "WA". This is continued into "WA Br" Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel (correspondence), "WA Tr" Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden (tabletalk) and "WA DB" Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel (German Bible).
- The American Edition (Luther's Works) is the most extensive English translation of Luther's writings, indicated either by the abbreviation "LW" or "AE". The first 55 volumes were published 1955-1986, and a twenty volume extension (vols. 56-75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Plass, Ewald M. "Monasticism," in What Luther Says: An Anthology. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.
- ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
- ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
- ^ Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther", Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN, p. 393: "And, finally, after the Holocaust and the use of his anti-Jewish statements by National Socialists, Luther's anti-semitic outbursts are now unmentionable, though they were already repulsive in the sixteenth century. As a result, Luther has become as controversial in the twentieth century as he was in the sixteenth." Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther", in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
- ^ a b c Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
- ^ Schwiebert, E.G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), 53.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:12–27.
- ^ "Johann Tetzel," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albert, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."
- ^ (Trent, l. c., can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a.s.")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Thesis 55 of Tetzel's One Hundred and Six Theses. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel’s friend and former Professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Theses) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In, The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillon Company, p. 405. [1] Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Print on demand edition: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-142-40551-6 ISBN 978-1-142-40551-9). [2] See also:
"Johann Tetzel". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - ^ See Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Ralph Francis Kerr, ed., 1908, B. Herder, St. Louis, Volume 7, pp. 348–349. [3]
- ^ Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther," in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
- ^ Ritter, Gerhard. "Luther, Frankfurt 1985.
- ^ Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht. Düsseldorf, 1986.
- ^ Bekker, Henrik. "Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide". Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 125. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=41aJOjMZ3nwC&pg=PT125#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.
- ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
- ^ Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
- ^ Bouman, Herbert J. A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.
- ^ Dorman, Ted M., "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther", Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ "Luther's Definition of Faith". http://www.ProjectWittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt.
- ^ "Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence". http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
- ^ Michael A. Mullett, Martin Luther, London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–93.
- ^ Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.
- ^ Richard Marius, Luther, London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.
- ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine, 15 June 1520.
- ^ Mullett, 81–82.
- ^ Mullett, 82.
- ^ Mullett, 83.
- ^ Oberman, 197.
- ^ Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York: Mentor, 1955, OCLC 220064892, 81.
- ^ Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.
- ^ Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.
- ^ G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Collins, 1963, OCLC 222872115, 177.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ^ Brecht, 1:460.
- ^ Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.
- ^ Bratcher, Dennis. "The Diet of Worms (1521)," in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Fontana, 1963, 53; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700, London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in Luther's Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos.
- ^ Brecht, 2:12–14.
- ^ Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.
- ^ Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–62; Marty, 77–79.
- ^ Martin Luther, "Let Your Sins Be Strong," a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
- ^ Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.
- ^ Brecht, 2:18–21.
- ^ Marius, 163–64.
- ^ Mullett, 135–36.
- ^ Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–65.
- ^ Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV; Brecht, 2:57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–69.
- ^ a b Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV.
- ^ Marius, 169.
- ^ Mullett, 141–43.
- ^ Michael Hughes, Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806, London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.
- ^ A. G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther, London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–33. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".
- ^ Hughes, 45–47.
- ^ Hughes, 50.
- ^ Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther's Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.
- ^ Mullett, 166.
- ^ Hughes, 51.
- ^ Andrew Pettegree, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–103.
- ^ Wilson, 232.
- ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ a b c Scheible, Heinz (1997) (in German). Melanchthon. Eine Biographie. Munich: C.H.Beck. p. 147. ISBN 3-406-42223-3.
- ^ Lohse, Bernhard, Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,, translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–97.
- ^ Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. "Luther's Marriage. 1525.", History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–81.
- ^ Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.
- ^ Oberman, 278–80; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, "Luther's Marriage. 1525."; Brecht, 2: 204.
- ^ MacCulloch, 164.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
- ^ Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (Notbischof).
- ^ Mullett, 186–87; Brecht, 2:264–65, 267.
- ^ Brecht, 2:264–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:268.
- ^ Brecht, 2:251–54; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
- ^ Brecht, 2:255.
- ^ Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–66.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–70.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256–57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:258.
- ^ Brecht, 2:263.
- ^ Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
- ^ Marty, 123.
- ^ Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–73; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Brecht, 2:277, 280.
- ^ See texts at English translation
- ^ Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
- ^ Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
- ^ Mullett, 148–50.
- ^ Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word "alone" (allein) after the word "faith" in his translation of St Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 3:28. The clause is rendered in the English Authorised Version as "Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law".
- ^ Lindberg, Carter. "The European Reformations: Sourcebook". Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. pg. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from "Luther's Works". St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955–86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pgs. 182, 187–189, 195.
- ^ Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
- ^ Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
- ^ Marius, 162.
- ^ Lohse, 112–17; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
- ^ Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation—Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
- ^ For a short collection see online hymns
- ^ a b c Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.
- ^ Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; p. 215–219 (in German).
- ^ Mullett, 194–95.
- ^ Brecht, 2:325–34; Mullett, 197.
- ^ Wilson, 259.
- ^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299–300.
- ^ Oberman, 237.
- ^ Marty, 140–41; Lohse, 74–75.
- ^ Quoted by Oberman, 237.
- ^ Brecht 2:329.
- ^ Oberman, 238.
- ^ Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
- ^ Liber de Anima 1562
- ^ D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the sould which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."
- ^ Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F. A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
- ^ Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25,7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther's Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28
- ^ Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
- ^ Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen"
- ^ Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homon enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, 1535–1545)"
- ^ Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p121
- ^ Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"
- ^ Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 1898. Emphasis added.
- ^ Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
- ^ Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,. 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–40; Marty, 164.
- ^ From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
- ^ Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
- ^ Mullett, 238–39; Lohse, 59–61.
- ^ Brecht, 2:364.
- ^ Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
- ^ Brecht, 3:354.
- ^ Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
- ^ From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
- ^ Brecht, 3:355.
- ^ Hughes, 55.
- ^ Gritsch, 45.
- ^ Mullett, 198–200; Elton, 148–49.
- ^ Wilson, 265.
- ^ Mullett, 201–203; Marius, 223.
- ^ Mullett, 207; Wilson, 269.
- ^ Mullett, 208; Gritsch, 48–49; Marius, 244.
- ^ Mullett, 203–204.
- ^ Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). "Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers". American Historical Review 115 (2): 351–362.
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
- ^ Cf. ibid., 11–15.
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord’s Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, “about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit,” but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 170–172
- ^ Cf. ibid., 76, 105–107.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 140, 157.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 75, 104–105, 172–173.
- ^ The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 110.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." See also ibid., 43–44, 91–93.
- ^ E.g., by Erlangen theologian Werner Elert (1885–1954), cf. ibid., 21.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–15.
- ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
- ^ Michael, Robert.[disambiguation needed
] Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242. - ^ Edwards, Mark. Luther's Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–43; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
- ^ Rupp, Gordan. Martin Luther and the Jews. London: , 1972, 9.
- ^ Luther, "Lectures on Romans", Luthers Werke. 25:428.
- ^ Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
- ^ Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–47.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
- ^ Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–271.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.
- ^ "Deuteronomy 13" (in English Standard Version). The Bible. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2013&version=ESV.
- ^ a b Michael, 117.
- ^ Quoted by Michael, 110.
- ^ Michael, 117–18.
- ^ Gritsch, 113–14; Michael, 117.
- ^ "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960).
- ^ Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
- ^ Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."
- ^ Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism", (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. [4].
- ^ See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
- ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation:Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York:Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
- ^ Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p.265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
- ^ Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers Party),History Today, October 1998, Vol.48, Issue 10, pages 8–14
- ^ Brecht 3:351.
- ^ Wallmann, 72–97.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."
- ^ Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
- ^ For similar views, see:
- Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
- Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
- Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
- Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
- Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
- Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
- Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
- Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
- ^ Rose, Paul Lawrence. Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002, 28.
- ^ Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther’s negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements
- ^ Lull, Timothy Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
- ^ Iversen OH (1996). "[Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death]" (in Norwegian). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 116 (30): 3643–46. PMID 9019884.
- ^ Edwards, 9.
- ^ Spitz, 354.
- ^ Die Beziehungen des Reformators Martin Luther zu Halle buergerstiftung-halle.de (German)
- ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.
- ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
- ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's Admonition can be found in Wikisource.s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
- ^ Martin Luther's Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany artdaily.com
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–79.
- ^ a b McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-521-01673-8.
- ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther". 16 February 1546.
- ^ Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm, Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
Further reading[link]
For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther's works at Wikisource.
- Erikson, Erik H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W. W. Norton.
- Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 165808.
- Lull, Timothy (1989). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 0-8006-3680-5.
- Luther, M. The Bondage of the Will. Eds. J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnson. Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1957. OCLC 22724565.
- Luther's Works, 55 vols. Eds. H. T. Lehman and J. Pelikan. St Louis Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
- Reu, Johann Michael Thirty-five Years of Luther Research Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House, 1917.
External links[link]
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Martin Luther" article dated 2011-07-17, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
Works written by or about Martin Luther at Wikisource
Media related to Martin Luther at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Martin Luther at Wikiquote- The Mutopia Project has compositions by Martin Luther
- Booknotes interview with Martin Marty on Martin Luther, April 11, 2004.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Luther, Martin |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | German theologian and priest |
| Date of birth | 10 November 1483 |
| Place of birth | Eisleben, Germany |
| Date of death | 18 February 1546 |
| Place of death | Eisleben, Germany |
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This article is about the person. For other uses, see Malcolm X (disambiguation).
"Malik Shabazz" redirects here. For other people of that name, see Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).
| Malcolm X | |
|---|---|
 Malcolm X in March 1964 |
|
| Born | Malcolm Little (1925-05-19)May 19, 1925 Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Died | February 21, 1965(1965-02-21) (aged 39) New York City, New York, United States |
| Cause of death | Assassination (gunshot) |
| Resting place | Ferncliff Cemetery |
| Other names | El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Organization | Nation of Islam, Muslim Mosque, Inc., Organization of Afro-American Unity |
| Influenced by | Elijah Muhammad, Marcus Garvey |
| Political movement | Black nationalism, Pan-Africanism |
| Religion | Nation of Islam, (later) Sunni Islam |
| Spouse | Betty Shabazz (m. 1958) |
| Children | Attallah Shabazz Qubilah Shabazz Ilyasah Shabazz Gamilah Lumumba Shabazz Malikah Shabazz Malaak Shabazz |
| Parents | Earl Little, Louise Norton Little |
| Signature |  |
Malcolm X ( /ˈmælkəm ˈɛks/; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz[1] (Arabic: الحاجّ مالك الشباز), was an African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. Detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.
Malcolm X's father died—killed by white supremacists, it was rumored—when he was young, and at least one of his uncles was lynched. When he was thirteen, his mother was placed in a mental hospital, and he was placed in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for breaking and entering.
In prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam and after his parole in 1952 he quickly rose to become one of its leaders. For a dozen years Malcolm X was the public face of the controversial group, but disillusionment with Nation of Islam head Elijah Muhammad led him to leave the Nation in March 1964. After a period of travel in Africa and the Middle East, he returned to the United States, where he founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. In February 1965, less than a year after leaving the Nation of Islam, he was assassinated by three members of the group.
Malcolm X's expressed beliefs changed substantially over time. As a spokesman for the Nation of Islam he taught black supremacy and advocated separation of black and white Americans—in contrast to the civil rights movement's emphasis on integration. After breaking with the Nation of Islam in 1964—saying of his association with it, "I was a zombie then ... pointed in a certain direction and told to march"—and becoming a Sunni Muslim, he disavowed racism and expressed willingness to work with civil rights leaders, though still emphasizing black self-determination and self defense.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children to Earl Little and Louise Norton.[2] His father was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker. He supported Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey and was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).[3] Malcolm never forgot the values of black pride and self-reliance that his father and other UNIA leaders preached.[4] Malcolm X later said that three of Earl Little's brothers, one of whom was lynched, died violently at the hands of white men.[5] Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan.[6]
Earl Little, who was dark-skinned, was born in Reynolds, Georgia.[7] He had three children from his first marriage: Ella, Mary, and Earl Jr.—and seven with his second wife, Louise: Wilfred, Hilda, Philbert, Malcolm, Reginald, Yvonne, and Wesley.[8] Louise Norton Little was born in Grenada. Because her father was Scottish, she was so light-skinned that she could have passed for white. Malcolm inherited his light complexion from his mother and maternal grandfather.[9] Initially he felt his light skin was a status symbol, but he later said he "hated every drop of that white rapist's blood that is in me."[10] Malcolm X later remembered feeling that his father favored him because he was the lightest-skinned child in the family; however, he thought his mother treated him harshly for the same reason.[11] One of Malcolm's nicknames, "Red", derived from the tinge of his hair. According to one biographer, at birth he had "ash-blonde hair ... tinged with cinnamon", and at age four, "reddish-blonde hair".[12] His hair darkened as he aged, yet he also resembled his paternal grandmother, whose hair "turned reddish in the summer sun."[2] The issue of skin and hair color took on very significant implications later in Malcolm's life.[7]
In December 1924, Louise Little was threatened by Klansmen while she was pregnant with Malcolm. She recalled that the Klansmen warned the family to leave Omaha, because Earl Little's activities with UNIA were "spreading trouble".[13] After they moved to Lansing, their house was burned in 1929; however, the family escaped without physical injury. On September 8, 1931, Earl Little was fatally struck by a streetcar in Lansing. Authorities ruled his death an accident. The police reported that Earl Little was conscious when they arrived on the scene, and he told them he had slipped and fallen under the streetcar's wheels.[14] The black community in Lansing disputed the cause of death, believing there was circumstantial evidence of assault. His family had frequently been harassed by the Black Legion, a white supremacist group that his father accused of burning down their home in 1929. Some blacks believed the Black Legion was responsible for Earl Little's death. One of the adults at the funeral told eight-year-old Philbert Little that his father had been hit from behind and shoved under the streetcar.[15]
Though Earl Little had two life insurance policies, his family received death benefits solely from the smaller policy. The insurance company of the larger policy claimed that his father had committed suicide and refused to issue the benefit.[16] The payout from the insurance policy was $1,000 (comparable to about $15,000 in 2010 dollars), and the probate court awarded Louise Little a monthly "widow's allowance" of $18. She rented space in the garden to raise more money, and her sons would hunt game for supper.[17]
In 1935 or 1936, Louise Little began dating an African-American man. A marriage proposal seemed a possibility, but the man disappeared from their lives when Louise became pregnant with his child in late 1937.[18] In December 1938, Louise Little had a nervous breakdown and was declared legally insane. The Little siblings were split up and sent to different foster homes. The state formally committed Louise Little to the state mental hospital at Kalamazoo, Michigan, where she remained until Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[19][20]
Malcolm Little was one of the best students in his junior high school, but he dropped out after a white eighth-grade teacher told him that his aspirations of being a lawyer were "no realistic goal for a nigger."[21] Years later, Malcolm X would laugh about the incident, but at the time it was humiliating. It made him feel that there was no place in the white world for a career-oriented black man, no matter how smart he was.[21] After living with a series of foster parents, Malcolm moved to Boston in February 1941 to live with his older half-sister, Ella Little Collins.[22][23]
Young adult years[link]
Collins lived in Roxbury, a predominantly African-American middle-class neighborhood of Boston. It was the first time Little had seen so many black people. He was drawn to the cultural and social life of the neighborhood.[24] In Boston, Little held a variety of jobs and found intermittent employment with the New Haven Railroad. Between 1943 and 1946, he drifted from city to city and job to job. He left Boston to live for a short time in Flint, Michigan. He moved to New York City in 1943. Living in Harlem, he became involved in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[25] During this period, Little became known as "Detroit Red" because he came from Michigan and because of the reddish color of his hair.[26] According to recent biographies, Little occasionally engaged in sex with other men, usually for money.[27][28]
In 1943, the U.S. draft board ordered Little to register for military service.[29] He later recalled that he put on a display to avoid the draft by telling the examining officer that he could not wait to "steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers."[30] Military physicians classified him as "mentally disqualified for military service". He was issued a 4-F card, relieving him of his service obligations.[29] In late 1945, Little returned to Boston. With a group of associates, he began a series of elaborate burglaries targeting the residences of wealthy white families.[31] On January 12, 1946, Little was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop.[32] The shop owner called the police because the watch was very expensive, and the police had alerted all Boston jewelers that it had been stolen. Little told the police that he had a gun on his person and surrendered so the police would treat him more leniently.[33] Three days later, Little was indicted for carrying firearms. On January 16, he was charged with larceny and breaking and entering, and eventually sentenced to eight to ten years in prison.[34]
On February 27, Little began serving his sentence at the Charlestown State Prison in Charlestown, Boston. While in prison, Little earned the nickname of "Satan" for his hostility toward religion.[35] Little met a self-educated man in prison named John Elton Bembry (referred to as "Bimbi" in The Autobiography of Malcolm X).[36] Bembry was a well-regarded prisoner at Charlestown, and Malcolm X would later describe him as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words."[37] Gradually, the two men became friends and Bembry convinced Little to educate himself.[38] Little developed a voracious appetite for reading, and he frequently read after the prison lights had been turned off.[39] In 1948, Little's brother Philbert wrote, telling him about the Nation of Islam. Like the UNIA, the Nation preached black self-reliance and, ultimately, the unification of members of the African diaspora, free from white American and European domination.[40] Little was not interested in joining until his brother Reginald wrote, saying, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison."[41] Little quit smoking, and the next time pork was served in the prison dining hall, he refused to eat it.[42]
When Reginald came to visit Little, he described the group's teachings, including the belief that white people are devils. Afterward, Little thought about all the white people he had known, and he realized that he'd never had a relationship with a white person or social institution that wasn't based on dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred. Little began to reconsider his dismissal of all religion and he became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam. Other family members who had joined the Nation wrote or visited and encouraged Little to join.[43] In February 1948, mostly through his sister's efforts, Little was transferred to the Norfolk Prison Colony, an experimental prison in Norfolk, Massachusetts, that had a much larger library.[44] In late 1948, he wrote a letter to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to atone for his crimes by renouncing his past and by humbly bowing in prayer to Allah and promising never to engage in destructive behavior again. Little, who always had been rebellious and deeply skeptical, found it very difficult to bow in prayer. It took him a week to bend his knees. Finally he prayed, and he became a member of the Nation of Islam.[45] For the remainder of his incarceration, Little maintained regular correspondence with Muhammad.[46] On August 7, 1952, Little was paroled and was released from prison.[47] He later reflected on the time he spent in prison after his conversion: "Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my correspondence, my visitors—usually Ella and Reginald—and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life."[48]
Nation of Islam[link]
| Part of a series on the |
| Nation of Islam |
|---|
 |
| Leaders |
| Wallace Fard Muhammad Elijah Muhammad · Malcolm X Warith Deen Mohammed Louis Farrakhan Tynetta Muhammad Mustapha Farrakhan Ishmael Muhammad Ava Muhammad |
| History and beliefs |
| Saviours' Day Nation of Islam and antisemitism Tribe of Shabazz · Yakub Million Man March |
| Publications |
| A Torchlight for America The Final Call How to Eat to Live Muhammad Speaks |
| Subsidiaries and offshoots |
| American Society of Muslims Fruit of Islam The Nation of Gods and Earths New Black Panther Party United Nation of Islam Your Black Muslim Bakery |
Further information: Nation of Islam
When Little was released from prison in 1952, he had more than a new religion. He also had a new name. In a December 1950 letter to his brother Philbert, Little signed his name as Malcolm X for the first time.[49] In his autobiography, he explained why: "The Muslim's 'X' symbolized the true African family name that he never could know. For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[50]
Shortly after his release from prison, Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago, Illinois.[51] In June 1953, Malcolm X was named assistant minister of the Nation of Islam's Temple Number One in Detroit.[52][53] Soon, he became a full-time minister.[54] By late 1953, Malcolm X established Boston's Temple Number 11.[55] In March 1954, he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[56] Two months later Malcolm X was selected to lead Temple Number Seven in Harlem,[57] and he rapidly expanded its membership.[58]
The FBI had opened a file on Malcolm X in 1950 after he wrote a letter to President Truman stating his opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself to be a communist.[59] It began surveillance of him in 1953, and soon the FBI turned its attention from concerns about possible Communist Party association to Malcolm X's rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[60]
During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment efforts on behalf of the organization. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and Atlanta, Georgia (Number 15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[61] Beside his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[62] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[63] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly well-groomed".[62]
Johnson Hinton incident[link]
Malcolm X first came to the attention of the general public after the police beating of a Nation of Islam member named Johnson Hinton.[64][65] On April 26, 1957, two police officers were beating an African-American man with their nightsticks when three passersby who belonged to the Nation of Islam tried to intervene.[64] They shouted: "You're not in Alabama or Georgia. This is New York!"[65] One of the officers began to beat one of the passersby, Johnson Hinton. The blows were so severe, a surgeon later determined, that they caused brain contusions, subdural hemorrhaging, and scalp lacerations. All four men were arrested and taken to the police station.[64]
A woman who had seen the assault ran to the Nation of Islam's restaurant.[64] Within a few hours, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Hinton. The police captain initially said no Muslims were being held there, but as the crowd grew to about 500, he allowed Malcolm X to speak with Hinton.[66] After a short talk, Malcolm X demanded that Hinton be taken to the hospital, so an ambulance was called and Hinton was taken to Harlem Hospital.[67]
Hinton was treated and released into the custody of the police, who returned him to the police station.[66] By this point, about 4,000 people had gathered; the police realized there was the potential for a riot and called for backup. Malcolm X went back into the police station with an attorney and made bail arrangements for the other two Muslims. The police said Hinton could not go back to the hospital until he was arraigned the following day.[67] Malcolm X realized things were at a stalemate. He stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal.[67] The Nation of Islam members in the crowd silently walked away. The rest of the crowd dispersed minutes later. One police officer told the editor of the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[67][68]
The following month, the Bureau of Special Services and Investigation of the New York Police Department (NYPD) began its surveillance of Malcolm X. The NYPD's Chief Inspector asked for information from the police department in every city where Malcolm X had lived, and from the prisons where he had served his sentence.[69] In October, when a grand jury declined to indict the officers who had beaten Hinton, Malcolm X wrote an angry telegram to the police commissioner. In response, undercover NYPD officers were placed inside the Nation of Islam.[70]
Marriage and family[link]
Malcolm X met Betty Sanders in 1955. She had been invited to listen to his lecture, and she was very impressed by him. They met again at a dinner party. Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X's lectures at Temple Number Seven. In mid 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam and changed her name to Betty X.[71]
Malcolm X and Betty X did not have a conventional courtship. One-on-one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Instead, the couple shared their "dates" with dozens, or even hundreds of other members. Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York's museums and libraries, and he always invited Betty X.[72]
Although they had never discussed the subject, Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage. On January 12, 1958, he called from Detroit and asked her to marry him, and they were married two days later in Lansing, Michigan.[73][74]
The couple had six daughters. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun;[75][76] Qubilah, born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan;[77] Ilyasah, born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad;[78] Gamilah Lumumba, born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba;[79] and twins, Malikah and Malaak, born in 1965 after their father's assassination and named for him.[80]
[edit] The Hate That Hate Produced
After a 1959 television broadcast in New York City about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced, Malcolm X became known to white Americans. Representatives of the print media, radio, and television frequently asked him for comments on issues.[81] By the late 1950s, Malcolm X had acquired a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[82]
In September 1960, Fidel Castro arrived in New York to attend the meeting of the United Nations General Assembly. He and his entourage stayed at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem. Malcolm X was a prominent member of a Harlem-based welcoming committee made up of community leaders who met with Castro.[83] Castro was so impressed by Malcolm X that he requested a private meeting with him. At the end of their two-hour meeting, Castro invited Malcolm X to visit him in Cuba.[84] During the General Assembly meeting, Malcolm X was also invited to many official embassy functions sponsored by African nations, where he met heads of state and other leaders, including Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress.[85]
From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings, including that black people are the original people of the world,[86] that white people are "devils",[87] that blacks are superior to whites, and that the demise of the white race is imminent.[88] While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. He proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in America[89] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, and instead advocated that black people use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves.[91] Malcolm X's speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, generally African Americans who lived in the Northern and Western cities, who were tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect.[92] Many blacks felt that he articulated their complaints better than the civil rights movement did.[93][94]
Malcolm X has been widely considered the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[95] He was largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one author's estimate,[96] or from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another's).[97][98] He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation of Islam.[99] (though like Malcolm X himself, Ali later left the group to become a Sunni Muslim).[100]
Many white people, and even some blacks, were alarmed by Malcolm X and the things he said. He and the Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists, and a threat to improved race relations. Civil rights organizations denounced Malcolm X and the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views were not representative of African Americans.[101][102][103] Malcolm X was accused of being antisemitic.[104]
Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement.[105] He described its leaders as "stooges" for the white establishment, and he once described Martin Luther King, Jr. as a "chump".[106][107] He criticized the 1963 March on Washington, which he called "the farce on Washington".[108] He said he did not know why so many black people were excited about a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive".[109]
Leaving the Nation[link]
On December 1, 1963, when he was asked for a comment about the assassination of President Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[110] The New York Times wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'."[110] The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had issued a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[111] Although Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, he was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[112]
On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He said that he was still a Muslim, but he felt the Nation of Islam had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid religious teachings.[113] Malcolm X said he was going to organize a black nationalist organization that would try to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans.[113] He also expressed his desire to work with other civil rights leaders and said that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[113]
One reason for the separation was growing tension between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad because of Malcolm X's dismay about rumors of Muhammad's extramarital affairs with young secretaries, actions that were against the teachings of the Nation. Although at first Malcolm X had ignored the rumors, after speaking with Muhammad's son Wallace and the women making the accusations, he came to believe that they were true. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963 but tried to justify his actions by reference to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[114] Another reason for the separation was growing resentment by people within the Nation. As Malcolm X had become a favorite of the media, many in the Nation's Chicago headquarters felt that he was over-shadowing Muhammad. Louis Lomax's 1963 book about the Nation of Islam, When the Word Is Given, featured a picture of Malcolm X on its cover and included five of his speeches, but only one of Muhammad's, which greatly upset Muhammad. Muhammad was also envious that a publisher was interested in Malcolm X's autobiography.[115] After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization,[116][117] and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, a secular group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[118][119] On March 26, 1964, he met Martin Luther King, Jr. in Washington, D.C., after a press conference held when both men attended the Senate to hear the debate on the Civil Rights bill. This was the only time the two men ever met and their meeting lasted only one minute—just long enough for photographers to take a picture.[120][121] In April, Malcolm X made a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet" in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely.[122][123] Several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about Islam. Soon he converted to Sunni Islam, and decided to make his pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).[124]
International travel[link]
Pilgrimage to Mecca[link]
On April 13, 1964, Malcolm X departed JFK Airport in New York for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. His status as an authentic Muslim was questioned by Saudi authorities because of his United States passport and his inability to speak Arabic. Since only confessing Muslims are allowed into Mecca, he was separated from his group for about 20 hours.[125][126]
According to his autobiography, Malcolm X saw a telephone and remembered the book The Eternal Message of Muhammad by Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, which had been presented to him with his visa approval. He called Azzam's son, who arranged for his release. At the younger Azzam's home, he met Azzam Pasha, who gave Malcolm his suite at the Jeddah Palace Hotel. The next morning, Muhammad Faisal, the son of Prince Faisal, visited and informed Malcolm X that he was to be a state guest. The deputy chief of protocol accompanied Malcolm X to the Hajj Court, where he was allowed to make his pilgrimage.[127]
On April 19, Malcolm X completed the Hajj, making the seven circuits around the Kaaba, drinking from the Zamzam Well, and running between the hills of Safah and Marwah seven times.[128] After completing the Hajj, he was granted an audience with Prince Faisal.[129] Malcolm X said the trip allowed him to see Muslims of different races interacting as equals. He came to believe that Islam could be the means by which racial problems could be overcome.[130]
Africa[link]
Malcolm X visited Africa on three separate occasions, once in 1959 and twice in 1964. During his visits, he met officials, gave interviews to newspapers, and spoke on television and radio in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco.[131] Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments.[132]
In 1959, Malcolm X traveled to Egypt (then known as the United Arab Republic), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana to arrange a tour for Elijah Muhammad.[133] The first of the two trips Malcolm X made to Africa in 1964 lasted from April 13 until May 21, before and after his Hajj.[134] On May 8, following his speech at the University of Ibadan, Malcolm X was made an honorary member of the Nigerian Muslim Students' Association. During this reception the students bestowed upon him the name "Omowale", which means "the son who has come home" in the Yoruba language.[135] Malcolm X wrote in his autobiography that he "had never received a more treasured honor."[136]
On July 9, 1964, Malcolm X returned to Africa.[137] On July 17, he was welcomed to the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Cairo as a representative of the Organization of Afro-American Unity. By the time he returned to the United States on November 24, 1964, Malcolm had met with every prominent African leader and established an international connection between Africans on the continent and those in the diaspora.[132]
France and the United Kingdom[link]
On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke at the Salle de la Mutualité.[138][139] A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom, and on December 3 participated in a debate at the Oxford Union. The topic of the debate was "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue", and Malcolm X argued the affirmative. Interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[140][141]
On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X went to Europe again.[142] On February 8, he spoke in London, before the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations.[143] The next day, Malcolm X tried to go to France, but he was refused entry.[144] On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, which had become a byword for racial division after the 1964 general election, when the Conservative Party won the parliamentary seat after rumors that their candidate's supporters had used the slogan "If you want a nigger for your neighbour, vote Labour."[145]
Return to United States[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spoke before a wide variety of audiences in the United States. He spoke at regular meetings of Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. He was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses,[146] and one of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students."[147] Malcolm X also spoke before political groups such as the Militant Labor Forum.[148]
Tensions increased between Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. As early as February 1964, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered a member of the Fruit of Islam to wire explosives to Malcolm X's car.[149] In September 1964, Ebony published a photograph of Malcolm X holding an M1 Carbine and peering out a window. The photo was intended to illustrate his determination to defend himself and his family against the death threats he was receiving.[150][151]
The Nation of Islam and its leaders began making both public and private threats against Malcolm X. On March 23, 1964, Elijah Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off."[152] The April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon in which his severed head was shown bouncing.[153] On July 9, John Ali, a top aide to Muhammad, answered a question about Malcolm X by saying that "anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[154] The December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks included an article by Louis X that railed against Malcolm X, saying "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[155]
Some threats were made anonymously. During the month of June 1964, FBI surveillance recorded two such threats. On June 8, a man called Malcolm X's home and told Betty Shabazz to "tell him he's as good as dead."[156] On June 12, an FBI informant reported getting an anonymous telephone call from somebody who said "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off."[157]
In June 1964, the Nation of Islam sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in Queens, New York, which they claimed to own. The suit was successful, and Malcolm X was ordered to vacate.[158] On February 14, 1965, the night before a scheduled hearing to postpone the eviction date, the house burned to the ground. Malcolm X and his family survived. No one was charged with any crime.[159]
Assassination[link]
On February 21, 1965, as Malcolm X prepared to address the Organization of Afro-American Unity in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, a disturbance broke out in the 400-person audience[160]—a man yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[161][162] As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance,[163] a man seated in the front row rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a double-barreled sawed-off shotgun.[164] Two other men charged the stage and fired semi-automatic handguns, hitting Malcolm X several times.[162] He was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after he arrived at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[160] According to the autopsy report, Malcolm X's body had 21 gunshot wounds to his chest, left shoulder, and both arms and legs, many of them fatal; ten of the wounds were buckshot to his left chest and shoulder from the initial shotgun blast.[165]
One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan) was seized and beaten by the crowd before the police arrived minutes later;[166][167] witnesses identified the others as Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson, also Nation members.[168] Hayer confessed at trial to have been one of the handgun shooters, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[169] All three were convicted.[170]
Butler, now known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998. He continues to maintain his innocence.[171] Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings while in prison and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[172][173] Hayer, now known as Mujahid Halim,[174] was paroled in 2010.[175]
Funeral[link]
A public viewing was held at Harlem's Unity Funeral Home from February 23 through February 26, and it was estimated that between 14,000 and 30,000 mourners attended.[176] The funeral was held on February 27 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ in Harlem. The church was filled to capacity with more than 1,000 people.[177] Loudspeakers were set up outside the Temple so the overflowing crowd could listen[178] and a local television station broadcast the funeral live.[179]
Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young.[177][180] Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining black prince".
There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain—and we will smile. Many will say turn away—away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man—and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate—a fanatic, a racist—who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.[181]
Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[179] At the gravesite after the ceremony, friends took the shovels from the waiting gravediggers and completed the burial themselves.[182] Actor and activist Ruby Dee (wife of Ossie Davis) and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise funds to buy a house and pay educational expenses for Malcolm X's family.[183]
Responses to assassination[link]
Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. sent a telegram to Betty Shabazz, expressing his sadness over "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."
While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.[184]
Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26, "Malcolm X got just what he preached," while denying any involvement with the murder.[185] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him," Muhammad said. "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[186]
The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted".[187] The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance—often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[188]
The international press, particularly that of Africa, was sympathetic. The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X "will have a place in the palace of martyrs."[189] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown and Patrice Lumumba among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause".[190] Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights",[191] while in Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination".[192]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Within days of the assassination, questions were raised about who bore ultimate responsibility. On February 23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[193] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[194][195]
In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs directed towards infiltrating and disrupting civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[196] John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was identified as an FBI undercover agent.[197] Malcolm X had confided in a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad. He considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[197] On February 20, 1965, the night before the assassination, Ali met with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X.[198]
In 1977 and 1978, Talmadge Hayer submitted two sworn affidavits re-asserting his claim that Butler and Johnson were not involved in the assassination. In his affidavits Hayer named four men, all members of the Nation of Islam's Newark Temple Number 25, as having participated with him in the crime. Hayer asserted that a man, later identified as Wilbur McKinley, was the one who shouted and threw a smoke bomb to create a diversion. Hayer said that another man, later identified as William Bradley, had a shotgun and was the first to fire on Malcolm X after the diversion. Hayer asserted that he and a man later identified as Leon Davis, both armed with pistols, fired on Malcolm X immediately after the shotgun blast. Hayer also said that a fifth man, later identified as Benjamin Thomas, was involved in the conspiracy.[199][200] Hayer's statements failed to convince authorities to reopen their investigation of the murder.[201]
Some, including the Shabazz family, have accused Louis Farrakhan of being involved in the plot to assassinate Malcolm X.[202][203][204][205] In a 1993 speech, Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible for the assassination:
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.[206][207]
In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some of the things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[208] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[209] No consensus on who was responsible has been reached.[210]
Philosophy[link]
Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the myriad speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death in 1965.[211] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[212]
Beliefs of the Nation of Islam[link]
Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam
Before he left the Nation of Islam in 1964, Malcolm X taught its beliefs in his speeches. His speeches were peppered with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that...".[213] It is virtually impossible to discern whether Malcolm X's beliefs diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[214][215] Malcolm X once compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him.[213]
Malcolm X taught that black people were the original people of the world,[86] and that white people were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[87] The Nation of Islam believed that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent.[88] When he was questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, Malcolm X said that "history proves the white man is a devil."[216] He enumerated some of the historical reasons that, he felt, supported his argument: "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil."[217]
Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of black mankind" and that Christianity was "the white man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[218] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of black people in America.[219] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was Allah incarnate,[220] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or prophet.[221]
While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in the Southern[89] or Southwestern United States[222] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to black people for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors.[223] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence and instead advocated that black people should protect themselves by any necessary means.[91]
Independent views[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[113] though he felt that it should change its focus to human rights. So long as the movement remained a fight for civil rights, its struggle would remain a domestic issue, but by framing the struggle as a fight for human rights, it would become an international issue, and the movement could bring its complaint before the United Nations. Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support to the cause of African Americans.[224]
Malcolm X declared that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary", arguing that if the government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, they should protect themselves.[225]
Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the liberation struggles of Third World nations.[226] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; in a global context, black people were a majority, not a minority.[227]
In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X criticized capitalism.[148] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he didn't know, but that it was no coincidence the newly liberated countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[228] Malcolm X still was concerned primarily with the freedom struggle of African Americans. When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, Malcolm X asked whether it was good for black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm X told him, "Then I'm for it."[228][229]
Although he no longer called for the separation of black people from white people, Malcolm X continued to advocate black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community.[230] In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support of black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white.[231]
After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of white people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with white people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[232] In a 1965 conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:
[L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.
Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant—the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together—and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then—like all [Black] Muslims—I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.
That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days—I'm glad to be free of them.[233]
Legacy[link]
Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.[234][235][236] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[237] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the United States.[238][239][240] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than the mainstream civil rights movement did.[93][94] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that white America would have to pay if it did not accede to black America's legitimate demands."[241]
In the late 1960s, as black activists became more radical, Malcolm X and his teachings were part of the foundation on which they built their movements. The Black Power movement,[62][242] the Black Arts Movement,[62][243] and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful"[244] can all trace their roots to Malcolm X.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in Malcolm X among young people, fueled in part by use of him as an icon by hip hop groups such as Public Enemy.[245][246] His image was on display in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[247] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[248]
This wave peaked in 1992 with the release of the film Malcolm X,[249] an adaptation of the The Autobiography of Malcolm X which Malcolm X began in 1963 in collaboration with Alex Haley on The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[115] (Malcolm X had told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle";[250] indeed Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination).[251] In 1998 Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[252]
Portrayals in film and on stage[link]
Denzel Washington played the title role in Malcolm X[253]—named one of the ten best films of the 1990s by both critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese.[254] Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 off-Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost.[255] Other portrayals include:
- James Earl Jones, in the 1977 film The Greatest.[256]
- Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television miniseries King[257] and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting.[258]
- Al Freeman, Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations.[259]
- Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet.[260]
- Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X, The Life and Times of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera.[261]
- Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of the World.[262]
- Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An American Hero.[263]
- Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 film Ali.[264]
Memorials and tributes[link]
The Malcolm X House Site, at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, marks the place where Malcolm Little first lived with his family. The house where the Little family lived was torn down in 1965 by owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X.[265] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and a historic marker identifies the site because of the importance of Malcolm X to American history and national culture.[266][267] In 1987 the site was added to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with a state plaque.[268]
Lansing, Michigan, where Malcolm Little spent his early, formative years, is home to a Michigan Historical Marker erected in 1975 marking his homesite.[269] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The Academy is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[270]
In cities around the world, Malcolm X's birthday (May 19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[271] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized Malcolm X's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[272]
Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X; in 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[273] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[274][275] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard.[276] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[277]
There have been dozens of schools named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey,[278] Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin,[279] and Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois.[280] Meanwhile, the Malcolm X Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system opened in 1996. It is the first library named after Malcolm X.[281]
The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999.[282] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[283] Collections of Malcolm X's papers are deposited at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodruff Library.[284][285][286]
Published works[link]
- The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. OCLC 219493184.
- Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
- Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
- Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
- The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC 185901618.
- By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
- The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
- The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87348-962-1.
- February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-87348-749-8.
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ This name includes the honorific El-Hajj, given on completion of the Hajj to Mecca. Malise Ruthven (1997). Islam: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-19-285389-9.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 2.
- ^ Perry, p. 3.
- ^ Natambu, p. 7.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 3–4. There have been many editions of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Page numbers cited in the notes refer to the One World trade paperback edition (1992).
- ^ Natambu, p. 3.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 6.
- ^ Perry, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 5.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 7, 10–11.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2, 4.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 12.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 29.
- ^ Natambu, p. 10.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 32. Inflation information in source.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 35.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 35–36, 265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 33–34, 331.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 42.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 21–29.
- ^ Perry, pp. 32–48.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Perry, pp. 58–81.
- ^ Marable, pp. 37, 51–52.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Perry, pp. 77, 82–83.
- ^ a b Carson, p. 108.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 124.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 106–109.
- ^ Perry, p. 99.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Perry, pp. 104–106.
- ^ Natambu, p. 121.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original.
- ^ Perry, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Perry, p. 118.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Natambu, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 113.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 132–138.
- ^ Perry, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Perry, p. 116.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 98.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 199.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 229.
- ^ Perry, pp. 142, 144–145.
- ^ Natambu, p. 168.
- ^ The Nation of Islam numbered its Temples according to the order in which they were established. Perry, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 104.
- ^ Perry, p. 147.
- ^ Perry, p. 152.
- ^ Perry, p. 153.
- ^ Perry, pp. 161–164.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 95.
- ^ Carson, p. 95.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 122–123.
- ^ a b c d Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 301.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 189.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 127.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 164.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 165.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 166.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 132.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 134–135.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 36–45, 50–51.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Shabazz, Betty, "Malcolm X as a Husband and Father", Clarke, pp. 132–134.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 109–110.
- ^ In a 1992 interview, Attallah Shabazz said she was not named for Attila, rather her name was Arabic for "the gift of God". Miller, Russell (November 23, 1992). "X Patriot". New York. http://books.google.com/books?id=3-QCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
- ^ Rickford, p. 122.
- ^ Rickford, p. 123.
- ^ Rickford, p. 197.
- ^ Rickford, p. 286.
- ^ Perry, pp. 174–179.
- ^ Manning, Malcolm X, pp. 135, 193.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 172.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 18.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 231–233.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 55.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 115.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 57.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 149–152.
- ^ a b Malcolm X, End of White World Supremacy, p. 78.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 173–174.
- ^ Natambu, p. 182.
- ^ a b Cone, pp. 99–100.
- ^ a b West, Cornel (1984). "The Paradox of the Afro-American Rebellion". In Sayres, Sohnya; Stephanson, Anders; Aronowitz, Stanley et al.. The 60s Without Apology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8166-1336-6.
- ^ Cone, p. 91.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. pp. 15–16. "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 123.
- ^ Clegg. p. 115. "The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers—'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—was typical of the attitude of the leadership."
- ^ Natambu, pp. 296–297
- ^ Ali, Muhammad (2004). The Soul of a Butterfly: Reflections on Life's Journey. with Hana Yasmeen Ali. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7432-5569-1.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 162.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 215–216.
- ^ "The Black Supremacists". TIME. August 10, 1959. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811191-1,00.html. Retrieved July 28, 2009. (Subscription required)
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 172.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Perry, p. 203.
- ^ King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous, ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief." Haley, Alex (January 1965). "The Playboy Interview: Martin Luther King". Playboy. http://www.playboy.com/playground/interviews/playboy-interview-martin-luther-king. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Cone, p. 113.
- ^ "Timeline". Malcolm X: Make It Plain, American Experience. PBS. May 19, 2005. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/malcolmx/timeline/timeline2.html. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
- ^ a b "Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy". The New York Times. December 2, 1963. p. 21. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0812FE35541A7B93C0A91789D95F478685F9. Retrieved July 28, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Natambu, pp. 288–290.
- ^ Perry, p. 242.
- ^ a b c d Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964). "Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00D17FB395415738DDDA00894DB405B848AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Perry, pp. 230–234
- ^ a b Perry, p. 214.
- ^ Perry, pp. 251–252.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 18–22.
- ^ Perry, pp. 294–296.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 33–67.
- ^ Cone. p. 2. "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."
- ^ Perry. p. 255. "Camera shutters clicked. The next day, the Chicago Sun-Times, the New York World Telegram and Sun, and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands."
- ^ Perry, pp. 257–259.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 23–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 261.
- ^ Perry, pp. 262–263.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 204.
- ^ Perry, pp. 263–265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Perry, p. 267.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 388–393.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 308.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 62.
- ^ Natambu, p. 303.
- ^ Perry, p. 269.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 403.
- ^ Carson, p. 305.
- ^ Bethune, Lebert, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 226–231.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 113–126.
- ^ Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Malcolm X (December 3, 1964). "Malcolm X Oxford Debate". Malcolm X: A Research Site. http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2003/mx_oxford/index.html. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
- ^ Carson, p. 349.
- ^ Perry, p. 351.
- ^ Natambu, p. 312.
- ^ Kundnani, Arun (February 10, 2005). "Black British History: Remembering Malcolm's Visit to Smethwick". Independent Race and Refugee News Network. Institute of Race Relations. http://www.irr.org.uk/news/black-british-history-remembering-malcolms-visit-to-smethwick/. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Terrill, p. 9.
- ^ Karim, p. 128.
- ^ a b Perry, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Karim, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Massaquoi, Hans J. (September 1964). "Mystery of Malcolm X". Ebony.
- ^ Lord, Lewis; Thornton, Jeannye; Bodipo-Memba, Alejandro (November 15, 1992). "The Legacy of Malcolm X". U.S. News & World Report. p. 3. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/921123/archive_018698.htm. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Kondo, p. 170.
- ^ Majied, Eugene (April 10, 1964). "On My Own". Muhammad Speaks. [[|Nation of Islam]]. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/images/sourcebook_img_111.jpg. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 248.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 264.
- ^ Carson, p. 473.
- ^ Carson, p. 324.
- ^ Perry, pp. 290–292.
- ^ Perry, pp. 352–356.
- ^ a b Kihss, Peter (February 22, 1965). "Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A15F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Karim, p. 191.
- ^ a b Evanzz, p. 295.
- ^ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Alex Haley wrote that Malcolm said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it brothers." (p. 499.) According to a transcription of a recording of the shooting, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", which he repeated 10 times. (DeCaro, p. 274.)
- ^ Perry, p. 366.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 450.
- ^ Perry, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Talese, Gay (February 22, 1965). "Police Save Suspect From the Crowd". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E12F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Kondo, p. 97.
- ^ Kondo, p. 110.
- ^ Rickford, p. 289.
- ^ "Malcolm X Killer Heads Mosque". BBC News. March 31, 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/71838.stm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Jacobson, Mark (October 1, 2007). "The Man Who Didn't Shoot Malcolm X". New York. http://nymag.com/news/features/38358/. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 474.
- ^ Rickford, p. 489
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 474–475.
- ^ Perry, p. 374. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, says 22,000 (p. 519).
- ^ a b Rickford, p. 252.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 291
- ^ a b Arnold, Martin (February 28, 1965). "Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60615FD38591B7A93CAAB1789D85F418685F9. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ DeCaro, p. 290.
- ^ Davis, Ossie (February 27, 1965). "Malcolm X's Eulogy". The Official Website of Malcolm X. http://www.malcolmx.com/about/eulogy.html. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ Rickford, p. 255
- ^ Rickford, pp. 261–262.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (February 26, 1965). "Telegram from Martin Luther King, Jr. to Betty al-Shabazz". The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/documentsentry/telegram_from_martin_luther_king_jr_to_betty_al_shabazz/. Retrieved March 21, 2010.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 301.
- ^ Clegg, p. 232.
- ^ "Malcolm X". The New York Times. February 22, 1965. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E13F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Rickford, p. 247.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 305.
- ^ Kenworthy, E. W. (February 26, 1965). "Malcolm Called a Martyr Abroad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20D15F73F5812738DDDAF0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Evanzz, p. 306.
- ^ Rickford, p. 248.
- ^ Perry, p. 371.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 305–306.
- ^ Perry, p. 372.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 7–39.
- ^ a b Lomax, To Kill a Black Man, p. 198.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 294.
- ^ Bush, Roderick (1999). We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century. New York: New York University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8147-1317-4.
- ^ Friedly, Michael (1992). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-922-6.
- ^ Gardell, Mattias (1996). In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8223-1845-3.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 437, 492–495.
- ^ Evanzz, pp. 298–299.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 182–183, 193–194.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 305.
- ^ Rickford, p. 492.
- ^ Wartofsky, Alona (February 17, 1995). "'Brother Minister: The Martyrdom of Malcolm X'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/brotherministerthemartyrdomofmalcolmx_c0098f.htm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X". 60 Minutes. CBS News. May 14, 2000. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks". The Final Call. May 15, 2000. http://www.finalcall.com/columns/mlf/2000/mlf-60minutes05-15-2000.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 315–316.
- ^ Kelley, Robin D. G. (1999). "Malcolm X". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1233.
- ^ Terrill, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Terrill, p. 184.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. p. 91. "'I'll be honest with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 67.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 171.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 24, 137–138.
- ^ Malcolm X, Speeches at Harvard, p. 119.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah" (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 80). On another occasion, he said "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet" (Malcolm X, Last Speeches, p. 46).
- ^ Lincoln, p. 95.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 33–35.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 43, 47.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 90.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 117.
- ^ a b Cone, p. 284.
- ^ Perry, p. 277.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 38–41.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 391.
- ^ Parks, Gordon, "Malcolm X: The Minutes of Our Last Meeting", Clarke, p. 122.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amhert, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-57392-963-9.
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- ^ Cone, pp. 291–292.
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- ^ Perry, p. 379.
- ^ Turner, Richard Brent (2004). "Islam in the African-American Experience". In Bobo, Jacqueline; Hudley, Cynthia; Michel, Claudine. The Black Studies Reader. New York: Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-415-94554-7.
- ^ Perry, p. 380.
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- ^ Cone, p. 291.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 301–302.
- ^ Sales, p. 5.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 302.
- ^ Sales, p. 3.
- ^ Sales, p. 4
- ^ Haley, "Epilogue", Autobiography, p. 471.
- ^ Perry, p. 375.
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- Natambu, Kofi (2002). The Life and Work of Malcolm X. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864218-5.
- Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill. ISBN 978-0-88268-103-0.
- Rickford, Russell J. (2003). Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-0171-4.
- Sales, Jr., William W. (1994). From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-480-3.
- Terrill, Robert (2004). Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-730-3.
- Wood, Joe, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: In Our Image. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-06609-3.
Further reading[link]
- Baldwin, James (2007) [1973]. One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27594-3.
- Boyd, Herb; Daniels, Ron; Karenga, Maulana et al., eds. (2012). By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X: Real, Not Reinvented. Chicago: Third World Press. ISBN 978-0-88378-336-8.
- Breitman, George (1967). The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-004-8.
- Breitman, George; Porter, Herman; Smith, Baxter (1991) [1976]. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-632-3.
- Cleage, Albert B.; Breitman, George (1968). Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit. OCLC 615819.
- Collins, Rodnell P. (1998). Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-491-3.
- Conyers, Jr., James L.; Smallwood, Andrew P., eds. (2008). Malcolm X: A Historical Reader. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-228-2.
- DeCaro, Louis A. (1998). Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1932-9.
- Friedly, Michael (1995). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-40010-9.
- Gallen, David, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: As They Knew Him. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-850-2.
- Goldman, Peter (1979) [1973]. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00774-3.
- Jamal, Hakim A. (1972). From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9.
- Jenkins, Robert L. (2002). The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29264-4.
- Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. (1986). The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-932863-03-4.
- Leader, Edward Roland (1993). Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN 978-0-533-09520-9.
- Lee, Spike; with Ralph Wiley (1992). By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm X. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-56282-913-1.
- Shabazz, Ilyasah; with Kim McLarin (2002). Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-44495-0.
- Strickland, William; et al. (1994). Malcolm X: Make It Plain. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-017713-8.
- Terrill, Robert, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73157-7.
- T'Shaka, Oba (1983). The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, Calif.: Pan Afrikan Publications. ISBN 978-1-878557-01-8.
- Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor (1989). The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books. ISBN 978-1-85343-111-1.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- The Official Web Site of Malcolm X
- Malcolm X: Make It Plain
- malcolm-x.org
- Malcolm X: A Profile
- The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
- Malcolm X Reference Archive
- Malcolm X: A Research Site
- Works by or about Malcolm X in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Interviews
- Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark, Spring 1963
- Video interview with Herman Blake, October 1963
- Interview with Louis Lomax, from When the Word Is Given (December 1963)
- Interview with A.B. Spellman, May 1964
- CBC television interview, January 1965
- The short film OPEN MIND Special: Race Relations in Crisis 6/12/63 - 11/13/92 (1963/1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
- Speeches
- Other links
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Malcolm X |
| Alternative names | Little, Malcolm; El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Short description | Nation of Islam leader |
| Date of birth | May 19, 1925 |
| Place of birth | North Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Date of death | February 21, 1965 |
| Place of death | New York City, New York, United States |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For the area of the Ithaca campus, see Cornell West Campus.
 Cornel West in 2008 |
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| Born | Cornel Ronald West (1953-06-02) June 2, 1953 (age 59) Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S. |
|---|---|
| Era | 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophers |
| School | Pragmatism, Existentialism, Africana Philosophy, Historicism |
| Main interests | Democracy, Race, Philosophy of religion, Ethics |
| Notable ideas | Race Matters, Democracy Matters |
|
Influenced by
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Cornel Ronald West (born June 2, 1953) is an American philosopher, author, critic, actor, civil rights activist and prominent member of the Democratic Socialists of America.
West is a 1973 graduate of Harvard University and a doctoral graduate of Princeton University. He is currently a professor of African American studies at Princeton and of Religious philosophy and Christian studies at the Union Theological Seminary in New York.
West is known for his combination of political and moral insight and criticism and his contribution to the post-1960s civil rights movement.[citation needed] The bulk of his work focuses on the role of race, gender, and class in American society and the means by which people act and react to their "radical conditionedness." West draws intellectual contributions from such diverse traditions as the African American Baptist Church, pragmatism and transcendentalism.[1][2][3][4]
Contents |
Early life[link]
West was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma,[5] and grew up in Sacramento, California, where he graduated from John F. Kennedy High School. His father was a general contractor for the Defense Department, and his mother was a teacher and a principal. Irene B. West Elementary School in Elk Grove, California, is named for her.[6]
As a young man, West marched in civil rights demonstrations and organized protests demanding black studies courses at his high school, where he was class president. He later wrote that, in his youth, he admired "the sincere black militancy of Malcolm X, the defiant rage of the Black Panther Party [...] and the livid black theology of James Cone."[7]
In 1970, after graduating from John F. Kennedy High School, he enrolled at Harvard University and took classes from philosophers Robert Nozick and Stanley Cavell. In 1973, he graduated magna cum laude in Near Eastern Languages and Civilization. West credited Harvard with exposing him to a broader range of ideas, influenced by his professors as well as the Black Panther Party. West says his Christianity prevented him from joining the BPP, instead choosing to work in local breakfast, prison, and church programs.[8]
Career[link]
Academic appointments[link]
In 1980, West earned a Ph.D. from Princeton, where he was influenced by Richard Rorty's pragmatism.[9] The title of his dissertation was Ethics, historicism and the Marxist tradition,[10] which was later revised and published under the title The Ethical Dimensions of Marxist Thought.[9]
In his mid-20s, he returned to Harvard as a W. E. B. Du Bois Fellow before becoming an Assistant Professor at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York. In 1984, he went to Yale Divinity School in what eventually became a joint appointment in American Studies. While at Yale, he participated in campus protests for a clerical labor union and divestment from apartheid South Africa. One of the protests resulted in his being arrested and jailed. As punishment, the University administration canceled his leave for Spring 1987, leading him to commute from Yale in New Haven, Connecticut, where he was teaching two classes, across the Atlantic Ocean to the University of Paris.[11]
He then returned to Union for one year before going to Princeton to become a Professor of Religion and Director of the Program in African-American Studies from 1988 to 1994.[11] After Princeton, he accepted an appointment as Professor of African-American Studies at Harvard University, with a joint appointment at the Harvard Divinity School.[12] West taught one of the University's most popular courses, an introductory class to African-American Studies.[13] In 1998, he was appointed the first Alphonse Fletcher University Professor.[14] West utilized this new position to teach not only in African-American studies, but in Divinity, Religion, and Philosophy.[12] West left Harvard after a widely-publicized dispute with then-President Lawrence Summers in 2002. That year, West returned to Princeton, where he continues to teach in African-American Studies.[15] In 2011, West announced his return to the seminary where he began his teaching career.[16]
The recipient of more than 20 honorary degrees and an American Book Award,[1] He has written or contributed to over twenty published books. West is a long-time member of the Democratic Socialists of America, for which he now serves as Honorary Chair.[11] He is also a co-founder of the Network of Spiritual Progressives.[17] West is on the Advisory Board of the International Bridges to Justice.[18]
West is also a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity and its World Policy Council, a think tank whose purpose is to expand Alpha Phi Alpha's involvement in politics and social and current policy to encompass international concerns.[19]
Critics, most notably The New Republic literary editor Leon Wieseltier, have charged him with opportunism, crass showmanship, and lack of scholarly seriousness.[20] West remains a widely cited scholar in the popular press.[21]
Entertainment career[link]
West appears in both The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions.[22] In addition, West provides philosophical commentary on all three Matrix films in The Ultimate Matrix Collection, along with integral theorist Ken Wilber.[23]
He has also made several appearances in documentary films, such as the 2008 film Examined Life, a documentary featuring several academics discussing philosophy in real-world contexts. West, "driving through Manhattan, . . . compares philosophy to jazz and blues, reminding us how intense and invigorating a life of the mind can be."[24] He also appears in conversation with Bill Withers in the Bill Withers documentary, Still Bill. West also has made frequent appearances on the political talk show Real Time with Bill Maher.[25] A character based on West and events in his career appeared in the Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode Anti-Thesis, significant for introducing the recurring villain character Nicole Wallace.[26]
On the musical front, West recorded a recitation of John Mellencamp's song "Jim Crow" for inclusion on the singer's box set On the Rural Route 7609 in 2009.[27] In 2010, he completed recording with the Cornel West Theory, a Hip Hop band endorsed by West.[27] He has also released two hip-hop/soul/spoken word albums, one under "Cornel West" (entitled Street Knowledge), the other under "Cornel West & BMWMB (Black Men Who Mean Business)" (entitled Never Forget: A Journey of Revelations).[28] West also appeared on Immortal Technique's song "Sign of the Times", which appeared on the album The Martyr.
Dispute with Lawrence Summers[link]
In 2000, economist and former U.S. Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers became president of Harvard. Soon after, Summers held a private meeting with West, where he reportedly rebuked West for missing too many classes, contributing to grade inflation, neglecting serious scholarship, and spending too much time on his economically profitable projects.[29] Summers reportedly suggested that West produce an academic book befitting his professorial position, as his recent output had consisted primarily of co-written and edited volumes. According to some reports, Summers also objected to West's production of a CD, the critically panned Sketches of My Culture, and to his political campaigning, including an alleged three weeks to promote Bill Bradley's presidential campaign.[30] West contended he had missed only one class during his tenure at Harvard "in order to give a keynote address at a Harvard-sponsored conference on AIDS." Summers also allegedly suggested that since West held the rank of Harvard University Professor and thus reported directly to the President, he should meet with Summers regularly to discuss the progress of his academic production.[31]
Summers refused to comment on the details of his conversation with West, except to express hope that West would remain at Harvard. Soon after, West was hospitalized for prostate cancer. West complained that Summers failed to send him get-well wishes until weeks after his surgery, whereas newly installed Princeton president Shirley Tilghman had contacted him frequently before and after his treatment.[31]
In 2002 West left Harvard University to return to Princeton. West lashed out at Summers in public interviews, calling him "the Ariel Sharon of higher education" on NPR's Tavis Smiley Show.[32] In response to these remarks, five Princeton faculty members, led by professor of molecular biology Jacques Robert Fresco, said they looked with "strong disfavor upon his characterization" of Summers and that "such an analogy carries innuendoes and implications... that many on the Princeton faculty find highly inappropriate, indeed repugnant and intolerable."[33]
Harvard University's undergraduate student newspaper, The Harvard Crimson, suggested in October 2002 that the premise of Law and Order: Criminal Intent episode "Anti-Thesis" was based on West's conflicts with Summers.[34]
Activism[link]
Views on race in the United States[link]
West has called the U.S. a "racist patriarchal" nation where white supremacy continues to define everyday life. "White America," he writes, "has been historically weak-willed in ensuring racial justice and has continued to resist fully accepting the humanity of blacks." This has resulted, he says, in the creation of many "degraded and oppressed people hungry for identity, meaning, and self-worth." Professor West attributes most of the black community's problems to "existential angst derive[d] from the lived experience of ontological wounds and emotional scars inflicted by white supremacist beliefs and images permeating U.S. society and culture."[35]
In West's view, the September 11, 2001 attacks gave white Americans a glimpse of what it means to be a black person in the United States—feeling "unsafe, unprotected, subject to random violence, and hatred" for who they are.[36] "The ugly terrorist attacks on innocent civilians on 9/11," he said, "plunged the whole country into the blues."[36]
Politics[link]
West has described himself as a "non-Marxist socialist" (partly because he cannot reconcile Marxism with Christianity)[37] and serves as honorary chair of the Democratic Socialists of America, which he has described as "the first multiracial, socialist organization close enough to my politics that I could join".[11] He also described himself as a "radical democrat, suspicious of all forms of authority" on the Matrix-themed documentary The Burly Man Chronicles.[38]
West believes that "the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's ugly totalitarian regime was desirable,"[39] but that the war in Iraq was the result of "dishonest manipulation" on the part of the Bush administration.[40] He asserts that Bush Administration hawks "are not simply conservative elites and right-wing ideologues", but rather are "evangelical nihilists — drunk with power and driven by grand delusions of American domination of the world". He adds, "We are [now] experiencing the sad gangsterization of America, an unbridled grasp at power, wealth, and status." Viewing capitalism as the root cause of these alleged American lusts, West warns, "Free-market fundamentalism trivializes the concern for public interest. It puts fear and insecurity in the hearts of anxiety-ridden workers. It also makes money-driven, poll-obsessed elected officials deferential to corporate goals of profit — often at the cost of the common good."[41]
West has been involved with such projects as the Million Man March and Russell Simmons's Hip-Hop Summit, and worked with such public figures as Louis Farrakhan[5] and Al Sharpton, whose 2004 presidential campaign West advised.[42]
In 2000, West worked as a senior advisor to Democratic presidential candidate Bill Bradley. When Bradley lost in the primaries, West became a prominent endorser of Ralph Nader, even speaking at some Nader rallies. Some Greens sought to draft West to run as a presidential candidate in 2004. West declined, citing his active participation in the Al Sharpton campaign. West, along with other prominent Nader 2000 supporters, signed the "Vote to Stop Bush" statement urging progressive voters in swing states to vote for John Kerry, despite strong disagreements with many of Kerry's policies.[43]
In April 2002 West and Rabbi Michael Lerner performed civil disobedience by sitting in the street in front of the U.S. State Department "in solidarity with suffering Palestinian and Israeli brothers and sisters." West said, "We must keep in touch with the humanity of both sides."[44][45] In May 2007 West joined a demonstration against "injustices faced by the Palestinian people resulting from the Israeli occupation" and "to bring attention to this 40 year travesty of justice". In 2011, West called on the University of Arizona to divest from companies profiting from the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian Territories.[46]
West also serves as co-chair of the Tikkun Community. He co-chaired the National Parenting Organization's Task Force on Parent Empowerment and participated in President Clinton's National Conversation on Race. He has publicly endorsed In These Times magazine by calling it: "The most creative and challenging news magazine of the American left". He is also a contributing editor for Sojourners Magazine.
West supports People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) in its Kentucky Fried Cruelty campaign, aimed at eliminating what PETA describes as KFC's inhumane treatment of chickens. West is quoted on PETA flyers: "Although most people don't know chickens as well as they know cats and dogs, chickens are interesting individuals with personalities and interests every bit as developed as the dogs and cats with whom many of us share our lives."
In 2008, West contributed his insights on the current global issue of modernized slavery and human trafficking in the rockumentary Call+Response.[47] West is a member of the Campaign for Peace and Democracy.
In 2011, West addressed his frustration about some critics of the Occupy Wall Street, who remark about the movement's lack of a clear and unified message. West replied by saying:
It’s impossible to translate the issue of the greed of Wall Street into one demand, or two demands. We’re talking about a democratic awakening...you’re talking about raising political consciousness so it spills over all parts of the country, so people can begin to see what’s going on through a set of different lens, and then you begin to highlight what the more detailed demands would be. Because in the end we’re really talking about what Martin King would call a revolution: A transfer of power from oligarchs to everyday people of all colors. And that is a step by step process.[48]
On October 16, 2011, West was in Washington, D.C. participating in the Occupy D.C. protests on the steps of the Supreme Court over the court's decision in the Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission case the previous year.[49] Five days later, he was arrested during an Occupy Wall Street protest in Harlem against the New York Police Department's stop and frisk policy.[50]
Support and Criticism of Obama[link]
Cornel West publicly supported 2008 Democratic Presidential candidate then US Senator Barack Obama. He spoke to over 1,000 of his supporters at the Apollo Theater in Harlem, N.Y.C. on November 29, 2007.[51]
West criticized President Obama when Obama won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2009, saying that it would be difficult for Obama to be "a war president with a peace prize."[52] West further retracted his support for Obama in an April 2011 interview, stating that Obama is “a black mascot of Wall Street oligarchs and a black puppet of corporate plutocrats. And now he has become head of the American killing machine and is proud of it.”[53][54]
In 2012, West participated in a "Poverty Tour" with radio host Tavis Smiley in promoting their book The Rich and the Rest of Us. The stated aim of the tour was to highlight the plight of the impoverished population of the United States prior to the 2012 Presidential Election, whose candidates West and Smiley stated had ignored the plight of the poor.[55]
Published works[link]
- Black Theology and Marxist Thought (1979)
- Prophesy Deliverance! An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity (1982)
- Prophetic Fragments (1988)
- The American Evasion of Philosophy: A Genealogy of Pragmatism (1989)
- Breaking Bread: Insurgent Black Intellectual Life (with bell hooks, 1991)
- The Ethical Dimensions of Marxist Thought (1991)
- Beyond Eurocentrism and Multiculturalism (1993)
- Race Matters (1994)
- Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America (1994)
- Jews and Blacks: A Dialogue on Race, Religion, and Culture in America (with rabbi Michael Lerner, 1995)
- The Future of the Race (with Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 1996)
- Restoring Hope: Conversations on the Future of Black America (1997)
- The War Against Parents: What We Can Do For America's Beleaguered Moms and Dads (with Sylvia Ann Hewlett, 1998)
- The Future of American Progressivism (with Roberto Unger, 1998)
- The African-American Century: How Black Americans Have Shaped Our Century (with Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 2000)
- Cornel West: A Critical Reader (George Yancy, editor) (2001)
- Democracy Matters: Winning the Fight Against Imperialism (2004)
- Commentary on The Matrix, Matrix Reloaded and Matrix Revolutions; see The Ultimate Matrix Collection (with Ken Wilber, 2004)
- Post-Analytic Philosophy, edited with John Rajchman.
- Hope On a Tightrope: Words & Wisdom (2008)
- Brother West: Living & Loving Out Loud (2009)
- The Rich and the Rest of Us: A Poverty Manifesto (with Tavis Smiley, 2012)
See also[link]
- American philosophy
- Black existentialism
- Africana philosophy
- Democratic Socialists of America
- List of African American philosophers
- List of American philosophers
References[link]
- ^ a b "Cornel West". Pragmatism.org. http://www.pragmatism.org/library/west/. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ "Cornel Ronald West". Contemporary Black Biography, Volume 33. Edited by Ashyia Henderson. Gale Group, 2002. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: The Gale Group. 2004.
- ^ "Cornel West y la política de conversión". Thomas Ward. Resistencia cultural: La nación en el ensayo de las Américas. Lima, Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2004, págs. 344-348.
- ^ Nishikawa, Kinohi. "Cornel West." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature. Ed. Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 1714-18.
- ^ a b Elder, Robert (1998). "Prisoner of Hope". inFlux. University of Oregon School of Journalism and Communication. http://influx.uoregon.edu/1998/west/index.html. Retrieved January 21, 2002.
- ^ smitty, Fahizah (June 4, 1999). "Opening Doors: Irene West Gave Her All as a Teacher and Principal, Now, a New School Honors Her Name and Hard Work". Sacramento Bee.
- ^ West, Cornel (August 13, 2000). The Cornel West Reader. ISBN 978-0-465-09110-2. http://books.google.com/?id=Kk6ovUWs02AC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=the+sincere+black+militancy+of+malcolm+x+the+defiant+rage+of+the+black+panther+party+and+the+livid+black+theology+of+james+cone. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
- ^ Goodman, Amy (Sept 30, 2009). "Dr. Cornel West Releases Long-Awaited Memoir, "Brother West: Living and Loving Out Loud"". Democracy Now. http://www.democracynow.org/2009/9/30/dr_cornel_west_on_his_new. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
- ^ a b Mendieta, Eduardo (2007). Global Fragments: Globalizations, Latinamericanisms, and Critical Theory. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-7914-7257-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=CycoIHOtyhYC&pg=PA173.
- ^ "Ethics, historicism and the Marxist tradition". http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=753076311&sid=6&Fmt=2&clientId=16746&RQT=309&VName=PQD. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
- ^ a b c d Henderson, Ashyia, ed. (2002). "Cornel Ronald West". Contemporary Black Biography. 33. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale Group. http://www.indiana.edu/~libugls/brown/west.html. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ a b Aaseng, Nathan, ed. (2003). "Cornel West". African-American Religious Leaders. New York: Facts on File. p. 237. ISBN 0-8160-4878-9.
- ^ Duke, Lynn (August 16, 2002). "Cornel West's difficult road to Princeton". The Washington Post. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2002-08-16/features/0208160010_1_cornel-west-president-of-harvard-university-prostate-surgery. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ "Other Key Moments in the Department". Department of African and African American Studies, Harvard University. http://aaas.fas.harvard.edu/about/moments. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ Goldfarb, Zachary A. (August 12, 2002). "West to leave Harvard to become University professor of religion". The Daily Princetonian (Daily Princetonian Publishing Company, Inc.). http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2002/04/12/news/4886.shtml. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ Goodstein, Laurie (November 16, 2011). "Cornel West Returning to Union Theological Seminary". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/17/nyregion/cornel-west-returning-to-union-theological-seminary.html.
- ^ "NSP Co-Founders". Network of Spiritual Progressives. http://spiritualprogressives.org/newsite/?page_id=33. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ "Board of Directors and Advisors". International Bridges to Justice. http://www.ibj.org/about-us/directors-and-advisors/. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ Dawson, Horace; Edward Brooke, Henry Ponder, Vinton R. Anderson, Bobby William Austin, Ron Dellums, Kenton Keith, Huel D. Perkins, Charles Rangel, Clathan McClain Ross, and Cornel West (July 2006) (PDF). The Centenary Report Of The Alpha Phi Alpha World Policy Council. Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. http://www.alpha-phi-alpha.com/Resources/ImageFile/File/image/WPC06-WEB.pdf. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
- ^ All and Nothing: The Unreal World of Cornel West,” The New Republic, March 6, 1995, pp. 31–36.
- ^ Fletcher, Michael A.; Ferdinand, Pamela (April 13, 2002). "Cornel West Quitting Harvard". The Washington Post. http://search.proquest.com/docview/409336618?accountid=35803. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ Agger, Michael. FILM; And the Oscar for Best Scholar . . .. The New York Times. May 18, 2003. Retrieved 2011-3-7.
- ^ Pratt, Doug. The Ultimate Matrix Collection. The Hollywood Reporter via AllBusiness. December 6, 2004. Retrieved 2011-3-7.
- ^ "Examined Life (2008) - Plot Summary". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1279083/plotsummary.
- ^ ""Real Time with Bill Maher: Full Cast and Crew"". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0350448/fullcredits#cast. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
- ^ Gseis.ucla.edu
- ^ a b Han, Lisa. Cornel West Theory. Daily Princetonian. February 4, 2010. Retrieved 2011-3-7.
- ^ Cornel West, "Books and Music", http://www.cornelwest.com/books_music.html (accessed 10 June 2010)
- ^ "Who is Cornel West?". Associated Press. Cable News Network. January 10, 2002. Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071226113730/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/fyi/teachers.ednews/01/10/west.harvard.ap/. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ Steinberg, Jacques (November 29, 2001). "At Odds With Harvard President, Black-Studies Stars Eye Princeton". The New York Times (New York City, New York: The New York Times Company). http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F06E4D71F31F93AA15751C1A9679C8B63. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ a b Belluck, Pam; Jacques Steinberg (April 16, 2002). "Defector Indignant at President of Harvard". The New York Times (New York City, New York: The New York Times Company). http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0DE6DB113CF935A25757C0A9649C8B63. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ "Cornel West Outlines "Pull toward Princeton" and "Push from Harvard" in Exclusive Interview with NPR's Tavis Smiley". Npr.org. January 7, 2002. http://www.npr.org/about/press/020415.cwest.html. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
- ^ Jacques R. Fresco (April 24, 2002). "Cornel West's Analogy". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/24/opinion/l-cornel-west-s-analogy-697680.html?pagewanted=1.
- ^ Campbell, Andrew C. (October 16, 2002). "Ripped from Harvard Headlines | News | The Harvard Crimson". Thecrimson.com. http://www.thecrimson.com/printerfriendly.aspx?ref=254638. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
- ^ Cornel West, Race Matters, p. 27, 2001 edition, ISBN 978-0-8070-0972-7
- ^ a b Cornel West, Democracy Matters, p. 20, 2004, ISBN 0-14-303583-5
- ^ West, Cornel (1999). The Cornel West Reader. New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 13. ISBN 0-465-09109-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=bNJD8g1e-QQC&pg=PA13.
- ^ Cornel West. The Ultimate Matrix Collection.
- ^ Cornel West, Democracy Matters, p. 58, 2004, ISBN 0-14-303583-5
- ^ Cornel West, Democracy Matters, p. 101, 2004, ISBN 0-14-303583-5
- ^ "Cornel West: Democracy Matters", The Globalist, January 24, 2005
- ^ Givhan, Robin (January 25, 2002). "Cornel West, Cloaked in Street Smarts". The Washington Post. http://search.proquest.com/docview/409271497?accountid=35803. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ "Senators Hillary Clinton and John Kerry are exemplary paternalistic nihilists... Their centrist or conservative policies... are opportunistic efforts to satisfy centrist or conservative constituencies." Cornel West, Democracy Matters, p. 35-36, 2004, ISBN 0-14-303583-5
- ^ Montgomery, David (April 12, 2002). "Peace Demonstrators Arrested, Without Much Conviction". The Washington Post. http://search.proquest.com/docview/409255662?accountid=35803. Retrieved October 22, 2011.
- ^ "Thoughts on Anti-Semitism". Supportcom.com. December 6, 2005. http://supportcom.com/PEP/www.pepeace.org/current_reprints/10/Thoughts_On_Antisemitism.htm. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
- ^ "Cornel West's Letter to UA: Supporting Divestment, Ethnic Studies", No More Deaths, April 28, 2011
- ^ "Call + Response". Callandresponse.com. http://www.callandresponse.com. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
- ^ "Cornel West on Occupy Wall Street: It’s the Makings of a U.S. Autumn Responding to the Arab Spring". Democracy Now. September 29, 2011. http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2011/9/29/cornel_west_on_occupy_wall_street_its_the_makings_of_a_us_autumn_responding_to_the_arab_spring. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
- ^ Thisltethwaite, Susan Brooks (Oct 17, 2011). "Dr. Cornel West honors Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. by going to jail". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/guest-voices/post/dr-cornel-west-honors-dr-martin-luther-king-jr-by-going-to-jail/2011/10/17/gIQA9oLRrL_blog.html. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
- ^ Carbone, Nick (Oct 22, 2011). "Cornel West Arrested Again At Occupy Protest". Time. http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/10/22/cornel-west-arrested-again-at-occupy-protest/. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
- ^ Parker Aab, Stacy (October 30, 2007). "Obama, Race, and the Right Side of History". The Huffington News (HuffingtonPost.com, Inc.). http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stacy-parker-aab/obama-race-and-the-righ_b_74871.html. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ "Cornel West Comments on Obama's Nobel Peace Prize: Hard to Be War President with Peace Prize". The Huffington Post. October 10, 2009. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/10/10/cornel-west-comments-on-o_n_316476.html. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
- ^ Schneider, Matt. Wild Shoutfest Between Al Sharpton And Cornel West On Obama And Race. mediaite.com. April 11, 2011. Retrieved 2011-4-11.
- ^ The Obama Deception: Why Cornel West went ballistic truthdig.com
- ^ "Cornel West & Tavis Smiley on Obama: "Many of Us Are Exploring Other Possibilities in Coming Election”". Democracy Now!. August 9, 2011. http://www.democracynow.org/2011/8/9/cornel_west_tavis_smiley_on_obama. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Cornel West |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cornel West |
- Cornel West on Twitter
- An Interview with Cornel West
- Interview with Dr. Cornel West by JK Fowler on The Mantle March 18, 2011
- Faculty bio at Princeton Religion department
- Faculty bio at Princeton Center for African American Studies
- Interview with Cornel West from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
- Booknotes interview with West on The Cornel West Reader, February 22, 2000.
- In Depth interview with West, January 6, 2002
- "Cornel West Gives Black Scholars a Bad Rap" By John McWhorter
- Dr. Cornel West Releases Long-Awaited Memoir - video report by Democracy Now!
- Cornel West on Charles Rangel, Bush & Kanye West and Obama Admin
- Cornel West at the Internet Movie Database
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | West, Cornel Ronald |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American philosopher, scholar, public intellectual |
| Date of birth | June 2, 1953 |
| Place of birth | Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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Wiki Summary
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. King has become a national icon in the history of modern American liberalism.
A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.
In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War.
